Design of Steel Structure Vol 2

DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
(VOLUME II)
[S.I. UNITS]
By
Dr. Ram Chandra
B.E., M.E. (Hons.), M.I.E., Ph.D. (Roorkee) , MIE
Professor and Head
Department of Structural Engineering
M.B.M. Engineering College
University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
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Design of Steel Structures VOl–II
Published by:
RAJINDER KUMAR JAIN
Standard Book House
Unit of: Rajsons Publications Pvt. Ltd.
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First Published : 1971

Second Edition : 1976
Third Edition : 1981
Fourth Edition : 1984
Fifth Edition : 1987
Sixth Edition : 1989
Seventh Edition : 1991
Eight Edition : 1992
Ninth Edition : 1994
Tenth Edition : 1996
Eleventh Edition : 1998
Twelveth Edition : 2000
Thirteenth Edition : 2003
Fourteenth Edition : 2006
Fifteenth Edition : 2008
Sixteenth Edition : 2010
Seventeenth Edition : 2012
Eighteenth Edition : 2015
Nineteenth Edition : 2016
Twentieth Edition : 2018
© Publishers
All rights are reserved with the Publishers. This book or any part thereof, may not be
reproduced, represent, photocopy or in any manner without the prior written permission
of the Publishers.
` 495.00
ISBN: 978-81-89401-41-2
Typeset by:
C.S.M.S. Computers, Delhi.
Printed by:
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FOREWORD iii
D EDICATED
TO
M Y TEACHERS
Words from the Publishers
Seventh edition of this book Design of Steel Structure Vol I and II is based on
IS : 800–1984 as amended in 1997 and so also newly revised IS : 883–1994 for
structural timber.
New code of practice, IS : 800 is likely to be issued soon. In this it is likely to
introduce ‘Limit State Design of Steel Structure’.
For unsymmetrical bending and even for simple theory of bending, concept
of shear-centre and axis of bending are essentially needed. These topics may be
better appreciated, in case, the position and the location of shear centre for
open thin-walled steel sections are nicely known. Illustrative examples have
been given to explain the location of shear centre.
Instead of IS : 883–1970, complete text for timber structures has also been
revised as per revised and new code IS : 883–1994
Inspite of careful scrutiny of the manuscript, it is possible that some
typograhical and computational errors are still left are noticed, publisher shall
feel highly obliged to those, who bring these errors to their notice. Suggestions
and comments from the readers for further improvement of the forthcoming
editions of the shall be appreciated.
2015
Foreword
Tables and clauses from the Indian Standard Specifications have been
reproduced in the book with the kind permission of the Indian Standards
Institution.
It is desirable that for complete detail, reference be made to the latest versions
of the Standards Institution, Manak Bhavan, 9, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg,
New Delhi-1, or from its branch offices at Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur and
Chennai.
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL d’ UNITES
(SI System of Units)
In order to avoid the conversion of results obtained by engineers working with
the Foot Pound Second (FPS) System (gravitational) of units in terms of
centimetre-gram second absolute system of units used by the scientists, a need
of common system of units was realised. The General Conference on Weights
and Measures held at Paris in 1960 finalised the System International d’ Unites
(SI). It is an absolute system of units. The mass is considered as fundamental
unit and not the force. BIS has included a comment of transition in IS 3616–
1966. ‘Recommendation on the International System (SI) Units’ that this system
has begun to replace older system of units in several branches of science and
technology. The SI is a universal system of units and it has been adopted in
France as a legal system and it is likely to become common in many countries.
SI units have the following six basic units.
Unit of Length (metre, m)
The length equal to 1,650, 763.73 wavelengths, in vacuum, of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between 2p19 and 5d5 levels of the krypton η
atom of mass 86 is known as one metre.
Unit of Mass (kilogram, kg)
The mass of platinum-indium cylinder deposited at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures and declared as the international prototype of the
kilogram by the First General Conference of Weights and Measures is called as
one kilogram.
Unit of Time (second, s)
1131, 566, 925, 974.7 of the length of the tropical year for 1900, the year
commencing at 1200 hours universal time on the first day of January, 1900 is
termed as one second.
Unit of Electric Current (ampere, A)
The constant current which flows in two parallel straight conductors of infinite
length of negligible circular cross-section and placed at a distance of one metre
from each other in vacuum producing a force of 2 × 10–7 New tons per metre
length between the conductors is defined as an ampere.
FOREWORD vii
Unit of Thermodynamic Temperature (degree Kelvin, K)

The degree interval of the thermodynamic scale on which the temperature of
triple point of water is 273.16 degrees, is known as one degree Kelvin.
Units of Luminous Intensity (candela, cd)
One sixtieth part of luminous intensity normally emitted by one hundred
millimetre square of integral radiator (black body) at the temperature of solidifi-
cation of platinum is called as one candela.
The SI units make the use of multiples and sub-multiples 1000 times or
1/ 1000 times the unit quantity and in powers of 103 (kilo) or 10–3 (milli) in respect
of still larger and smaller quantities respectively. The lengths are measured usually
in kilometre (1 km = 1000 m), metre and millimetre (1 mm = 10–3 m).The symbols
of units are not to be suffixed with V for plural.
The force is a derived quantity and physical law connecting the quantity to
the fundamental quantities or previously obtained derived quantities is force =
mass × acceleration. It is defined as that force which produces unit acceleration
i.e., 1 m per sec2 in a unit mass of 1 kg. Its unit is Newton (N). Though, the
Newton is a small unit, a still larger unit kN may be used. The intensity of force
(viz., stress) due to 1 Newton over a unit area of one metre square is known as
one pascal. It is denoted by symbol, Pa. (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 106. Pa = 1 N/mm2,
viz. 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).
SI system of units have many advantages. The units are very handy. The
burden of non-decimal coefficients in foot-pound second system is avoided. It
has relatively large main units in contrast to centimetre-gram-second system.
At the same time, it is closely related to centimetre-gram-second system of units.
In practice, it results in perfectly reasonable number when the value of g = 10
m/sec2 is used instead of 9.806 m/sec2.
(Professor V.S. Mokashi, Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering,
Nagpur in his paper titled as International System (SI) Units and their
Application to Engineering published in Journal of Institution of Engineers,
India, Vol. 19, March 1970 has highlighted the advantages and discussed SI
units. A reference has been made to this paper).
Structural Engineering is the science and art of planning, design,
construction, operation, maintenance and rehabilitation of structures. The term
“structures” includes bridges, buildings and all types of civil engineering
structures (towers, shells, etc.) composed of any structural material.
(Reference: Brochure, International Association for Bridge and Structural
Engineering, Final Invitation to the International Conference, Structural
Eurocodes, Daros, Switzerland September 14–16, 1992).
Author
Preface to the First Edition
In this book, the author with his long teaching experience in the subject has
made an attempt to present the subject matter of design of steel structures in a
way which lays emphasis on the fundamentals, keeping in view the difficulties
experienced by the students. Every basic principle, method, equation or theory
has been presented in simplified manner. Metric system of units has been used
throughout the text. Indian Standards Specifications have been followed. The
book is intended for the use of degree, diploma and A.M.I.E. students in various
branches of engineering. The book deals with design of structural members and
their connections.
Each topic introduced is thoroughly described. A number of design problems
including problems for examinations of the University of Jodhpur, and A.M.I.E.
has been solved to illustrate the theory and practice. Slide-rule computation
accuracy is adequate for the design and has been followed. The chapters have
been so arranged that it facilitates self-understanding of the subject, during
study. In spite of careful scrutiny of the manuscript, it is possible that some
typographical and computational errors are still left. The author shall be highly
obliged to any one who brings these errors to his notice.
The author is thankful to Shri J.N. Srivastava and other colleagues who have
very generously helped with their suggestions. The author is also thankful to
the University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur and the Institution of Engineers, India, for
following the use of their examinations, problems.
Suggestions from the readers for the improvement of the book are welcome.
21 July, 1971 Ram Chandra
Preface to the Seventh Edition
In the subsequent editions of this book, since first edition published in 1970
uptil now, the author enhanced the text by adding useful matter, fresh topics
such as column formulae for axial stress in compression, design of built-up and
perforated cover plate columns, modified and adjusted interaction formulae,
equivalent axial load method of design of eccentrically loaded columns,
approximate method of design of combined footing, graphical method of
curtailment of flange plates, corrugated aluminium sheets used for roof covering
and several examples. The author also added further text of design of high
strength friction grip bolts.
The twelveth edition of the book itself is a fourth edition in S.I. system of
units (viz., system international d’ unites) and revised, rewritten and updated
as per the latest code (viz., ‘Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel.
IS : 800–1984) incorporating the revision of permissible stresses, effective length
of the columns with idealised support conditions and columns in framed
structures and Merchant Rankine formula for the allowable stresses. The concept
of shear lag, design of semi-rigid connections, their behaviour (linear and non-
linear) and methods of analysis have also been included.
The abbreviated symbols for Rolled Steel Sections as recommended
in IS: 808–1989 have been used throughout the text of the book. Various
definitions relating to the new and rational concept of Wind-Load as per
IS: 875 (Part III)–1987 have been given in Chapter 2. Accordingly Chapter 9
(viz. Design of Roof Trusses) has been completely revised and determination of
wind load has been thoroughly described and illustrated.
Author expresses his sincere thanks to his colleagues, members of staff in
various engineering colleges and students for appreciating the efforts made by
them. The author also expresses his personal thanks for the Publishers Shri
Rajinder Kumar Jain and Shri Sandeep Jain for getting the book prepared by
latest technique and bringing out the book in such a nice getup.
Author shall welcome the suggestions from the readers for the further
improvement of the book in forthcoming editions.
Jodhpur Dr. Ram Chandra
August 21, 1991
Contents
PART 1 DESIGN OF STEEL BRIDGES
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 3–32

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Classification of Steel Bridges 4
1.3 Movable Bridges 10
1.3.1 Swing Bridge 10
1.3.2 Bascule Bridge 11
1.3.3 Rolling Bridge 12
1.3.4 Vertical Lift Bridge 12
1.3.5 Transporting Bridge 13
1.3.6 Floating Swing Bridge 13
1.4 Comparison of Fixed and Movable Bridges 13
1.5 Selection of Type of Bridges 14
1.5.1 Foundation Condition 14
1.5.2 Clearance Requirement 14
1.5.3 Length of the Bridge 14
1.5.4 Width of the Bridge 15
1.5.5 Live Load on the Bridge 15
1.5.6 Initial Cost 15
1.5.7 Operation and Maintenance Cost 15
1.5.8 Appearance 15
1.6 Erection Methods for Bridges 15
1.6.1 By Construction of Staging (Falsework) 16
1.6.2 By Rolling or Pushing from the Bank 17
CONTENTS XI
1.6.3 By Cantilevering 18
1.6.4 By Using Cable Way 19
1.6.5 By Floating Spans into Position 19
1.7 Economical Span Length 19
1.8 Clearance 22
1.9 Width of Roadway and Footway 25
1.10 Dimension of Rolling Stock 25
1.11 Historical Development of Bridges 26
1.11.1 Beam Type (Timber) Bridges 27
1.11.2 Cantilever Type (Timber) Bridges 27
1.11.3 Arch Type (Stone and Brick Masonry) Bridges 27
1.11.4 Timber Bridges 28
1.11.5 Iron Bridge 28
1.11.6 Steel Bridges : (Arch and Truss Bridges) 29
1.11.6 Steel Bridges : (Cantilever Bridges) 29
1.11.7 Suspension Bridges 30
1.11.8 Cable Stayed Bridges 30
1.11.9 Reinforced Concrete Bridges 30
1.11.10 Prestress Concrete Bridges 30
CHAPTER 2. LOADS AND STRESSES 33–81

2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Dead Load 33
2.3 Live Load 34
2.3.1 Railway Bridges 34
2.3.2 Highway Bridges 45
2.3.3 Foot Bridges and Foot-Paths (Attached to the Railway Bridges) 52
2.3.4 Footway (Attached to the Highway Bridges) 53
2.3.5 Combined Highway and Railway Bridges 54
2.3.6 Foot-Paths (Attached with the Combined Highway and Railway
Bridges) 55
2.4 Impact Load 55
2.4.3 Foot Bridges 58
2.5 Wind Load 58
2.6 Lateral Load 59
2.7 Longitudinal Force 59
2.8 Centrifugal Force 65
2.8.1 Railway Bridge 65
XII CONTENTS
2.8.2 Highway Bridge 65

2.9 Seismic Force 66
2.10 Erection Effects 66
2.11 Temperature Effects 66
2.12 Secondary Stresses 66
2.13 Relief Stresses 67
2.14 Combination of Loads 67
2.15 Allowable Stresses 67
2.15.1 Axial Stresses in Tension 67
2.15.2 Axial Stresses in Compression 68
2.15.3 Bending Stress 69
2.15.4 Shear Stress 74
2.15.5 Rivets, Bolts and Tension Rods 74
2.17 Allowable Stresses for Combination of Loads 75
2.17.1 Combined Stress 75
2.18 Fluctuation of Stresses 76
2.19 Endurance Limit 80
2.20 Design of Bridges 81
CHAPTER 3. DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 82–162

3.1 Introduction 82
3.2 Types of Floor Systems 82
3.2.1 Open Floor System 83
3.2.2 Solid Floor System 83
3.3 Deck Type Plate Girder Bridges 84
3.4 Through Type Plate Girder Bridges 85
3.5 Bracing of Deck Type Plate Girder Bridges 85
3.6 Bracing of Through Type Plate Girder Bridges 86
3.7 Self-weight of Plate Girders 87
3.8 Assumptions for the Design of Plate Girder Bridges 88
3.9 Design of Plate Girders for Deck Type Railway Bridges
(Design of Maximum Section) 88
3.10 Design of Stringers, Cross-girders and Main Plate Girders for
Through Type Railway Bridge 96
3.10.1 Design of Stringers 97
3.10.2 Design of Cross Girders 99
3.11 Curtailment of Flange Plates 105
3.12 Design of Connections of Flange Elements 105
3.13 Design of Stiffeners 106
3.13.1 Bearing Stiffeners 107
3.13.2 Intermediate Stiffeners 107
3.13.3 Vertical Stiffeners 107
CONTENTS XIII
3.11.4 Horizontal Stiffeners 109

3.13.5 Connection of Intermediate Stiffeners to Web 109
3.14 Design of Stringers, Cross Girders and Plate Girders for Highway
Bridges 122
3.14.1 Stringers 122
3.14.2 Cross-girders 122
3.14.3 Plate Girders 123
3.15 Wind Load on Plate Girder Bridges 137
3.15.1 For Unloaded Plate Girder Bridges
3.15.2 For Loaded Plate Girder Bridge 137
3.16 Wind Effect on Plate Girder Bridges 139
3.16.1 Overturning Effect 139
3.16.2 Horizontal Truss Effect 142
3.17 Design of Horizontal Truss Bracing 153
3.18 Design of Cross-frames 154
3.19 Design of Internal Gusset Plate 155
Problems 160
CHAPTER 4. DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 163–251

4.1 Introduction 163
4.2 Types of Truss Girder Bridges 164
4.2.1 Parallel Chord Truss Girder Bridges 165
4.2.2 Camel Back Truss Girder Bridges 165
4.2.3 Sub-divided Truss Girder Bridges 166
4.3 Deck Type and Through Types Truss Bridges 167
4.4 Component Parts of a Truss Bridge 167
4.5 Economic Proportions of Trusses 169
4.6 Self Weight of Truss Girders 170
4.6.1 Hudson’s Formula 170
4.6.2 Fuller’s Formula 171
4.7 Assumptions for the Design of Truss Bridges 171
4.8 Compression Members 172
4.9 Tension Members 177
4.10 Bracing of Deck Type Truss Girder Bridges 207
4.11 Bracing of Through Type Truss Girder Bridges 207
4.12 Wind Load on Truss Girder Bridges 208
4.13 Wind Effects on Truss Girder Bridges 208
4.13.1 Overturning Effect 208
4.14 Top Lateral Bracing 211
4.15 Bottom Lateral Bracing 212
4.16 Portal Bracing 227
4.17 Assumptions for the Analysis of Portal Frames 229
XIV CONTENTS
4.23 Sway Bracing 249

Problems 249
CHAPTER 5. DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES

252–290
5.2 Functions of End Bearings 252
5.3 Types of End Bearing 253
5.3.1 Mechanical Bearings 254
5.3.2 Elastomeric Bearings 254
5.3.3 Combined Mechanical and Elastomeric Bearings 254
5.4 Selection of Type of end Bearings 255
5.4.1 Type of Super-Structure 255
5.4.2 Type of Supports 255
5.4.3 Length of Span 255
5.4.4 Loadings 255
5.4.5 Horizontal Movements 256
5.4.6 Rotational Movements 256
5.4.7 Plan Areas 256
5.4.8 Life and Maintenance 256
5.4.9 Inclination 256
5.4.10 Environment 256
5.4.11 Vibrations 257
5.4.12 Cost 257
5.5 Ferrous Mechanical Bearings 257
5.5.1 Plate Bearings 257
5.5.2 Rocker Bearings 259
5.5.3 Roller Bearings 261
5.5.4 Knuckle Pin Bearings 263
5.5.5 Bearing Adopted by Railway Board 264
5.5.6 Spherical Bearings 265
5.6 Allowable Stresses on Ferrous Bearings 265
5.6.1 Cylindrical Roller Bearing 265
5.6.2 Spherical Bearings 266
5.6.3 Sliding Bearings 267
5.7 Non-ferrous Mechanical Bearings 275
5.8 Elastomeric Bracings 276
5.9 Static Behaviour of Elastomer 278
5.9.1 Compression 278
5.10 Types of Elastomeric Bearings 283
5.11 Design of Elastomeric Bearings 284
5.12 Elastomeric Pot Bearings 287
Problems 288
CONTENTS XV
PART 2 DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER

STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 6. DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 291–334

6.2 Types of Steel Chimneys 292
6.2.1 Self-Supporting Steel Chimneys 292
6.2.2 Guyed Steel Chimneys 293
6.3 Steel Plates for Chimney 293
6.4 Riveted Joints in Chimneys 294
6.5 Lining for Chimney 295
6.5.1 Fire Bricks 295
6.5.2 Insulating Refractory Bricks 296
6.5.3 Solid Grade Diatomaceous (moler earth) Bricks 296
6.5.4 Acid Resisting 296
6.5.5 Moler Concrete 296
6.5.6 Refractory Concrete 296
6.5.7 Sand and Cement Mixture 297
6.5.8 Guniting 297
6.6 Breech Opening 298
6.7 Ladder 299
6.8 Maintenance and Painting of Steel Chimney 300
6.8.1 Unlined Chimneys 300
6.8.2 Lined Chimneys 300
6.9 Lightening Conductor 302
6.10 Forces Acting on Steel Chimney 302
6.10.1 Self-Weight of the Chimney 302
6.10.2 Weight of Lining 303
6.10.3 Wind Pressure 303
6.10.4 Seismic Forces 303
6.11 Bending Moment on Self-Supporting Steel Chimney 304
6.12 Bending Stress on Steel Chimney due to Wind 305
6.13 Permissible Stresses 306
6.14 Design of Thickness of Steel Plates for Self-supporting Chimney 311
6.15 Design of Base-plate 312
6.16 Design of Anchor Bolts 314
6.17 Design of Foundation 315
6.18 Stability of Steel Chimney 318
Problems 333
XVI CONTENTS
Multiple Choice Questions 334

Answers to Multiple Choice Questions 334
CHAPTER 7. DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 335–408

7.1 Introcution 335
7.2 Types of Steel Tanks 336
7.3 Rectangular Steel Tanks 336
7.4 Stand Pipes 338
7.4.1 Manhole 340
7.4.2 Pipe Connections 340
7.4.3 Outside Ladder 340
7.4.4 Roof Ladder 340
7.4.5 Painter’s Trolly Track 341
7.4.6 Roof Door 341
7.4.7 Overflow 341
7.5 Stresses in Stand Pipes 341
7.6 Design of Anchor Bolts for Stand Pipes 342
7.7 Elevated Circular Steel Tank 343
7.8 Riveted Joint In Elevated Circular Steel Tanks 345
7.9 Accessories of Elevated Circular Steel Tank 346
7.9.1 Tank Roof 346
7.9.2 Trap Door 346
7.9.3 Outside Ladder 346
7.9.4 Pipe Connections 346
7.9.5 Overflow 347
7.9.6 Painter’s Trolley Track 347
7.9.7 Stiffening Angles 347
7.9.8 Balcony 347
7.10 Forces Acting on the Circular Tank 347
7.10.1 Dead Load 347
7.10.2 Live Load 348
7.10.3 Seismic Forces 348
7.11 Stresses in Elevated Circular Steel Tanks 348
7.12 Stresses in Spherical Bottom 349
7.13 Stresses in Conical Bottom 350
7.14 Stresses in Connection between Side and Bottom Plates 353
7.15 Circular Girder 355
7.16 Staging for Circular Steel Tanks 358
7.17 Stresses in Columns 359
7.18 Wind Bracing 363
7.19 Pressed Steel Tanks 364
7.20 Capacity of Pressed Steel Tank 367
CONTENTS XVII
7.21 Stays in Pressed Steel Tanks 367

7.22 Accessories of Pressed Steel Tanks 371
7.23 Staging for Pressed Steel Tanks 372
Problems 407
CHAPTER 8. DESIGN OF STEEL BUNKERS AND SILOS 409–440

8.2 Janssen’s Theory 411
8.3 Airy’s Theory 415
8.4 Design Parameters 419
8.5 Design Criteria 420
8.6 Analysis of Bins 422
8.7 Hopper Bottom 425
8.8 Design of Bins 427
8.8.1 Skin Plate 427
Problems 440
CHAPTER 9. DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 441–495

9·2 Structural Frame Work of Industrial Buildings 444
9.3 Floor Construction 446
9.4 Roof System 446
9.5 Wall Construction 446
9.6 Partition Walls 447
9.7 Staircases 447
9.8 Lighting 447
9.9 Heating and Ventilating 447
9.10 Crane Gantry Girders 448
9.11 Crane Columns 449
9.12 Bracing of Industrial Buildings 450
9.13 Bracing of Industrial Transverse Direction 451
9.14 Bracing of Industrial Buildings in Longitudinal Direction 452
9.14.1 Bents with Knee Braces 453
9.14.2 Bents without Knee Braces 455
9.15 Analysis of Industrial Building Bents 456
9.15.1 Columns Hinged at the Base 456
XVIII CONTENTS
9.15.2 Columns Fixed at the Base 457

9.15.3 Columns Partially Fixed at the Base 459
9.15.4 Analysis of Stresses in the Members of Roof Truss 460
9.16 Design of Industrial Building 461
9.17 Unbraced Industrial Buildings (Gable Frames) 493
Problems 494
CHAPTER 10. DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 496–544

10.2 Method of Analysis 498
10.3 Number of Assumptions Required 498
10.4 Bracing of Multi-storey Buildings 499
10.5 Analysis of Multistorey Buildings with Moment Resistant Joints
for Lateral Loads 502
10.6 Portal Method 504
10.7 Cantilever Method 506
10.8 Factor Method 508
10.9 Analysis of Multistorey Buildings with Moment-resistant Joints for
Gravity Loads (Vertical Loads) 513
10.9.1 Uniformly Distributed Loads 513
10.10 High-rise Tubular Frames 536
10.11 Behaviour of Tubular Frames 540
10.12 Inital Preliminary Design Approach 542
Problems 542
CHAPTER 11. DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 545–598

11.2 Types of Cross-section 546
11.3 Definitions 548
11.3.1 Stiffened Elements 548
11.3.2 Multiple-Stiffened Elements 548
11.3.3 Unstiffened Elements 548
11.3.4 Flat-width Ratio 548
11.3.5 Effective Design Width 549
11.4 Local Buckling of Thin Elements 550
11.5 Post Buckling of Thin Elements 552
11.6 Light Gauge Steel Columns and Compression Members 554
CONTENTS XIX
11.6.1 Crushing Failure of Columns 554

11.6.2 Local Buckling Failure of Columns 554
11.6.3 Primary Column Buckling of Columns 554
11.7 Form Factor For Columns and Compression Members 556
11.7.1 Members Composed Entirely of Stiffened Elements 556
11.7.2 Members Composed Entirely of Unstiffened Elements 557
11.7.3 Members Composed of Both Stiffened and Unstiffened Elements 557
11.8 Stiffened Compression Elements 557
11.9 Multiple Stiffened Compression Elements 562
11.10 Maximum Allowable Overall Flat-width Ratio 564
11.11 Unstiffened Compression Elements 564
11.12 Effective Length of Light Gauge Steel Compression Members 565
11.13 Basic Design Stress 565
11.14 Allowable Design Stress 565
11.15 Light Gauge Steel Tension Members 571
11.16 Light Gauge Steel Beams 572
11.17 Laterally Supported Light Gauge Steel Beams 575
11.18 Laterally Unsupported Light Gauge Steel Beams 575
11.19 Web Crippling of Beams 576
11.20 Deflection of Beams 578
11.21 Allowable Design Stresses in Beams 579
11.22 Beams Subjected to Combined Axial and Bendings Stresses 580
11.23 Connections 585
11.23.1 Bolted Connection 585
11.23.2 Welded Connection 586
Problems 597
CHAPTER 12. PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL

STRUCTURES 599–695
12.2 Ductility of Steel 600
12.3 Applicability of Simple Plastic Theory of Bending for
Different Materials 602
12.3.1 Aluminium Alloys 602
12.3.2 High Tensile Steel 602
12.3.3 Reinforced Cement Concrete 602
12.3.4 Brass 603
12.4 Perfectly Plastic Materials 603
12.5 Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity of Members
Carrying Axial Tension 604
XX CONTENTS
12.5.1 Single Member Carrying Axial Tension 604

12.5.2 More than one Member Carrying Axial Tension 605
12.6 Plastic Behaviour of a Simple Truss Structure 607
12.7 Plastic Bending of Beams 610
12.8 Fully Plastic Moment of a Section 611
12.9 Elastic-Plastic Bending of Rectangular Beam 613
12.10 Plastic Hinge 614
12.11 Shaper Factor 618
12.12 Moment Curvature Relationship 625
12.13 Load Factor 628
12.14 Marging of Safety 629
12.15 Fundamental Conditions for Plastic Analysis 630
12.15.1 Mechanism Condition 630
12.15.2 Equilibrium Condition 630
12.15.3 Plastic Moment Condition 630
12.16 Mechanism 630
12.16.1 Beam Mechanism 631
12.16.2 Panel or Sway Mechanism 632
12.16.3 Gable Mechanism 632
12.16.4 Joint Mechanism 632
12.17 Static Theorem or Lower Bound Theorem 632
12.18 Kinematic Theorem or Upper Bound Theorem 633
12.18.1 Principle of Virtual Work 634
12.19 Uniqueness Theorem or Combined Theorem 634
12.20 Plastic Collapse of Structure 635
12.20.1 Partial Collapse 635
12.20.2 Complete Collapse 635
12.20.3 Over Complete Collapse 635
12.21 Collapse Load for Standard Cases of Beams 635
12.21.1 Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Concentrated
Load at the Centre 635
12.21.2 Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Eccentric Load 637
12.21.3 Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Uniformly
Distributed Load 639
12.21.4 Propped Cantilever Beam Subjected to an Eccentric
Concentrated Load 640
12.21.5 Propped Cantilever Beam Subjected to Uniformly
Distributed Load 643
12.21.6 Fixed Beam Aubject to a Concentrated Load at the Centre 645
12.21.7 Fixed Beam Subjected to an Eccentric Load 646
12.21.8 Fixed Beam Subjected to Uniformly Distributed Load 648
12.22 Collapse Load for Continuous Beams 650
CONTENTS XXI
12.22.1 Continuous Beam Subjected to Concentrated Loads 650

12.22.2 Continuous Beam Subjected to Uniformly Distributed Load 652
12.23 Combined Mechanism 653
12.24 Collapse Load for a Portal Frame 654
12.24.1 Beam Mechanism 655
12.24.2 Panel (Sway) Mechanism 655
12.24.3 Combined Mechanism 656
12.25 Design of Beams 686
Problems 689
CHAPTER 13. DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS

696–732
13.2 Loads on Towers 699
13.3 Shape, Sag (Dip) and Tension in Uniformly Loaded Conductors 703
13.4 Analysis of Towers 706
13.5 Masts 707
13.6 Trestles 708
13.7 Stresses in Trestles due to Vertical Loads 709
13.8 Stresses in Trestles due to Horizontal Loads 711
13.9 Design of Members in Towers 712
13.10 Design of Tower Foundation 715
Problems 731
CHAPTER 14. DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 733–760

14.2 Chemical Composition 735
14.3 Stress-strain Relationship for Aluminium 735
14.4 Properties of Aluminium Alloys 736
14.5 Factor of Safety 737
14.6 Advantages and Disadvantages 737
14.8 Tension Members 739
14.9 Columns and Compression Members 739
14.9.1 Buckling or Bending Failure 740
14.9.2 Twisting Failure 742
14.9.3 Bending Combined with Twisting Failure 742
14.10 Permissible Stresses in Compression for Columns 743
14.11 Effective Length of Columns 743
14.12 Laced and Battened Columns 744
XXII CONTENTS
14.13 Combined Compression and Bending 744

14.14 Beams 745
14.15 Local Buckling of Elements in Compression 746
14.16 Riveted Connections 750
14.16.1 Effective Diameter 750
14.16.2 Effective Bearing Area 751
14.16.3 Permissible Stresses 751
14.16.4 Reduction in Strength 751
14.16.5 Edge Distance of Rivet 752
14.16.6 Spacing of Rivet 752
14.16.7 Pitch of Rivets in Built up Compression Member 752
Problems 758
PART 3 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 15. INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES

761–836
15.2 Influence Line Diagrams for Stresses in Members of a Pratt Truss
with Parallel Chords 762
15.2.1 Influence Line Diagram for U3U4 (Top Chord Members) 762
15.2.2 Influence Line Diagram for L3 L4 (Bottom Chord Member) 764
15.2.3 Influence Line Diagram for U3U4 (Vertical Member) 765

15.2.4 Influence Line Diagram for U3L4 (Diagonal Member) 766
15.2.5 Influence Line Diagram for U1L1 766
15.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stresses in Members of a Pratt
Truss with Curved Chord 767
15.3.1 Influence Line Diagram for U1U2 767
15.3.2 Influence Line Diagram for L1 L2 769
15.3.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2U2 771

15.3.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U1L1 772
15.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stresses in Members of
a Warren Truss with Parallel Chords 772
15.4.1 Influence Line Diagram for U2 L3 (Top chord member) 772
CONTENTS XXIII
15.4.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in Member L1L2

(Bottom Chord Member) 773
15.4.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2L2 (Diagonal Member) 775
15.4.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2L1 (Diogonal Member) 776
a Warren Truss with Curved Chord 777
15.5.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L1L2 778
15.5.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2 L1 780
15.5.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U1L1 781
15.6 Influence Line Diagram for Stresses in Members of a Baltimore
Truss with Sub-ties 782
15.6.1 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in Member U2U4
(Top Chord Member) 782
15.6.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L2 L3 and L2 L4
(Bottom Chord Members) 784
15.6.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2 M3
(Diagonal Member) 785
15.6.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2 L2 (Vertical Member) 787
15.6.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M3 L3 788
15.6.6 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M3 M4(Sub -Tie) 788
15.7 Influence Line Diagrams for Stresses in Members of a
Baltimore Truss with Substruts (Through Type) 791
15.7.1 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U4U4
(Top Chord Member) 791
15.7.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L2L3 and L3 L4
(Bottom Chord Members) 792
15.7.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L2 M3 (Sub-Strut) 796
15.7.6 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2 M3 796
A Pettit of Pennsylvania Truss with Sub-ties 798
15.8.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L4 L5 (and L5 L6) 800
15.8.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M5 U6 802
XXIV CONTENTS

15.9 Influence Line Diagram for Stresses in Members of Pettit
or Pennsylvania Truss with Sub-struts 806
15.9.1 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L5 L6 and (L4 L5) 806
15.9.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress is L4 M5 811
15.9.7 Influence Line Diagram for stress U4L4 812
15.10 Influence Line Diagrams for Stresses in Members of a K-truss 814
15.10.1 Influence Line Diagram for S tress in U2U3 814
15.10.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M2U3 and M2L3 816
15.10.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stresses U3 M3 817
15.11 Influence Line Diagrams for Stresses in Members of
a K-truss with Inclined Chord 819
15.11.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L5 L6 822
15.11.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M4U5 823
15.12 Influence Line Diagrams for Stresses in Members of
a Braced Cantilever and Suspended Span Girder 828
15.12.1 Influence Line Diagram for Reactions RA and RB 828
15.12.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U3 U4 830
15.12.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L3 L4 831
15.12.4 Influence Diagram for Stress in L3 L4 832
15.12.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress U3 L3 833
Problems 834
CHAPTER 16. ANALYSIS OF SPACE FRAMES 837–855

16.2 Tension Coefficients 837
16.3 Analysis of Plane Frames 838
16.4 Procedure for the Application of Method 840
16.5 Analysis of Space Frames 844
Problems 853
CONTENTS XXV
CHAPTER 17. ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 856–869

17.2 Secondary Stresses due to Rigidity of Joints 857
17.3 Determination of Changes of Angles in any Triangle 858
17.4 Determination of Deflection Angles 860
17.5 Secondary Moments 861
17.6 Equilibrium of Joints 862
17.7 Secondary Stresses due to Bending of Members 863
Problems 869
CHAPTER 18. SPECIAL STRUCTURES 870–

18.2 Orthotropic Steel Plate Panels and Bridges 871
18.3 Analysis of Orthotropic Panels 874
18.3.1 Panel with Open Stiffeners 874
18.3.2 Panels with Closed Stiffeners 875
18.4 Analysis of Orthotropic Bridges 876
18.5 Tensile Structures or Tension Loaded Structures 877
18.6 Cables 877
18.7 Cable Cross 878
18.8 Cable Nets 879
18.8.1 Orthogonal Cabic Nets 879
18.8.2 Axisymmetrical Cable Nets 879
18.9 Cable Systems and Nets Forming Vertical Surfaces 881
18.10 Cables Suspended Freely to form Surfaces 882
18.11 Cable Structures 883
18.12 Membranes 884
18.13 Difference between Cable Nets and Membrane Shapes 884
18.14 Prestressed Tension Loaded Structures 885
18.15 Tensile-stress Pneumatic Structures 885
Index 887
IS CODES
Useful IS codes used in the Text of the book
1. 226–1975 Structural Steel (Standard quality)
2. 227 Galvanised (Plain and Corrugated) sheets
3. 459 Unreinforced Corrugated Asbestos Cement Sheets
4. 723 Mild Steel Wire Nails
5. 800–1984 Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel
6. 806 Use of Steel Tubes in General Building Construction
7. 808 Rolled Steel Beams, Channels and Angle Sections
8. 812–1957 Glossary of Terms Relating to Welding and Cutting Metals
9. 813–1961 Scheme for Symbols of Welding
10. 816–1969 Use of Metal Arc Welding for General Construction in Mild
Steel
11. 819–1957 Resistance Spot Welding for Light Assemblies in Mild Steel
12. 875–1984 Loading Standard for Structural Safety of Buildings
13. 961–1975 Structural Steel (High Tensile)
14. 1148–1973 Rivets Bars for Structural Purposes
15. 1149–1982 High Tensile Rivet Bars for Structural Purposes
16. 1161 Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes
17. 1173 Rolled Steel Sections, Tee-Bars
18. 1252 Rolled Steel Sections, Bulb-Angles
19. 1261–1959 Seam Welding in Mild Steel
20. 1323–1962 Code of Practice for Oxy-Acetylene Welding for Structural
Works in Mild Steel
21. 1730 Dimensions for Steel Plates, Sheets and Strips for Structural
and General Engineering Purposes
22. 1731 Dimensions for Steel Flats for Structural General
Engineering Purposes
23. 1732 Dimensions for Round and Square Steel Bars for Structural
and General Engineering Purposes
24. 1911 Schedule of Unit Weight of Materials
25. 1977–1975 Structural Steel (Ordinary quality)
26. 2062–1984 Weldable Structural Steel
27. 2585 Black Square Bolts and Nuts and Black Square Screws
28. 3139 Dimensions for Screw Threads for Bolts and Nuts
29. 3757–1972 High Tensile Friction Grip Fasteners for Structural
Engineering Purposes
30. 4000–1967 Assembly for Structural Joints using High Tensile Friction
Grip Fasteners
31. 456–1978 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete (Third
Revision)
32. 6623–1972 High Tensile Friction Grip Nuts
33. 6639–1972 Hexagon Bolts for Steel Structures
34. 6649–1972 High Tensile Friction Grip Washers
1. General
2. Loads and Stresses
3. Design of Plate Girder Bridges
4. Design of Truss Girder Bridges
5. Design of End Bearings for Steel Bridges

CHAPTER
1
General
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The bridges are the structures, which provide means of communication (viz.,
passage) over a gap. In some gaps, the water flow for a part of the year or for
whole of the year. Whereas, some other gaps remain dry throughout the year.
The rivers, canyons and valleys form natural gaps. The railway and highway
crossings, highway and canal crossings form artificial gaps. The bridges provide
passage for the vehicular or other traffic over these gaps. The bridges constructed
to carry highway traffic are known as highway bridges. The roads provide
passage. The bridges built to carry railway traffic are known as railway bridges.
The railway tracks provide passage. There are some bridges which carry the
highway and railway traffic both, and these bridges are known as combined
highway and railway bridges. There are some bridges for pedestrians only.
Such bridges are known as foot bridges. There are some bridges which carry
canals and pipe lines and these bridges are known as aqueduct bridges.
The bridges are made of timber, stone masonry, brick masonry, reinforced
cement concrete, prestressed cement concrete and steel. The timber bridges are
used for short spans, light loads and for temporary bridges. The masonry bridges
are also used for short spans. The economy of masonry bridges depends upon
the availability of good building materials and the skilled labour. The masonry
bridges are generally arch bridges. There are various types of reinforced cement
concrete bridges, which are suitable for different spans and the different site
conditions. The steel bridges have been discussed in this part of the book.
The deck consisting of slab, girders (I-beams, plate girders, truss girders,
etc.), bearings (which support girders) are the various components of the bridge.
These components may be clubbed into first group. In addition to these, the
abutments, piers, foundations, river training works, approaches, hand rails etc.,
4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
are also the components of the bridge. These components may be put into second
group. The components included in first group and foundation are the structural
systems. The components of second group forming the sub-structure are also
considered as structural systems. The components placed below the level of
bearings are grouped as sub-structure, whereas the components placed above
the level of bearings are grouped as super structure.
In human history, the bridges have figured prominently. The cities develop
at a bridge head (e.g., London, Oxford, Cambridge, Innsbruck). The bridges
abridge the distances and have rendered most for the civilization of our species.
The bridges also have great importance in war also. The bridges help in
advancement of the army. The bridges are destroyed in case, the army retreats.
In military, special emphasis is given in training to build new bridges in short
time and to destroy the existing bridges, if necessary.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BRIDGES

The steel bridges may be classified according to the service they perform or
according to their structural arrangements.
The steel bridges are classified in various different manners. The following
are different methods of classification of the steel bridges.
1. The steel bridges are classified according to make up of main load carrying
element as follows:
(i) I-beam bridges
(ii) Plate girder bridges
(iii) Truss girder bridges
(iv) Suspension (cable) bridges
(v) Box girder bridges
(vi) Cable stayed bridges.
In I-beam bridges, rolled steel wide flange I-beams are used as load carrying
members for culverts. I-beam bridges as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) are used upto
15 m span in railway bridges and upto 25 m span in highway bridges. The
I-beam bridges are popular because of its simple design and construction. In
the plate girder bridges as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b), the plate girders are used as
load carrying members. The plate girder bridges are used upto 30 m span. The
plate girder bridges are used both for highway bridges and railway bridges. The
plate girders are used so long as the plate girders may be transported in one
piece. The problems of fabrication, erection, and transportation usually limit
the use of plate girders to depths of roughly 3 m to 4 m. When the depths of load
carrying elements are more than this, then, the truss girder bridges are used.
In the truss girder bridges, as shown in Fig. 1.1 (c), the truss girders are used as
load carrying members. There are various types of the trusses which are suitable
for different spans and different site conditions. The truss girder bridges are
used from 30 m span to 250 m span. In the suspension (cable) bridges, as shown
in Fig. 1.1 (d), high tensile steel wire cables are used. The suspension bridges
are used for large spans. The suspension bridges are used for highway bridges
for long spans above 250 m.
GENERAL 5
In box girder bridges, the box-shape sections are built from stiffened plates,
angle sections, channel sections and/or beam sections. The box girder bridges
are used for 15 m to 50 m spans. The cable stayed bridges are recently (viz.,
1970) developed bridges. These bridges are used for 300 m to 600 m spans. The
girders are supported by cables (which may be arranged in different
arrangements). The cables are attached with tall towers built on two sides of
the bridge spans. The tall towers are supported by heavy foundations. The cable
stayed bridges have different profiles and the structural configurations.
(a ) B e am b rid g e
(b ) P late g ird er bridg e
(c) Tru ss g ird e r bridg e
(d ) S u sp e nsio n bridg e
Fig. 1.1
2. The steel bridges are classified according to the structural layout of the
principal load carrying members as follows :
(a) Simply supported span bridges
(b) Continuous span bridges
(c) Cantilever bridges
(d) Arch bridges
(e) Rigid frame bridges
In the simply supported span bridges, the whole width to be bridged is divided
into number of individual spans. In each span, the load carrying member is
simply supported at both ends. Both, the plate girder and the truss girder load
carrying elements are used in this type of bridges. A simply supported truss
girder bridge is shown in Fig. 1.2. The analysis in this type of bridge is very
simple. The simply supported span bridges are suitable where the uneven
settlement of foundation may take place.
The simple truss bridge J.J. Barry built in 1973 over Delware river with
250.546 m span and the simple girder bridge built in 1951 over Harlem river,
New York city are the examples of their type with maximum spans.
Fig. 1.2 Simply supported span bridges
In the continuous span bridges the load carrying member of the bridge is
continuous over more than two supports. The continuous span bridge is shown
in Fig. 1.3. The continuous span bridges are statically indeterminate structures.
The reactions at the supports depend upon the type of the structure and the
Fig. 1.3 Continuous span bridges
type of loadings. The reactions cannot be determined from the principles of

static alone. The reactions at the supports are found by taking into account the
dimensions and the material of the structure itself. The continuous span bridges
are suitable where the uneven settlement of foundation does not occur. The
stresses in each span are reduced due to the negative moments developed at the
pier supports. After erection of one span in the continuous span bridges, the
other subsequent spans may be erected by the cantilever method, and without
the use of falsework. The continuous span bridges have several advantages over
simple span bridges. There is an appreciable saving of material running as high
as 10 to 20 per cent. The continuous span bridges need few supports as long
spans are possible. The continuous span bridges can support higher loads than
the simple span bridges.
In case bending moment diagram is drawn for a continuous span bridge with
three spans, loaded with uniformly distributed load, then, it will be observed
that there are two points of contraflexures in the central span. If the continuous
beam is cut at these points of contraflexures and the joints are made at these
points which are capable of resisting shear but not bending, then, the resulting
girder formed is known as cantilever bridge. The cantilever bridges have all the
advantages of the original continuous girder, but the bending moment diagram
will not now be affected by any settlement of the piers. Moreover, the bending
moment diagram, and the shear force diagram may be drawn by applying simple
principles of statics.
The continuous truss bridge, Astoria built in 1966 over Columbus river,
Oregon, with 375.514 m span (maximum in its own type) is the example of
continuous truss bridge.
The cantilever bridges consist of two simple spans, each having an overhanging
or cantilever portion as shown in Fig. 1.4 and having simple span in between.
The overhanging portions are continuous over piers. The cantilever bridge is
GENERAL 7
also defined as a bridge in which one or more of its trusses are extended beyond
their supports thus forming cantilever arms. The extended arms or cantilever
arms support other trusses at their ends. The central span is known as suspended
span. This suspended span is supported by the cantilever portions.
Fig. 1.4 Cantilever bridges
The suspended span is supported at both ends on mechanical hinges. In general,

each complete truss has only two supports. Therefore, reactions and the stresses
are statically determinate. The stresses in each span are reduced due to the
(a ) S o lid rib arch b rid ge
(b ) B ra ced rib a rch b rd ge
(c) S p an drel bra ced a rch b rid ge
(d ) Tied arch b rid ge
(e ) Tied arch b rid ge

(w ith pa rtially hu n g d e ckin g)
Fig. 1.5 Arch bridges
negative moments developed at the pier support. The chief advantage of the
cantilever bridges is that the cantilever portions and the suspended span may
be erected without the use of falsework or staging. The cantilever bridges are
suitable where the uneven settlement of the foundation may occur. The cantilever
bridges are used from 200 m span to 600 m span. The forth cantilever bridge
built in 1889 at Scotland with 520 m is example of its type.
Aesthetically, the arch bridges enhance the beauty of its surroundings more
than the simple truss bridges. The various types of arch bridges are shown in
Fig. 1.5. The arches are built by girder or trusses. The arches used for the arch
bridges are fixed arches, two hinged arches, and the three hinged arches. The two
hinged arches are most commonly used for arch bridges. The arch bridges are
classified as solid ribbed, tied, braced rib, or spandrel braced. The solid ribbed
steel arch bridges as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a) are used more for the highway bridges
than for the railway bridges. These bridges are used for 150 m span to 200 m
span. The braced rib arches as shown in Fig. 1.5 (b) are mainly used for highway
bridges. These bridges are used for long spans from 500 m to 600 m. The spandrel
braced arches as shown in Fig. 1.5 (c) are used for railway bridges. These bridges
are used for spans upto 350 m. The horizontal thrust from this arch is resisted by
supports (abutments and/or piers) or by horizontal ties. When the horizontal ties
resist the horizontal thrust of the arch, the arch is known as tied arch as shown in
Fig. 1.5 (d). The horizontal ties are in direct tension. These ties are suspended
from the arch rib at intervals. These ties form side members of the deck
construction. Figure 1.5 (e) shows tied arch bridge in which the deck is placed at
a level above the apparent springing of the arch. The major portion of the length
of deck is suspended by the suspenders from the arch rib. Towards the end, the
deck is supported from top of the arch ring by columns or by cross-walls.
The steel arch bridge built in 1976 over New River George at West Virginia
with 518.160 m span is the example of its type.
In the rigid frame bridges, the load carrying members are the rigid frames.
The steel rigid frame bridge as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) is quite oftenly used for
single spans. This type of bridge is very satisfactory for over passages. This type
of bridge is economical for spans from 10 m to 25 m. The verticals of rigid frame
act as abutments and provide continuity. Figure 1.6 (b) shows a series of
continuous span rigid frame bridge. The rigid frame bridges are suitable for
rigid foundations.
(a )
(b )
Fig. 1.6 Rigid frame bridges

GENERAL 9
3. The steel bridges are classified according to the cross-section of the bridge,
i.e., floor location as follows :
(i) Deck type bridge
(ii) Through type bridge
(iii) Half through type bridge.
In the deck type bridge, the floor rests on the top of main load carrying
members. In the deck type plate girder bridge, the floor is placed on the top
flanges. In the deck type truss girder bridge, the floor is placed on the top chords.
In the deck type bridge, the bracing is not done over the top of the traffic. In the
through type bridge, the floor rests on the bottom of main load carrying members.
In the through type plate girder bridge, the floor is placed on the bottom flanges.
In the through type truss girder bridge, the floor is placed on the bottom chords.
In the through type bridge, the bracing is also done over the top of the traffic. In
the half-through type bridge, the floor lies in between the top and the bottom of
the main load carrying members. The half through type bridge is also termed a
semi-through or a pony bridge. In the half-through type bridge, the over bracing
is not done, and the load carrying members project above the floor level. There
are also double deck type bridges. The decks are provided at two different levels.
In the double deck type bridges, both the decks can be through type or one can
be open deck type and the other can be the through type. The deck type and the
through type plate girder bridges have been further discussed in Chapter 3.
The deck type and the through type truss girder bridges have been further
discussed in Chapter 4.
The grade line of highway or railway track and the clearance required under
the bridge decide the use of deck type or through type bridge. In case, the
sufficient clearance is available under the bridge, the deck type bridges are the
advantageous over the through type bridges. The deck type bridges are relatively
economical. The load carrying members may be placed close together than in
the through type bridges. This reduces the length of floor beams and the lateral
moments in the floor system. The heights of piers and abutments are reduced in
the deck type bridge. This reduces the masonry work. The deck type bridges
have pleasing appearance. The deck type bridges are therefore more popular
than through type bridges.
4. The steel bridges are classified according to the type of connections (or
fasteners used) as follows:
1. Riveted bridges
2. Welded bridges
3. Pin-connected (and bolted) bridges.
The majority of steel bridges are riveted bridges. The welded bridges are
recently designed and constructed. The pin-connected bridges were constructed
in the past. The riveted joints are rigid and have more secondary stresses. In
order to reduce the secondary stresses, the pin-connections were introduced. It
was found that the pin-connections are not as free to rotate as these were thought
to be. The maintenance of the pin-joints is also difficult. The pin-connected
bridges are not constructed nowadays.
5. The steel bridges are classified according to the level of crossing of

railway track and highway as follows :
(i) Over bridges
(ii) Under bridges.
When the railway track crosses the highway, then, the railway track may be
carried over or under the highway by means of a bridge or on the same level.
When the highway bridge is carried over the railway track by means of a bridge,
then, the bridge is known as over bridge. When the highway is carried under
the railway track by means of a bridge the bridge is known as the under-bridge.
6. The steel bridges are classified according to the nature of movement of
the bridge girders as follows :
(i) Fixed (Permanent) bridges
(ii) Movable bridges.
The fixed bridges do not have any movement. These bridges remain in one
position. The movable bridges can be opened either horizontally or vertically so
as to allow rivet or channel traffic to pass. The movable bridges are provided
over the navigable channels.
1.3 MOVABLE BRIDGES

When the bridges cross a navigable canal, channel or river near the water level,
then, the clearance under the bridge girder is not sufficient for the passage of
masted vessels or streamers. At such places, the fixed or permanent bridges
cannot be provided. The movable bridges provide a satisfactory solution for
crossing navigable streams. The movable bridges can be opened horizontally or
vertically and leave the streams clear for navigation. When the movable bridges
are closed, then, these provide passage for highway or railway or pedestrian
traffic. The movement for movable bridges may be provided by (i) turning about
a horizontal axis, or (ii) turning about a vertical axis, or (iii) rolling horizontally,
or (iv) lifting vertically, or (v) floating in the stream. As regards the strength
and the stiffness for the greatest load, which the bridge is to bear when closed,
the movable bridges do not differ from the fixed bridges. The following are the
various types of movable bridges.
1. Swing bridge 2. Bascule bridge
3. Rolling bridge 4. Vertical lift bridge
5. Transporting bridge 6. Floating swing bridge.
1.3.1 Swing Bridge

The swing bridge turns about a vertical axis in the horizontal direction as shown
in Fig. 1.7. A pier is constructed in the centre of the stream. The pier supports a
base plate. The diameter of base plate is kept nearly equal to the width of the
bridge. The base plate has a pivot in the centre. There is a circular track round
the circumference of a base plate as in a railway turn table. There is a roller
frame with suitable conical rollers. The rollers rest on the track. The roller
GENERAL 11
frame turns about the central pivot. There is a circular revolving platform resting
on the pivot and rollers. A toothed arc with suitable wheel work and fixed with
S w ing b ridge
Fig. 1.7 Swing bridge
the revolving platform gives motion to the platform. A set of parallel girders or
cross girders resting on and fixed to the revolving platform support a continuous
steel truss girder bridge. The truss girder may carry the floor at the top chord or
at the bottom chord.
The swing span bridge over Ft. Madison (a rail road bridge) at Mississippi
river built in 1927 has 160.02 m span.
1.3.2 Bascule Bridge

The bascule bridge is also known as draw bridge. The bridge turns about a
horizontal axis and in a vertical direction. The bridge is opened in the vertical
position by means of a pinion driving a toothed sector. The cables are used for
raising the bridge. The weight of bridge is balanced by the counter-weight. The
(a ) S ing le b ascu le b rid ge s
(b ) D o ub le ba scu le b rid ge s
Fig. 1.8 Bascule bridges
counter-weight facilitates the raising of bridge. The centre of gravity of the whole
system of bridge lies on the horizontal axis about horizontal axis about which
the bridge rotates. The strength of the bridge should be sufficient to support
safely the overhanging weight of its structure, when lifted from the direct
support. Figure 1.8 (a) shows single bascule bridge. In the single span bascule
bridge, the bridge is turned up vertically at one end. Figure 1.8 (b) shows double
bascule bridge. In the double bascule bridge the bridge is turned up vertically at
both the ends. The bascule bridge is suitable for small spans. The bascule bridge
can be opened more quickly than the swing bridge. The opening of the bridge
becomes difficult in case heavy wind is blowing.
The single-leaf bascule bridge 16th street (rail road bridge) at Chicago, Illinois
built in 1919 and the bascule bridge over Sault Ste. Marie Michigan built in
1914 have 79.248 m and 102.413 m spans, respectively. The Pampan bridge at
Rameshwaram (India) is the other example.
1.3.3 Rolling Bridge

The rolling bridge is shown in Fig. 1.9. The rolling bridge is also known as
traversing bridge. The bridge rolls forward and backward horizontally. The bridge
has sufficient overhanging portion to span the waterway. The rolling bridge has
Fig. 1.9 Rolling bridge
strong frame. The frame is supported by the wheels. The wheels roll on the rails.
When the bridge is rolled forward and is in closed position, then, the rolling frame
leaves a gap between one of the approach and the platform. A second rolling
frame is placed in the gap. The rolling frame rolls sideways. When the rolling
bridge is opened, then the second rolling frame is moved out of way. The centre of
gravity of rolling bridge is so balanced that it remains over the rolling frame.
1.3.4 Vertical Lift Bridge

The vertical lift bridge is shown in Fig. 1.10. In the vertical lift bridge, the movable
span is lifted vertically by means of chains or cables. The chains or cables pass
Fig. 1.10 Vertical lift bridge

GENERAL 13
over the pulleys. The pulleys are provided at the top of the towers erected at
both the ends. At the other ends of chains or pulleys, the counter-weights are
provided. The counter-weights facilitate the lift of the bridge. The vertical lift
bridge is operated by the hydraulic lift.
The vertical lift bridge Arthur Kill at Elizabeth, N.J. was built in 1959 with
170.078 m span.
1.3.5 Transporting Bridge

The transporting bridge is shown in Fig. 1.11. The towers are constructed at
both the ends. These towers support a overhead bridge. A moving cradle is
suspended
Fig. 1.11 Transporting bridge
from the overhead bridge. The persons or the goods are transported from one
end to the other end by means of this moving cradle.
1.3.6 Floating Swing Bridge

The floating swing bridge is supported on the caisson or on the pontoons. The
bridge is closed or opened by means of chains and windlasses. The recess is
provided at the ends of a waterway. The bridge lies in the recess while it is in
the open position. The pontoons are made of the sheet iron. The pontoons are
designed to act as tubular girders, when the bridge is in the closed position.
1.4 COMPARISON OF FIXED AND MOVABLE BRIDGES

The movable bridges are constructed over the navigable streams when the
clearance under the bridge is not sufficient for the passage of the naval traffic.
The movable bridges have small initial cost. The movable bridges occupy less
surrounding land area. The movable bridges are suitable for the narrow spans.
The movable bridges require additional cost for persons, machines, and power
for opening and closing of bridge.
The fixed bridges are provided where the clearance available below the bridge
is sufficient for the passage of the waterway traffic. The fixed bridges have high
initial cost. The fixed bridges do not require additional cost for operation. The
fixed bridges occupy more surrounding land area. The fixed bridges are suitable
both for narrow and wide spans.
1.5 SELECTION OF TYPE OF BRIDGES

The various types of steel bridges have been discussed in Sec. 1.2. The selection
of a particular type of a bridge, which suits for a particular case, depends upon
the following factors :
1. Foundation condition 2. Clearance requirement
3. Length of the bridge 4. Width of the bridge
5. Live loads on the bridge 6. Initial cost
7. Operation and maintenance cost 8. Appearance
1.5.1 Foundation Condition

The soil under abutments and piers for the bridges may be poor. There may be
considerable possibility of settlement to take place in the ground. The nature of
the settlement may not be uniform. The type of bridge selected should be such
that, the settlement of foundation does not affect the strength or permanency of
the bridge structure. The possibility of settlement of the foundation rules out
the choice of indeterminate structures e.g., fixed arch bridges, rigid frames,
continuous span bridges etc. In such cases, the flexible type of bridges having
maximum number of hinged joints e.g., hinged arches, simply supported span
bridges, cantilever bridges etc., are selected.
1.5.2 Clearance Requirement

The difference between level of the soffit of a bridge and the height of flood
water decides the clearance underneath the bridge structure. The clearance
required underneath the bridge structure is also decided from the use of river
or stream, whether it is used for the navigation purpose or not. In case the
clearance available is large, and, there are number of spans, then, the deck type
bridges may be selected. There is saving of masonry in the deck type bridges. In
case, the clearance underneath the bridge structure is not sufficient for
navigational purpose, and the waterway is to be used for navigation, then, the
movable bridges are selected.
1.5.3 Length of the Bridge

The total length of a bridge depends upon the width of river to be spanned. In
addition to the various factors, the site of bridge is selected, as far as possible,
where the width of river is narrow. Besides the site of bridge, the total length of
bridge also depends upon type of approaches. The comparison of costs of
suspended approaches and the solid approaches decides the type of approaches
for the bridge. The solid approaches are made by providing approach walls and
filling material. In case the solid approaches are economical and suitable, these
are provided for sufficient long distance. This reduces the total length of the
GENERAL 15
bridge. The number of spans depends on the total length of the bridge, area of
waterway and the type of river bed. The areas of waterway existing before the
construction of bridge, and after the construction of the bridge are kept equal.
The regular profile with foundation bed at constant depth allows equal spans
for the bridge. The short crossings with the highly irregular profile would compel
to have unequal spans. The individual span decides the type of the bridge. The
suitability of various types of bridges for different spans have been discussed in
Sec. 1.2.
1.5.4 Width of the Bridge

The width of a bridge has slight influence on the type of bridge. When the width
of bridge is small then, the parapet is provided by the bridge girders. This is
economical construction. In such cases, it is likely that vehicles may collide
against the bridge girders and damage them.
1.5.5 Live Load on the Bridge

When the bridges are designed for the heavy loads, then, the short spans are
adopted for the bridge. When the bridges are constructed for light loads, then,
the long spans are adopted. Depending upon span, a suitable type of bridge is
selected.
1.5.6 Initial Cost

The initial cost of a bridge is an important factor to decide the type of bridge and
it is given first consideration. In general, the economy of the bridge depends
upon the number of spans and the type of construction. The number of spans in
case of multiple span bridges is kept such that the cost of substructure
(foundation) is equal to the cost of superstructure (the load carrying members).
When the costs of substructure and the superstructure of a bridge are equal,
then, the total cost of bridge would be minimum.
1.5.7 Operation and Maintenance Cost

The operation and maintenance cost is more for movable bridges as compared
to the fixed bridges. For permanent type of various bridges the difference in
maintenance cost and the actual cost of operation both are small.
1.5.8 Appearance
Aesthetically, the type of bridge selected should be such that the appearance of
the bridge enhances the beauty of its surroundings. The purpose of bridge should
be given greater importance in comparison to the beauty.
1.6 ERECTION METHODS FOR BRIDGES

An erection schedule is prepared carefully for the erection of a bridge by any
method. This schedule is outlined actually before the final design is completed.
The stresses developed in some members may be more than those due to the
working loads. In some members, the character of stresses may be changed
from tension to compression or vice versa. The large stresses are produced in
some members as heavy cranes move on the trusses or during the forcing of
parts to make them fit. The erection schedule shows the order of erecting various
members.
The erection methods for bridges depend upon the type of bridge (e.g., simply
supported span bridges, cantilever bridges, suspension bridges, span of the
bridges, the weight of the bridge girders, nature of the crossing (e.g., roads,
railways, deep gorges, shallow bed, etc.), the maintenance cost of traffic during
erection, time allowed for the erection, and risk to be taken. The type of bridge
is an essential factor. Generally, for the erection of truss girders over a bridge,
a derrick car is used. But in case a new bridge is to be constructed around an old
bridge, and it is essential to maintain the traffic, then an overhead traveller is
used. If there is limitation of time for erection, then, it is necessary to start
erection simultaneously from both the ends of the bridge and to use more
equipment. The risk taken is also an important factor. If there is a danger of
flood at the site of erection, then, the method of cantilever erection is used instead
of the falsework. The following are various methods of erection of bridges:
1. By construction of staging (falsework)
2. By rolling or pushing from the bank
3. By cantilevering
4. By using a cable way
5. By floating spans into position.
1.6.1 By Construction of Staging (Falsework)

The method of erection of bridge by constructing staging (falsework) is suitable
for shallow bed and space underneath the span may be used. This method is not
suitable for places where there is busy highway or railway lines or deep gorges.
This method consists in erecting the staging (scaffolding) and the bridge may be
built in position. The staging may be made of umber and/or steel. The strength
of staging (scaffolding) is kept sufficient to support the weight of the bridge
girder. The adequate cross-bracings are provided in the staging. The cross-
bracings provide lateral support to the staging. The staging is erected upto the
level at which the bridge girder is to be built. The camber blocks are fixed on the
top of staging to provide proper camber to the bottom members. The properly
shaped members are first brought to the centre of the span. The members of the
bridge girders are lifted by the crane. The assembly of various members is done
over the staging and it proceeds from the centre towards the ends. The bottom
chord members are placed first, and then, the floor system is fitted to the chords.
It is followed by web members, top chord members, and bracing. The erection of
the bridge by construction of staging (falsework) is shown in Fig. 1.12. If the
traffic is not maintained during the erection, the falsework (staging) is
GENERAL 17
comparatively light. The falsework carries the weight of new span and erecting
equipment. If the traffic is to be maintained during the erection, then, the
/ p ie r)
r)
(A bu tm en t / pie
(A bu tm en t
Bed L evel
Fig. 1.12
falsework is comparatively heavy. The staging is subjected to heavy stresses

due to moving loads. The moving loads should proceed with restricted and
reduced speed.
Instead of building falsework for each span, it is sometimes economical to use
a light erection truss. The erection truss may be floated into position for each
span.
1.6.2 By Rolling or Pushing from the Bank

The bridge girder is fabricated on the bank, and brought to the site. The bridge
girder is placed over the rollers on the launching abutments. A launching nose
is connected to the bridge girder at its forward end as shown in Fig. 1.13. A
launching nose is a small truss. The length of launching nose is kept about one-
third of the main span of bridge. A derrick pole is erected on the far abutment.
Fig. 1.13
A steel wire cable is connected to the launching nose. The cable passes over the
derrick pole. The cable is controlled by a handling tackle. A cable is also attached
at the rear end of main girder. This cable is controlled by the preventing cable.
The main girder is moved forward by taking on the handling tackle and releasing
the preventing tackle, till, the launching nose becomes simply supported, then,
the main girder can be pushed forward and placed in correct position. The
launching nose is detached from the girder. When the centre of gravity of the
main girder enters the span, then, a counter-weight is placed on the main girder.
The counter-weight prevents the overturning of the main girder.
The connection between main bridge girder and the launching nose is made
strong enough to transmit the developed stress. The stress developed would be
maximum, when, the launching nose is about to touch the far abutment. The
stresses in main girder, launching nose, and the cable should be checked for all
positions.
1.6.3 By Cantilevering
The method of erection of bridges by cantilevering as shown in Fig. 1.14 is suitable
for deep gorges, and places where, the method of construction of staging
(falsework) cannot be adopted, due to deep gorges or deep and fast flowing water.
This method is most suitable for arch bridges, and erection of subsequent spans
of the continuous span bridges, and the erection of cantilever portions of the
cantilever bridge. In this method, the construction may be started either from
one end or from both the ends. The construction of bridge proceeds member by
member and panel by panel towards the centre with the use of small crane
Fig. 1.14
travellers. In this method, the reversal of stresses take place in the members.
The bottom chord of a simply supported bridge is subjected to tension due to
dead load, live load and impact load and the top chord is subjected to compression.
When the trusses are erected by the cantilever method, the bottom chord carries
compression instead of tension, and the top chord carries tension instead of
compression. The members should be checked for these stresses. This method is
independent of crossing conditions.
The erection of continuous span bridges by this method is shown in Fig. 1.15.
The end span of continuous bridge may be erected by the method of construction
of staging. The remaining spans may be completed by this method. The self-
weight of finished span prevents the overtopping of over changing portions in
the adjacent span.
Fig. 1.15
This is to note that this method has disadvantage of being more dangerous
and expensive.
GENERAL 19
1.6.4 By Using Cable Way

The method of erection of bridges by using cable way is quite economical. This
method is especially suitable for erecting the bridges over deep gorges in the
hilly areas and the places where enough space is available at either end. In this
method, the towers are erected first on the opposite banks as shown in
Fig. 1.16. The steel wire cables are stretched over the towers. A saddle is placed
on the cable. The saddle can travel along the span. The ends of cable are well
anchored at the ends. The parts of members of the bridge are brought in the
Fig. 1.16
saddle and these are connected. These parts of members form the bridge girder.
These connected parts are suspended from the cable. These parts are connected
to the main girder by means of nuts and bolts. The bridge girder is completed
panel by panel. The bolts and nuts are removed after completion of the bridge
girder and the riveting is done. The bridge girder is then placed in position.
1.6.5 By Floating Spans into Position

The method of erection by floating spans into position is of particular advantages,
when the structural member can be shipped easily to the sites for assembling.
The depth of water should be deep. The condition of water should be such that
this method is feasible. This method of erection saves false work.
In this method, the trusses are assembled on the flat-bottomed boats. The
trusses are riveted completely. The trusses are floated to the site. The trusses
are anchored with the piers. The trusses are raised to the position on the piers
in case, the bridge is high above the water. In case, the bridges are low above
the water level, then, the trusses are raised higher than the piers by using cribs
and the guy ropes. The trusses are then lowered in position.
1.7 ECONOMICAL SPAN LENGTH

The centre to centre distance between the end support of a bridge is termed as
total span. The centre to centre distance between any two adjacent supports is
termed as individual span or span only. When the total span of the bridge is
large, then, the total span is divided into number of individual spans. In such
case, the bridges are known as the multiple span bridges. In case of long crossings
with regular profile and with the foundation bed at constant depth as shown in
Fig. 1.17, the individual spans are made equal in length. The length of individual
span is decided keeping in view the overall cost of the bridge. The total cost of
the bridge is cost of superstructure (trusses and bracing) and the cost of
substructure (abutments and piers). In case, the length of individual span is
kept long, the cost of substructure decreases, but the cost of superstructure
increases. In case, the length of individual span is kept short, the cost of
superstructure decreases, but the cost of substructure increases. The economical
span length of individual span is the length, which makes the total cost of
superstructure and substructure minimum.
Fig. 1.17
It is difficult to derive mathematically an expression for the economical length,

since, the total cost of bridge depends upon many factors. In addition to the cost
of superstructure and the substructure, the cost of bridge also depends upon
the operation and the maintenance cost, renewals, local conditions, and the
conditions of the site. Dr. Wadell gave the following analysis for the economical
span length after making certain assumptions :
Let C = Total cost of bridge per unit length of the span
F = Cost of flooring per unit length of the span
S = Cost of substructure (abutments and piers) per unit length of
the span
T = Cost of the superstructure (trusses and bracings) per unit length
of the span
l = Length of individual span
Then, the total cost of bridge is given by
C = (T + S + F) ...(1.1)
It is assumed that the cost of superstructure (trusses and bracings) per unit
length of the span, T is directly proportional to the span. The bending moment
in a simply supported span under the uniformly distributed load varies as the
square of the span. The forces in the chord members of a truss girder are
determined by dividing the moment by the height of the truss. The height of
truss girder is expressed in terms of the span. As such, the forces in chord
members are directly proportional to the span. The forces in the verticals and
the diagonals are found from the shear force in the corresponding panel of the
truss. The shear force is directly proportional to the span. The members are
designed for the forces in the members, which are directly proportional to the
span. Thus, the above assumption made is justified. Therefore,
T ∝ l, T = (k 1 . l) …(a)
Further it is assumed that the cost of substructure (abutments and piers) per
unit length of the span is approximately inversely proportional to the span. In
case the spans are long, the number of piers is less, In case the spans are short,
the number of piers is more. The number of piers is inversely proportional to
GENERAL 21
the length of the individual span. Thus, the assumption is also justified.
Therefore,
1 ⎛k ⎞
S∝ S = ⎜ 2⎟ ...(b)
l´ ⎝ l ⎠
The cost of flooring per unit length of the span, F is independent of the span.
The cost of flooring per unit length depends upon the cost of the material per
unit length. The cost of flooring is not the function of the span. Therefore, this
assumption is also justified. Hence, the cost of bridge per unit length of the
span is given by
⎛ k ⎞
C = ⎜ k1 ⋅ l + 2 + F ⎟ ...(c)
⎝ l ⎠
Differentiating the expression (c) with respect to l,
dC
⎛ k2 ⎞
= ⎜ k1 − 2 ⎟ ...(d)
dl
⎝ l ⎠
For minimum or maximum value of C
dC
= 0 ...(e)
dl
⎛ k2 ⎞
Therefore, (k 1 . l) = ⎜ ⎟ ...(f)
⎝ l ⎠
It is seen from expression (f), that the second derivative of C works out to be
positive. Therefore, the expression (f) gives a condition for the minimum value
of C. From expressions (a), (b), and (f), we obtain
T = S ...(1.2)
Thus, for economical span, in the multi-span bridges, the division of total
span should be such that the cost of superstructure per unit length is equal to the
cost of substructure per unit length. It is to note that this holds true for the
multi-span simply supported truss girder bridges only.
For economical span, or for the minimum cost of the bridge, the rule mentioned
in the above paragraph can also be stated as the cost of pier is equal to one half
the cost of trusses and bracing of the spans it supports.
Fig. 1.18
The cost of pier per unit length varies inversely as the length of span. But in
case of short crossing with highly irregular profile, as shown in Fig. 1.18, the
cost of pier also depends upon its positions on the crossings in addition to the
span. The above rule would give only rough guidance in such cases.
1.8 CLEARANCE
When the bridges are through type or half through type, then the bridges are
designed for adequate clearances, allowances being made for the displacement
6.80 06 m
3 .50 52 m
2 .13 36 m
m in
1 .37 16 m
C /L of tra ck
1 .06 68
m
1 .06 68
1 .37 16 m
m
cen tre to cen tre o f track

3 .96 24 m
(a)
R a il
3
2
1
1 .37 16 m
C /L of tra ck
1 .06 68
m
1 .06 68
1 .37 16 m
m
2 .13 36 m
m in
0 .60 96 m
3.50 52 m
4 .11 48 m
4 .4 19 6 m
6 .80 06 m
GENERAL 23
2 .36 2 m
1 .90 5 m
2 .13 4 m
0 .91 4
m
0 .91 4
m
2 .13 4 m
C e ntre lin e of tra ck
1 .90 5 m
2 .36 2 m
(b ) C lea ran ce d ia gra m fo r b roa d ga ug e

4 .72 4 m
9 .48 8 m
Fig. 1.19
1 .91 4
m
C e ntre lin e of tra ck
Top o f ra ils
2 .36 2 m
1 .90 5 m
2 .13 4 m
0 .91 4
m
0 .91 4
2 .13 4 m
m
1 .90 5 m
2 .36 2 m
0 .99 0 m
0 .30 5 m
1 .06 7 m
2 .26 6 m
0 .76 2 m
of verticals due to any curvature and super elevation. The horizontal clearance
is the clear width and the vertical clearance is the clear height available for the
passage of live (moving) load. The clearance diagrams showing minimum
clearance necessary for metre gauge and broad gauge railways as published by
Railway Board are shown in Fig. 1.19 (a) and (b) respectively.
The clearance diagram showing minimum clearance necessary for highway
bridge as per IRC section I are showin in Fig. 1.20 (a) and (b).
24
H o rizon ta l cle ara nce H o rizon ta l cle ara nce
1 .50 0 m 1 .30 0 m
4 .50 0 m
m
2 .60 0 m 0 .82 5
m
0.6 7 5
S a m e slo pe S a m e slo pe
0 .07 5 m 0 .22 5 m 0 .22 5 m 0 .07 5 m

3 .80 0 m
3 .30 0 m N o t le ss tha n 6.8 0 0 for tw o traffic la ne s for ea ch
a dd ition al tra ffic la ne increa se ro a d w idth b y 3.00 m
M ax. d im e nsio ns o f
m ovin g ve hicles
3 .8 00 m in .
3 .30 0 m x 4.5 00 m
4 .40 0 m m in.
C ro w n of roa d
H a lf se ctio n sho w in g m ain H a lf se ctio n sho w in g m ain

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II
H a lf se ctio n sho w in g m ain fixed structu re fixe d structu re in the inte r- fixe d structu re b e tw ee n
b etw e en e nd p osts of arch rib m ed ia te po rtion s of a b rid ge e nd po sts on a rch b rid ge
(a ) S ing le la ne b rid ge (b ) M ultip le la ne b rid ge
Fig. 1.20
GENERAL 25
1.9 WIDTH OF ROADWAY AND FOOTWAY

For high level bridges constructed for the use of road traffic only, the width of
roadway shall not be less than 3.80 m for a single lane bridge, and shall be
increased by a minimum of 3 m for every additional lane of traffic on multiple
lane bridges. The road bridges shall be either one lane, two lanes, or four lanes.
Three lane bridges are not constructed. In the case of four lanes, or multiple of
two lanes, a central verge of at least 1.20 m shall be provided.
For the bridges, constructed for the use of combined road and tramway traffic,
the roadway width given above shall be increased by 4 m for a single track
tramway and by 7.60 m for a double track tramway.
For a bridge on a horizontal curve, the roadway width shall be increased.
When a footway is provided, its width shall not be less than 1.50 m.
1.10 DIMENSION OF ROLLING STOCK

In the railway trains, the passenger coaches and the goods wagons are called as
rolling stock. The rolling stocks include coaching stock, goods wagons and the
goods stocks. The coaching stock means all coaching vehicles including dining
6 10 m m
Fo r g uttering corn ice s side la m ps

d estin ation b oa rd s an d a la rm sig na l d isc
Fo r n um ber p la te w in d ow b ars a n d re servatio n

card h olde rs
3 43 0 m m
32 00 m m
30 50 m m
25 6 5 m m
R o lling sto ck fo r
m etre g aug e
2 49 0 m m
7 10 m m
1 83 0 m m
30 5 mm
9 30 m m
R a il le ve l
Fig. 1.21 Dimensions of coaching and goods stock for metre gauge
cars, mail vans, motor and carriage trucks, horse boxes, passenger brake vans,
passenger road vans, refrigerator cars and dynamometer cars irrespective of
contents whether attached to the passenger or goods train. The goods wagons
intended for coaching traffic are marked as prescribed and used for coaching
traffic only. They are treated as coaching stock for interchanging purpose. The
goods stock means and includes all goods wagons i.e., all rolling stock other
than coaching stock irrespective of contents and whether attached to passenger
or goods train. The dimensions of coaching and goods stock for metre gauge
are shown in Fig. 1.21.
The dimensions of coaching and goods stock for broad gauge are shown in
Figure 1.22.
6 10 m m
Fo r g uttering , co rnice s side la m ps

d estin atio n b oa rd s a nd a la rm sign al
d isc
Fo r n um b er p la te , w ind ow b ars a n d
re se rvation card h olde rs
3 50 5 m m
411 5 m m
2 89 5 m m
3 35 5 m m
R o lling sto ck fo r
b roa d g au g e
3 05 0 m m
8 40 m m
2 44 0 m m
30 5 m m
102 m m
1 60 0 m m
R a il le ve l
Fig. 1.22 Dimensions of coaching and goods stock for broad gauge
These dimensions of rolling stocks are useful while considering the effect of
wind on the moving load, for the loaded spans of the bridges.
1.11 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BRIDGES

The bridge construction technique developed with the development of human
civilization. The various bridge structures may be grouped into four basic groups
GENERAL 27
from the view point of structural system (namely, beam bridges, cantilever
bridges, suspension bridges and arch bridges).
1.11.1 Beam Type (Timber) Bridges

The firstly formed bridges were the gifts of nature. In wind storms, accidently
the trees fell across the water streams and dry gaps. These were the beam type
bridges. Due to weathering action, and erosion, the natural rocks fissured and
stone units (big and small rolled down). Accidently, these units formed arch
bridges over the gaps. The creepers hanging from trees to trees acted like
suspension bridges, which allowed the monkeys to cross the rivers from one
bank to the other bank learning from the nature, the persons purposely, fell the
trees intentionally across the water streams and crossed the rivers and gaps.
1.11.2 Cantilever Type (Timber) Bridges

Around 4000 B.C., the persons started to live social life. In order to have
permanent bridges, they gave more thought. In Switzerland, the lake dwellers
constructed the timber trestles. Later on it led to build timber bridges. In India,
at that time, the modern suspension bridges were developed. Two cables were
stretched parallel between two banks and a levelled platform was suspended
for the pedestrians. For the cantilever bridges, India also became birthplace.
Wooden planks anchored with heavy stones at the two banks were corbeled out
successively towards midstream. A simple plank was placed to span the gap.
1.11.3 Arch Type (Stone and Brick Masonry) Bridges

During this time, the true arch bridges were developed by Mesopotamians. The
bricks or stones were used to make the arch rib at ends. A pedestrian stone slab
bridge across the Meles river in Smyrna Asia minor is the oldest bridge still
standing. It was used by the ancient Greek epic poet Homer, it is at least 2500
years old.
Many magnificent stone arch bridges were built by the Romans between 200
B.C. and 260 A.D. Massive piers were used with these semi-circular arches, so
that in case one span were damaged in war, the other spans remain saved. The
Pont du Gard aqueduct built at Nimes, France in 14 A.D. (a semi-circular three
tiers arch) is the fine example of Roman bridge. The bridge at Alcantara in
Span built by Caius Julius Lacer for emperor Trajan in 98 A.D. is another
example of a Roman bridge. This bridge is nobel in its proportions and majestic
in its simplicity, though it is a plain unadorned structure. There is inscription
in Latin over the central tower, ‘I have left a bridge that shall remain for eternity.’
In ancient Rome, the bridge construction was treated so important that the
Roman emperors adopted the title ‘Pontifex Maximus’ meaning that ‘chief bridge
builders’.
Since 250 B.C., the stone arch bridges were built by the Chinese. The most
long-lived vehicular bridge today is the chao-chow bridge built around 600 A.D.
It is situated about 350 km south of Peking. It is a single span stone arch bridge.
This bridge has 37.4 m span, 7.23 m rise and 9 m roadway. The voussoirs of this
bridge were correctly dressed to fit it and it was not necessary to put mortar in
the joints. By virtue of this, this bridge has longevity.
In Europe, in the middle ages after the fall of Rome, the bridge building
activity was adopted by the religious orders. In 1345, in Italy, the Ponte Veechio
Bridge was built at Florence using segmental curves first time. The decorative
and defensive towers, chapels, statues, shops and dwellings were put as loads
over the medieval bridges.
The advances continued theory, technical skill and mechanical appliances
with the dawn of Renaissance. The bridges were considered as civic works of
art. The bridge builders were treated as leaders in progress and creator of
monuments. Predominantly, the segmented arch bridges were built in stone
masonry. In 1591, in Italy, the Rialto bridge built in Venice, Italy is a typical
bridge of that period.
The age of reason began in the eighteenth century. Professor Rubert Gautier,
a French engineer published first treatise in bridge engineering in 1714. For
the scientific advancement of construction of bridge a society (the Corps des
Ingenieurs de Ponts et Chaussees) was founded. In 1747, the first engineering
school (the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees) was founded at Paris with Jean Perronet.
He was called ‘father of modern bridge building’. He was the Director of this
school. The masonry arches were perfected by Perronet. He built slender piers.
The Pont de la Concorda at Paris built in 1791 was considered Perronet’s best
work.
1.11.4 Timber Bridges

In late eighteenth century, the covered timber bridges of each form became
popular though the timber bridges had been built since early days. In order to
protect the timber from weather, these wooden bridges were covered. Colossus
bridge over the Schuylkill river at Fairmount, Pennsylvania was a notable timber
bridge of that time. It had an arch span of 104 m. It was built in 1812. In 1838,
this bridge was destroyed due to fire.
1.11.5 Iron Bridge

In 1779, the first iron bridge was built at Coalbrookdale over the Severn river in
England. It was built by Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. Five semi-circular
arch ribs in iron joined together side by side to have a single arch span of 30 m
were used to build this bridge. A design of suspension bridge with wrought iron
chain cables and level floor was patented by James Finley in Pennsylvania in
1808. In U.S.A., forty bridges of this design were built upto 1826. A suspension
bridge with wrought iron chains (Menai Strait bridge) was built by Thomas
Telford in Wales in 1826. This bridge had a record-breaking span of 177 m.
In 1823, the first iron railway bridge was built by George Stephenson on the
Stockton Darlington railway, Britania tubular bridge built by Robert Stephenson
GENERAL 29
in 1850 across the Menai strait is the most famous of the early iron railway
bridges. Twin wrought iron tubes were used in this bridge. It is a continuous
bridge. It has four spans of 70 m, 140 m, 140 m and 70 m. During the period
1840–1890, the cast iron was replaced by the wrought iron. During this period
many truss bridges (e.g., Howe, Pratt, Whipple, Bollman, Fink and Warren)
were built on railways.
A number of wrought iron bridges failed. For example, in 1877, Howe truss
bridge at Ashtabula, Ohio, and in 1879, the firth of Tay bridge in Scotland failed.
As a result of which serious loss of life took place. A new era (an era of
specialisation, research, careful detailing and thorough inspection) of bridge
construction came. A more durable and stronger material (steel) was developed
and used in building the bridges.
1.11.6 Steel Bridges : (Arch and Truss Bridges)

In 1874, the Eads Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri was built using extensively steel
first time. It is a steel arch bridge. This bridge has three spans of 153 m, 158 m
and 153 m. The cantilever method of erection was used to build this bridge. In
1878, all steel bridge was constructed at Glasgow, South Dakota. During 1869–
1883 period, steel cables were developed and Brooklyn bridge was built.
In order to span more longer spans (120 m to 160 m), more efficient sub-
divided panel bridges (Baltimore, Parker and K-type) were built. For still larger
spans (160 m to 200 m) sub divided panel and curved chord bridges (Pettit or
Pennsylvania) were built. J.J. Barry bridge across Delawara river is the world’s
longest simple truss bridge. It has a suspended span.
1.11.6 Steel Bridges : (Cantilever Bridges)

In 1867, Heinrich Gerber built the world’s first modern cantilever bridge across
the river Main at Hassfurt, Germany. It has 129 m main span. The Firth of
Forth bridge in Scotland is the world’s most famous cantilever bridge. In 1917,
the world’s longest span cantilever bridge was built in Quebec, over the St.
Lawrence river. It has a 549 m long main span. In 1943, Howrah bridge over the
river Hoogly at Calcutta at present Kolkata (India) was built. It has a 457 m
main span. It is the sixth longest bridge in the world.
The bridge builders got inspiration from the success of the Eads bridge. They
built many fine arch bridges. The Hell Gate bridge at New York with a span of
297 m built in 1917 and the Sydney Harbour bridge at Sydney, Australia with a
span of 503 m built in 1932 are the notable arch bridges. The New river George
bridge in West Virginia built in 1976 using weathering steel with a span of 159
m is the world’s longest arch bridge. The deck type arch span of this bridge is
aesthetically the most pleasing. In 1936, the Henry Hudson bridge was built
with a span of 244 m. In 1941, the Rainbow bridge at Niagara Falls was built
with a span of 290 m. These bridges are the outstanding examples of beautiful
steel arch bridges.
1.11.7 Suspension Bridges

For very long spans, say 200 m and above, the suspension bridges were built. In
1883, the Brooklyn bridge was built with a main span of 486 m. It was longest
bridge in the world at that time. Later on, other suspension bridges were built
making the record span. In 1937, the Golden Gate bridge was built at San
Francisco with a record span of 1280 m. In 1940, the Tacomo Narrows bridge
was built and opened for traffic at Puget sound, Washington. Its span was 853
m with a stiffening truss girder 24 m deep. Due to 68 kilometre per hour gale
and aerodynamic instability, this bridge failed. It forced to consider the
aerodynamic effects on the suspension bridges and to make the theoretical
studies.
In 1964, the Verrazano Narrows bridge at New York with the longest Span
in the world today was built with a main span of 1298 m. Professor D.B. Steinman
looks a practical possibility to build a bridge with a span as large as 3000 m in
future. At present a longest span bridge, the Humber bridge in England is being
built with a main span of 1410 m.
1.11.8 Cable Stayed Bridges

For long spans say about 200 m, recently (1960 to 1990) cable strayed bridges
have been developed. The Maracaibo lake bridge built at Venezuela in 1963 is
the example of cable stayed bridges. Few more bridges of this type have been
built in Europe.
1.11.9 Reinforced Concrete Bridges

In 1871, the first reinforced concrete bridge was built with 15 span over the
Waveney at Homers field, England. In 1889, a concrete arch bridge of span 6 m
was built at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco. In 1893, Professor Hennebique
built a girder bridge as an approach to a will at Don, France. For architectural
need, the concrete may be given any shape. The reinforced concrete has increased
efficiency. Therefore, the reinforced concrete has been used at widespread for
bridge building.
1.11.10 Prestress Concrete Bridges

After development of prestressing of concrete structural members, this technique
opened new horizon since 1930. The Marne bridge built by Freyssinet in France
is the one of the early prestressed concrete bridge. In 1954, the Palar bridge
near Chingleput is the first prestressed concrete bridge built in India. It has 23
spans of 27 m each. In this country, since 1954, many prestressed concrete have
been built successfully. The Gladesville bridge in Sydney, Australia with a span
of 305 m is the longest span concrete arch bridge.
Table 1.1 shows the progress in bridge building noted as successive record
span lengths. Table 1.2 shows world’s longest spans for various types of bridges.
GENERAL 31
Table 1.1 Progress in bridge building (noted as successive record span lengths)
Year Type and bridges Places Main span (m)

1. Stone arch bridges
219 B.C. Martorell Spain 37.881
14 A.D. * Nera river Lucca, Italy 43.282
1377 * Trezzo Italy 76.505
2. Timber arch bridges
104 * Trajan’s Danube river 51.816
1758 * Wettingen Switzerland 118.872
3. Cantilever bridges
1889 Forth Scotland 518.160
1917 Quebec Canada 548.640
4. Chain bridges
1820 * Union (Tweed) Berwick, England 136.855
1826 Menai Strait Wales 176.784
5. Suspension bridges
1816 * Schuylkill falls Philadelphia, Pa 124.358
1834 * Fribourg Switzerland 265.176
1849 Wheeling Ohio river 307.848
1851 * Lew is ton Niagaria river 317.906
1867 Cincinnati Ohio river 322.174
1869 * Clifton Niagara falls 386.486
1883 Brooklyn New York City 486.461
1929 Ambassador Detroit, Michigan 563.880
1931 George Washington New York City 1067.800
1937 Golden Gate San Francisco, Calif. 1280.160
1964 Verrazano Narrows New York City 1298. 448
Note. These bridges are not standing
Table 1.2 World’s longest spans (for various types of bridges)

Year Type Bridge Place Main span (m)
1939 Concrete girder Villeneuve France 78.029
1919 Single-leaf bascule * 16th street Chicago, Illinois 79.248
1903 Masonry arch Plauen Germany 89.916
1951 Simple girder Harlem river New York 100.584
1914 Bascule * Sautt STE. Marie Michigan 102.413
Contd.
Contd. Table 1.2

Year Type Bridge Place Main span (m)
1758 Timber span ** Wettingen Swtizerland 118.872
1850 Tubular girder * Britannia Menai strait 140.208
1927 Swing span * Ft. Madison Mississippi river 160.020
1937 Wichert truss Homestread Pittsburgh, Pa 162.763
1959 Vertical lift Arthur Kill Elizabeth, NJ. 170.078
1974 Prestressed concrete Urato Bay Japan 229.819
girder
1973 Simple truss J.J. Barry Delaware river, 250.546
1974 Cable stayed Tiel Waal river
girder-concrete Netherland 267.005
1974 Continuous girder Niteroi Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil 299.923
1964 Concrete arch Gladesville Sydney Australia 304 .800
1926 Eyebar suspension * Florianopolis Brazil 339.547
1970 Cable stayed girder-steel Duisburg Duisburg 350.520
1976 Steel arch New River Gorge West Virginia 518.160
1917 Cantilever * Quebec Canada 548.640
1933 Transport bridge ** Sky Ride Chicago Illinos 563.880
1964 Cable suspension Verrazano New York 1298.448
Narrows
Note. * Rail bridges. ** These bridges are not standing

CHAPTER
2
Loads and Stresses
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a bridge structure has two aspects, one functional aspect, and the
other structural aspect. The functional aspect takes into consideration the
purpose for which the bridge is designed. In the structural aspect, it is ensured
that the bridge is structurally safe, strong and durable. For the structural safety
of the bridge, all loads should be taken into consideration, which the bridge
should be required to bear. The following loads are taken into account for the
design of bridge:
1. Dead load 2. Live load 3. Impact load
4. Wind load 5. Lateral load 6. Longitudinal force
7. Centrifugal force 8. Seismic force
In addition to the above loads, the following effects are also considered for
the design of bridge :
1. Erection effects
2. Temperature effects
3. Secondary stresses
4. Relief stresses
The dead load, live load, impact load and the centrifugal force if any, are
considered as normal loads. The wind load and lateral loads are considered as
occasional loads. The seismic forces are considered as extraordinary loads.
2.2 DEAD LOAD

The dead load includes the self-weight of the bridge girder, and all other
superimposed loads which are permanently attached to the structure. The dead
load on a bridge may be divided into two parts : (i) weight of the floor and
(ii) self-weight of the main structure. The weight of a bridge may be found by a
preliminary design of the floor. The weight of floor may be used in calculating
the loads on the main structure. The self-weight of the main structure itself
should be estimated before the analysis and design of the structure. The
importance of a correct estimate increases with the span length of the bridge.
For a short span, the self-weight of the main structure may be a small portion of
total live load and dead load. For a long span, the self-weight may be a large
portion of the total live load and the dead load. The error in estimated dead load
would affect the calculated stresses-appreciably. The self-weight of plate girders
in case of the plate girder bridges has been discussed in Chapter 3. The self-
weight of the truss girder in case of the truss girder bridges has been considered
in Chapter 4. The self-weight of the bridge girder may be assumed depending
on the experience and on the basis of similar existing bridges on the similar
spans. The self-weight of the main structure may be found from previously
established charts and formulae. These charts and formulae should be used
with discretion because bridge specifications may differ with regard to live load
and impact load, their method for load distribution and their permissible stresses.
The superimposed dead load is determined from the various materials which
are used, and their actual unit weights. If the actual unit weights of the materials
used are not available, then the unit weights of the materials used are adopted
from the Indian Standard Schedule of Unit Weights of Building Materials, IS :
1911–1961. On the completion of design, the total dead load is computed and
compared with the dead load initially adopted for the design. In case, the actual
dead load exceeds the dead load initially adopted by more than 2.5 per cent, the
design is revised. If the effect due to the actual dead load and the adopted dead
load varies to such an extent that the design is adversely affected, then also the
design is revised.
2.3 LIVE LOAD

The live load in railway bridges and highway bridges consists of rolling or wheel
loads. Theoretically, the bridges should be designed for the actual live loads,
which the bridges are expected to carry. In practice, it is difficult to arrive at the
actual wheel loads and therefore, the bridges are designed for the standard
design loading. For the railway bridges, the Railway Board, Ministry of Railways,
Government of India has specified the standard design loadings in Bridge Rules.
For the highway bridges, the Indian Road Congress has specified the standard
design loadings in IRC Section II. The standard design loading for the railway
bridges, highway bridges, foot bridges, foot-path (foot way), and for the combined
railway and highway bridges are given below.
2.3.1 Railway Bridges

The standard design loadings for the railway bridges has been specified in Bridge
Rules for the broad gauge, metre gauge and narrow gauge tracks separately.
LOAD AND STRESSES 35
These standard design loading consists of number of wheel loads followed by a

train of uniformly distributed load. The analysis of the bridge girder for the
actual standard loadings is also difficult. In order to simplify the analysis, the
actual standard loadings have been expressed in Bridge Rules as an equivalent
uniformly distributed loads (EUDLL). The equivalent uniformly distributed loads
are uniformly distributed loads which give the results equivalent to the wheel
loads. The various standard design loading and their corresponding equivalent
uniformly distributed loads for different tracks of the railways are as follows :
For broad gauge 1676 mm
(i) Standard main line (M.L.) loadings of 1926. The standard main line loading is
adopted for all spans of the bridges on the main lines. This standard is considered
to be adequate for all further requirements. The standard main line loading of
1926 for the broad gauge is shown in Fig. 2.1 (a).
(ii) Standard branch line (B.L.) loadings 1926. The standard branch line
loading is adopted for all spans of the bridges on branch lines. Such branch lines
are never likely to be other than branch lines. In case a branch line is situated in
heavy mineral area, then standard main line loading is used instead of the standard
branch line loadings. The standard branch line loadings of 1926 for the broad gauge
is shown in Fig. 2.1 (b).
The equivalent uniformly distributed loads for the standard main line (M.L.)
and the standard branch line (B.L.) for the purpose of determining bending
moment and the shear force are given in Table 2.1 as per Bridge Rules.
2 29
2 29
2 29
2 29
1 93
1 96
1 96
1 96
1 96
2 29
2 29
2 29
2 29
1 93
1 96
1 96
1 96
1 96
112
112
Loa d
in kN
Axle
Train lo ad
of 76 .7 k N /m
s p ac in g
in m m
1 52 4
2 74 4
1 84 2
1 70 8
1 70 8
3 04 3
3 32 7
1 82 9
2 59 1
1 82 9
1 65 1
1 52 4
2 79 4
1 84 2
1 70 8
1 70 8
3 04 3
3 32 7
1 82 9
2 59 1
1 82 9
1 65 1
Axle
22 85 1 m m o ve r bu ffers 23 85 1 m m o ve r bu ffers
(a) S ta nd ard m a in lin e loa ding

17 3
17 3
17 3
17 3
16 3
14 9
14 9
14 9
14 9
17 3
17 3
17 3
17 3
16 3
14 9
14 9
14 3
14 3
91
91
Lo ad
in kN
A x le
Train lo ad
of 50 kN /m
1 524
2 743
1 842
1 708
1 708
2 667
3 886
1 829
1 829
1 829
1 327
1 524
2 743
1 842
1 708
1 708
2 667
3 886
1 829
1 829
1 829
1 397
s pa cing
in m m
A xle
22 96 2 m m o ve r bu ffers 22 96 2 m m o ve r bu ffers
(b) S ta nd ard bra nc h line lo ad in g
Fig. 2.1 Broad gauge standard loading of 1926

Table 2.1 Equivalent uniformly distributed live loads (EUDLL) on each track and
impact factors for broad gauge bridges
L (metres) Total load for B.M. Total load for SF Impact factor
(kN) (kN) ⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
M.L. B.L. M.L. B.L.
1.0 458 346 458 346 1.000
1.5 458 346 458 346 1.000
2.0 458 346 524 396 1.000
2.5 458 346 604 455 1.000
3.0 469 354 655 495 1.000
3.5 524 396 703 532 1.000
4.0 592 448 788 594 1.000
4.5 679 514 852 644 1.000
5.0 748 567 903 683 1.000
5.5 806 609 967 732 1.000
6.0 852 649 1049 786 1.000
6.5 893 675 1102 832 0.976
7.0 952 715 1152 871 0.952
7.5 1007 758 1198 906 0.931
8.0 1056 797 1239 935 0.909
8.5 1102 829 1286 972 0.889
9.0 1140 862 1324 1014 0.870
9.5 1176 908 1367 1050 0.851
10 1210 941 1406 1083 0.833
11 1336 1025 1483 1140 0.800
12 1409 1084 1557 1191 0.769
13 1472 1134 1637 1254 0.741
14 1527 1172 1720 1316 0.714
15 1606 1232 1806 1382 0.691
16 1688 1302 1881 1448 0.667
17 1770 1371 1968 1516 0.645
18 1859 1438 2050 1590 0.625
19 1939 1508 2141 1660 0.606
20 2027 1580 2224 1726 0.588
21 2111 1649 2305 1791 0.571
22 2187 1698 2387 1855 0.556
23 2256 1758 2466 1916 0.541
24 2329 1818 2548 1977 0.526
Contd.
Contd. Table 2.1

(kN) (kN) ⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
M.L. B.L. M.L. B.L.
25 2410 1880 2627 2037 0.513
26 2495 1935 2707 2097 0.500
27 2560 1988 2789 2158 0.488
28 2640 2052 2866 2230 0.476
29 2710 2118 2944 2302 0.465
30 2800 2165 3023 2375 0.455
32 2949 2300 3200 2518 0.435
34 3095 2435 3375 2655 0.417
36 3270 2577 3542 2780 0.400
38 3423 2705 3712 2912 0.385
40 3590 2820 3877 3042 0.370
42 3750 2950 4046 3186 0.357
44 3910 3085 4218 3316 0.345
46 4080 3222 4384 3448 0.333
48 4240 3345 4549 3576 0.323
50 4380 3470 4713 3702 0.313
55 4775 3765 5122 4010 0.790
60 5148 4052 5528 4310 0.270
65 5440 4335 5916 4600 0.253
70 5918 4610 6322 4882 0.238
75 6280 4865 6700 5154 0.225
80 6670 5130 7109 5438 0.213
85 7035 5390 7504 5708 0.202
90 7420 5680 7898 5978 0.192
95 7800 5913 8278 6246 0.183
100 8200 6160 8686 6512 0.175
105 8580 6425 9062 6772 0.168
110 8970 6685 9455 7042 0.161
115 9350 6945 9848 7302 0.155
120 9730 7195 10253 7564 0.149
125 10100 7450 10724 7824 0.144
130 10485 7700 11133 8804 0.139
Note. The intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. The values
of loads have been converted from metric tonnes to kilo-Newtons.
For metre gauge 1000 mm

(i) Standard main line (M.L.) loading of 1929. The standard main line loading
is adopted for all spans of the bridge on the main lines. This standard loading is
considered to be adequate for all future requirements. The standard main line
loading of 1929 for metre gauge is shown in Fig. 2.2 (a).
(ii) Standard branch line (B.L.) loading of 1929. The standard branch line
loading is adopted for all spans of bridges on the branch lines. Such branch
lines are never likely to be other than the branch lines. In case the branch line
is situated in the heavy mineral area, then the standard main line loading is
used instead of the standard branch line loading. The standard branch line
loading of 1929 is shown in Fig. 2.2 (b).
(iii) Standard C loading of 1929. The standard C loading of 1926 is shown
in Fig. 2.2 (c).
A xle A xle A xle A xle A xle A xle

S p acin g L oa d S p acin g L oa d S p acin g L oa d
in m m in kN in m m in kN in m m in kN
140 0 1 77 8 1 77 8
61 66 81
208 3 2 19 7 2 19 7
1 07 1 32
18 2 88 m m O ver B uffe rs
81
1 93 80 m m O ver bu ffers
1 33 7 1 39 7
127 0 1 07 1 32
1 72 78 O ver B uffe rs
81 1 34 6 1 34 6
121 9 1 07 1 32
81 1 34 6
121 9 1 07 1 34 6
(a ) S tan da rd m a in lin e loa ding
(b ) S tan da rd bra n ch line loa ding
1 32
81
(c) S ta n da rd C Lo a din g
198 1 1 82 9 2 13 3
11 5
60 93
259 1 2 80 6 2 68 0
81 98 1 21
152 4
1 37 2 1 37 2
98 1 21
81 1 37 2 2 28 6
106 7 98 1 21
81 1 37 2 1 37 2
152 4 98 1 21
140 0 81 1 47 3 1 47 3
140 0 1 77 8 1 77 8
61 66 81
208 3 2 19 7 2 19 7
1 93 80 m m o ve r b uffe rs
1 07
18 28 8 m m ove r B u ffers
81 1 32
1 72 7 8 o ver bu ffers
127 0 1 39 7 1 39 7
81 1 07 1 32
121 9 1 34 6 1 34 6
81 1 07 1 32
121 9 1 34 6 1 34 6
81 1 07 1 32
198 1 1 82 9 2 13 3
60 93 11 5
259 1
2 80 6 2 68 0
81 98 1 21
152 4 1 37 2 1 37 2
98 1 21
81 1 37 2 2 28 6
106 7 98 1 21
81 1 37 2 1 37 2
152 4 98 1 21
81 1 47 3 1 47 3
140 0
fo 3 8 .7 kn /m
fo 3 8 .7 kn /m
fo 38 .7 kn/m
Train lo ad
Train lo ad
Tra in lo ad
Fig. 2.2 Metre guage standard loading of 1929

The equivalent uniformaly distributed loads for the standard main line, the
standard branch line and the standard C loadings are given in Table 2.2 as per
Bridge Rules.
Table 2.2 Equivalent uniformly distributed live loads (EUDLL) on each track
and impact factors for broad gauge bridges
(kN) (kN)
⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
M.L. B.L. C M.L. B.L. C
1.0 264 214 162 264 214 162 1.000
1.5 264 214 162 291 236 192 1.000
2.0 264 214 174 350 284 238 1.000
2.5 282 229 201 386 313 255 1.000
3.0 320 257 223 437 354 289 1.000
3.5 386 313 260 488 394 317 1.000
4.0 437 354 289 525 426 350 1.000
4.5 477 386 310 579 470 383 1.000
5.0 508 411 338 627 508 409 1.000
5.5 550 446 365 666 540 431 1.000
6.0 593 480 389 699 566 454 1.000
6.5 623 508 409 731 601 482 0.976
7.0 657 542 437 770 633 503 0.952
7.5 690 576 459 806 660 523 0.931
8.0 728 605 482 835 684 541 0.909
8.5 761 630 499 862 706 560 0.889
9.0 789 653 516 888 730 582 0.870
9.5 816 674 537 922 756 602 0.851
10 844 697 556 952 780 624 0.833
11 902 789 599 1020 838 671 0.800
12 972 800 649 1082 896 722 0.769
13 1035 864 698 1146 955 773 0.741
14 1098 921 748 1206 1018 821 0.714
15 1160 980 796 1277 1073 867 0.691
16 1226 1035 837 1338 1125 911 0.667
17 1286 1085 879 1397 1176 955 0.645
18 1342 1133 919 1454 1226 999 0.625
19 1395 1182 959 1509 1275 1041 0.605
20 1449 1226 998 1562 1323 1084 0.588
21 1495 1268 1041 1614 1368 1126 0.571
22 1548 1314 1084 1670 1415 1171 0.556
Contd.
Table 2.2 Contd.

(kN) (kN)
⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
23 1606 1364 1127 1734 1472 1217 0.541
24 1658 1408 1168 1802 1528 1265 0.526
25 1710 1455 1213 1869 1586 1309 0.513
26 1778 1512 1255 1934 1640 1352 0.500
27 1848 1568 1301 1999 1690 1396 0.488
28 1906 1620 1344 2060 1744 1438 0.476
29 1967 1669 1384 2122 1798 1498 0.465
30 2033 1719 1426 2186 1853 1533 0.455
32 2145 1817 1520 2312 1968 1631 0.435
34 2265 1929 1613 2442 2075 1721 0.417
36 2390 2040 1699 2568 2181 1810 0 400
38 2515 2144 1784 2687 2284 1898 0.385
40 2640 2242 .1867 2802 2384 1985 0.370
42 2745 2336 1950 2914 2481 2070 0.357
44 2855 2430 2034 3023 2577 2156 0.345
46 2960 2520 2116 3130 2671 2240 0.333
48 3060 2612 2197 3235 2764 2324 0.323
50 3160 2703 2276 3334 2886 2407 0.313
55 3400 2921 2466 3579 3080 2613 0.290
60 3630 3129 2667 3818 3299 2816 0.270
65 3850 3332 2867 4047 3514 3020 0.253
70 4050 3541 3069 4274 3727 3220 0.238
75 4260 3737 3269 4501 3936 3422 0.255
80 4480 3930 3644 4716 4143 3619 0.213
85 4685 4139 3658 4927 4350 3819 0.202
90 4881 4336 3855 5142 4550 4018 0.122
95 5080 4528 4047 5433 4758 4214 0.183
100 5280 4729 4232 5552 4961 4414 0.175
105 5480 4919 4427 5765 5162 4622 0.168
110 5675 5119 4614 5974 5363 4806 0.161
115 5870 5305 4800 6177 5563 5002 0.155
120 6070 5491 5005 6381 5763 5200 0.149
125 6270 5681 5180 6583 5962 5396 0.144
130 6460 5893 5389 6788 6161 5590 0 .139
of loads have been converted from metric tonnes to kilo Newtons.
89
89
89
89
89
89
89
89
Rules.
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
Tra in lo a d 2 8.3 kN /m
25 9 1
16 76
16 76
16 76
25 91
16 76
A xle
(m m )
O ver bu ffers 8 87 1 O ver bu ffers 8 87 1
sp acin g
B – B o f B o-B o typ e
3. B class loading
2. A class loading
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
Tra in lo a d
2 8.3 kN /m
For narrow gauge 762 mm
1. H (Heavy) class loading
3 04 8
3 04 8
A xle
(m m )
sp acin g
C – C o f C o –C o typ e
97
97
97
84
76
97
97
97
84
76
Tra in lo a d
2 8.3 kN /m
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
LOAD AND STRESSES
91 4
91 4
18 29
17 27
91 4
91 4
18 29
17 27
A xle
(m m )
sp acin g
S tee l (Z F/1 ) d ie se l m e cha nica l
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91 Tra in lo a d
2 8.3 kN /m
lo ad
(kN )
A xle
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
91 4
3 0 48
3 0 48
The following are the standard loadings for narrow gauge (762 mm):
A xle
(m m )
sp acin g
D ie sel electric
2 '–6 " G a ug e H class loa ding
41
Fig. 2.3 (a)

The equivalent uniformly distributed loads are given in Table 2.3 as per Bridge
These standard loadings are shown in Fig. 2.3 (a), (b) and (c) respectively.
Fig. 2.3 (b)
A x le A xle A x le A x le A xle A x le A xle A x le
s pac ing load sp acing loa d s pa cing load s pac in g load
(m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m ) (m m )
46 51
61 1753
914 61 175 3
1010 61
61
61 61 1 676
914 965
61 1010 61
61 61
2210 965
243 8 61 2438
56 965
61 2337 61
O ve r b uffe rs 88 39 914 61
O ve r b uffe rs 99 76
208 3 61
61 1 067
914 61 1 676
61 1 067 61
127 0 61
61
61
B -B or B o-B o Type
46 51
17 53
S team e ngine (Ta nk Loc o)
61 175 3
61 61
9 14 10 10 61
2'–6" G a uge B c las s loa ding

61 61 965 1 676
9 14 10 10 61 61
61 61 965
22 10 61
243 8
243 8 56 965
61
23 37 61
208 3
61
61
9 14 10 67 61 1 676
61 61 127 0 61
9 14 10 67
61 61
61
Tra in load
Tra in load
Tra in load
Tra in load
28.3 kN /m
28.3 kN /m
28.3 kN /m
28.3 kN /m
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES–VOL. II 42
Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle
spacing load spacing load spacing load spacing load spacing load
(m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN ) (m m ) (kN )
1415
61
1727 76
76
D iesel m echanical or diesel electric (Articulated)
991 81 914 76
81 1676 76
991 1676
81 76 914
O ver buffers 15983
991
O ver buffers 9144
O ver buffers 6872
O ver buffers 9176
O ver buffers 8566

81 76 76 76
Diesel m echanical or diesel electric
2286 914
71 2743 76
2743 2743
2'– 6" G auge a C lass Engine Loadidng
2375 914
71 76
1295 76
76
C -C or - C o-C o type
B -B or - Bo-Bo type
71 76 914 914
1215 76 1676
71 1676 76
1295 914
71 76
76 76
1362
1451
61 76
1727 914
76 76 76
81
991 1676 76 914 1676
O ver buffers 15983
81
Over buffers 9144
Over buffers 6872
Over buffers 9176
Over buffers 8566
991 914 76
81 76
991 76 76
81
2286 914
2743 76 2743
71
2375 914 76
71 76 914 76
1295 76 76
71 1676 1676
1215 914 76
71 76
1295 76
71
1362
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
28.3 kN /m
Train load
Fig. 2.3 (c)

Table 2.3 Equivalent uniformly distributed live load (EDULL) on each track and
impact factor for 762 mm narrow gauge bridges
L (metres) Total load for B.M. Total load for SF Impact
(kN) (kN) factor
⎛ 90 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 90 + L ⎠
H class A class B class H class A class B class
loading loading loading loading loading loading
1.0 193 163 120 242 193 152 0.989
1.5 193 163 122 270 220 170 0.984
2.0 245 210 160 315 255 200 0.978
2.5 310 265 190 370 300 230 0.973
3.0 345 285 220 405 330 255 0.968
3.5 380 305 240 430 370 280 0.963
4.0 400 350 255 460 400 310 0.957
4.5 425 380 270 495 430 330 0.952
5.0 450 405 295 515 460 350 0.947
5.5 475 432 340 535 485 370 0.942
6.0 495 450 380 555 510 390 0.938
6.5 520 465 405 580 530 410 0.933
7.0 555 480 425 610 550 430 0.928
7.5 580 495 445 640 570 450 0.925
8.0 600 515 455 670 590 470 0.918
8.5 615 535 465 695 615 485 0.914
9.0 630 560 475 725 630 505 0.910
9.5 640 590 480 755 650 525 0.905
10 655 620 485 785 670 545 0.900
11 695 645 500 850 720 585 0.891
12 765 670 520 915 765 625 0.882
13 880 690 550 970 810 665 0.874
14 950 725 600 1030 855 710 0.865
15 990 800 700 1090 900 750 0.857
16 1050 860 770 1140 960 790 0.850
17 1100 900 800 1200 1010 840 0.841
18 1150 940 840 1270 1060 880 0.803
19 1200 980 870 1340 1100 920 0.826
20 1250 1020 900 1410 1150 960 0.818
21 1300 1060 940 1470 1190 1000 0.811
Contd.
Table 2.3 Contd.

L (metres) Total load for B.M. Total load for SF Impact
(kN) (kN) factor
⎛ 90 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 90 + L ⎠
H class A class B class H class A class B class
loading loading loading loading loading loading
22 1350 1100 970 1520 1230 1030 0.804
23 1400 1150 1000 1560 1280 1060 0.796
24 1450 1200 1040 1600 1320 1100 0.790
25 1500 1250 1070 1640 1370 1130 0.783
26 1550 1300 1110 1690 1410 1170 0.776
27 1560 1350 1140 1730 1450 1200 0.770
28 1630 1390 1180 1770 1500 1230 0.763
29 1670 1440 1210 1820 1540 1260 0.756
30 1710 1480 1240 1860 1590 1300 0.750
32 1790 1570 1310 1940 1670 1360 0.738
34 1870 1650 1380 2010 1760 1430 0.726
36 1940 1730 1450 2090 1840 1490 0.714
38 2010 1810 1520 2170 1920 1560 0.703
40 2080 1890 1580 2240 1990 1620 0.692
42 2140 1960 1650 2310 2070 1690 0.662
44 2210 2020 1720 2380 2140 1750 0.672
46 2280 2090 1780 2450 2210 1800 0.662
48 2340 2150 1850 2510 2280 1860 0.652
50 2400 2220 1910 2580 2350 1920 0.643
55 2560 2390 2060 2740 2510 2070 0.621
60 2720 2540 2190 2901 2680 2220 0.600
65 2830 2690 2320 3080 2840 2360 0.581
70 2880 2840 2420 3240 3000 2500 0.563
75 2910 2990 2490 3400 3150 2630 0.545
Note. The intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. (The values
of loads have been converted from metric-tonnes to kilo Newtons.
2.3.2 Highway Bridges

The standard design loadings for the highway bridges have been specified in
the Indian Road Congress, Section II, Loads and Stresses. The various standard
loadings which are used for the highway bridges are as follows :
IRC class AA loading

This loading is adopted for the bridges on highways within certain Municipal
limits, in certain existing or contemplated industrial areas and other specified
areas. This loading is also adopted for the bridges on certain specified highways.
The bridges designed for IRC class AA loading should be checked by IRC class A
loading also, since, under certain conditions and in some cases, IRC class A
loading may give heavier stresses than the IRC class AA loading.
IRC class AA loading consisting of the tracked vehicle is shown in Fig. 2.4 (a)
and IRC class AA loading consisting of the wheeled vehicle is shown in Fig. 2.4
(b). It is to note that the nose to tail distance between two successive IRC class
C arria ge w ay w id th
0 .8 5 0 .8 5
m m
To ta l W eig ht 7 00 k N
90 3 .8 m 3 50 k N 3 50 k N
m 7 .2 m 2 .9 m
m in (a ) IR C class A A tra c k v e h ic le
(a)
C a rria ge w a y w id th
2 .35 m m in
2 .5 m m in
1 .15 m m in
0 .85 m m in
3 7.5 kN 6 2.5 kN 6 2.5 kN 6 2.5 kN

3 00 m m 3 00 m m 3 00 m m 7 00 m m 3 00 m m 3 00 m m 3 00 m m
1 .00 m
1.2 m
D ire ctio n o f
m otion
(b ) IR C C la ss A A w h e eled veh icle
Fig. 2.4 IRC class AA loading

AA vehicles shall not be less than 90 m. The multilane bridges and culverts, one
train of IRC class AA tracked or wheeled vehicle shall be considered for every
two traffic lane width. No other live loads shall be considered on any part of the
said two-lane width carriageway of the bridge, when the above said train of
vehicle is crossing the bridge. The maximum load for the single axle wheeled
vehicle is 200 kN. The maximum load for the bogie of two axles wheeled vehicle
is 400 kN. The space between the two axles should not be more than 1.20 m
centre to centre.
IRC class AA tracked or wheeled vehicle may approach near to the kerb of
road upto a minimum clear distance, C. The outer edge of the wheel or track
shall be as per Table 2.4 as per IRC section II, given below.
Table 2.4
Carriageway width Minimum value of C
Single lane bridges :
3 8 m and above 0.3 m
Multilane bridges :
Less than 5 5 m 0.6 m
5 5 m or above 1.2 m
IRC Class A Loading. This loading is to be normally adopted on all roads
on which the permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. IRC class A loading
is shown in Fig. 2.5 (a). IRC class A loading consists of one driving unit and two
1.2 m 1.2 m
18.4 m 8.2 m 18.4 m
0.9 m
1.1 m
1.2 m
3.2 m
4.3 m
3m
3m
3m
20 m 20 m
68 27 27 114 114 68 68 68 68 27 27
(W heel loads in kN)
(a) IRC Cla ss A train of vehicles
B B B B
a
W
W
W
S ection on pp
Direction of m otion
1.8 m
1.1 m 3.2 m 1.2 m

W
a
B B B
B
(b) Driving Vehicle
Fig. 2.5 IRC class A loading

trailers. The trailers attached to the driving unit are not detachable. The driving
unit of IRC class A loading is shown in Fig. 2.5 (b) separately. The ground contact
area of the wheels of the IRC class A loading shall be taken as per Table 2.5 as
per IRC section II, as given below.
Table 2.5 Ground contact area of wheels for IRC class A vehicles
Ground contact area
Axle load (kN) B W
mm mm
114 250 500
68 200 330
27 150 200
The minimum clearance f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face of the kerb, and, the minimum clearance g, between the outer edges of
passing vehicles as shown in Fig. 2.5, as the multilane bridges shall be as per
Table 2.5, as per IRC section II, as given below.
C le a ran ce w idth
f g f
50 0 m m
50 0 m m
50 0 m m
50 0 m m
Fig. 2.6
Table 2.6 Minimum clearances, g and f for IRC class A vehicles

Clear carriage way width g f
5.5 m to 7.5 m Uniformly increasing 150 mm for all
from 0.4 m to 1.2 m carriageway widths
Above 7.5 m 1.2 m
IRC Class B Loading. This loading is to be normally adopted for temporary
bridges and for bridges in specified areas. IRC class B loading is shown in
Fig. 2.7 (a). IRC class B loading also consists of one driving unit and two trailers.
The trailers attached to the driving unit are not detachable. The driving unit of
IRC class B loading is shown in Fig. 2.7 (b) separately. The ground contact area
of the wheels of the IRC class B loading shall be taken as per Table 2.7 as per
IRC section II, as given below.
1.2 m 1.2 m
1 8.4 m 8.2 m 18.4 m
0.9 m
1.1m
1.2 m
4 .3 m
1.1 m
3.2 m
3m
3m
3m
20 m 20 m
41 16 16 18 1 8 41 41 41 41 16 16
(Loads in kN )
(a) IR C C lass B train of vehicles
B B B B
a
W
W
W
S ection on pp
Direction of m otion
1.8 m
1.1 m 3.2 m 1.2 m

W
W
P
B B B
B
(b) Driving vehicle
Fig. 2.7 IRC class B loading
Table 2.7 Ground contact area of wheels for IRC class B vehicles
Ground contact area
Axle load (kN) B W
(mm) (mm)
68 200 380
41 150 300
16 125 175
The minimum clearance f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face of the kerb, and, the minimum clearance g, between the outer edges of
passing vehicles as shown in Fig. 2.8, as the multilane bridges shall be as per
Table 2.8, as per IRC section II, as given below.
C le a ran ce w idth
f g f
300 m m
300 m m
300 m m
300 m m
Fig. 2.8
Table 2.8 Minimum clearances, g and f for IRC class B vehicles

Clear carriage width g f
5.5 m to 7.5 m Uniformly increasing 150 mm for all
from 0.4 m to 1.2 m carriageway widths
Above 7.5 m 1.2 m
In case of IRC class A loading and IRC class B loading, the distance between
successive trains shall not be less than 18.40 m. No other live load shall cover
any part of the carriageway when a train of vehicles (or trains of vehicles in the
multi-lane bridge) in crossing the bridge.
Class 70 R loading. Class 70 R loading is used instead of IRC class AA
loading for bridges over specified highways. The classification of vehicles for
the highway bridges has been revised. According to the revised classification,
various hypothetical vehicles have been considered. These vehicles have been
4 57 0 m m
(G ro un d co ntact len gth)
7 92 0 m m
(N o se to tail len gth )
C la ss 70 R track ed veh icle s
Fig. 2.9 Class 70 R tracked vehicles
given certain numbers along with letter ‘R’. The letter ‘R’ indicates the revised
classification. The class 70 R loading is one of the various other hypothetical
vehicles according to the revised classification. The class 70 R loading consisting
of tracked vehicle is shown in Fig. 2.9. This vehicle is also having a weight of
700 kN. It is similar to that of class AA loading. It has a contact length of 4570
mm for the track. The length of vehicle measured from nose to tail is 7920 mm.
The width of track is 0.840 m. The width over track is 2.90 m similar to that of
IRC class AA loading. Two successive tracked vehicles should maintain the
minimum specified distance of 30 m.
The class 70 R loading consisting of wheeled vehicle is shown in Fig. 2.10 (a).
The total weight of wheeled vehicle is 1000 kN. This vehicle is 15220 mm long.
There are seven axles in this wheeled vehicle. In addition to the effects of this
8 0 kN 1 20 kN 1 20 kN 1 70 kN 1 70 kN 1 70 kN 7 0 kN
9 10 m m
3 96 0 m m 1 52 0 2 13 0 1 37 0 3 05 0 1 37 0 9 10
mm mm mm mm mm mm
M ax. sing le (a ) M ax. B og ie
a xle loa d a xle loa d
2 00 kN 4 00 0 kN
1 22 0 1 22 0 1 83 0 1 22 0 1 83 0
mm mm mm mm mm
(b )
Fig. 2.10 Class 70 R wheeled vehicle
vehicle, the effects on the components due to a bogie loading of 400 kN are also
to be considered. The single axle load and maximum bogie axle load are shown
in Fig. 2.10 (b).
The overall width of type and rim diameter of the type for both single axle
and bogie axle loads are shown in Fig. 2.11. The tyre thread width may be taken
as overall width minus 50 mm (since the tyre width is greater than 225 mm).
The maximum tyre load on minimum tyre size is 800 kN. The actual maximum
tyre load on 410 mm × 610 mm tyre size is 50 kN. The maximum tyre pressure
is 0.5273 N/mm2. The contact areas of tyres on the deck (road surface) may be
obtained from the corresponding tyre loads, maximum tyre pressure and width
of the tyre threads. The minimum wheel spacings are also shown in Fig. 2.11.
The spacing between successive vehicles would be 30 m. This spacing would
be measured from the rear most point of the ground contact of the leading vehicle
to the forward most point of the following vehicle in case of tracked vehicles; for
wheeled vehicles, it is measured from the centre of the rear most axle of the
leading vehicle to the centre of the first axle of the following vehicle.
The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the other edge
of the wheel or track for any of the hypothetical vehicles (class 70 R) shall be
same as for IRC class AA vehicles, when there is only one lane of traffic moving
on a bridge. If a bridge is to be designed for the two lanes of any hypothetical
vehicles, the clearance may be decided in each case depending upon the
circumstances.
2 79 0 m m n
8 60 m m 8 60 m m
S ing le axle 4 10 m m x 61 0 m m
(a ) 4 10 m m x 61 0 m m
B o gie A xle
3 80 m m
2 79 0 m m
(b ) S ing le axle 4 10 m m × 6 10 m m
B o gie a xle 4 10 m m × 6 10 m m
2 79 0 m m
5 10 m m 5 10 m m
(c) S ing le axle 2 30 m m × 5 10 m m

b og ie axle 2 30 m m × 5 10 m m
Fig. 2.11 Minimum wheel spacing and tyre size of critical (heaviest) axles
IRC class AA, class B and class 70 R standard vehicles or train shall be
assumed to travel parallel to the length of the bridge within the kerb to kerb
width of the roadway. These vehicles shall occupy any position which would
produce maximum stresses provided that the minimum clearances between a
vehicle and the roadway face of kerb and between two passing or crossing vehicles
are not encroached upon.
For each standard vehicle or train, all the axles of a unit of vehicles shall be
considered as acting simultaneously in a position causing the maximum stresses.
The spaces on carriageway left uncovered by the standard train of vehicles
shall not be assumed as subjected to any additional live load.
2.3.3 Foot Bridges and Foot-Paths (Attached to the Railway

Bridges)
The live load due to pedestrian traffic shall be treated as uniformly distributed
over the footway. For the design of foot-bridges or foot-paths attached to the
railway bridges, the live load including impact shall be taken as 4.90 kN/m2 of
the foot-path area. The live load on foot-path for the purpose of designing the
main girders shall be taken as follows :
(a) For effective spans of 7.5 m or less, the live load is taken as 4.15 kN/m2.
(b) For effective spans over 7.5 m, but not exceeding 30 m, an intensity of
load reducing uniformly from 4.5 kN/m2 for a span of 7.5 m o 2.95 kN/m2 for a
span of 30 m.
(c) For effective spans over 30 m, the live load is adopted according to the
formula
1 ⎛ 400 ⎞ ⎛ 17 − W ⎞
P = ⎜ 13.3 + ⎟⎜ ⎟ kN/m2 ...(2.1)
100 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 1.4 ⎠
where P = Live load in kN/m2
L = Effective span of the bridge in metres
W = Width of foot-way in metres.
The kerbs 600 mm or more in width shall be designed for the loads mentioned
above in addition to the lateral loading of 7.50 kN/m run of the kerb applied
horizontally at the top of the kerb. If the kerb width is less than 600 mm, no live
load shall be applied in addition to the lateral load specified above. These loads
are not taken for the design of the supporting structure.
The above values of live loads for the foot bridges and the foot-paths attached
to the railway bridges are as per Bridges Rules.
2.3.4 Footway (Attached to the Highway Bridges)

For all parts of the bridge floors, accessible only to pedestrians, and animals
and for all footways, the loading shall be taken as 4.00 kN/m2. Where crowd
loads are likely to occur, such as on bridges located near towns, which are
either centres of pilgrimage or where large congregetional fairs are held
seasonally, the intensity of footway loading shall be increased from 4.00 kN/m2
to 5.00 kN/m2.
In calculating stresses in the members of the structures with the cantilevered
footway, the footway shall be considered as loaded on one side or on both the
sides or unloaded, whichever condition gives the maximum stresses.
In the bridges designed for any of the standard deign loadings described under
the highway bridges, the main girders, trusses, arches or other member
supporting the footway shall be designed for the following live loads per square
metre of footway area, the loaded length of footway taken in each case being
such as to produce the worst effect in the members under consideration:
(a) For effective spans of 7.5 m or less, the live load is taken as 4.00 kN/m2
or 5.00 kN/m2 as mentioned above.
(b) For effective spans over 7.5 m but not exceeding 30 m, the intensity of
loads shall be determined according to the equation
1 ⎛ 40L − 300 ⎞
P = P´ − ⎜ ⎟ kN/m
2 ...(2.2)
100 ⎝ 9 ⎠
(c) For effective spans over 30 m, the intensity of load shall be

1 ⎛ 4800 ⎞ ⎛ 16.5 − W ⎞
P = ⎜ 100 P´−260 + ⎟⎜ ⎟ ...(2.3)
100 ⎝ L ⎠⎝ 15 ⎠
where, P´ = 4.00 kN/m2 or 5.00 kN/m2 as mentioned above
P = Live load in kN/m2
L = Effective span of the main girder truss, or arch in metres
W = Width of the footway in metres.
Each part of the footway shall be capable of carrying a wheel load of 40 kN
which shall be deemed to include impact, distributed over a contact area
300 mm in diameter, the working stress shall be increased by 25 per cent to
meet this provision. This provision need not be made where the vehicles cannot
mount the footway as in the case of a footway separated from the roadway by
means of an insurmountable obstacle, such as truss or a main girder.
The kerbs 600 mm or more in width shall be designed for the loads mentioned
above in addition to the lateral loading of 7.50 kN/m run of the kerb applied
horizontally at the top of the kerb. If the kerb width is less than 600 mm, no live
load shall be applied in addition to the lateral load specified above. These loads
are not token for the design of supporting structure.
It is to note that the footway kerb shall be considered mountable by the
vehicles. The above values of the live loads for the footways are as per IRC
section II. Further it is to note that the above live loads are not applicable to the
foot bridges.
2.3.5 Combined Highway and Railway Bridges

Where the railway and highway decks are not common, that is, they are at
different levels orside by side, the main girders shall be designed for the worst
combination of the live loads with full impact on the train-loads only. No impact
shall be allowed for the highway loading. Where the railway and highway decks
are common, the effect of the highway and the foot-path loads on the main
girders shall be provided for by an allowance of 1.95 kN/m2 as a minimum over
the whole area of the highways and the footpaths not occupied by the train load.
The railway floor members shall be designed for the full effect of the maximum
live load including impact which may occur on the roadway. The floor members
which carry or may carry the roadway and railway loads simultaneously shall
be designed by the maximum effect including impact, which may be imposed by
either class of load separately or together.
In cases where the roadway are railway are on the same alignment, the floor
members and their connections shall be designed for the maximum effect of
either class of load.
The roadway floor system of combined bridges carrying two traffic lanes for
the loads for IRC class AA loading shall be designed on the assumption that two
IRC class AA vehicles may be placed opposite to each other of the centre lines of
each traffic lane at any position in a panel. Under this circumstance of loading,
the over stresses specified for the occasional loads shall apply.
2.3.6 Foot-Paths (Attached with the Combined Highway

and Railway Bridges)
Where the foot-paths are provided on a combined highway and railway bridge,
the load on foot-path for purpose of designing the main girder shall be taken as
1.95 kN/m2. In case of a foot-path on a combined highway and railway bridges,
where the failure of a foot-path due to highway vehicle mounting the kerb is
likely to endanger the railway traffic, the foot-path may be designed for a heavier
standard of loading.
2.4 IMPACT LOAD

The dynamic effect of moving loads is known as impact.
The impact is caused due to unbalanced weight of the driving wheels of the
locomotive, rough and uneven track, flat or irregular wheels, eccentric wheels,
rapid application of loads, deflection of floor beams and rail bearers, and the
wheel to another. The unbalanced or eccentric weights are provided on the
driving wheels of the locomotives. These weights balance the reciprocating and
the rotating parts of the locomotive mechanism. These weights result in
unbalanced forces and hammer blow effect. The upward and downward forces
in the hammer blow effect are periodic and tend to set the bridge structure into
vibrations. In case the period of vibration of the bridge structure and the period
of rotation of the moving weights synchronise, then, the resonance takes place,
and large deflection and large additional or impact loads are caused.
The effect of impact depends upon the nature of moving load, speed of the
moving load, type of the bridge structure, the material of the bridge structure
and the loaded length of the bridge structure. The provisions for the effect of
impact is made by impact allowance or impact load. The impact load is
determined as a product of impact factor and live (moving) load. The impact
factor is also termed as impact coefficient. The expression for impact factor is
given in terms of the loaded length of structure. The various other parameters
are given due consideration by the constants in the expression of the impact
factor. The impact factor is also expressed as percent or fraction. The impact
factor is specified by different authorities for different types of bridges, and for
different types of moving loads separately. The impact factor for railway bridges,
highway bridges and foot bridges are as follows:

For broad gauge and metre gauge railway bridges of steel and iron, the impact
factor is taken as under:
(a) For single track
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = ⎜ ⎟|> 1.00 ...(2.4)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length of span in metre for the position of the train giving
the maximum stresses in the member under consideration.
(b) For the main girder of double track with two girders
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = 0.72 × ⎜ ⎟|> 0.72 ...(2.5)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
(c) For the intermediate main girder of multiple track spans
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = 0.60 × ⎜ ⎟|> 0.60 ...(2.6)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
(d) For the outside main girders of the multiple track spans with
intermediate girders, the impact allowance shall be that specified in (a) or (b)
whichever applies.
(e) For cross girders carrying two or more tracks
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor, i = 0.72 × ⎜ ⎟|> 0.72 ...(2.7)
⎝ 14 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length giving maximum load on the cross-girder i.e.,
two panel lengths in the case of intermediate cross girders.
(f) For rails with ordinary fish plate joints and supported directly on
transverse steel troughing or sleepers.
For broad gauge, impact factor,
⎛ 7.32 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.8)
⎝ B + 5.49 ⎠
For metre gauge, impact factor,
⎛ 9.5 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.9)
⎝ 91.5 + 4.27 ⎠
where, B = Spacing of main girders in metres.
This reduced impact factor should be used for calculating the stresses in the
main girders upto 7.5 m effective span, stringer with span upto 7.5 m, and also
for the stresses in the chords of triangulated girders supporting the troughs or
sleepers.
For narrow gauges (762 mm and 610 mm) railway bridges of steel and iron,
the impact factor is taken as under:
⎛ 9.5 ⎞
Impact factor, i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.10)
⎝ 91.5 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length of span in metres for the position of the train
giving the maximum stresses in the member under consider-
ation.

For IRC class AA loading and class 70 R loading, the value of the impact
percentage shall be taken as follows.
(a) For spans less than 9 m
(i) For tracked vehicle 25 percent for spans upto 5 m, and
linearly reducing to 10 percent for spans
of 9 m
(ii) For wheeled vehicle 25 percent
(b) For spans of 9 m or more
(i) For tracked vehicles 10 percent for all spans
(ii) Wheeled vehicle 25 percent for spans upto 23 m and in
accordance with the curve indicated in
Fig. 2.12 for spans in excess of 23 m
For IRC class A loading and IRC class B loading, the impact percentage
shall be determined from the curve indicated in Fig. 2.12.
This impact percentage can also be determined from the following expression
which is applicable for spans between 3 m and 45 m.
⎛ 9 ⎞
Impact factor, i = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.11)
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠
where, L = Loaded length in metres.
In any bridge structure where there is filling of a not less than 0.6 m including
the road crust, the impact percentage to be allowed shall be assumed to be one-
half of those specified above.
For calculating the pressure on the bearings and on the top surface of the bed
blocks, full values of the appropriate impact percentage shall be allowed, but
for the design of piers, abutments, and structures, generally below the level of
the top of bed block, the appropriate-impact percentages shall be multiplied by
the factor given below :
(a) For calculating the pressure at 0.5
the bottom surface of the bed block
(b) For calculating the pressure on the 0.5 decreasing uniformly
top 3 m of the structure below the to zero
bed block
(c) For calculating the pressure on the Zero
portion of the structure more than 3 m
below the bed block
53
30
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45
S p an in m e tre s
Fig. 2.12 Impact percentage curve for highway bridges for IRC class A and IRC class B loading
2.4.3 Foot Bridges

No impact allowance is made for foot bridges and footways attached to the
bridges.
2.5 WIND LOAD

The wind load or wind force is assumed as a horizontal force acting in such a
direction that the resultant stresses in the members under consideration are
the maximum. The wind pressures are expressed in terms of basic wind pressure,
p. The basic wind pressure is static pressure in the windward direction. For the
purpose of the design, these basic wind pressures in kN per square metre at
various heights (in metres) are adopted from the maps and tables given in IS :
875–1984. The wind pressure is determined from the appropriate wind pressure
adopted and the exposed area of bridge-girder. The exposed area and wind
pressures on moving loads have been further discussed in Chapter 3 for the
plate girder bridges and in Chapter 4 for the truss girder bridges.
The railway and foot bridges shall not carry any live load, when the wind
pressure at deck level exceeds the following limits.
Broad gauge bridges l.50 kN/m2
Metre gauge bridges 1.00 kN/m2

Foot bridges 0.75 kN/m2
The highway bridges shall not be considered to be carrying any live load
when the wind velocity at deck level exceeds 130 km per hour.
A wind pressure of 2.40 kN/m2 is adopted for the unloaded span of the railway,
highway and foot bridges.
2.6 LATERAL LOAD

The wind load described in Sec. 2.5 is also a lateral load. In addition to the wind
in the railway bridges, nosing effect is present due to the lateral movement of
the railway coaches (rolling stocks). This produces a lateral force, which is known
as racking force. The lateral bracings of loaded deck of the railway bridges are
designed in addition to the windload and the centrifugal loads, a racking force
of 6.00 kN/m treated as a moving load. This lateral load need not be taken into
account when calculating stresses in the chords of flanges of the main girders.
In the case of effective spans upto 20 m, it is not necessary to calculate wind
stresses but in the railway bridges, the lateral bracing are designed for a lateral
load due to wind and racking forces of 9.00 kN/m treated as a moving load in
addition to the centrifugal force, if any.
The horizontal forces on parapet are also included in the lateral loads. The
railings or parapets shall have a minimum height above the adjacent roadway
or footway surface 100 m less one-half the horizontal width of the top rail or top
of the parapet. The parapets are designed to resist lateral horizontal force and
a vertical force each of 1.50 kN/m applied simultaneously at the top of the railing
or parapet.
2.7 LONGITUDINAL FORCE

The longitudinal forces are caused due to one or more of the following :
(a) Tractive effect caused through couple or driving wheels.
(b) Braking effect from the application of the brakes to the wheels.
(c) Frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearing due to
change of temperature and other causes.
The longitudinal forces are not increased on account of impact. The
longitudinal force acts along the bridge. The longitudinal forces for the railway
bridges and the highway bridges are as follows.

These loads are considered as acting horizontal through the knuckle pins or
through the girder seats, where the girders have sliding bearing. For the spans
supported on sliding bearing, the horizontal load shall be considered as being
divided equally between the two ends of the bridges. For spans which have
roller bearing at one end, the whole of the horizontal load shall be considered to
act through fixed end. The values of longitudinal loads due to either the tractive
effort or the braking force for the loaded length shall be adopted from Table 2.9
for broad gauge and Table 2.10 for metre gauge. These values are as per Bridge
Rules.
Table 2.9 Longitudinal loads (without deduction for dispersion) for broad gauge
1676 mm
L (metres) Tractive efforts Braking force
(kN) (kN)
M.L. B.L. M.L. B.L.
1.0 157 118 113 86
1.5 154 116 112 85
2.0 151 115 111 84
2.5 149 112 110 83
3.0 150 113 112 84
3.5 165 125 124 93
4.0 184 139 139 105
4.5 207 157 157 119
5.0 224 170 172 130
5.5 238 180 184 139
6.0 248 187 193 146
6.5 256 194 200 151
7.0 269 202 212 159
7.5 282 211 222 167
8.0 291 219 232 175
8.5 298 225 239 180
9.0 304 230 245 185
9.5 309 239 250 193
10 315 245 257 200
11 338 259 279 214
12 348 268 289 221
13 355 273 298 229
14 359 275 304 233
15 368 282 316 243
16 378 292 327 253
17 388 300 339 262
18 398 308 352 272
19 405 315 360 280
20 416 324 374 291
21 424 331 384 300
Contd.
Table 2.9 Contd.

(kN) (kN)
M.L. B.L. M.L. B.L.
22 431 335 393 304
23 435 339 399 311
24 440 344 408 318
25 448 350 416 325
26 455 352 427 331
27 458 356 432 336
28 465 361 442 343
29 469 366 447 349
30 476 368 457 353
32 476 368 472 368
34 476 368 482 382
36 476 368 500 394
38 476 368 514 405
40 476 368 531 417
42 476 368 544 428
44 476 368 555 438
46 476 368 571 451
48 476 368 585 462
52 476 368 591 468
55 476 368 621 489
60 476 368 644 507
65 476 368 670 525
70 476 368 692 539
75 476 368 712 550
80 476 368 734 564
85 476 368 753 577
90 476 368 772 591
95 476 368 788 598
100 476 368 810 610
105 476 368 832 633
110 476 368 852 635
115 476 368 870 648
120 476 368 885 655
125 476 368 899 663
130 476 368 912 570
Note. Intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. The values of

loads have been converted from metric-tonnes to kilo-Newton.
Table 2.10 Longitudinal loads (without deduction for dispersion) for metre gauge
1m
(kN) (kN)
1.0 91 74 56 58 47 35
1.5 88 72 54 57 46 35
2.0 86 70 57 56 46 37
2.5 89 73 65 60 49 43
3.0 99 79 69 67 54 44
3.5 116 94 78 80 65 54
4.0 128 104 85 90 73 60
4.5 137 111 89 97 79 63
5.0 142 115 95 103 83 69
5.5 151 122 100 111 90 73
6.0 159 129 104 118 96 78
6.5 165 133 107 124 100 81
7.0 169 139 112 129 106 86
7.5 174 145 115 134 112 89
8.0 179 149 119 140 117 93
8.5 184 152 121 146 121 96
9.0 187 155 122 150 124 98
9.5 190 157 125 154 127 101
10 192 152 127 158 130 104
11 198 162 132 166 136 110
12 206 170 138 176 145 118
13 212 177 143 185 154 125
14 218 183 148 193 162 132
15 223 188 153 201 170 138
16 228 193 156 210 177 143
17 233 196 159 217 183 141
18 236 199 161 223 189 153
19 238 202 164 229 194 157
20 240 203 166 234 198 161
21 242 205 168 239 202 166
22 244 207 171 244 207 171
23 246 209 173 250 212 175
24 248 211 175 255 216 180
Contd.
Table 2.10 Contd.

(kN) (kN)
25 248 211 175 260 221 184
26 248 211 175 266 227 188
27 248 211 175 273 232 193
28 248 211 175 279 237 197
29 248 211 175 284 241 200
30 248 211 175 290 245 204
32 248 211 175 300 254 212
34 248 211 175 309 263 220
36 248 211 175 320 273 227
38 248 21,1 175 329 281 234
40 248 211 175 339 287 239
42 248 211 175 345 294 245
44 248 211 175 352 299 251
46 248 211 175 358 305 256
48 248 211 175 363 310 261
50 248 211 175 368 315 265
55 248 211 175 379 322 275
60 248 211 175 388 335 285
65 248 211 175 395 342 294
70 248 211 175 400 350 303
75 248 211 175 406 356 312
80 248 211 175 412 362 319
85 248 211 175 417 368 326
90 248 211 175 421 374 332
95 248 211 175 424 378 338
100 248 211 175 428 383 343
105 248 211 175 432 388 349
110 248 211 175 435 392 354
115 248 211 175 438 396 359
120 248 211 175 442 400 364
125 248 211 175 445 403 368
130 248 211 175 448 408 374
Note. Intermediate values may be found by linear interpolation. The values of

loads have been converted from metric-tonnes to kilo-Newton.
The loaded length L shall be taken as equal to

(a) the length of one span when considering the effect of the longitudinal
loads
(i) on the girder
(ii) on the stability of abutments
(iii) on the stability of pier under the condition of one span loaded or
(iv) on the stability of piers carrying one fixed end and one roller bearing
(b) the length of two spans when considering under the conditions of both
spans loaded, the stability of piers carrying fixed or sliding bearings.
In this case, the total longitudinal load shall be divided between the two
spans in proportion to their lengths.
For determining the value of tractive effort, the loaded length, L shall not by
taken to exceed the following :
(a) For broad gauge : 30 m for main line and branch line loadings.
(b) For metre gauge : 24 m for all loadings.
Where the structure carries more than one track longitudinal loads shall be
considered to act simultaneously on all tracks.

In all highway bridges, provisions are made for longitudinal forces. The braking
effect on a simply supported span or a continuous unit of spans or on any other
type of bridge unit shall be assumed to have the following values.
(a) In the case of a single lane bridge or two lane bridge. 20 percent of the
first train load plus 10 percent of the loads of the succeeding trains or part
thereof, the train loads in one lane only being considered for this purpose. Where
the entire first train is not on the full spans, the braking force shall be taken as
equal to 20 percent of the loads actually on the span.
(b) In the case of bridges having more than two lanes. As in (a) above for the
first two lanes plus 5 percent of the loads on the lines excess of two lanes.
The forces due to braking effect shall be assumed to act along a line parallel
to the highway and 1.20 m above it. While transferring the force to the bearings,
the change in the vertical reaction at the bearing should be taken into account.
The longitudinal force at any free bearing shall be limited to the sum of dead
and live load reactions of the bearings multiplied by the co-efficient of friction.
The coefficient of friction of the bearing shall be assumed to have the following
values :
For roller bearing ... 0.03
For sliding bearing of hard copper alloy ... 0.15
For sliding bearing of steel on cast iron
or steel on steel ... 0.25
For sliding bearing of steel on ferro-asbestos ... 0.20
The longitudinal force at the fixed bearing shall be taken as the algebraic
sum of the longitudinal force at the free bearing in the bridge unit under
consideration and force due to the braking on the wheels as mentioned above.
The effects of braking force on the bridge structure without bearings such as
arches, rigid frames etc., shall be calculated in accordance with the approved
methods of analysis of the indeterminate structures.
The effects of longitudinal forces and all other horizontal forces should be
calculated upto a level where the resultant passive earth resistance of the soil
below the deepest scour level (floor level in case of bridge having pucca floor)
balances these forces.
2.8 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

While the traffic lane or track over a bridge is situated on a curve, the allowance
for the centrifugal force of the moving load is made in designing the members of
the bridge. All the lanes and tracks are considered as occupied by the moving
load. The values of centrifugal force for the railway bridges and highway bridges
are determined from the following expressions. No addition for impact need be
considered for centrifugal force.
2.8.1 Railway Bridge

The horizontal load due to centrifugal force for the railway bridge
⎛ WV 2 ⎞
C = ⎜ ⎟ ...(2.12)
⎝ 127 R ⎠
where, C = Horizontal force in kN per metre run of the span
W = Equivalent distributed live load in kN per metre run
V = Maximum speed in km per hour
R = Radius of the curve in metres
The line of action of the centrifugal force is assumed at a height of 1.83 m
above the rail level for broad gauge and 1.45 m above the rail level for metre
gauge.
2.8.2 Highway Bridge

The centrifugal force for the highway bridge is determined from the following
formula
⎛ W V2 ⎞
C1 = ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ kN …(2.13)
⎝ 127 R1 ⎠
where, C1 = Centrifugal force in kN acting normally to the traffic (1) at the
point of action of the wheel loads or (2) uniformly distributed
over every length on which a uniformly distributed load acts.
W1 = Live load (1) in kN in case of wheel loads, each wheel load being
considered as acting over the ground contact length specified
for the live load for the highway bridges in Sec. 2.3 and (2) in kN
per linear metre run in case of uniformly distributed live load.
V1 = Design speed of the vehicles using the bridge in km per hour.
R1 = Radius of the curve in metres.

The line of action of the centrifugal force is assumed at a height of 1.20 m
above the level of the carriageway.
2.9 SEISMIC FORCE

If a bridge is situated in a region subjected to the earthquake, allowance is
made in the design for the seismic force and the earthquake resistant and features
are embodied in the structural details of the design. The seismic force is taken
as a horizontal force, but shall not exceed 0.12 of the gravity. For the bridges
situated in the epicentral tracts, where the large devastations have occurred in
the past due to the earthquakes, the percentage is fixed depending upon local
conditions regarding the intensity of the earthquakes generally experienced in
those regions. The horizontal forces due to seismic force shall be taken to act
through the centre of gravity of all the loads under consideration. The direction
of this force should be such that the resultant stresses in the members under
considerations are not maximum. IS: 1983–62, Indian Standards Recommen-
dations for Earthquake Resultant Design of structure may be referred to for
actual design. It should be noted that the seismic force and the wind load should
not be considered to act simultaneously.
2.10 ERECTION EFFECTS

The erection effects include the weight of all permanents and temporary material
of a bridge together with all other forces and effects which may operate on any
part of the bridge during transportation and erection. The erection effects also
take into account the placing or storage of construction material and the erection
equipments. The proper provisions (e.g., temporary bracings) shall be made to
take care of all the stresses caused during the erection. The erection stresses
may be opposite in nature from those which the member will be subjected to
during actual working.
2.11 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

The variation in temperature results in expansion and contraction of the
structural material. The range of the variation in the temperature varies from
locality to locality, season to season and day to day. Where any portion of the
structure is not free to expand or contract under the variation of temperature,
the allowance is made for the stresses resulting from this condition. The
coefficient of thermal expansion or contraction for each degree (Centigrade) in
variation or temperature above or below the normal temperature is adopted as
0.0000117, for steel.
2.12 SECONDARY STRESSES

The secondary stresses are additional stresses brought into play in the structural
members of the bridge. The secondary stresses fall into two groups.
(a) The stresses, which are the result of eccentricity of connections generally,
and off panel point loading (e.g., loads rolling direct on chords, self-weight of
members, and wind load on the members. It is to note that the secondary stresses
due to unknown eccentricities arising out of inaccuracies in fabrication are
already allowed for in the factor of safety.
(b) The stresses which are the result of the elastic deformation of the bridge
structure combined with the rigidity of the joint.
All the bridges shall be designed, fabricated and erected in a manner as to
minimize, as far as possible, the secondary stresses. These secondary stresses
are properly accounted for in the design. The analysis of secondary stresses
have been discussed in Chapter 17.
2.13 RELIEF STRESSES

In the determining the maximum stress in any member of a bridge, any relief
afforded to the member by the adjoining parts may be taken into account. In
determining the amount of relief, the secondary stress, if any in the member
shall be determined and considered with the other co-existent stresses.
2.14 COMBINATION OF LOADS

The following combination of loads described above are considered which give
the most severe conditions of loads and the stresses. All the members of the
bridge are designed for the most severe combination of loads and stresses.
(i) Dead load + Live load + Impact load + Centrifugal force, if any.
(ii) (Dead load + Live load + Impact load + Centrifugal force, if any) + Wind
load + Other lateral loads + Longitudinal forces + Temperature stresses.
(iii) The stresses due to loads during erection or stresses due to lifting during
maintenance.
(iv) The stresses due to second combination of loads plus the seismic forces
excluding the wind.
2.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES

The following allowable stresses are used for the design of the steel bridges. The
actual values may be noted from respective codes.
2.15.1 Axial Stresses in Tension

The allowable stresses in axial tension or direct stresses in tension on the net
effective sectional area of the section are adopted as 140 N/mm2 as per IS :
1915–1961.
The allowable stresses in axial tension on the effective sectional area as per
code of practice published by Railway Board for mild steel conforming to IS :
226 with yield stress 236 N/mm2 is 141 N/mm2.
The allowable stresses in axial tension, σat on the effective cross-sectional

area as per IS : 800–1984 is adopted as 0.6 fy (where fy is the yield stress for the
steel used).
2.15.2 Axial Stresses in Compression

The allowable axial or direct stresses in compression on the gross sectional area
of axially loaded compression members are adopted as per Table 2.11.
IS : 1915–1961 specifies the values of allowable stresses for the design of the
steel bridges. These values converted from metric system of units to S.I. units
have been described in the subsequent sub-articles. These values are yet to be
revised by ISI. As such the values of permissible stresses recently revised in
IS : 883–1994 are used in the design of bridges.
The permissible stresses for axial compression as per IS : 1915–1961 for steel
conforming to IS : 226 have been listed in column (i) and those as per code of
practice published by Railway Board have been listed in column (ii).
Table 2.11
Slenderness ratio Permissible stress in N/mm2
(i) (ii)
0 140 140.0
10 139
20 137 136.0
30 134
40 130 130.0
50 125
60 119 118.0
70 111
80 101 101.0
90 91
100 81 80.5
110 72
120 64 63.0
130 56
140 50 49.4
150 44
160 40 39.0
170 36
have been converted from metric units to S.I. units.
The permissible stresses for axial compression as per IS : 883–1994, σac is
0.6 fcr (which fcr is the buckling stress and it is function of slenderness ratio of
the member.
2.15.3 Bending Stress

The allowable stress in bending in tension and compression for laterally
supported structural members are adopted as per Table 2.12.
The permissible bending stresses as per IS : 883–1994 are as follows :
1. Bending in tension, σ bt 0.66 fy
(i) for flats, rounds etc. 0.66 fy
(ii) for rolled girders
(single or multiple) 0.63 fy
(iii) for plate girder 0.60 fy
2. Bending in compression, σ bc
(i) Compression flange restrained As in step (i) above.
against lateral movement.
(ii) Compression flange restrained only As per expression
at some points (based on later buckling). derived below.
Table 2.12 Permissible bending stress as per IS : 1915–1961 for steel conforming
to IS : 226–1958
Description Permissible bending
stress (N/mm2)
Parts in tension or compression on the
effective section for the extreme fibre stress :
(i) For plates, flats, tubes, rounds, squares
and other similar section 158
(ii) For plate girder with single or multiple
d
webs and for rolled sections |> 85 150
t
d
(iii) For plate girders with single or multiple webs > 85 142
t
The expression for determining critical stress as given in Indian Railway
Standard Code of Practice for the design of steel or wrought iron bridges is
different from that given in IS : 800.
The bending stress in compression for sectional shapes with Iyy smaller than
Ixx, (where Iyy is moment of inertia of the whole section about the axis lying in
the plane of bending yy-axis, and is moment of inertia of the whole section about
the axis normal to the plane of bending xx-axis is reduced for lateral buckling in
proportion to critical stress, Cs found as follows for sections of single web.
(a) Where the flanges have equal moment of inertia about yy-axis, is
subjected to couple M at the ends, the critical value of bending moment M is
given by
1/2
π⎡ ⎛ π2 Ely ⎞⎤
Mcr = ⎢ Ely ⋅ GK ⎜1 + 2 ⋅ ⋅ h2 ⎟ ⎥ ...(i)
l⎣ ⎝ l 4GK ⎠⎦
⎛ π2 Ely h2 ⎞
By rearranging the terms ⎜ ⎟ , the expression (i) may be written as
⎝ l2 ⋅ 4GK ⎠
follows
1/2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡⎛ 1 4GK l2 ⎞ ⎤
Mcr = ⋅ ⎢⎜⎜1 + 2 ⋅ ⋅ ⎟⎥ ...(ii)
2 l 2
⎣⎢⎝ π Ely h2 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Substituting
G = 04E, K Ω 0.9bft f3 and ly = t fbf3/12
where t f and bf are the thickness and the width of the flange
1/2
⎡⎛ 1 4 × 0.4 E × 0.9bf tf l ⎞ ⎤
3 2
π Ely ⋅ h ⎢⎜1 +
2
× ⎟⎥
Mcr = ⋅ 2 ⎢⎜ π2
E × 2 × t × b3 2
h ⎟⎥
2 l ⎢⎜
f f
⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 12 ⎠⎦
1/2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡⎛ 3 2
8.64 t f l l2 ⎞ ⎤
Mcr = ⎢ ⎜ 1 + × × ⎟⎥ ...(iii)
2l 2
⎢⎜⎝ π2
b 2
h 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ f
For an I-section and I-section of wide flanges, the approximate radii of gyration
are given by ry = 0.22b (viz., b = 4.545 ry) and ry = 0.25b (viz., b = 4.000 ry)
respectively. As an approximation bf= 4.2 ry, then
1/2
π2 ⋅ Ely ⋅ h ⎡⎛ 8.64t f
2
l2 ⎞ ⎤
Mcr = ⎢ ⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟⎥ ...(iv)
2l2 ⎢⎜⎝ π2
× 17.65 r 2
h 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ y
The elastic critical stress for bending for beams with ly smaller than Ix is
given by (3 Mcf = fcb . Zxx)
2 ⎤1 / 2
π2 ⋅ Ely ⋅ h ⎡ ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞
Mcr = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(v)
2 ⋅ Z x l2 ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
The value of modulus of elasticity E is taken as 2 × 105 N/mm2 (MPa) and Iy

= A.ry2 . Substituting these values in the expression (v)
2 ⎤1 / 2
9.8596 × 105 A ⋅ h ⎡ ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞
fcb = ⎢1 + 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(vi)
⎛ l ⎞
2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎜ r ⎟ Z xx
⎝ y⎠
A ⋅h
The value of for I-section may be taken as 2.688 approximately.
Z xx
Then
1/2
26.5 × 105 ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎤⎥
2
fcb = ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(2.14)
⎛ l ⎞
2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠
The value of critical stress, Cs is increased by 20 percent for rolled beams,
channels and plate girders provided
⎛ tc ⎞
⎜t ⎟ | > 2
⎝ ω⎠
⎛ d1 ⎞
⎜t ⎟| > 85
⎝ ω⎠
where l = Effective length of compression flange.
ry = Radius of gyration about yy-axis of the gross-section of the whole
girder at the point of maximum bending moment.
h = Overall depth of the girder, at the point of maximum bending
moment.
tf = Effective thickness of the compression flange.
= k1 × mean thickness of the horizontal portion of the compression
flanges at the point of maximum bending moment.
k 1 makes the allowance for reduction in thickness and breadth of flanges
between points of effective lateral restraint and depends on y the ratio of the
total area of both flanges at the point of least bending moment to the
corresponding point of greater bending moment between such points of
restraints.
d1 = clear depth of web
tw = thickness of web.
The values of k1 have been given in Table 2.13.
Table 2.13
ψ 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
k1 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
Note. Flanges shall not be reduced in width to give a value of ψ lower than 0.25.
Where the value of ψ calculated for compression flange alone is smaller
than that when both the flanges are combined, this smaller value of ψ shall
be used.
(b) Where the moment of inertia of the compression flange about yy-axis
exteeds that of tension flange.
A paper titled as ‘the basis for design of beams and plate girder in the revised
BS : 153 (British Standards)’ structural paper 48, proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, London, August 1956 was published by Kerensky, O.A., Flint,
A.R.; and Brown, W.C. Professor, Kerensky gave the expression for critical
bending moment for beams and plate girders as under:
1/2 ⎡
1/2 1/2 ⎤
π
ElyGK ) ⎢⎛⎜1 + π Ely h2 ⎞⎟ + (2λ − 1 ) πh ⎛⎜ EI y ⎞⎟ ⎥
2
Mcr =
l
( ...(i)
⎣⎢⎝ l2 4GK ⎠ 2 ⋅ l ⎝ GK ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, λ is the ratio of moment of inertia of compression flange about yy-axis. If
to the moment of inertia of the whole section about yy-axis, Iy.(2λ – 1) may be
replaced by k2. For the values of λ = 1 or zero k 2 is equal to + 1.0 to –1.0. Various
approximations used as in Eq. 2.14, introduces inaccuracies and results in a
wide scatter. These approximations are allowed for by reducing k3 by fifty percent.
Above expression (i) may be written as below as expression (iv) derived in
Eq. 2.14.
1/ 2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎥⎤
2
⎛ π2 EI h ⎞
Mcr = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ + k2 ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ y ⎟ ...(ii)
2 ⋅ l2 ⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 l2 ⎠
2 ⎤1 / 2
π2 Elý ⋅ h ⎡ ⎛ l ⋅t ⎞ ⎛ π2 EI h ⎞
Mcr = ⎢1 + 1 ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥ + k2 ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ y ⎟ ...(iii)
2 ⎜ ⎟ l2 ⎠
2⋅l ⎣⎢ 20 ⎝ ry⋅h ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2
where Iý is the modified moment of inertia. It is equal to k1 . Iy, (Iy is the moment
of inertia of the whole section about yy-axis at the section of maximum bending
moment).
The elastic critical stress for bending is given by (Mcr = fcb . Zxx)
1/ 2
π2 Ely ⋅ h ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎤⎥
2
⎛ π2 EI y′ ⋅ h ⎞
fcb = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ + k2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
2 ⋅ Z xx ⋅ l2 ⎣⎢ 20 ⎝⎜ ry ⋅ h ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅ Z xx ⋅ l ⎠
This expression (iv) may be written as follows (as Eq. 2.14 has been derived) :
1/2
26.5 × 105 k1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ t f ⎞ ⎥⎤
2
26.5 × 105 k1
fcb = ⋅ ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ + k2 ⋅ ...(2.15)
⎛ l ⎞
2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎜⎝ ry ⋅ h ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎛ l ⎞
2
⎜r ⎟ ⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠ ⎝ y⎠
fcb = k 1 . (X .+ k 2 .Y) ...(2.16)
1/2
⎡ 1 ⎛ l ⋅ tf ⎞ ⎤
2
where X = Y . ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ N/mm2
⎢⎣ 20 ⎝ r2 ⋅ h ⎠ ⎥⎦
26.5 × 105
Y = N/mm2
⎛ l ⎞
⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠
where tf = Effective thickness of flange

= k 1 × mean thickness of the horizontal portion of the flange of
greater moment of inertia about yy-axis of the girder at the point
of maximum bending moment.
k2 = A coefficient to allow for inequality of tension and compression
flanges, and depends on ω, the ratio of moment of inertia of
compression flange alone to the sum of moments of inertia of
the compression and tension flanges each calculated about its
own axis parallel to the yy-axis of the girder at the point of
maximum bending moment.
Value of k 2 is adopted from Table 2.14.
Table 2.14
ω 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
k2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 –0.2 –0.4 –0.6 –0.8 –1.0
(c) Where the moment of inertia of the tension flanges about yy-axis exceeds
that of compression flange
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ 26.5 × 105 1 ⎛ l ⋅ ts ⎞ 26.5 × 105 ⎥ yc
fcb = ⎢ 2
⋅ 1+ ⎜ r ⋅ D ⎟ + k2 ⋅ 2 ⎥ × y N/mm ...(2.17)
2
⎢ ⎛ l ⎞ 20 ⎝ y ⎠ ⎛ l ⎞ ⎥ t
⎢ ⎜ ry ⎟ ⎜r ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
y ⎦
yc
= k 1 . (X + k 2 . Y) . N/mm2 (MPa) ...(2.18)
yt
where yc = Distance from the neutral axis of the girder to extreme fibre in
compression flange
yt = Distance from neutral axis of the girder to extreme fibre in
tension flange
Permissible stress in bending in compression is adopted as per Table 2.15 for
steel as per IS : 226.
Table 2.15
Cc (N/mm2) Pbc (N/mm2)
30 15
40 20
50 25
60 30
70 35
80 38
90 42
100 46
Contd.
Table 2.15 Contd.

Cc (N/mm2) Pbc (N/mm2)
120 53
140 60
160 67
180 72
200 76
220 88
240 84
260 88
280 92
300 96
350 105
400 112
450 119
500 124
550 129
600 133
650 136
700 139
750 141
800 144
900 149
1000 153
1250 158
1500 158
2000 158
2150 158
Note. The values have been converted from metric units to S.I. units.
2.15.4 Shear Stress

The average allowable shear stress on the gross- sectional area of the unstiffened
web is adopted as per IS : 1915–1961 as 87 N/mm2, which is very low. The
average allowable shear stresses for the stiffened web have also been described
in Sec. 8.10, Vol. 1, are adopted. The value of average shear stress as per
IS : 883–1994 is 0.36 fy.
2.15.5 Rivets, Bolts and Tension Rods

The allowable stresses in rivets, holts, and tension rods shall not exceed the
values given in Table 2.16. These values are also as per IS : 883–1994.
Table 2.16 Permissible stresses in rivets, bolts and tension rods as per IS : 803–
1984 for steel conforming to IS : 226–1975
Description Permissible stress
N/mm 2
In tension
Axial stress on gross area of rivets and
on net area of bolts and tension rods
Power driven rivets 100
Hand driven rivets 80
Close tolerance and turned bolts 120
Bolts in clearance holes 120
In shear
Shear stress on gross area of rivets and bolts
In bearings
Bearings stress on gross diameter of rivets and bolts
2.17 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR COMBINATION OF

LOADS
The allowable stresses for the combination of normal loads and the occasional
loads are adopted as 1.25 times the corresponding values as discussed in Sec. 2.15.
The allowable stresses during erection or lifting during maintenance are
adopted as 1.30 times the corresponding values described in Sec. 2.15.
Allowable stresses due to extraordinary loads are adopted as per the discretion
of the appropriate authority but not exceeding 90 percent of yield stress.
The end cross girders or other members which are used for lifting the span
shall be so proportioned that the maximum stress while lifting span during
maintenance including the stress due to dead load or any other co-existing load
shall not exceed the permissible stress by more than 25 percent.
2.17.1 Combined Stress

When the structural members of a bridge are subjected to the different system
of combined stress, then, these members are checked as follows :
When the members are subjected to both axial stresses and bending stresses
(compressive or tensile), then, the members are so proportioned that the quantity
⎛ σac.cal σbc.cal ⎞
⎜ σ + deos not exceed unity
⎝ ac σbc ⎟⎠
where,
σac.cal = Calculated axial stress
σac = Appropriate allowable stress in axially loaded members
σbc.cal = Calculated maximum bending (compressive or tensile) stress
about both principal axes, including secondary stresses, if any
σbc = Appropriate allowable stress in bending.
When the members are subjected to bending and shear stresses, then,
irrespective of any permissible increases of allowable stresses, the equivalent
stress, σe due to this combination should not exceed 220 N/mm2 for the structural
steel conforming to IS : 226. The equivalent stress, σe , is obtained from the
following formula
σee.cal = [σbc2.cal + 3τvm.cal]1/2 ...(2.12)
σe.cal = [σbt .cal + 3τvm.cal]
2 1/2 ...(2.20)
where,
τvm.cal = Calculated co-existing shear stress
σbt.cal = Calculated bending tensile stress
σbc.cal = Calculated bending compressive stress.
Where a bearing stress is combined with tensile bending or compressive
bending and shear stresses approaching the maximum allowable value under
the most unfavourable conditions of loading the equivalent stress σe.cal shall not
exceed 0.9fy for structural steel conforming to IS : 226. The equivalent stress,
σe.cal is obtained from the following formula
σe.cal = [σbt2.cal + τp2. cal + σbc.cal σy.cal + 3τvm2.cal ]1/2 ...(2.21)
σe.cal = [σbc .cal – τp . cal + σbc.cal σp.cal + 3τvm .cal ]
2 2 2 1/2 ...(2.22)
where,
σe.cal = σbc.cal and τvm.cal are as specified above
σp.cal = Calculated co-existing bending stress.
2.18 FLUCTUATION OF STRESSES

The ultimate tensile strength of steel is the stress determined by dividing the
maximum load on the specimen by the initial cross sectional area. The load is
applied gradually. The specimen fails at ultimate load in its first application. In
case the specimen is loaded and unloaded large number of times, then the
specimen fails at smaller load. The magnitude of load to produce failure decreases
as number of cycles of loading increases. This also depends on range of stress.
The range of stress is defined as the algebraic difference of maximum and
minimum values of the repeated stress. The phenomenon of decrease of
resistance of material due to repeated stresses is known as fatigue. In case of

cantilever test, specimen for fatigue, the maximum compressive and tensile
stresses occur alternately due to reversed bending, the tensile strength decreases
to a one-third of its original value.
The variation of stresses, and, or reversal of stresses, i.e., the fluctuation of
stresses in the structural members of a bridge results in the fatigue failures of
members or connections or both. The fatigue failures may take place at lower
stresses than those at which the member would fail under the static loads, if the
members are subjected to the number of cycles of fluctuation of the stresses.
The number of repetitions of the stress cycle decreases as the range between
the maximum and minimum stresses in the member increases. The fatigue
failures are primarily due to the connections of the stresses in members. The
concentration of stresses in the members occur due to constructional details, e.g.,
sharp corners, sudden changes in cross-section, rivets, weld, etc.
To allow for the effect of fatigue in case of tension elements, the allowable
working stress is determined by multiplying the appropriate allowable stress
by a factor, k, the values of which are given in Table 2.17 as per IS : 1915–1961.
The factor k depends on the ratio of minimum stress (fmin) to the maximum
stress (fmax), the number of repetitions of the stress cycle, the quality of steel,
the method of fabrication, and the type of connections. In determining the ratio
⎛ fmin ⎞
⎜f ⎟ , gross areas of members are used.
⎝ max ⎠
In case of railway bridges, generally, for plate girders, floors and web system of
the truss girders, the member of repetition of stress cycles may be taken as 21 ×
105 cycles, and that for the chord members of truss girders as 6 × 105 cycles. No
allowance for fatigue need be made in the case of highway bridges and foot over-
bridges. In case the reversal of the stresses takes place in the web members of a
truss girder, then counter-brace members are provided. The actual distribution of
the stress in the counter-brace members is statically indeterminate. The exact
value of compressive force in the counter-brace members can be determined, if
desired by considering the buckling and shortening of such struts. In order to
simplify, it is generally assumed that one member remains active at a time and
takes tension only.
No allowance for fatigue shall be made in the design of riveted and the bolted
connections but all rivets and bolts subjected to reversal of stress during the
passage of the live loads shall be designed for the sum of the maximum and the
reversed loads on them. In case of wind bracing the connections shall be designed
to resist the greater stresses.
No allowances for fatigue shall be made for compression members or for shear
stresses in webs except that when open holes larger than those normally used
for rivets or fastenings exist. The fatigue factors shall be applied to the resulting
tensile stress near the hole. The allowance for fatigue shall be made for normal
loading only. The stresses due to wind, temperature and secondary stresses
shall be ignored in considering fatigue.
Table 2.17 Factor K for fluctuating stress
k for steel members conforming to k for steel members conforming to k for high tensile steel members 78
IS : 226–1958, fabricated with or IS : 226–1958, fabricated with conforming to IS : 961–1957
connected by rivets, bolts or butt intermittent or transverse fabricated or connected
welds, and for those fabricated fillet welds, or connected by by rivets or bolts
with continuous longitudinal transverse or longitudinal fillet welds
fillet welds
⎛ f min ⎞
⎜f ⎟ Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles
⎝ max ⎠
1×105 6×105 20×105 1×105 6×105 20×105 1×105 6×105 20×105
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.6 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.93 1.0 1.0 0.91
0.3 1.0 1.0 0.98 1.0 1.0 0.79 1.0 1.0 0.83
0.2 1.0 1.0 0.93 1.0 0.97 0.69 1.0 1.0 0.77
0.1 1.0 1.0 0.88 1.0 0.86 0.62 1.0 1.0 0.71
0.0 1.0 1.0 0.83 1.0 0.78 0.56 1.0 1.0 0.67
–0.1 1.0 0.95 0.79 0.91 0.71 0.50 1.0 0.94 0.62
–0.7 1.0 0.91 0.76 0.83 0.65 0.46 1.0 0.88 0.59
–0.3 1.0 0.87 0.72 0.77 0.60 0.43 1.0 0.83 0.56
–0.4 1.0 0.83 0.69 0.71 0.56 0.40 1.0 0.79 0.53
Contd.
Table 2.17 Contd.
Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
1×10 6×10 20×10 1×10 6×10 20×10 1×10 6×105 20×105
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
–0.5 1.0 0.80 0.67 0.67 0.52 0.37 1.0 0.75 0.50
–0.6 0.96 0.77 0.64 0.62 0.49 0.35 1.0 0.71 0.48
–0.7 0.93 0.74 0.62 0.59 0.46 0.33 0.96 0.68 0.46
–0.8 0.89 0.71 0.60 0.56 0.43 0.31 0.91 0.65 0.44
–0.9 0.86 0.69 0.58 0.53 0.41 0.29 0.88 0.62 0.42
–1.0 0.83 0.67 0.56 0.50 0.39 0.28 0.84 0.60 0.40
Note : 1. The ratio (fmin /fmax) positive or negative respectively if the maximum stresses are of like or unlike sign.
2. The intermediate value of k may be found by linear interpolation.

LOAD AND STRESSES
79
2.19 ENDURANCE LIMIT

The bridge structure are subjected to repeated loading and unloading or variation
and reversal of stresses i.e., the fluctuation of stresses as discussed in Sec. 2.18.
As a result of this the strength of material of bridge elements for the repeated
stresses decreases. This phenomenon of decrease in strength to repeated stresses
is known as fatigue. If the members are subjected to number of cycles of
fluctuation of the stresses, the fatigue failure may take place at lower stresses
than those at which the members would fail under the static loads. The members
of bridge structures are subjected to number of cycles of repetitions of the stress.
The members of the bridge structures should be such that maximum stress
does not exceed the endurance limit and the failure of the members does not
take place. The endurance limit is defined as the maximum stress that can be
applied to a material for an infinite number of cycles of repeated stress without
causing failure. The endurance limit is also called as fatigue limit.
7 70
7 00
S -N o rm inal stress N /m m 2
6 30
5 60
4 90
4 20
3 50
1 02 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07
N -N u m be r o f cycles
Fig. 2.13
The endurance limit is found by conducting series of fatigue tests (endurance

test) on number of specimens of the material at different stresses. The stress
endured by each specimen is plotted against the number of cycles to failure.
The diagram plotted is known as the stress-cycle diagram, or S–N diagram.
Smaller and smaller values of stresses are taken, and the endurance tests are
conducted. At the beginning, the values of stress reduce rapidly as the number
of repititions of stress cycles increases. A value of stress is obtained at which
the specimen does not fail irrespective of the number of stress cycles applied. In
the stress cycle diagram, the curve corresponding to the value of stress becomes
asymptotic to the horizontal line. This stress is known as endurance limit.
Instead of plotting the stress against the number of cycles, it is convenient to
plot either the stress against the logarithm of number of cycles or both, the
stress and number of cycles on logarithmic scale. A typical stress-cycle diagram
is shown in Fig. 2.13 in which the number of cycles of stress has been plotted on
logarithms scale. Near the endurance limit both the diagrams show a sharp
bend.
The endurance limit for most of the steels may be established with sufficient
accuracy on the basis of 2 × 106 and 10 × 106 cycles. In order to simplify, certain
national codes have given an expression to find the fatigue limit for cyclic loading
or range of stress. IS 807–1976 for design of cranes specifies an expression as
under
T
F =
⎡ ⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎤
⎢2 − ⎜ f ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ max ⎠ ⎦
where, T is the tensile strength and F is the fatigue limit.
This may also be adopted for bridges also. Most of non-ferrous metals do not
show clearly defined endurance limit. The values of stresses of such metals
continuously decrease even upto several million cycles.
2.20 DESIGN OF BRIDGES

Ministry of Railways, Government of India has laid down the specifications for
the design of railway bridges in the code ‘Indian Railway Standard Code of
Practice for the design of steel and wrought iron bridges carrying rail, road or
pedestrian traffic’. All the railway bridges are to be designed conforming to
these specifications. The various loads specified in Bridge Rules—rules specifying
the loads for designing the super and sub-structures of bridges and for assessing
the strength of existing bridges are to be considered.
Indian Road Congress has drafted the specifications for the design of highway
bridges in IRC section I, IRC section II, IRC section III, IRC section IV, and IRC
section V.
In addition to the above, the specifications given by ‘Code of Practice for design
of steel bridges’ IS : 1915 are also followed for the design of bridges. The design
of plate girder bridges have been described in chapter 3 and that of truss girder
bridges have been covered in chapter 4. The design of bearings for the various
types of bridges have been discussed in Chapter 5.
CHAPTER
3
Design of Plate Girder Bridges
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The plate girders are used as the main load carrying members in the plate
girder bridges. The plate girder bridges are also known as solid web girder
bridges. The plate girders are economically used for the railway bridges for
span from 15 m to 30 m and for the highway bridges for spans from 20 to 40 m.
The plate girders are comparatively free from the secondary stresses. The
minimum height of plate girders in case of railway bridges are one-twelfth of
the span, and in case of highway bridges one-twenty fifth of the span. The effective
height (depth) of plate girder is measured from gravity axis of top flange upto
the gravity axis of the bottom flange. The span is taken as the distance between
centres of bearings in the case of simply supported bridges. In addition to the
main (stock) rails, the guard rails are provided on all the bridges in order to
avoid the derailment of trains and serious disasters.
The design of plate girder and its various components have been discussed in
detail in author’s Steel Structures Vol. I. The various types of sections of plate
girders are given in Vol. I. The use of deck type or through type bridges depends
upon the clearance available and the depth of the plate girder.
3.2 TYPES OF FLOOR SYSTEMS

The floor systems may be classified in accordance with the type of traffic carried,
such as railway or highway floors ; in accordance with the principal material
used, such as steel, timber, concrete or masonry floor; or in accordance with the
structural action of the floor, as one way or two way slabs, composite concrete
floors. The selection of the appropriate floor system for a particular bridge is
governed by the following considerations ; quality of road surface, proper
DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 83
drainage, weight of the floor system, required construction time, and overall cost,
including that of maintenance.
There are two types of floor systems, which are used in the railway bridges.
1. Open floor system
2. Solid floor system.
3.2.1 Open Floor System

The open floor system is also termed as open deck type floor. This is most common
type of floor system used both in the deck type and through type plate girder
bridges. In the deck type plate girder bridges, the wooden sleepers, which are
also known as timber ties are carried directly over the main girders. The open
floor system in deck type plate girder bridge is shown in Fig. 3.3. The timber
ties are placed with 0.10 m to 0.20 m intermediate openings. The river bed or
other crossing remains clearly visible through the openings (spacings). In case
of the through type bridges, and the half through type bridges, the timber ties
are placed over the stringers (longitudinal girders or rail bearers). The open
floor system in case of the through type plate girder bridge is shown in Fig. 3.4.
3.2.2 Solid Floor System

The solid floor system is also known as ballasted deck type floor or the continuous
floor. The solid floor system consists of steel or concrete or timber troughs. The
troughs are supported over stringers and floor beams (cross girders). The ballast
is placed in these troughs. The sleepers-supporting railway track are placed in
the ballast. The common types of steel troughs used in the solid floor are shown
in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1 Type of steel troughs
By varying the thickness and depth of troughs, the solid floor can be used for
any span and the load. The solid floor system used in case of a through type
bridge is shown in Fig. 3.2.
M ain girder
Sleepers Rails
Fig. 3.2 Solid floor system
The floor system in case of highway bridges generally consists of reinforced

concrete slab. The reinforced concrete slab is supported on steel stringers, which
are further supported by the floor beams. The reinforced concrete slab provides
its own traffic surface. Many times, in addition to this, the bituminous or carpet
surface is furnished. This acts as a wearing surface.
3.3 DECK TYPE PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE

The deck type plate girder bridge is shown in Fig. 3.3.
R ails Sleepers (Tim ber ties)
M ain girder
Fig. 3.3 Deck type plate girder bridge
The deck type plate girder bridge consists of two plate girders. The width
between centres of main girders is kept sufficient to resist overturning due to
specified wind pressure and load conditions. The width between the main girders
should not be less than one-twentieth of the effective span. The timber ties
(wooden sleepers) are directly placed over the plate girders. The plate girders
are suitably braced for lateral forces. A deck type plate girder bridge is shown
in Plate 3.1.
Sixteen spans out of twenty spans of the bridge over river Luni, Samdari
(Rajasthan) are that of deck type plate girder bridge.
3.4 THROUGH TYPE PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE

The through type plate girder bridge is shown in Fig. 3.4.
When the clearance between the high water level and the underside of bridge
is not sufficient to allow the use of deck type bridge, then through type girder
bridge is used. The floor system in case of through type plate girder is supported
M ain girde r
R a ils S lee pe rs
S trin ge rs Floo r b ea m s
Fig. 3.4 Through type plate girder bridge
over beams which are placed parallel to the main girders. These beams are
known as stringers or longitudinal girders or rail bearers. These stringers have
span from 3 m to 5 m. These stringers are supported and framed into the cross-
beams. The cross-beams are termed as cross-girders or transverse girders or
floor beams. The floor beams are connected near the bottom of plate girders as
possible. These points of connections are known as panel points. The plate girders
are suitably braced for the lateral loads. A through type plate girder bridge is
shown in Plate 3.2.
Four spans out of twenty spans of the bridge over river Luni, Samdri (Rajasthan)
are that of through type plate girder bridge. Earlier these spans were also
deck type, which were washed-off in heavy rain and re-built as through type.
3.5 BRACING OF DECK TYPE PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES

In addition to the dead load, live load and impact load, the bridge is also subjected
to lateral and longitudinal forces. In order to provide lateral stability and the
torsional rigidity, the bridge is suitably braced. The bracing consists of horizontal
bracing and the transverse bracing. The horizontal bracing is also known as
horizontal truss bracing. The main horizontal truss bracing is provided in
between the loaded flanges. The loaded flanges in case of deck type plate girder
are top flanges (compression flanges). Formerly in addition to the’ horizontal
bracing in the loaded flanges, the horizontal bracing also used to be provided
with unloaded flanges. The transverse bracing for deck type plate girder bridges
consists of cross-frames. The cross frames are provided in the parallel vertical
G ua rd ra ils
M ain rails
Tim b er tie s
H o rizon ta l truss
b racin g
M ain girde rs
C ro ss fram e
(vertical b racin g)
(A b utclea r / P ie r)
Fig. 3.5 Bracing of deck type plate girder bridges
planes. The horizontal truss bracing and the cross-frames in the deck type girder
bridge are shown in Fig. 3.5. The horizontal truss bracing is also shown in Fig. 3.3.
3.6 BRACING OF THROUGH TYPE PLATE GIRDER

BRIDGES
The bracing of through type plate girder bridge consists of the horizontal bracing
and the transverse bracing. The horizontal truss bracing is provided in the loaded
flange. The loaded flange in case of the through type bridge is the bottom flange
(tension flange). The upper flanges of through type plate girder are braced by
In te rna l
g usse t pla te
G ua rd ra il
S tock rail
M ain girde r
S lee pe r
S trin ge r Floo r b ea m
H o rizon ta l truss b racin g

(A b utclea r / Pie r)
Fig. 3.6 Bracing of through type plate girder bridges
means of triangular gusset plates. These gusset plates are connected on the
internal sides with the floor beams and the main girders. These are called
internal gusset plates. The horizontal bracing and the internal gusset plates are
shown in Fig. 3.6. The horizontal truss bracing of the through type plate girder
bridge is also shown in Fig. 3.4.
The effective length of compression flange for half through type bridge has been
described in Sec. 4.8.
3.7 SELF-WEIGHT OF PLATE GIRDERS

The dead load acting on plate girder bridges also include the self-weight of plate
girders of the bridges. The self-weight of plate girders of the bridges are either
assumed depending upon experience and by comparing with the existing plate
girder bridges on the similar spans or determined by the following formula:
⎛ WL ⎞
W1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.1)
⎝ 300 ⎠
where, W = Total superimposed load on both the plate girders in kN
L = Span of the plate girders in metres
W1 = Total weight of both the plate girders in kN
The self-weight of both the plate girder can also be determined from Fuller’s
formula for 10 m to 30 m span
(a.L + b)
w = ...(3.2)
100 kN/m
where, w = Weight of both the plate girders in kN per metre
a, b = Constants
Constants a and b depend upon the type of the bridge, the load for which the
bridge is designed and the unit stress used. The term aL represents principally
the weight of those portions whose weight per linear length increases
approximately in proportions to span. The term b represents mainly weight of
floor. The weight of floor per linear length depends of panel length and width of
the bridge. It is approximately constant. The values of a and b constants are
adopted as 20 and 100 respectively. By substituting the values of constants,
Eq. 3.2 may be written as
1
w = ⋅ (20L + 100 ) kN/m ...(3.3)
100
The weight of steel plate girder railway bridges carrying single track may be
found from the following formula also. This formula has been given by using
Dr. Wadell’s extensive date:
w = k . L (W)1/2 ...(i)
where, w = Weight of two plate girders and bracings in kN per metre length
of bridge
k = Constant. Its value is about 0.0522 for deck type bridges
L = Effective span of the bridge in metres
W = Heaviest axle load of engines in kN

In the broad gauge standard loading the heaviest axle loads for the main line
and branch line loadings are 229 kN and 173 kN respectively. Therefore,
w1 = 0.790L kN/m (Main line) ...(ii)
w2 = 0.686 L kN/m (Branch line) ...(iii)
In the metre gauge standard loading the heaviest axle loads for the main
line, branch line and C-class loadings 132 kN, 107 kN and 81 kN respectively.
Therefore,
w3 = 0.600 L kN/m (Main line) ...(iv)
w4 = 0.5401 kN/m (Branch line) ...(v)
w5 = 0.470 L kN/m (C-class) ...(vi)
3.8 ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER

BRIDGES
Following assumptions are made in the design of plate girder bridges :
1. The web plates of the plate girders resist the shear force and the shear
stress is uniformly distributed over the entire cross-sectional area of the web.
2. The flanges of plate girders resist the bending moment.
3.9 DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDERS FOR DECK TYPE

RAILWAY BRIDGES (DESIGN OF MAXIMUM SECTION)
The plate girders in deck type railway bridges are spaced with sufficient width to
develop lateral strength and rigidity. As per code of practice for the design of steel
bridges the width between centres of plate girders should be sufficient to resist the
overturning with specified wind pressure and load conditions. The plate girders
are placed about 150 to 200 mm outside the main or stock rails, so that the effect
of impact is less.
The plate girders carry the weight of stock rails, guard rails, fastenings, weight
of sleepers (timber ties) and the self-weight. It is quick to determine the self-
weight of plate girders by Fuller’s formula. In addition to the dead load, the
plate girders carry live load and the impact load. The live loads for the railway
bridges for broad gauge, metre gauge, and narrow gauge railway tracks have
been described in Sec. 2.3 as per Bridge Rules. The impact load has been described
in Sec 2.4. The calculations are done for dead load, live load and impact load per
track for whole of the span. The total of dead load, live load and impact load is
then found for one girder. The total load acts as uniformly distributed load. The
maximum bending moment, M, due to this loading occurs at the centre. The
economical depth of web plate may be found from the following expression :
⎛M ⎞
d = 1.1 ⎜ × tw ⎟ ...(3.4)
⎝ fb ⎠
where, M = Maximum bending moment
fb = Allowable bending stress

tw = Thickness of web
The thickness of web, t w is assumed suitably. The minimum thickness of web
plate shall not be less than the following as per IS : 883–1994.
The thickness of stiffened web plate shall be not less than the following
(t .cal )
1
2
(i) τw.min = d1 ⋅ wa
816
(f )
11
2
y
(ii) τw.min = d1 ⋅ whichever is more, but
1344
d1
(iii) τw.min = <|
85
where, d1 is the depth of the web, and τva· cal is the calculated average shear
stress in the web.
The thickness of the vertically stiffened web plate shall be not less than
1
(i) of the clear panel dimension and
180
d2 ⋅ ( fy )2
1
(ii) whichever is more in (i) and (ii) but

3200
d2
(iii) τw.min <|
200
The thickness of webs stiffened both vertically and horizontally with a
horizontally stiffener at a distance from the compression flange equal to 2/5 of
the distance from the compression flange to the neutral axis.
1
(i) of the smaller dimension in each panel
180
d2 ⋅ ( fy )2
1

4000
d2
(iii) τw.min <|
200
The thickness of web stiffened additionally with a horizontally stiffener at
the neutral axis.
1
(i) of the smaller dimension in each panel, and
180
d2 ⋅ ( fy )2
1

6400
d2
(iii) τw.min <|
400
where, d2 in the above expression is twice the clear distance from the compression
flange angles or plate to the neutral axis.
In practice, the depth of web is kept less than economical depth found as per
1 1
Eq. 3.4. The depth of web plate may be assumed as to of span instead of
10 12
determining from Eq. 3.4. The depth of web plate of the plate girder should not
1
be less than th of the span.
12
The flanges of plate girders are designed by the flange area method
(approximate method). The net area of tension flange is found from the following
expression :
Af . net = ⎛ M × d ⎞ ...(3.5)
⎜⎝ f e⎟
⎠
b
where, dt = Effective depth of plate girders.
The effective depth of plate girder is the distance between the centre of gravity
of tension flange and the centre of gravity of compression flange. The effective
depth plate of girder is assumed equal to the depth of web plate adopted. The
net area of tension flange consists of area of flange plates, area of flange angels
and web equivalent. The unequal flange angles are used for the flanges. The
long legs of flange angles are kept horizontal and the short legs are connected
with the web, so that, the effective depth of plate girder remains more. In riveted
plate girders, flange angles form as large a part of the area of the flange as
practicable (preferably not less than one-third). The web equivalent for the net
area of tension flange is adopted as one-eighth the area of web. The remaining
net area of the tension flange is provided by the flange plates. The flange plates
should not project beyond the outer line of connections to the flange angles
more than the allowable outstand (16t in compression flange and 20t in tension
flange). The number of flange plates should be minimum. The thickness of flange
plates are kept equal. The gross area of flange angles and flange plates less the
area of rivet holes and web equivalent furnish the net area of the tension flange.
The net area of tension flange adopted should be more (preferably, about 3000
mm2) than the net area required. The gross area of compression flange is kept
same as that of the tension flange.
The maximum section of plate girder so designed is checked by the moment
of inertial method. The gross moment of inertia of the trial section of plate
girder is found about the neutral axis. The neutral axis is assumed to be located
at the centre (i.e., same as xx -axis). The moment of inertia of plates about their
own axis is neglected. The bending stress in the compression flange is found
from the following expression :
⎛ M ⎞
σbc = ⎜ × ymax ⎟ ...(3.6)
I
⎝ ( gross ) ⎠
where, M = Maximum bending moment

I(gross) = Moment of the inertia of the trial section about xx-axis
y max = Distance of the extreme fibre from xx-axis
The bending stress in the extreme fibre of tension flange is found by increasing
σbc in proportion to gross-area and net area of the flange as below :
⎛ Gross area of flange ⎞

σbc = σbc × ⎜ ...(3.7)
⎝ Net area of flange ⎟⎠
The bending stress in tension flange should be less than the allowable stress
in bending. The maximum section is checked for shear stress also. The shear
stress in the web plate should also be less than the allowable shear stress.
The maximum section so designed is further checked for the additional stress
due to wind. This has been discussed further under wind effect on the plate girder.
The net area of tension flange is adopted about 3000 mm2 more as proposed above,
so that the maximum stresses in the flanges may not exceed 1.25 times the
allowable stresses in bending, and the maximum section of the plate girder adopted
may not fail when checked for the additional stresses due to wind.
Example 3.1. A deck type plate girder bridge is provided for a single metre
gauge track and standard main line loading. The total span of main girder from
centre to centre of bearing is 24 m. The main girders are provided at a spacing of
1.30 m between their centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and 0.40 kN per
metre guard rails are provided. The weight of fastenings may be taken as 0.20
kN per metre. The sleepers are spaced at 400 mm from centre to centre and are of
2.0 m × 250 mm × 250 mm in size. The unit weight of timber may be assumed as
7.50 kN/m3.The floor is open deck type. Design the maximum section of the
main plate girders.
M etre gauge
Sleepers
2 m x 250 m m
250 m m
@ 400 m m c/c
1.30 m
Fig. 3.7 Deck type plate girder bridge for metre gauge
Solution
Design : The deck type plate girder for single metre gauge track is shown in
Fig. 3.7. The maximum section of plate girder is designed as described in following
steps.
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
The dead load acting on the plate girders is as follows :
Weight of stock rails per track per metre
2 × 0.60 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of guard rails per track per metre
2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastenings = 0.20 kN/m
Weight of sleepers per track per metre
100 ⎛ 2 × 250 × 250 × 7.50 ⎞

×⎜ ⎟ = 2.34 kN/m
40 ⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
Total super-imposed dead load per track on both the plate girders
= (1.20 + 0.80 + 0.20 + 2.34) × 24 kN
= 454 × 24= 108.96 kN
(ii) Live load
Total super-imposed live load and impact load (from the table below)
= (1658.0 + 875.0) = 2533 kN
(iii) Dead load + live load
Total super-imposed load per track
= (108.96 + 2533) = 2641.96 kN
(iv) Self-weight
Self-weight of both the plate girders
WL ⎛ 2641.96 × 24 ⎞
W1 = =⎜ ⎟⎠ = 211.35 kN
300 ⎝ 300
Self-weight of both the girders per metre
= 8.81 kN/m
Total dead load per track
= (4.54 + 8.81) × 24 = 320.4 kN
(v) Dead load, live load and impact load
The live load and impact factor are noted from Bridge Rule for metre gauge
for 24 m.
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ = 0.526
⎝ 14 + L ⎟⎠
Impact load = 0.526 × L.L.
Load For BM (kN) For SF (kN)

Dead load 320.4 320.4
Live load 1658.0 1802.0
Impact load 875.0 950.0
Total load 2853.4 3072.4
The total dead load, live load and impact load acting on one main girder for
bending moment
1
= × 2853.4 = 1426.7 kN
2
The total load, live load and impact load acting on one main girder for shear
force
1
= × 3072.4 = 1536.2 kN
2
Step 2. Bending moment
Span L = 24 m
The maximum bending moment M, occurs at the centre
WL ⎛ 1426.7 × 24 ⎞
M = =⎜ ⎟⎠ = 4280.l kN-m
8 ⎝ 8
Step 3. Shear force
The maximum shear force, F occurs at the supports
1
F = × 1536.2 = 768.1 kN
2
Step 4. Economical depth of web plate
The economical depth of web plate is given by Eq. 3.4. The thickness of web
plate, t w is assumed as 10 mm.
1/ 2
⎛ 4280.1 × 106 ⎞
d = 1.1 (M/σb × t w)2 = 1.1 ⎜ = 1771.65 mm
⎝ 165 × 10 ⎟⎠
Adopt the depth of web plate as 1800 mm.
Step 5. Net area of tension flange
The net area of tension flange is found from Eq. 3.5. The distance between c.g.
to c.g. of flanges i.e., lever arm is assumed equal to the depth of web plate.
Therefore,
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 4280.1 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞

A f . net = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
2
⎝ σb × lever arm ⎠ ⎝ 165 × 1800 ⎠
= 14411.11 mm2
Use 22 mm diameter rivets for the connection of flange angles and flange plates
and flange angles and the web plate.
FLANGE AREA
Description Gross area Deduction of rivet Net area
(mm2) holes (mm2) (mm2)
Flange angles 2 × 3752 = 7504 4 × 23.5 × 15 = 1410 6094
2 ISA 150 mm ×
115 mm × 15 mm
Flange plates 2 × 400 × 16 = 12800 4 × 235 × 16 = 1504 11226
2 × 400 mm × 16 mm
1 1
Equivalent web area 6 Aw 8 Aw
1 1
6 × 1800 × 10 = 3000 8 × 1800 × 10
= 2250
Total 23304 19640
Net area of tension flange = 19640 mm2
Gross area of compression flange = 23304 mm2
The net area of tension flange provided is more than the net area required.
The maximum section of the plate girder is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Step 6. Check for stresses
From IS Handbook No. 1.
The moment of inertia of one flange angle about its own axis
= 418.6 × l04 mm4
Area section, A = 37.52 × 102 mm2
Distance of c.g. B = 30.2 mm.
The moment of inertia of plates about their own axis is neglected. The neutral
axis of the plate girder is assumed to be located at the centre.
4 00 m m
16 m m
16 m m
2 IS A 15 0 m m
x 11 5 m m
x 15 m m
18 00 m m
x x
10 m m
2 IS A 15 0 m m
x 11 5 x 1 5 m m
16 m m
16 m m
Fig. 3.8
The gross-moment of inertial about xx-axis

1
Ixx(gross) = [ × 1 × (180)3 + 4 × 418.6 + 2 × 40 × 3.2
12
× 91. 62 + 4 × 37.52 (90–3.02)2] × 104 mm4
= 3749172 × l04 mm4
(i) Bending stress in the compression flange
M ⎛ 4280.1 × 1000 × 1000 × 932 ⎞
σbc . net = ⋅y=⎜ ⎟⎠ N/mm
2
I xx ⎝ 3749172 × 104
= 106.4 N/mm2
(ii) Bending stress in the tension flange
⎛ Gross area of compression flange ⎞
σbt . cal = Gbc.cal × ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ Net area of tension flange
23304
= 106.4 × = 126.25 N/mm2
19640
< 142 N/mm2. Hence, safe.
(iii) Shear stress
768.1 × 1000
τva . cal = = 42.67 N/mm2 < 0.4 × 250
1800 × 10
= 100 N/mm2 permissible shear stress
⎛ d1 ⎞ ⎛ 1800 − 2 × 115 ⎞
⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 157 > 85.
w
⎝ 10
The section requires intermediate stiffeners.
Step 7. Check for dead load
Gross area of both the flanges
= 2 × 23304 = 46608 mm2
Area of remaining portion of web not included in flanges
4
= × 1800 × 10 = 12000 mm2
6
Total cross-sectional area of plate girder
= (46608 + 12000) = 58608 mm2
Weight of the plate girder per metre
⎛ 58608 × 78.50 ⎞
= ⎜ = 4.6 kN/m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎟⎠
Weight of one plate girder assumed
1
=
× 8.81 = 4.405 kN/m
2
The maximum section of plate girder for the deck type bridge is shown in
Fig. 3.8.
3.10 DESIGN OF STRINGERS, CROSS-GIRDERS AND

MAIN PLATE GIRDERS FOR THROUGH TYPE
RAILWAY BRIDGE
A through type plate girder bridge is shown in Fig. 3.4 and Fig. 3.6. The stringers,
cross-girders and the main plate girders are the main load carrying members.
The designs of various elements are done in the sequence in which the load is
transmitted. The designs of stringers, cross-girders and the main plate girders
are done as follows:
Stringers. The stringers are placed parallel to the main girders, and the
stringers span between adjacent cross girders (floor beams). The stringers have
spans from 3 m to 5 m. The stringers are assumed to be simply supported. The
stringers are placed about 150 mm to 200 mm outside the main stock rails, so
that the effect of impact is less.
The stringers carry the weight of stock rails, guard rails, fastenings, weight
of sleepers and the self-weight. The self-weight of stringers may be either
assumed or found from Fuller’s formula. The stringers are subjected to maximum
live load and impact load, when the one complete span of stringer i.e., the distance
between adjacent cross-girder is fully loaded. The dead load, live load and impact
load are computed per track. Then, the total load is found per girder. The stringers
are designed for the maximum bending moment and checked for maximum
shear force. In case the rolled steel beam sections may furnish the required
modulus of section for the stringers, then the rolled steel beams are provided,
otherwise the plate girder section are adopted for the stringers. The design of
plate girder section adopted for the stringers is done as discussed in Sec. 3.9.
The stringers are connected at their ends to the cross-girders with suitable
flexible connections. The stringers transmit load to the cross-girders. The
stringers are also braced similar to the plate girders in the deck type bridges.
Cross-girder. The cross-girders (floor-beams) span right angles to the main
girders. The span of cross-girder is equal to the distance between centre to centre
the main girders.
The cross-girders carry the weight of stock rails, guard rails, fastenings, weight
of stringers and the self-weight. The self-weight of cross-girder acts as uniformly
distributed load. The cross-girders are subjected to maximum live load and
impact load when both the adjacent stringers are loaded. The loaded length for
cross-girders for determining equivalent uniformly distributed live load is equal
to twice the distance over centres of cross-girders. Then, the live load on a cross-
girder will equal to half the total load for bending in length equal to twice the
distance over centre of cross-girders increased by the impact factor for this length.
The live load and impact load, along with dead load (weight of stock rails, guard
rails, fastenings and sleepers) exculding self-weight act as two concentrated
loads at the points at which the stringers are connected to the cross-girders.
The maximum bending moment and shear force are found for the corresponding
loading. The rolled steel beam sections or plate girder sections are provided.
The plate girder section is designed as discussed in Sec. 3.9. The cross-girders
are connected as near the bottom of the main girders as possible. These points
of connections are known as panel points. The cross-girders transmit load to the
main girders at the panel points.
Main plate girders. The plate girders in through type-railway bridges are
spaced with sufficient width to suit the clearance requirement. The spacing of
plate girders necessary for the clearance requirements is sufficient to develop
lateral strength and rigidity and to resist the overturning with the specified
wind pressure and load conditions. The plate girders carry the weight of stock
rails, guard rails, fastenings, sleepers, weight of stringers, weight of the cross-
girders and the self-weight. In addition to this dead load, the plate girders also
carry the live load and impact load. When the spacing of cross-girder is upto 4
m, then the load transmitted by the cross-girders is treated as uniformly
distributed load. The maximum section for main plate girders is also designed
as discussed in Sec. 3.9.
Example 3.2 In a plate girder through type bridge carrying a single broad
gauge track, the cross-girders are provided at 4 metres centres. The stringers are
spaced at 2 metres from centre to centre. Using the data given below, design the
rail bearers and the cross-girders.
Spacing between the main girder = 4 m
EUDLL for 4 metres for BM per track = 592 kN
EUDLL for 4 metres for shear per track = 788 kN
Solution
Design :
The rail bearers (stringers) and the cross-girders are designed as described
in the following steps :
EUDLL for 8 m for BM per track = 1056 kN
Impact factor for 4 m = 1.0
Impact factor for 8 m = 0.909
S trin ge rs
g ird er
A B C D
C ross
2m 4m
S trin ge rs
gird er
C ross
A1 B1 C1 D1
4m 4m 4m
Fig. 3.9
3.10.1 Design of Stringers

A through type bridge for a single broad gauge track is shown in Fig. 3.9 in plan.
The stringers are spaced 2 metres from centre to centre. The cross-girders are
provided at 4 metres centre to centre.
The stringers span in between two adjacent cross-girder. The stringers support
the super-imposed dead load, live load and impact load. The super-imposed
dead load is the weight of stock rails, guard rails, fastenings and the weight of
sleepers. It is assumed that 0.60 kN per metre stock rails, 0.40 kN per metre
guard rails and 280 m × 250 mm × 250 mm sleepers at 450 mm (to centre)
spacing are used. The unit weight of timber for sleepers is 7.50 kN/m3.
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
2 × 060 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of guard rails per track per metre
2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastening (assumed)
= 0.20 kN/m
Weight of sleepers
100 ⎛ 2.8 × 250 × 250 × 7.50 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2.92 kN/m
45 ⎝ 1000 × 1000
Self weight of stringers per track per metre (assumed)
= 0.200 kN/m
The dead load per track per metre = 7.12 kN/m
Span of stringers = 4 m
Total dead load per track for two stringers
7.12 × 4 = 28.48 kN
(ii) Dead load, live load and impact load
The stringer is subjected to maximum live load and impact load, when its
complete span is loaded.
Impact factor = 1.00
Loading For BM (kN) For SF (kN)
Dead load 28.48 28.48
Live load 592.00 788.00
Impact load 592.00 788.00
Total load 121248 1604.48
The dead load, live load and impact load per stringer for bending moment
1
= × 1212.48 = 606.24 kN
2
The dead load, live load and impact load per stringer for shear force
1
= × 1604.48 = 802.24 kN
2

The maximum bending moment, M, in the stringer occurs at the centre
⎛ 606.24 × 4 ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 303.12 kN-m
⎝ 8
Step 3. Shear force
The maximum shear force F, in the stringer occurs at the end
1
F = × 802.24 = 401.12 kN-m
2
Step 4. Section modulus
Assuming the allowable stress in bending, σb = 165 N/mm2, the modulus of
section Z, required
M ⎛ 303.12 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
Z= = ⎜ ⎟⎠
σbc ⎝ 165
= 1837.09 × 103 mm3
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISLB 600, @ 0.995 kN/m

Zxx = 2438.9 × 102 mm3, h = 600 mm, t w = 10.5 mm
Step 5. Shear stress
⎛ 401.12 × 103 ⎞
τv = ⎜ = 63.67 N/mm2
⎝ 600 × 10.5 ⎟⎠
Provide ISLB 600, @ 0.995 kN/m for the stringers. The connections of stringer
at the ends with the cross-girders may be designed for end reaction
3.10.2 Design of Cross Girders

Step 1. Loads
Effective span of cross-girder is 4 m. The dead load inclusive of self-weight of the
stringers is transferred as the point loads at 1 m from the ends of cross-girder. The
self-weight of cross-girders is assumed as 3 kN/m. The self-weight of cross-girder
acts as uniformly distributed load.
The cross-girder is subjected to maximum live load when both the adjacent
spans of an intermediate cross-girder are loaded (e.g., for intermediate cross-
girder BB1, as shown in Fig. 3.9, both the adjacent spans AB and BC are
considered as loaded).
∴ EUDLL for 8 m span = 1056 kN
Impact load = 1056 × 0.909 = 960 kN
Live load + Impact load = 2016 kN
Half of this live load and impact load is carried by the cross-girders as two point
loads at 1 m from each end.
Point load due to super-imposed dead load
1
=× 28.48= 14.24 kN
2
Point load due to live load and impact load
1 1
=
× ( × 2016) = 504 kN
2 2
Total point load = (504 + 14.24) = 518.24 kN
The load acting on cross girder is shown in Fig. 3.10.
The reaction at each end
1
= (518.24+ × 3 × 4) kN
2
= 524.24 kN
5 18 .24 kN 5 18 .24 kN
2 .0 m
4 .0 m
B B1
Fig. 3.10

The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre
M = (524.24 × 2 – 518.24 × 1 – 3 × 2 × 1) kN-m
= 524.24 kN-m
Allowable stress in bending σb = 165 N/mm2
Step 3. Section modulus
Section modulus required,
⎛ 524.24 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 165
= 3177.21 × 103 mm3
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISWB 600, @ 1.451 kN/m
(Zxx = 3854.2 × 103 mm3, t w= 11.8 mm, h = 600 mm).
Step 4. Shear stress
Permissible stress
524.24 × 1000
τv = = 70.045 N/mm2
600 × 11.8
< 100 N/mm2 permissible stress. Hence, safe.
Provide ISWB 600, @ 1451 N/m. (In case this section would have been
insufficient, a plate girder would have been provided).
Example 3.3 A through type plate-girder is provided for a single broad gauge
track. The cross-girders are spaced 3 m apart, the total span of the main girders
from centre to centre of bearings being 30 metres. The stringers are spaced at 2
metres between centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and 0.40 kN per metre
check rails are provided. Sleepers are spaced at 450 mm from centre to centre
and are of size of 2.8 m × 250 mm × 250 m. Weight of timber may be assumed as
7.50 kN per cubic metre. Provide calculations for the maximum section of the
main girder if EUDLL for BM is 2800 kN per track total for BM, and EUDLL for
shear 3023 kN per track total, impact factor or 30 metres = 0.455. The main
girders are provided at a spacing of 5 metres between their centre lines.
Solution
Design : The through type plate girder bridge for a single broad gauge track
is shown in Fig. 3.11.
1 .67 m
2 .0 m
5 .0 m
Fig. 3.11 Through type plate girder bridge for broad gauge
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
The dead load acting on the plate girders is as follows :
= 2 × 0.60 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of check rails per track per metre
= 2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastenings (assumed) = 0.20 kN/m
Weight of sleepers per track per metre
100 ⎛ 2.8 × 250 × 250 × 7.50 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2.92 kN/m
45 ⎝ 1000 × 1000
Weight of stringers per track (assumed) = 1.00 kN/m

Weight of cross-girders per track (assumed) = 2.00 kN/m
Self-weight of both plate-girders by Fuller’s formula, as per Eq. 3.3
1 ⎛ 20 × 30 + 100 ⎞
× (20L + 100 ) = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 7.00 kN/m
100 ⎝ 100
Total dead load per track per metre = 15.12 kN/m
Total dead load per track for the complete span
= 15.12 × 30 = 453.6 kN.
(ii) Dead load, live load and impact load
Load For BM (kN) For SF (kN)
Dead load 453.60 453.60
Live load 2800.00 3023.00
Impact load 1272.00 1372.00
Total load 4525.60 4848.60
bending moment
⎛ 4525.6 ⎞
= ⎜ = 2262.8 kN
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
shear force
⎛ 4848.6 ⎞
= ⎜ = 2424.3 kN
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Effective span, L = 30 m
The cross-girders are spaced 3 m apart. The load transferred by the cross-
girders is assumed to be acting as uniformly distributed load. The maximum
bending moment M, occurs at the centre,
WL ⎛ 2262.8 × 30 ⎞
M = ⎟⎠ = 8485.5 kN-m
8 ⎜⎝ 8
Shear force
The maximum shear force F, occurs at the supports
2424.3
F = = 1212.15 kN
2
Step 3. Economical depth of web plate
The economical depth of web plate d is given by Eq. 3.4. The thickness of web
plate, t w is assumed as 10 mm,
1 1
⎛ M ⎞2 ⎛ 8485.5 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞ 2
d = 1.1 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.1 ⎜ ⎟⎠ mm
⎝ σb × tw ⎠ ⎝ 165 × 10
= 2494.53 mm
Adopt the depth of web plate as 2600 mm.
Step 4. Net area of tension flange
The net area of tension flange is found from Eq. 3.5. The distance between c.g.,
to c.g. of flanges i.e., lever arm is assumed equal to the depth of web plate. Therefore,
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 8485.5 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
Af .net = ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ mm
2
⎝ fb × lever arm ⎟⎠ ⎝ 165 × 2600
= 19779.72 mm2
Use 22 mm diameter rivets for the connection of flange angles and flange plates
and flange angles and web plates.
FLANGE AREA
Description Gross area Deduction of rivet Net area
(mm2) holes (mm 2)
(mm2)
Flange angles 2 × 5025 =10050 4 × 235 × 15 8640
ISA 200 mm × = 1410
150 mm × 15 mm
2 Flange plates 2 × 550 × 16 4 × 235 × 16 16096
= 17500 = 1504
2 × 550 mm × 16 mm
1 1
Equivalent web area 6 Aw 8 Aw
1 1
6 × 2600 × 10 = 4333 8 × 2600 × 10
= 3250
Total 31983 27986
Gross area of compression flange = 31983 mm2
The net area of tension flange piovided is more than the net area required. The
maximum section is shown in Fig. 3.12.
Step 5. Check for stresses
From ISI Handbook No. 1.
The moment of inertia of one flange angle abouts its own axis
= 969.9 × 104 mm4
Area of section,
A = 5025 mm2
Distance of c.g. = 372 mm.
The moment of inertia of plates about their own axis of the plate girder is
assumed to be located at the centre.
Fig. 3.12
The gross-moment of inertia about xx-axis

Ixx (gross) = [1/12 × 1 × 2603 + 4 × 962.9 + 4 × 50.25
(130–3.72)2 + 2 × 55 × 3.2 × l31.62] × l04
= 10761879.6 × 104 mm2
(i) Bending stress in the compression flange
⎛ M ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ ⋅y
⎝ I xx ( gross ) ⎟⎠
⎛ 8485.5 × 1000 × 1000 × 1332 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 10761879.6 × 104
= 105.025 N/mm2
(ii) Bending stress in the tension flange
⎛ Gross-area of compression flange ⎞

= σbc.cal × ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ Net area of tension flange
⎛ 31983 ⎞
= 105.025 × ⎜
⎝ 27986 ⎟⎠
= 120.025 N/mm2
(iii) Shear stress
⎛ 1212.15 × 103 ⎞
τv.cal = ⎜
⎝ 2600 × 10 ⎟⎠
= 46.62 N/mm2 < permissible stress
d1 (2600 − 2 × 150 ) 2300
= = = 230.0
tw 10 10
> 85, (also > 200).
The section requires intermediate vertical stiffeners and the horizontal stiffeners.
The maximum section of plate girder for the through type bridge is shown in Fig.
3.12.
3.11 CURTAILMENT OF FLANGE PLATES

The flanges of plate girder are designed to resist the maximum bending moment.
In case of simply supported span, the bending moment decreases towards the
supports. The flange area designed to resist the maximum bending moment is
not necessary at the other sections. The flange area is reduced as the bending
moment decreases. The reduction in flange area is done by curtailing the flange
plates. The theoretical lengths of curtailment of flange plates are found from
the following expression :
1/ 2
L ⎛ A1 + A2 + ... An ⎞
xn = × ...(3.8)
2 ⎜⎝ Af ⎟⎠
where, xn = Theoretical length of cut-off for the flange plates measured from
the centre on either side
L = Span of plate girder
A1,A2...An = Areas of individual cover plate counted from outer side
Af = Total flange area including web equivalent.
Equation 3.8 is useful for the curtailment of flange plates, when the plate
girders are subjected to the uniformly distributed load. In exposed situation
where the flange plates are used, at least one plate of top flange is extended
upto the full length, unless the top edge of the web is finished flush with the
flange angle. Each flange plate to be curtailed will extend beyond the theoretical
cut-off. The extension shall contain sufficient rivets to develop in the plate, the
load calculated for the bending moment at the theoretical cut-off points.
3.12 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS OF FLANGE ELEMENTS

The design of connections of flange elements includes the design of connections of
the flange angles to the web, and the design of connections of the flange angles to
the flange plates. The design of flange elements have been described thoroughly in
author’s Steel Structures Vol. I. The design of connections of flange elements is
given here briefly.
The pitch of rivets connecting flange angles with the web for loaded flange is
found from the following expression :
R
p = 1/ 2 ...(3.9)
⎡⎛ V Af 1 ⎞
2
⎤
⎢⎜ × ⎟ +w ⎥
2
⎢⎣⎝ de A f 1 + Aw.equiv ⎠ ⎥⎦
where,
R = Rivet value
V = Shear force at the cross-section
ds = Effective depth of the plate girder
Af = Area of the flange excluding web equivalent
1
Aw(equiv) = Equivalent web area
w = Vertical component of the load per mm run.
For the unloaded flange, the value of w is zero. The vertical component of load
w, is found for the maximum wheel load including the effect of impact for the
standard loading for which the bridge is designed. The maximum wheel load
including impact per girder is found and it is assumed to be distributed over l.20
m length.
The pitch or rivets connecting flange angles with the flange plates, if the rivets
are provided in one single row, is obtained from the following expression:
R × de ⎛ Af 1 + Aw.equiv ⎞
p = ×⎜ ⎟ ...(3.10)
V ⎝ A1 + A2 + ... An ⎠
where,
A1, A2,..., An = Area of flange plates counted from outside.
Acutally, the rivets are provided in two rows at a distance equal to twice the
pitch found from Eq. 3.10.
The area of flanges excluding web equivalent, Af1 for the compression flange
is adopted as gross area of flange angles and flange plates (if any) and that for
the tension flange as net area of flange angles and flange plates (if any). The
1
equivalent web area for compression flange adopted as Aw , and that for the
6
1
tension flange is adopted as A .
8 w
3.13 DESIGN OF STIFFENERS

The design of bearing stiffeners, and intermediate stiffeners (vertical stiffeners
and horizontal stiffeners) for the plate girders have been discussed thoroughly
in author’s Steel Structures Vol. I. In addition of these, the following specifications
are also follows:
3.13.1 Bearing Stiffeners

The bearing stiffeners are provided at the points of supports and at the points of
concentrated loads. The bearing stiffeners are provided symmetrical about the
web as far as possible.The bearing stiffeners are fitted tightly between the top
flange and bottom flange. The bearing stiffeners are solidly packed throughout.
These are not joggled round the flange angles. As per code of practice for the
design of steel bridges published by Railway Board, the outstanding legs of
each pair of stiffeners are so proportioned to transmit 75 percent of the support
reaction that, the bearing stress, on the part of their area in contact with the
flange and clear of the root of the flange does not exceed σP = 0.75 fy N/mm2, the
allowable bearing stress. The bearing stiffeners are checked as columns to
transmit the whole of support reaction. The effective length of bearing stiffener
is taken as 0.75 times the length of stiffener. The cross-sectional area of bearing
stiffener consists of the cross-sectional area of the pair of angles together with
the length of web on each side of centre line equal to twenty times the thickness
of web, wherever possible. The radius of gyration is taken about the centre line
of the web. The bearing stiffeners are connected with sufficient rivets to transmit
whole of the support reaction.
3.13.2 Intermediate Stiffeners

The intermediate stiffeners are provided to avoid the diagonal buckling of web.
⎛d ⎞
Depending upon the ratio of clear depth to the thickness of web, ⎜ 1 ⎟ , vertical
⎝ tw ⎠
stiffeners (transverse stiffeners) or vertical and horizontal stiffeners (longitudinal
stiffeners) are provided throughout the length of the plate girder.
3.13.3 Vertical Stiffeners

When the thickness of web plate is less than the limits specified for the minimum
thickners of the web plate, then, the vertical stiffeners are provided throughout
the length of plate girder. The intermediate vertical stiffeners are joggled round
the flange angles and these are placed in pairs (one on each side of the web), or
single (alternately, on opposite side of web). The size of vertical stiffeners is
found for the moment of inertial required. As per code of practice for the design
of steel bridges, published by Railway Board, the moment of inertial of stiffeners
required are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Moment of inertia of vertical stiffeners corresponding to the overall
depth of plate girder
Overall depth of plate girder Moment of inertia required
(mm) (mm4)
1524 21 × 105
2032 63 × 105
2438 150 × 105
3048 312 × 105
The moment of inertia of a pair of vertical stiffeners is found about the centre
line of the web, and the moment of inertia of a single angle vertical stiffener is
found about the face of the web. The moment of inertia of vertical stiffeners is
provided by the angle sections and a portion of the web, which acts with the
stiffener. The length of this portion of web should not be greater than half the
depth of girder. The spacing of vertical stiffeners depends on thickness of web
plate, the clear depth of web plate and the shear stress in web.
N o m o g ram for stiffen er sp a cing

f s = S h ea r S tress b = S p acin g of
d = C lea r d ep th in w e b kN /m m 2 stiffe ne r
o f W e b. (m m ) t w = 1 0 m m , 12 m m , 1 4 m m in m m
20
50
50
40
1 00
60
1 00
1 50
80
1 00 2 00
1 50
1 20
2 50
1 40 2 00
3 00
1 60
2 50
1 80 3 50
2 00 4 00
3 00
2 20
4 50
2 40 3 50
5 00
2 60
4 00
2 80 5 50
N o m o g ram 3 .1
(A s p er co d e o f p ra ctice for stee l b ridg es, p u blishe d by R a ilw ay B o ard)
The spacing of vertical stiffeners depends on the thickness of web plate, clear
depth of web, d and the average shear stress, fs . The vertical stiffeners are
provided at a spacing not greater than 1.5 d and not less than 0.33 d, where d is
the distance between flange angles, (also known as clear depth of web). The
actual average shear stress in the web plate τva· cal should not exceed the allowable
shear stress in the stiffened web. The spacing of vertical stiffeners may also be
found from Nomogram 3.1 (as per code of practice for steel bridges) from the known
values of clear depth of web, d, the actual average shear stress, and thickness of
web, τw. In order to find the spacing of vertical stiffeners, join d and fs by means of
a straight line. The intersection of this straight line with ordinate b, gives the
spacing of vertical stiffeners. For the railway bridges, the maximum spacing of
the stiffeners should not exceed 1800 mm.
t
The outstand of stiffeners from the web shall not be more than 256,
fv1 / 2
(where, t is the thickness of the section, so long as the outer edge of each stiffener
is not continuously stiffened, or 12 t for the flat sections. The length of connected
leg of vertical stiffener should be sufficient to accommodate the rivets connecting
the stiffener to the web.
3.11.4 Horizontal Stiffeners

When the thickness of web is less than the limits specified for minimum thickness
of web plate, then the horisontal stiffeners (in addition ot the vertical stiffeners)
are provided on the web at a distance from the compression end of the
2
unsupported web equal to th of distance of the compression flange from the
5
neutral axis. This horizontal stiffener is provided at a depth from the top
2
compression flange equal to th of distance compression flange from the N.A.
5
plus vertical leg length of flange angle. The moment of inertia, I, of the horizontal
stiffeners should not be less than 4c1t w3, where c1 is the actual distance between
the vertical stiffeners.
A second horizontal stiffener is provided on one or both the sides of web,
when the thickness of web is less than the limits specified in addition to the
vertical stiffeners and horizontal stiffeners described above, at the neutral axis
of the girder. The moment of inertia of this horizontal stiffener should not be
less than d.tw3.
t
The outsand of all stiffeners form the web should not be greater than 256 ⋅
fy1 / 2
(where, t is the thickness of the section) or 12t for the flat sections.
Horizontal stiffeners shall extend between vertical stiffeners but need not be
continuous over them or connected to them.
3.13.5 Connection of Intermediate Stiffeners to Web

The intermediate vertical stiffeners and horizontal stiffeners (when they are not
subjected to external loads) are connected to the web by rivets in order to withstand
a shear force not less than
⎛ 125tw2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ kN/m
⎝ h ⎠
where, t w is thickness of web in mm and h is stiffeners outstand in mm.
The methods of web splice and flange splice are exactly same as described in
author’s Steel Structures Vol. I.
Example 3.4. In a through type bridge for single broad guage track and
main line standard loading, a plate girder simply supported at its ends is
composed of flange plates, flange angles, and web plate as shown in Fig. 3.13.
The effective span of plate girder is 27 m. The plate girder is subjected to maximum
bending moment of 8100 kN-m due to uniformly distributed load. Determine
actual length of the flange plates if they are curtailed.
3 8.4
mm
8 61 .6 m m
Fig. 3.13
Solution
Design :
Step 1. The bending moment diagram for uniformly distributed load is a
parabola. The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of plate girder.
The flange areas are as follows :
FLANGE AREA
Description Gross area Deduction for Net area
(mm1) rivet holes (mm2) (mm2)
Flange angles
2 ISA 200 mm 2 × 5976 = 11952 4×23.5× 18 = 1690 10262
× 150 mm × 18 mm
3 Flange plates
Contd.
Contd.
Description Gross area Deduction for Net area
(mm1) rivet holes (mm2) (mm2)
500 mm × 20 mm 500 mm × 20 = 10000 2 × 23.5 × 20 = 940 9060
500 mm × 20 mm 500 mm × 20 = 10000 2 × 23.5 × 20 = 940 9060
500 mm × 20 mm 500 mm × 20 = 10000 2 × 23.5 × 20 = 940 9060
1 1
Equivalent web 6 × 1800 × 16 = 4800 — 8 × 1800 ×16
area = 3600
Total 46752 — 41042
(Assuming that 22 mm diameter rivets are used for the connection of flange
elements).
Gross area of flange = 46752 mm2.
Step 2. Calculation of gross moment of inertia
Nneutral axis (xx-axis) of the plate girder is assumed to be located at the
centre. The moment of inertia of flange plates about their own axis is neglected.
Gross moment of inertia
Number of Web plate Flange Flange Flange Total
flange (mm4) angles angles plates (mm4)
plates in about about about
each flange own axis xx-axis xx-axis
(mm4) (mm4) (mm4)
Three 730 × 107 455 × 107 4×59.76 × 2 × 300 × = 7684.55
104 × 86.162 104 × 932 ×107
= 1770 = 5180
×107 ×107
Two 730 × 107 4.55 × 107 1770 × 107 2 × 200 × = 5904.55
104 × 922 ×107
= 3400
×107
One 730 × 107 4.55 ×107 1770 ×107 2× l00 × = 4164.55
104 × 912 ×107
= 1660
×107
Step 3. Curtailment of flange plates, in tension flange
Let the central theoretical lengths of cut-off for flange plates be 2x 1 and 2x2.
From Eq. 3.8, length of cover plates
1/ 2 1/ 2
L ⎛ A1 ⎞ 27 ⎛ 9060 ⎞
x1 = ×⎜ ⎟ = ×⎜ ⎟ = 6.30 m
2 ⎝ Af ⎠ 2 ⎝ 41042 ⎠
2x1 = 12.60 m
1/ 2 1/ 2
L ⎛ A1 + A2 ⎞ 27 ⎛ 9060 + 9060 ⎞
x2 = ×⎜ ⎟ = ×⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ Af ⎠ 2 ⎝ 41042 ⎠
= 8.95 m
2x2 = 17.90 m
Step 4. The equation of parabolic bending moment diagram with left hand
support as origin is given by
y = k . x´ (L – x´)
L
At x´ = y = M = 8100 kN-m
2´
8100
∴ k =
(13.5 )2
Distance of theoretical cut-off (outer-plane) from left hand support
x´ = (13.5 – 6.3) = 7.2 m
∴ (L – x´) = 19.8 m
Distance of theoretical cut-off (second plate) from left hand support
x´ = (13.50 – 8.95) = 4.55 m
(L – x´) = 22.45 m
Step 5. Bending moment at the point of theoretical cut-off
For outer plate,
8100
M1 = × (7.20 × 19.80) = 6580 kN-m
(13.5 )2
For second plate,
8100
M2 = × (4.55 × 22.45) = 49.40 kN-m
(13.5 )2
Step 6. Bending stress in compression flange at the point of
theoretical cut-off
For outer plate,
M1 ⎛ 6580 × 106 × 940 ⎞

f1́ = ⋅ y1 = ⎜ ⎟
I1 ⎝ 7684.55 × 107 ⎠
= 80.488 N/mm2
For second plate,
M2 ⎛ 4940 × 106 × 920 ⎞

f2́ = ⋅ y2 = ⎜ ⎟
I2 ⎝ 5904.55 × 107 ⎠
= 76.97 N/mm2
Step 7. Bending stress in the tension flange at point of theoretical

cut-off
For outer plate,
⎛ 80.488 × 467.52 ⎞
f1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 91.64 N/mm
2
⎝ 41062 ⎠
For the second plate,
76.97 × (46752 − 10000 )
f2 = = 88.39 N/mm2
(41062 − 9060 )
Step 8. Forces in the outer flange plate
For outer plate,
⎛ 91.64 × 9060 ⎞
F1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 830.258 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Force second plate,
⎛ 88.34 × 9060 ⎞
F2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 800.36 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Step 9. Rivet connections
Use 22 mm diameter power-driven rivets.
Strength of rivet in single shear
π (23.5 ) × 100
2
= × = 43.35 kN
4 1000
Strength of rivet in bearing
⎛ 23.5 × 20 × 300 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 141 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Rivet value R = 43.35 kN
Number of rivets required for the outer plate
⎛ 830.258 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 19.15 Ω 20
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Number of rivets required for the second plate
⎛ 800.36 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 18.46 Ω 20
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
These rivets are provided in two rows and in extended side of the theoretical
section with 1.5 × diameter of rivets as edge change and 3 × diameter as pitch.
Step 10. Actual length of curtailment of outer plates
⎛ 2 ⎞
For outer plate, ⎜12.60 + × 10 × 3 × 23.5 ⎟ = 14.01 m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
For second plate, ⎜17.90 + × 10 × 3 × 23.5 ⎟ = 19.31 m
⎝ 1000 ⎠
The flange plates in compression flange are curtailed at the same positions,
where the flange plates are curtailed in tension flange. One flange plate is
continued throughout the span in each flange.
Example 3.5 Design the connections of flange angles, and web plate and
flange plates and flange angles in Example 3.4 at the supports. The maximum
shear force at support is 1280 kN.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. Shear force at supports, V =1280 kN
The distance between c.g. to c.g. of flanges may be assumed approximately
equal to the depth of web plate.
Therefore, the effective depth of plate girder de = 1800 mm
Rivet value for rivets subjected to single shear R = 43.35 kN
Rivet value for rivets subjected to double shear R1 = 87.70 kN
Strength of rivet in bearing (Rivet diameter 22 mm)
(i) For connecting flange plates to flange angles = 126.9 kN
(Thickness of flange angles 18 mm, minimum)
(ii) For connecting flange angles to web 112.8 kN
(Thickness of web plate 16 mm, minimum).
Step 2. Connection of flange plates to flanges angle in compression
flange
There is only one flange plate at the supports. Let p be the pitch of rivets, if
rivets, are provided in one row. From Eq. 3.10,
R × de ⎛ Af1 + 16 Aw ⎞
p= ×⎜ ⎟
V ⎜ A1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
43.35 × 1800 ⎛ 21952 + 4800 ⎞

= ×⎜ ⎟ = 163.08 mm
1280 ⎝ 10000 ⎠
But, rivets are used in two rows.
∴ 2p = 326.16 mm
The maximum allowable pitch in compression flange
= 12 × t = 12 × 16 = 192 mm
where, t = thickness of thinner part
Provide 190 mm pitch for rivets in two rows connecting flange plates to flange
angels in compression flange.
Step 3. Connection of the flange plates and flange angles in the tension
flange
Let p be the pitch rivets, if rivets are provided in one row From Eq. 3.10.
R × de ⎛ Af1 + 18 Aw ⎞
p = ×⎜ ⎟
V ⎜ A1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(3 Af1 )
= (10262 + 9060 = 19322 mm2 )
43.35 × 1800 ⎛ 19322 + 1600 ⎞

= ×⎜ ⎟ = 154.23 mm
1280 ⎝ 9060 ⎠
Rivets are used in two rows.
∴ 2p = 308.46 mm
Maximum allowable pitch in the tension flange is 16t
= 16 × 16 = 256 mm
Provided 190 mm pitch for rivets in two rows connecting flange plates to flange
angles in the tension flange.
Step 4. Connection of flange angles to web in the tension flange
The rivets are in double shear. Therefore, the rivet value,
R1 = 86.70 kN
The tension flange in a through type bridge is a loaded flange.
There is only one flange plate in each flange at the support.
Horizontal shear per mm run
V ⎛ A f1 ⎞
τvf.cal = ⎜ ⎟
de ⎜ 1 ⎟
A +
⎜ f1 8 A ⎟
⎝ w ⎠
1280 × 1000 ⎛ 19322 ⎞

= ×⎜ ⎟
1800 ⎝ 19322 + 3600 ⎠
= 599.43 N-mm
Maximum wheel load for the main line loading of broad gauge per track
= 229 kN
1
Maximum wheel load for one girder = × 229.0 kN
2
Impact factor = 1.00.
The wheel load is assumed to be distributed over 1.20 m. The vertical component
of load on the loaded flange due to live load and impact load,
1 ⎛ 229.0 × 1000 × 2 ⎞
w = × ⎟ = 190.8 N/mm
2 ⎝⎜ 1200 ⎠
Let p be the pitch of rivets connecting flanges angles to web. From Eq. 3.9,
R
p = 1/2
⎡⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤
⎢⎜ Af1 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜ V × ⎟ +w ⎥
2
⎢⎜ de A + 1 A ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜⎝ f1
8
w
⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
R
=
(( f ) )
2 1/ 2
s + w2
86.70 × 1000
= 1 / 2 = 137.8 mm
⎡(599.43 )2 + (190.8 )2 ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Provide 130 mm pitch for rivets connecting flange angles to web in the tension
flange.
Step 5. Connection of flange angles to web in compression flange
The compression flange in a through type bridge is a unloaded flange. There is
only one flange plate at the support, in this flange. The vertical component of load
on the unloaded flange due to live load and impact load
w = 0
Horizontal shear per mm run
V ⎛ Af1 ⎞
τvf.cal = ×⎜ ⎟
de ⎜ 1
⎜ A f1 + Aw ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
1280 × 100 ⎛ 21952 ⎞

= ×⎜ ⎟ = 583.52 N/mm
1800 ⎝ 21952 + 480 ⎠
Let p be the pitch of the rivets connecting flange angles to web
R R
p = =
⎛ ⎞ τvf .cal
⎜V A f1 ⎟
⎜ × ⎟
d 1
⎜⎜ e Af2 + Aw ⎟⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
⎛ 86.70 × 1000 ⎞
p = ⎜ ⎟ = 148.58 mm
⎝ 583.52 ⎠
Provide 130 mm pitch for rivets connecting flange angle to the web.
The pitch of rivets connecting flange plates to flange angles in compression
flange and that in tension flange have been kept equal to facilitate the riveting
during fabrication. This is also done for pitch of rivets connecting flanges with
the web in compression flange and that in the tension flange for the same reason.
Example 3.6 In a through type plate girder bridge, the effecive span of a plate
girder is 24 m. The support reaction due to dead load, live load and impact load
is 1500 kN. The section of plate girder at support is shown in Fig. 3.14. Design
end bearing stiffeners. Also design the necessary intermediate stiffeners.
Solution
(A) Design of bearing stiffeners
Step 1. Bearing stiffeners
Support reaction = 1500 kN
Allowable bearing stress
σp = 0.75 × 250 = 187.5 N/mm2
5 00 m m
2 IS A 20 0 x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
x x
8 mm
2 IS A 20 0 x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
Fig. 3.14
Step 2. Bearing area required
3 15002 × 1000
= × = 6000 mm2
4 187.5
Provide 4 ISA 150 mm × 115 mm × 15 mm, short leges connected with the web.
Radius at the root, r1, for the flange angle ISA 200 mm × 150 mm × 18 mm
r1 = 13.5 mm
Bearing area provided
= 4 × (150 – 135) × 15 = 8190 mm2
The bearing area provided is greater than the bearing area required.
Thickness of filler plates
= Thickness of flange angles = 18 mm
Step 3. Check
The bearing stiffener acts as a column. Actual length of bearing stiffenes
= (2500 – 2 × 18) = 2464 mm.
Effective length of column
l = 0.70 × 2464 =1724.8 mm.
Cross-sectional area of column
A = (4 × 3752 + 40 × 8 × 8) = 17568 mm2.
4 IS A 1 50 m m x
11 5 m m x 1 5 m m
18 m m
18 m m
18 m m
Filler
p la te
Fig. 3.15
Moment of inertia of column section about the center line of web

I = [4 × 823.5 + 4 × 37.52 (4.76 + 18 + 0.4)2
1
+ × 32 × 0.83] × 104 = 10595.36 × 104 mm4
12
Radius of gyration of column section about the centre line of web
1/2 1/2
I ⎛ 4 ⎞
r = ⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ = ⎜ 10595.36 × 10 ⎟ = 77.66 mm
⎝A⎠ ⎝ 17568 ⎠
Slenderness ratio of column section
l ⎛ 1724.8 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 22.23
r ⎝ 77.66 ⎠
From IS 800–1984, allowable stress in axial compression, for the steel having
yield stress as 250 N/mm2
σ = 149.554 N/mm2
Load carrying capacity of the stiffener
⎛ 149.554 × 17568 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 2627.36 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
> 1500 kN (Support reaction). Hence, safe.
Step 4. Connection of bearing stiffener with the web plate

Use 22 mm diameter power driven rivets.
Strength of rivet in double shear
π (23.5 )2 × 100
= 2× × = 86.70 kN
4 1000
23.5 × 8 × 30
= = 96.40 kN
1000
Rivet value, R = 56.40 kN
Number of rivets required
⎛ 1500 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 26.59
⎝ 56.4 ⎠
The filler plates (packings are properly fitted with the bearing stiffeners. These
filler plates are subjected to direct compression only.
Provide 30 rivets in 2 rows.
Design of Intermediate stiffeners
Step 1. Clear depth between flanges angles on the plate girder
d1 = (2500 – 2 × 150) = 2200 mm
Thickness of web, tw = 8 mm.
In case, the web plate is to be unstiffened, the minimum thickness of web
necessary is as follows :
⎛ 1500 × 1000 ⎞
t va· cal = ⎜ ⎟ = 75 N/mm
2
⎝ 2500 × 8 ⎠
⎛ 1/2 ⎞ ⎛ 2200 × 751 / 2 ⎞

(i) τw· min = ⎜ d1 ⋅ tva.cal ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 816 ⎠ ⎝ 816 ⎠
= 23.34 mm
⎛ 1/2 ⎞ ⎛ 1/2 ⎞
(ii) τw· min = ⎜ d1 ⋅ fv ⎟ = ⎜ 2200 × 250 ⎟ mm
⎝ 1344 ⎠ ⎝ 1344 ⎠
d1 ⎛ 2200 ⎞
(iii) τw· min = =⎜ ⎟ = 25.88 mm
85 ⎝ 85 ⎠
The actual thickness of web 8 mm is less than the above values of t w· min, as
such the vertical stiffeners are provided.
Step 2. Now, if the horizontal stiffeners are not to be used, then, the thickness
of web necessary is as below :
1
d2 = × 2200 = 1100 mm.
2
⎛ d ⋅ f 1 / 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1100 × 2501 / 2 ⎞
(i) τw . min = ⎜ 2 y ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.435 mm
⎝ 3200 ⎠ ⎝ 3200 ⎠
d2 ⎛ 1100 ⎞
(ii) τw . min = =⎜ ⎟ = 5.5
200 ⎝ 200 ⎠
The actual thickness of web 8 mm is more than t w.min, then, the horizontal
stiffeners are not necessary.
Step 3. Design of vertical stiffeners
At support, shear force = 1500 kN
Actual average shear stress in the web plate
⎛ 1500 × 1000 ⎞
t va.cal = ⎜ ⎟ = 75 N/mm
2
⎝ 2500 × 8 ⎠
d ⎛ 220 ⎞
Ratio, tw = ⎜ ⎟ = 275
⎝ 8 ⎠
The smaller clear panel dimension for the actual thickness of web
= 180 × 8 = 1440 mm
The greater clear panel dimension for the actual thickness of web
= 270 × 8 = 2160 mm
The vetical stiffeners may be provided at a spacing smaller than 1440 mm. Let
the spacing of vertical stiffeners be
= 0.6 × d = 0.6 × 2200 = 1320 mm
From IS 800–1984, Table 6.6 (A), the permissible average shear stress, tva in the
d
stiffened web plate of steel with fy = 250 N/mm2 and 0.6 d spacing and ratio
tw
tw = 81 N/mm2
> (t va . cal = 75 N/mm2)
Length of outstanding leg of the vertical stiffener
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × clear depth of girder + 50 ⎟ mm
⎝ 30 ⎠
⎛ 2200 ⎞
= ⎜ + 50 ⎟ = 123.33 mm
⎝ 30 ⎠
IS A 1 25 m m x 95 m m x 8 m m
W eb 8 m m
th ick
1 26 0 m m
IS A 1 25 m m x 95 m m x 8 m m
1 32 0 m m
Fig. 3.16
Provide ISA 125 mm × 95 mm × 8 mm. The length of outstanding leg of the

angle section is 90 mm.
Clear distance between vertical stiffeners
c = (1320 – 60) = 1260 mm
Depth of plate girder = 2500 mm
Minimum required thickness of web
⎛ 1500 × 1000 ⎞
tw1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 7.41 mm
⎝ 2500 × 81 ⎠
Required moment of inertia
1.5d2 ⋅ tw31 ⎛ 1.50 × 22002 × 7.413 ⎞

I = 2
=⎜ ⎟ mm4
C ⎝ 12602 ⎠
= 409 × l04 mm4
Moment of inertial about the face of web plate provided
= (266 + 3.802 × l6.98) ×.l04 mm4
= 511 × 104 mm4.
Step 4. Connection of vertical stiffeners to web plate
⎛ 2 ⎞
Shear force = ⎜ 125 t ⎟ kN/m
⎝ h ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ 125 × 8 ⎟ = 88.89 kN/m
⎝ 90 ⎠
Use 22 mm diameter power driven field rivets
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ π × 23.5 × 100 ⎟ = 43.35 kN
⎝4 1000 ⎠
⎛ 23.5 × 8 × 300 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 56.4 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎛ 43.35 ⎞
Pitch of rivets = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.487 m
⎝ 88.89 ⎠
Provide rivets at a pitch = 200 mm
Provide ISA 125 mm × 95 mm × 8 mm and 22 mm rivets to connect the stiffners
with the web at 200 mm pitch. The vertical stiffeners are shown in
Fig. 3.16.
3.14 DESIGN OF STRINGERS, CROSS GIRDERS AND

PLATE GIRDERS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES
The floor system in case of highway bridges generally consists of reinforced concrete
slab. In case of deck type plate girder highway bridges, the slab is supported
directly by the plate girders. In case of through type highway bridges, the reinforced
concrete slab is supported on stringers, and cross-girders, or by the cross-girders
alone. Many times, the reinforced concrete slab provides its own traffic surface. In
addition to this, the bituminous, asphalt or carpet surface is also furnished. This
acts as a wearing surface. The design of reinforced concrete slab has not been
discussed in the text.
3.14.1 Stringers
The stringers support the reinforced concrete slab in case of through type highway
bridges. The stringers are supported by the cross-girders. The stringers may be
supported on the top of cross-girders or may be framed into the cross-girders by
the use of suitable connections. When the reinforced concrete slab is used, then
either the stringers should be supported on the top of the cross-girders or in case
the stringers are framed into the cross-girders, then the top of stringers should be
on the same level as the cross-girders. The stringers carry the dead load, which
consists of the weight of wearing coat, the weight of reinforced concrete slab and
the self-weight. In addition to this, the stringers also support the live load and the
impact load due to highway standard vehicle or trains. The design of stringers has
been illustrated in the worked out examples.
3.14.2 Cross-girders
The load from floor system is carried to the cross-girders by means of the stringers
or the loads may be carried to the cross-girders directly by the reinforced concrete
slab. The cross-girders carry dead load, which consists of the weight of wearing
coat, the weight of reinforced concrete slab, the reaction from the stringers and
the self-weight. In the addition to this, the cross-girders carry live load and
impact load due to highway standard vehicles or trains. The design of cross-girders
has been illustrated in the worked out example.
3.14.3 Plate Girders

In the deck type highway bridges, the spacing between plate girders is kept sufficient
to develop lateral strength and rigidity, and to resist the overturning with the
specified wind pressure and the load conditions. In the through type highway
bridges the spacing between plate girders is kept sufficient to suit the clearance
requirement. The spacing of plate girders required for the clearance requirement
is sufficient to resist the overturning with the specified wind pressure and load
conditions, and to develolp lateral strength and rigidity.
In the dick type highway bridges, two plate girders are used for single lane
carriageway width and three or four plate girders depending upon the design
are used for two lane carriageway highway bridge. The reinfoced concrete slabs
inclusive of wearing coat is suppoted directly by the plate girders. The plate
girders carry dead load. The dead load consists of the wearing coat, the weight
of reinforced concrete slab and the self-weight of plate girders. The self-weight
of plate girders may be found by Fuller’s formula. In addition to this, the plate
girders carry the live load and the impact load due to the highway standard
vehicles or trains.
In case of through type highway bridges, the plate girders carry the dead
load. The dead load consists of the weight of wearing coat, the weight of reinforced
concrete slab, the weight of stringers, the weight of cross-girders, and the self-
weight. The self-weight of the plate girders may be found by Fuller’s formula.
In addition to this, the plate girders carry the live load and the impact load due
the highway standard vehicles or trains.
Within the kerb to kerb width of the roadway, the standard vehicles or trains
are assumed to travel parallel to the length of bridge, and to occupy any positions,
which produce the maximum stresses provided that the minimum clearances
between a vehicle and the roadway face of a kerb and between two passing or
crossing vehicles as specified in Tables 2.4, 2.6 and 2.8, are not encroached
upon. For each standard vehicle or train, all the axles of a unit of vehicles are
considered as acting simultaneously in position causing maximum stresses. The
vehicles in adjacent lanes are taken as headed in the direction producing
maximum stresses. The space on carriageway left uncovered by the standard
train of vehicles shall not be assumed as subjected to any additional live load.
The maximum reaction due to number of highway standard train of vehicles
shall not be assumed as subjected to any additional live load. The maximum
reaction due to number of highway standard vehicles or trains passing
simultaneously over the carriageway depending upon the number of lanes, is
found by the transverse location of loading. Further the maximum bending
moment and maximum shear force on the plate girders are found by longitudinal
location of loading.
After determining the maximum bending moment and the maximum shear
force, the section, of plate girder is either selected from ISI Handbook No. 1 or
the section may be designed as discussed in Sec. 3.9. The maximum section is
further checked for lateral loads, and the suitable bracing is provided. The designs
of deck type and through type highway plate girder bridges have been illustrated
in worked out examples.
Example 3.7 The effective span of a through type plate girder two lane bridge
is 30 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of the wearing
coat. The foot-paths are provided on their sides of carriageway. The cross girders
are provided at 3 m centres. The stringers are spaced at 2.45 m centre to centre.
The spacing between the main girders is 9.80 m. Determine the maximum sections
for the stringers and the cross-girders, if the bridge is to carry IRC class A
standard loading.
Solution
(A) Design of stringers :
Step 1. From IRC section I
Width of roadway for single lane = 3.80 m
For second lane = 3.80 m
Width of foot-paths 2 × 1.50 = 3.00 m
Total width = 9.80 m
Stringers
Effecive span = 3 m.
M ain girde r
2 .45 m S trin ge rs
C ro ss
g ird ers 2 .45 m
S trin ge rs
9 .80 m
2 .45 m
2 .45 m S trin ge rs
3m 3m 3m 3m
M ain girde r
Fig. 3.17
Step 2. Dead load

The stringers support weight of slab inclusive of wearing coat and the self-
weight.
Weight of slab + wearing coat per stringer
⎛ 2.45 × 3.0 × 250 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 44.l kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of stringers (1 kN/m assumed)

= l × 4.0 = 3.0 kN
Total dead load per stringer = 47.1 kN
Step 3. Bending moment due to dead load
The maximum bending moment M1 due to dead load occurs at the centre
⎛ 47.1 × 3.0 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ 17.66 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 4. Shear force due to dead load
The maximum shear force F1, due to dead load occurs at the supports
47.1
F1 =
= 23.55 kN
2
Step 5. Bending moment and shear force due to live load and impact
load
Road width between kerbs = 6.80 m.
Therefore two trains of IRC class A loading pass over the bridge simultaneously.
Step 6. Transverse location of loading
For the design of central stringer, the loads are so placed that the reaction on
the stringer is maximum.
From IRC section II
Destance between centre of two wheels of one train
= 1.80 m
The minimum distance between adjacent edges of wheels of two trains
⎡ 1.2 − 0.4 ⎤
⎢⎣0.40 + g = × (6.8 − 5.5 )⎥ = 0.92 m
2 ⎦
The distance between centre to centre of adjacent wheels of two trains
= (0.92+ 0.52)= 1.42 m
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face of the kerb
f = 0.150 m (minimum).
Transverse location of wheels of trains is as shown in Fig. 3.18.
1 .50 m
P P P P
1.80 m
1.42 m
1.80 m
0 .4 0
M in
f = 0 .15 m 0 .92 m
2 .45 m 2 .45 m 2 .45 m 2 .45 m

9 .80 m
Fig. 3.18
Reaction on the central stringer
⎡ (2.45 − 1.20) (2.45 − 0.22 (2.45 − 0.22 − 1.80) ⎤

=P ⎢ + + ⎥⎦ = 1.595 P
⎣ 2.45 2.45 2.45
From IRC section II, impact factor for steel bridge
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.545
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 30 ⎠
Reaction on the central girder including impact
= 1.595 P ×1.545 = 2.455 P
Maximum one wheel load of IRC class A standard loading
114
P =
= 57.0 kN
2
Step 7. Longitudinal location of loading
The maximum bending moment occurs when the two heaviest wheels of one
train are as shown in Fig. 3.19. The distance between wheels is l.20 m.
2 .45 5 P 2 .45 5 P
0 .9 0 .9
1 .20 m
m m
3m
Fig. 3.19
Maximum bending moment due to both the trains and including impact
M2 = 2.455 × (57.0) × 0.90 = 125.94 kN-m
The dispersion of wheel load takes place at 45° inclination. Therefore, length
of dispersion of wheel load
= (0.25 +B + 0.25) = (0.25 + 0.25 + 0.25)
= 0.75 m
The maximum shear force occurs in the stringer when the heaviest wheel
load is as shown in Fig. 3.20.
2 .45 5 P 2 .45 5 P
2 .0 m
4 5° 4 5°
0 .75 m
0 .25 m 0 .25 m
3m
Fig. 3.20
Maximum shear force due to both the trains and including impact
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡⎛ 0.75 ⎞ ⎛ 0.75 ⎞ ⎤
F2 = (2.455)(57) ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ 3 − ⎟ + ⎜ 3 − 1.20 − ⎟ kN
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 188.91 kN
Total bending moment due to dead load, live load and impact load
M = M1+ M2 = (17.66 + 125.94) = 143.60 kN-m
Total shear force due to dead load, live load and impact load
F = F1 + F2 = (23.55 + 188.91) = 212.46 kN
Section modulus required (allowable stress in bending for unstiffened section,
σb = 165 N/mm2)
⎛ 6 ⎞
Z = ⎜ 143.60 × 10 ⎟ = 870 × l03 mm3
⎝ 165 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1
Select ISMB 400, @ 0.616 N/m
Zxx = 1022.9 × 103 mm3, t w = 89 mm, h = 400 mm.
Step 8. Check for shear
τva.cal = 212.46 × 1000 = 59.68 N/mm2

400 × 8.9
< (040 × 250 = 100 N/mm2). Hence, safe.
(B) Design of Cross-girder
Step 1.
Effective span = 0.98 m
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.386
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 9.80 ⎠
The maximum reaction on cross-girder occurs for the positions of loads as shown
in Fig. 3.21.
5 7 kN 5 7 kN
3 .20
3 .20 m 4 .30 m
m
3m 3m
Fig. 3.21
Step 2. Maximum reaction on central cross-girder
⎛ 1.80 ⎞
= ⎜ 57.0 + 57.80 × ⎟ = 91.2 kN
⎝ 3.00 ⎠
Step 3. Maximum bending moment

The trains of IRC class A loading pass simultaneously on the carriageway.
Therefore, there are four wheel loads, on the cross-girder. The maximum bending
moment is caused for the positon of loads as shown in Fig. 3.22.
9 1.2 kN 9 1.2 kN 9 1.2 kN 9 1.2 kN
2 .39 m 1 .80 m 1 .80 m 1 .80 m 2 .39 m
9 .80 m
2 x 92 kN 2 x 91 .2 kN
Fig. 3.22
Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre
⎡ 9.80 ⎛ 1.42 1.42 ⎞ ⎤

= ⎢2 × 91.2 × − 91.2 × ⎜1.80 + − 91.2 × ⎟ = 600 kN-m
⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Maximum bending moment due to the live load and impact load
= 1.386 × 600 = 831.6 kN-m
Step 4. Maximum shear force
Maximum shear force occurs when the position of loads is as shown in
Fig. 3.23.
9 1.2 kN 9 1.2 kN 9 1.2 kN 9 1.2 kN
1 .50 m 0 .4 1 .80 m 1 .42 m 1 .80 m
9 .80 m
Fig. 3.23
1
= 91.2 ×
[(9.80 – 1.90) + (9.80 – 3.70)
9.00
+ (9.80 – 5.12) + (9.80 – 6.92)] = 200 kN
Maximum shear force due to live lod and impact load
= 1.386 × 200 = 277.2 kN.
Step 5. Dead load on cross-girder

Weight of slab over cross-girder
⎛ 3.0 × 9.80 × 250 × 24 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 176.4 kN
The cross-girder supports five stringers. The stringers transmit the loads as
concentrated loads at 2.45 m spacing. However, the loads are treated as uniformly
distributed load.
⎛ 5 × 616 × 3.0 ⎞
Weight of stringers = ⎜ ⎟ = 9.34 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of stringers (assumed @ 3 kN/m)
= 9.80 × 3 = 29.30 kN
Total dead load = 215.04 kN
Step 6. Maximum bending moment due to dead load
⎛ 215.04 × 9.80 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 263.424 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 7. Maximum shear force due to dead load
⎛ 215.04 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 107.52 kN
⎝ 8 ⎠
= (263.424 + 831.6) = 1095.024 kN-m
Maximum shear force due to dead load, live load and impact load
= (107.52 + 277.2) = 384.72 kN
From, ISI Handbook No. 1
A built-up plate girder section as shown in Fig. 3.24 is provided for the cross-
girder.
Maximum allowable moment = 1112 kN-m
>(Maximum BM)
Maximum allowable shear = 907 kN
> (Maximum shear force)
Weight per metre = 2.097 kN/m
< Assumed weight. Hence, safe.
If desired, the plate girder section may be designed as discussed in Sec. 3.9.
4 12 m m
2 IS A 2 00 m m x
1 00 m m x 15 m m
12 m m
x x 8 00 m m
2 IS A 2 00 m m x
1 00 m m x 15 m m
Fig. 3.24
Example 3.8 The effecive span of a through type plate girder two lane highway
bridge is 30 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of the
wearing coat. The foot paths are provided on both sides of the carriageway. The
cross-girders are provided at 3 m centres. The stringers are spaced at 2.45 m
centre to centre. The spacing between main girders is 9.80 m. Design the
maximkum section of plate girder, if the bridge if to carry IRC class A standard
loading.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. From IRC section I
Cross-girder’s are used at 3 m spacing
Number of panels = 10
There are five stringers in one panel
Total number of stringers = 5 × 10 = 50
Number of cross-girders = 11
Step 2. Dead load
Weight of reinforced concrete slab inclusive of wearing coat
⎛ 30 × 9.80 × 250 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1764 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Weight of stringers (assumed @ 1 kN/m)
= 50 × 3 × 1 = 150 kN
Weight of cross-girders (assumed @ kN/m)

= 11 × 9.80 × 3 = 323.4 kN
Self-weight of the plate girders by Fuller’s formula
⎛ 20L + 100 ⎞ ⎛ 20 × 30 + 100 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 7 kN/m
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Total weight of plate girders = 7 × 30 = 210 kN
Total dead load of the bridge
= (1764 + 150 + 323.4 + 210) = 2447.4 kN
Total dead load per girder = 1223.7 kN
Step 3. Bending moment due to dead load
The maximum bending moment M1, due to dead load occurs at the centre
⎛ 1223.7 × 30 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 4588.88 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Step 4. Shear force due to dead load
The maximum shear force F1, due to dead load occurs at the support
1
F1 = × 1223.7 = 611.85 kN
2
load
Road width between kerbs = 6.80 m
Therefore, two trains of IRC class A loading which pass over the bridges
simultaneously.
For the design of maximum section of the plate girders, the loads are so placed
that the reaction on one plate girder is maximum.
From IRC Section II
Distance between centre to centre of two wheels of one train
= 1.80 m
⎡ 91.2 − 0.4) ⎤
g = ⎢⎣0.40 + × (6.8 – 5.5) ⎥ = 0.92 m.
2 ⎦
= (0.92 + 0.60) = l.42 m
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway
face to kerb, for IRC class A vehicle
f = 0.150 m
The transverse location of wheels of trains are as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Reaction on the plate girder A.
P
= [(9.80– 1.80) + ( 7.90 – 1.80) + (6.10 – 1.42) + (4.68 – 1.80)] = 2.2 P
9.80
From IRC section II, impact fator for steel bridge
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.207
⎝ 1.35 + L ⎠ ⎝ 1.35 + 30 ⎠
Reaction on the plate girder A, including impact
= 2.2 × 1.207P = 2.655 P
where, P represents the one wheel load of IRC class A train of vehicle.
P P P P
0.92 m 1 .42 m
1.5 0m
M in
f = 0 .15 m
9 .80 m
Fig. 3.25
In order to account for the effect of both the trains of vehicles, and the impact
effect, either the wheel loads of IRC class A vehicles may be increased or bending
moment and shear force may be increased by multiplying by factor 2.655.
From IRC section II
One train of wheel loads of IRC class A train of vehicles is as shown in
Fig. 3.26.
9 .7 2 m
5 7 kN 3 4 kN
1 3 .5 kN 1 3 .5 kN 5 7 kN 3 4 kN 3 4 kN 3 4 kN
1 .2 4 .3
1 .1 m 3 .2 m 3m 3m 3m 3 .4 9
m m
15 m 15 m
R A = 1 2 1 .8 7 kN R A = 1 5 5 .1 3 kN
Fig. 3.26
The centre of gravity of train of loading, c.g., is at a distance y from the front
wheel and it is found by making moment about the same,
⎡ 3.4(0 + 3 + 6 + 9) + 5.7(13.3 + 14.5) + 1.35(17.7 + 18.8) ⎤

y = ⎢ ⎥⎦ = 9.72 m.
⎣ 4 × 3.4 + 2 × 5.7 + 2 × 1.35
It is to note that the absolute maximum bending moment occurs under a wheel
load, such that the centre of span, O is midway between the c.g. of load system and
the wheel load under consideration. Thus, the absolute maximum bending moment
M2, occurs under the fifth wheel load from the front, at X, as shwon in Fig. 3.26.
Reaction
1
RA = – [34(3.49 + 6.49 + 9.49 + 12.49)
30
+ 57 (16.79 + 17.99) + 1.35 (21.19 + 22.29)] kN
= 121.87 kN
RB = 155.13 kN
M2 = [121.87 × (15 – 1.79) – 57 × 12 – 135
× 4.4 – 13.5 × 5.5] kN-m
= 1407.85 kN-m
The absolute bending moment including effect of both the trains and impact
= 2.655 × 1407.85 = 3737.85 kN
The absolute maximum shear force occurs for the position of loading as shown
in Fig. 3.27.
5 7 kN 5 7 kN 5 4 kN 5 4 kN 5 4 kN 5 4 kN
0 .37 5
1 .2 4 .3 3 3 3
m m m m m
30 m
Fig. 3.27
1
Reaction, RB = [57(0.375 + 1.575) + 34(5.875 + 8.875
30
+ 11.875 + 14.875)] = 48.998 kN
RA = (250 – 48.998) = 201.002 kN
Maximum shear force including the effect of both the trains and impact
= 2.655 × 201.002 = 533.66 kN
M = M1 + M2 = (4588.88 + 3737.85)
= 3826.73 kN-m
Total shear force due to dead load, live load, and impact load
F = F1 + F2 = (611.85+ 533.66)
Select a built-up plate girder as shown in Fig. 3.28.
5 50 m m
20 m m
20 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
1 60 0 m m
16 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
20 m m
20 m m
Fig. 3.28
Maximum allowable moment = 874.3 kN-m

> (Maximum moment)
Maximum allowable shear = 2117 kN
> (Maximum shear). Hence, safe.
The maximum section of plate girder may be designed in detail if desired, as
discussed in Sec. 3.9.
Example 3.9 The effective span of a deck type plate girder two lane highway
bridge is 30 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of the wearing
coat. The foot-paths are provided on either side of the carriageway. Design the
maximum section of plate girder, if the bridge is to carry IRC class A loading.
9 .80 m
1 .50 1 .50
6 .80 m m
m P P P P
1.8 0 m
1.4 2 m
1.8 0 m
1 .50
m
1 .58 1 .42 1 .8 1 .2
m m m m
0 .4 3m 0 .4
Fig. 3.29
Solution
Design :
Step 1. From IRC Section I
Width of roadway for single lane = 3.80
Provide four plate girders as shown in Fig. 3.29. The intermediate plater girder
B or C is subjected to maximum load. Therefore, the section of intermediate plate
girder C is designed and the same section is provided for all the four plate girders.
Road width between kerbs = 6.80 m
Therefore, two trains of IRC class A loading pass over the bridge simultaneously.
For the design of maximum section of the intermediate plate girder the loads
are so placed that the reaction on one plate girder is maximum.
From IRC Section II
Distance between centre to centre of two wheels of one train
= 1.80 m
⎡ (1.2 − 0.4) ⎤
g = ⎢⎣0.40 + × (6.8 − 5.5) ⎥ = 0.92 m
2 ⎦
The distance between centre to centre of adjacent whels of two trains
= (0.92 + 0.50) = 1.42 m
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face
of kerb, for IRC class A vehicle,
f = 0.150 m
The transverse location of wheels of trains is as shown in Fig. 3.29.
Reaction on plate girder C,
⎡ 1.2 1.42 ⎤
= P ⎢1.0 + + = 1.873P
⎣ 2 3 ⎥⎦
From IRC Section II, impact factor for steel bridges
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.207
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 30 ⎠
Reaction on plate girder C, including impact
= 1.873 × 1.207 P = 2.26 P
where, P represents the one wheel load of IRC class A train of vehicle.
In order to account for the effect of both the trains of vehicles, and the impact
effect, either the wheel loads of IRC class A vehicles may be increased or bending
moment and shear force may be increased by multiplying them by factor 2.26.
Effective spans in Example 38 and Example 39 are equal. Therefore, the
longitudinal locations for maximum bending moment and for maximum shear
force for both the examples are same and these are shown in Figs. 3.26 and
3.27.
From Example 3.8
Maximum bending moment = 1407.85 kN-m
Maximum shear force = 200.002 kN
The maximum bending moment including effect of both the trains and
impact
= 2.26 × 1407.85 = 3181 kN-m
The maximum shear force including effect of both the trains and impact
= 2.26 × 200.002 = 452.004 kN
Step 5. Dead load bending moment and shear force
Weight of reinfoced slab inclusive of wearing coat
⎛ 30 × 3 × 25 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 540 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of the plate girders by Fuller’s formula
⎛ 20L + 100 ⎞ ⎛ 20 × 30 + 100 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 7 kN/m
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Weight of one plate girder for complete span
1
= × 7 × 30 = 105 kN
2
Total dead load = (540 + 105) = 645 kN
⎛ 645 × 30 ⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ ⎟ = 2418.75 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
1
Shear force = × 645 = 322.5 kN
2
M = (3181.74+ 2418.75)
= 5600.49 kN-m
Total shear force due to dead load, live load and impact load
F = (452.004 + 322.5)
= 774.504 kN
From ISI Handbook No. l
Select a built-up plate girder as shown in Fig. 3.30.

Maximum allowable moment
= 5747 kN-m
> (Maximum moment)
Maximum allowable shear
= 1890 kN
> (Maximum shear)
Hence, safe.
The maximum section may be designed in detail if desired as discussed in Sec.
3.9.
3.15 WIND LOAD ON PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES

The wind load on plate girder bridges is determined as the product of appropriate
basic wind pressure and exposed area of the bridge. The appropriate basic wind
pressure for highway and railway, loaded and unloaded bridges have been discussed
in Sec. 2.5. The exposed area of unloaded and loaded plate girder bridges are as
follows :
3.15.1 For Unloaded Plate Girder Bridges

The exposed area of unloaded span of the bridge consists of area of windward
girder and a part of leeward girder depending upon the height (depth) and spacing
of the main girders. The exposed part area of leeward girder is expressed as fraction
of area of windward girder and added to the area of windward girder. The factor k,
to account for the part of exposed area of leeward girder as per bridge rule is
mentioned below :
S. No. Conditions Factor, k
1
1. I>
| 2
D k = 0.00
1
2. 2
D<I≤D k = 0.25
3. D < I ≤ 1 21 D k = 0.50
4. 1 21 D > I ≥ 2 D k = 1.00
where, s = spacing between the main girder
h = height (depth) of the main girder.
Exposed area of uncloaded plate girder bridge
= (1 + k) × Area of windward girder
Area of windward girder is the area in elevation i.e., the product of height of
girder and length of girder.
3.15.2 For Loaded Plate Girder Bridge

The exposed area of loaded span of bridge consists of area of windward girder plus
the part of leeward girder not covered by the moving load multiplied by the factors
as shown above plus the area of moving load.
In the case of railway bridges the area of moving load is taken as from 600 mm
abvoe the rail level to the top of the highest stock for which the bridge is designed.
The dimensions of rolling stocks for broad gauge and metre gauge have been shown
in Fig. 1.21 and Fig. 1.22 respectively in Sec. 1.10. The height of rolling stock
above 600 mm from the rail level upto the top is 3500 mm in case of broad gauge
and 2830 mm in case of metre gauge. The entire span of the bridge is assumed to
be occupied by the moving load. Thus, the area of moving load is 3.50 m × span of
bridge in metres in case of broad gauge and 2.830 m × span of bridge in metres in
case of metre gauge. The wind load acts at the centre of gravity of area of moving
load.
5 00 m m
20 m m
20 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 00 m m x 15 m m
1 25 0 m m
16 m m
2 IS A 20 0 m m x
1 50 m m x 18 m m
20 m m
20 m m
Fig. 3.30
In the case of highway bridges the clear distance between the trailer of a train
of vehicle shall not be omitted. The lateral wind load against any exposed moving
load is assumed to have a value of 3 kN per linerar metre for the ordinary highway
bridges and 4.50 kN per linear metre for the highway bridges carrying tramway.
This load is assumed to act at 1.50 m above the road surface.
The total assumed wind load on highway bridges shall, however, not be less
than 4.50 kN per linear metre in the plane of the loaded flange in case of deck
type bridges and 2.25 kN per linear metre in case of through type bridges.
In the case of foot bridges, the height of moving load is to be taken as 2 m
throughout the length of span.
3.16 WIND EFFECT ON PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES

The wind effects on plate girder bridges are considered on the unloaded span, and
on the loaded spans of the bridges, and the worst effects are taken into consideration
and accounted for properly.
The wind load has following two distinct effects on the plate girder bridges:
1. Overturning effect
2. Horizontal truss effect.
3.16.1 Overturning Effect

The wind load P, on plate girders is determined as discussed in Sec. 3 15. The wind
load P, acting on unloaded deck type plate girder bridge is shown in Fig. 3.31. The
wind load is assumed to be acting at half the height of the bridge structure (i.e.
height of the girder plus sleepers plus rails). The wind load has the effect of
overturning the bridges about the lower flange of the leeward girder.
P h
h
2
2R S = (S pa cing ) 2R
Fig. 3.31
As a result of overturning effect, an additional thrust 2R is caused over the

leeward girder, and an uplift, 2R is caused on the windward girder. These equal
forces form a resisting couple. The additional thrust 2R, causes reaction of 2R
(R, R at each end of the girder), as shown in Fig. 3.31. The additional thrust, 2R
due to overturning has the tendency to increase the bending compressive stress
already existing in the upper flange and the bending tensile stress already
existing in the lower flange of the’leeward girder. Whereas, the uplift 2R, due to
overturning in the windward girder causes the opposite kind of stresses in the
flanges and, therefore, relieves the upper flange and lower flange from the
already existing stresses.
The value of reaction R, may be found by taking the moment of wind load about
the bottom flanges.
h
2R × s = P.
2
⎛1 P ⋅h ⎞
R = ⎜ × ⎟ ...(3.11)
⎝4 s ⎠
The value of reaction, R is expressed in term of percentage of dead load reaction.
Since the tendency of additional thrust over the leeward girder is similar to the
action of dead load, the percentage increases of bending compressive
(3 .50 m for B .G .)
R o lling sto ck or
(2 .83 0 m fo r M .G .)
(Fo r M .G . 1.41 5 m )
or
(Fo r B .G . 1 .7 5 m )
0 .60 m
h1
P
h
h2
2 R1 S = (S p acing ) 2 R1
Fig. 3.32
stress in the upper flange and bending tensile stress in the lower flange of leeward
girder are found directly from the stresses due to dead load only. The nature of
increase of stresses due to overturning is additive in the already existing stresses
in the upper and lower flanges of leeward girder.
The wind load P´, acting on the loaded deck type plate girder bridge (broad
gauge/metre gauge) and wind load P1´, acting on the moving load are shown in Fig.
3.32. The wind loads acing on plate girders and moving loads are determined as
discussed in Sec. 3.15. The wind load acting on the plate girders is assumed to be
acing at half the height of girder. The wind load on moving load acts at the centre
of moving stock as shown in Fig. 3.32. Both these wind loads P´ and P1´ have the
effect of overturning the bridge about the lower flange of the leeward girder. As a
result of the overturning effect, and additional thrust 2R1 is caused over the leeward
girder and an uplift 2R1 is caused on the windward girder. These equal and opposite
forces furnish a resulting couple. The additional thrust 2R, causes reaction 2R1
(R1,R1 at each end of the girder), as shown in Fig. 3.32. The additional thrust 2R,
due to overturning also has the tendency to increase the bending compressive
stress already existing in the upper flange and the bending tensile stress already
existing in the lower flange of the leeward girder. Whereas the uplift 2R1 due to
overturning in the windward, girder causes the opposite nature of stress in the
flanges, and, therefore, relieves the upper and lower flanges from the already
existing stresses.
The value of reaction R1, may be found taking the moment of wind load P´ and
P1´ about the bottom flanges
⎛ h ⎞
2R1 × s = ⎜ P´ + P1´ h1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ ´ ⎞
R1 = ⎜ 1 P ´h + P1 h1 ⎟ ...(3.12)
⎝4 s 2s ⎠
The value of reaction R1 is mentioned in terms of percentage of dead load, live
load and impact load reaction determined from the loads found for calculating
bending moment. Since, the tendency of additional thrust over the leeward girder
h
2
2R S = (S p acing ) 2R
Fig. 3.33
is similar to the action of dead load, live load and impact load, the percentage
increase of bending compressive stress in the upper flange and bending tensile
stress in the lower flange of leeward girder are determined directly from the
stresses due to normal loads (i.e. dead load, live load and impact load) only. The
nature of increase of increase of stresses due to over turning is additive in the
already existing stresses in the upper and lower flanges of leeward girder.
The wind loads acting on unloaded and loaded through type plate girder
bridges are shown in Fig. 3.33 and Fig. 3.34.
P1 R o lling sto ck
0 .60 m
h1
P
h
h2
Fig. 3.34
The overturning effect due to wind over the through type plate girder bridge is
same as over the deck type plate girder bridge (as discussed above).
3.16.2 Horizontal Truss Effect

The horizontal truss bracing is provided in the loaded flange of the plate girder
bridge. The horizontal bracing consists of chords, laterals (diagonals), and floor
beams. In case of deck type bridge, the top (loaded) flanges of the plate girder
act as chords and separate floor beams and diagonals are used so as to form
approximate square panels. In case of through type bridge, the bottom (loaded)
flange of the plate girders act as chords. The laterals (diagonals) are connected
with the floor beams in case of the through type bridge. These laterals (diagonals
in the horizontal truss bracing may be single or double or K-type as shown in
Fig. 3.35 (a), (b) and (d) respectively. The cross-diagonal or double lateral bracing
are most commonly used. The double diagonal bracing of a through type plate
girder bridges is shown in Fig. 3.3.
p = In te nsity o f w in d loa d pe r u nit len gth
(a )
(b )
Fig. 3.35
The horizontal truss bracing resists the lateral loads. It is to note that the wind
load is only considered as lateral load, and the racking force is not taken into
acccount while calculating increase of stresses in the flanges of the plate girders.
The wind load acts as uniformly distributed load in the horizontal plane of the
loaded flange of the girder. The maximum wind load from loaded and unloaded
bridge is considered. The horizontal truss bracing acts as a simply supported
girder. It is subjected to the maximum bending moment at the centre.
⎛ P ⋅l ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8 ⎠
where, P = Total wind load
l = Span in metre
Let F, F be the two equal and opposite forces acting in the flanges of the main
girders due to the horizontal truss effect. From the steel theory, these form a
resisting couple, M1.
M1 = F × s ...(ii)
where,
s = Spacing between the main girders
The resisting couple M1, and the maximum bending moment M, are equal.
Therefore,
⎛ P ⋅l ⎞
F×S = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ P ⋅l ⎞
F = ⎜ ⎟ ...(3.13)
⎝ 8⋅s ⎠
The intensity of stress in a flange due to horizontal truss effect
F
f = ... (3.14)
A
where,
A = Appropriate cross-sectional area of one flange of the main girder.
The nature of stress due to hroizontal truss effect is compressive in the windward
girder and tensile in the leeward girder. In case of the deck type plate girder
bridges, the stress due to horizontal truss effect in the top flange of the leeward
girder is tensile and therefore, relieves the flange from existing compressive bending
stresses. In case of the through type plate girder bridges, the stress due to horizontal
truss effect in the bottom flange of leeward girder in tensile and therefore, additive.
In through type plate girder bridges, the overturning effect and the horizontal
truss effect, both are additive for the bottom flange of the leeward girder.
The overall stresses in flange of the plate girder due to dead load, live load,
impact load and wind load should be less than 1.25 times and allowable bending
stresses in the flanges. In case the overall stresses exceed, then either the spacing
between main girders is increased or the section of main girder is redesigned.
It is to note in case the effective spans are upto 20 m, it is not necessary to
determine the wind stresses.
Example 3.10 The effecive span of a deck type plate girder railway bridge for
single metre gauge track is 24 m. The depth of plate girder is 1864 mm. The
spacing between the plate girder is 1.30 m. The rail level is 400 mm above the top
of the plate girders. The design reaction is 750 kN. The net area of tension flange
is 19652 mm2 and the gross area of compression flange is 23304 mm2. The moment
of inertia of the plate girder section about xx-axis is 3749172 × 104 mm4. Determine
the increase of stresses in the flanges of leeward girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(c) Overturing effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Horizontal truss effect due to wind when the bridge is loaded.
Solution The deck type plate girde bridge, when the bridge is unloaded is
shown in Fig. 3.36.
The height of deck type plate girder bridge structure, including sleepers and
rails = (1864 + 400) = 2264 mm.
1 .0 m M etre ga ug e track
0 .40 0 m
2 .26 4 m
P
1 .86 4 m
1 .13 2 m
Fig. 3.36
Half the height of bridge structure

1
= × 2264 = 1332 mm
2
Step 1. Bridge unloaded (overturning effect)
Intensity of wind pressure
= 2.40 kN/m2
Wind force on windward plate girder
⎛ 2.40 × 2264 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 130. 41 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Spacing between main girders, s = 1.30 m
Depth of the main girder = 1864 mm
The spacing between main girders is greater than half the depth, and less than
the full depth. Therefore, factor to account for the wind effect on leeward girder =
0.25.
Wind force on leeward plate girder
⎛ 2.40 × 2264 × 24 ⎞
= 0.25 × ⎜ ⎟ = 32.60 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Total wind force,
P = (130.41 + 30.60) = 163.01 kN
The wind pressure is assumed to act as half the depth of bridge structure, i.e.,
at 1.132 m as shown in Fig. 3.36.
Let the reaction at each end of the leeward girder be R. The total reaction on the
leeward girder due to overturning is 2R.
Taking moment about the bottom of girders

2R × 1.30 = 163.01 × 1.132
R = 70.97 kN
Due to overturning effect, a uniformly distributed load 2 × 70.97 = 141.94 acts
downward on the leeward girder.
The maximum bending moment, M occurs at centre
⎛ 141.94 × 24 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 425.82 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Distance to the extreme fibre of plate girder from the neutral axis
1
y = × 1864.0 = 932.0 mm
2
Increase of stress (above the stress in flanges due to dead load only in the
compression flange, of the leeward girder)
⎛ 425.82 × 106 × 932.0 ⎞

σbc1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 10.58 N/mm2
⎝ 3749172 × 104 ⎠
Increase of stress in the tension flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 23304 ⎞
σbt = ⎜10.58 × 2
⎟ = 12.55 N/mm .
⎝ 19652 ⎠
Step 2. Bridge unloaded (Horizontal truss effect)
Total wind pressure acting on the bridge structure
P = 163.01 kN
The horizontal truss bracing is provided in between the compression (loaded)
flanges. The total wind force is assumed to act in the plane of horizontal truss.
The horizontal truss acts as horizontal girder. The maximum bending moment
P ⋅ L ⎛ 163.01 × 24 ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟ = 489.03 kN-m
8 ⎝ 8 ⎠
The bending moment is resisted by two equal and opposite forces F in the
compression flanges of both the girders
F × 1.30 = 489.03, F = 376.177 kN
The force F is tensile in the compression flange of the leeward girder. It causes
tensile stress only in the compression flange of the leeward girder. Therefore,
the decrease of stress in the compression flange of leeward girder
⎛ 3 ⎞
σ = ⎜ 376.177 × 10 ⎟ = 16.14 N/mm
2
⎝ 23304 ⎠
P
F
1 .30 m
F
1 6 p an e ls @ 1.5 m = 2 4 m
Fig. 3.37
Step 3. Bridge loaded (overturning effect)

Maximum intensity of wind in case of metre gauge
= 1.00 kN/m2
Wind load on moving train,
P1 = 1.00 × 24 × 2.830 = 67.92 kN
Height of line of action of wind load P1, above the bottom of plate girder
= (2.264 + 0.60 + 1.415) = 4.279 m
Wind load on the deck type bridge structure (windward girder and leeward
girder both)
P2 = 1.00 × 24 × 2.264 × 1.25 = 67.92 kN
Height of line of action of wind load P2, above the bottom of the plate
girders
= 1.132 m.
Taking moment about the bottom of the plate girders.
2R × 1.30 = 67.92 × 4.279 + 67.92 × 1.132
R = 141.35 kN
Due to overturning effect, of uniformly distributed load 2 × 141.35 = 282.70
kN acts downward on the leeward girder,
The maximum bending moment M2 occurs at the centre
⎛ 282.70 × 24 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 848.1 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Increase of stress (above the existing stress in the flange due to dead load,
live load and impact laod) in compression flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 848.1 × 106 × 932.0 ⎞

σbc2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 21.108 N/mm2
⎝ 3749172 × 104 ⎠
Increase of stress in the tension flange in the leeward girder
⎛ 23304 ⎞
σbc2 = ⎜ 21.02 × 2
⎟ = 25 N/mm .
⎝ 19652 ⎠
(M etre ga ug e)
P1 R o lling sto ck
2 .83 0 m
1 .41 5 m
0 .60 m
4 .27 9 m
P2
2 .26 4 m
1 .86 4 m
1 .13 2 m
1 .30 m
Fig. 3.38
Step 4. Bridge loaded (Horizontal truss effect)

The wind loads acting on the moving train and the deck type bridge structure,
both are assumed to act in the horizontal plane of truss bracing.
Total wind load
= (P1 + P2) = (67.92 + 67.92) = 135.84 kN
P1 + P2
1 .30 m
F
R R
Fig. 3.39
For unloaded bridge, the wind load = 163.01 kN

Tensile force in the compression flange of leeward girder
F = 376.177 kN
Therefore, for loaded bridge, the tensile force in the compression flange of the
leeward girder
⎛ 135.84 ⎞
F = ⎜ 376.177 × ⎟ = 313.477 kN
⎝ 163.01 ⎠
It causes tensile stress only in the compression flange of the leeward girder.
Therefore, the decrease of stress in the compression flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 313.477 × 103 ⎞
σb = ⎜ ⎟ = 13.45 N/mm2.
⎝ 23304 ⎠
Example 3.11 The effective span of a through plate girder railway bridge for
a single broad gauge track is 30 m. The depth of plate girder is 2664 m. The
spacing between the plate girders is 5.0 m. The rail level is 800 mm above the
bottom of the girders. The net area of flange is 27986 mm2 and the gross-area of
compression flange is 31983 mm2. The gross-moment ofinteria of the plate girder
section about xx-axis is 10761879.6 104 mm4. Determine the increase of stresses
in the flanges of the leeward girder in the following cases :
(b) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(c) Overturning effect due to wind when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
Also determine the percentage stress increment in case (c), if the dead load,
live load and impact load reaction is 1210 kN.
Solution The through type plate girder bridge, when the bridge is unloaded
is shown in Fig. 3.40.
Height of the plate girders = 2664 mm
Half the height of plate girders = 1332 mm
B ro ad g au ge track
P 2 .66 4 m
1 .33 2 m 0 .8 m
2R 5 .0 m 2R
Fig. 3.40
Step 1. Bridge is unloaded (overturning effect)

Intensity of wind pressure = 2 .40 kN/m2
Wind pressure on windward plate girder
⎛ 2.40 × 2664 × 30 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 191.81 kN.
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Spacing between the main girders, s = 5.00 m
Depth of the plate girders = 2.664 m
The spacing between main girders is greater than one and a half times the
depth of plate girder and less than twice its depth. Therefore, factor to account
for the wind effect on the leeward girder,
k = 1.00
Wind pressure on the leeward girder
⎛ 2.40 × 2664 × 30 ⎞
= 1.00 × ⎜ ⎟ = 191.81 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Total wind pressure,
P = (191.81 + 191.81) = 383.62 kN
The wind pressure is assumed to act at half the depth of plate girder, i.e., at
1332 mm as shown in Fig. 3.40.
Let the reaction at each end of the leeward girder be R. The total reaction on
the leeward girder due to overturning is 2R.
Taking moment about the bottom girders
2R × 5.00 = 383.62 × 1332, R = 51.1 kN
Due to overturning effect, a uniformly distributed load 2 × 51.1 = 102.2 kN acts
downward on the leeward girder.
The maximum bending moment M1 occurs at the centre
⎛ 102.2 × 30 ⎞
M1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 383.25 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Distance to the extreme fibre of the plate girder from the neutral axis
1
= × 2664 = 1332 mm
2
Increase of stress (above the stress in flanges due to dead load only) in the
compression flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 383.25 × 106 × 1332 ⎞

σbc1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.74 N/mm2
⎝ 10761879.7 × 104 ⎠
Increase of stress in tension flange in leeward girder
⎛ 31983 ⎞
σbc1 = ⎜ 4.74 × ⎟ = 5.42 N/mm2.
⎝ 27986 ⎠
Step 2. Bridge unloaded (Horizontal truss effect)
The horizontal truss bracing is provided in between the tension flanges (loaded
flanges). The total wind pressure is assumed to act in the plane of horizontal
truss.
The horizontal truss acts as a horizontal girder. The maximum bending
moment
⎛ 383.62 × 30 ⎞
M = ⎜ ⎟ = 1438.575 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
P
F
5 .0 m
F
6 pa ne ls @ 5 m = 3 0 m
Fig. 3.41
This bending moment is resisted by two equal and opposite forces, F in the
tension flanges of both the girders due to moment, M.
F × 5.0 = 1438.575, F = 287.715 kN
This force is tensile in the tension flange of the leeward girder. It causes
tensile stress, only in the tension flange of leeward girder. Therefore, the increase
of stress
⎛ 287.715 × 103 ⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎟ = 10.28 N/mm2
⎝ 27986 ⎠
Step 3. Bridge loaded (overturning effect)
Maximum intensity of wind in case of broad gauge
= l.50 kN/m2
Wind load on moving train
P1 = 150 × 30 × 350 = 157.50 kN
Height of line of action of wind load P1 above the bottom of plate girders
= (0.80 + 0.60 + l.75) = 3.15 m
Wind load on windward and leeward girder both,
P2 = 150 × 30 × 2.664 × 2.0 = 239.76 kN
Height of line of action of wind load P2 above the bottom of plate girders
= 1.332 m
B ro ad g au ge
P1 ro lling sto ck 3 .50 m
1 .75 0 m
0 .60 m 2 .66 4 m
P2
1 .33 2 m
2R 5 .0 m 2R
Fig. 3.42
Taking the moment above the bottom of plate girders

2R × 5.0 = 157.50 × 3.15 + 239.76 × l.332
R = 81.55 kN
Due to overturning effect, a uniformly distributed load
2 × 81.55 =163.10 kN acts downward on the leeward girder.
The maximum bending moment M2, occurs at the centre
⎛ 163.10 × 30 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 611.625 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
Increase of stress (above the existing stress in the flange due to dead load, live
load and impact lod) in compression flange in the leeward girder
⎛ 611.625 × 106 × 1332 ⎞

σbc2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 7.57 N/mm2
⎝ 10761879.6 × 104 ⎠
Increase of stress in the tension flange of the leeward girder
⎛ 31983 ⎞
σbc2 = ⎜ 7.57 × ⎟ = 8.745 N/mm
2
⎝ 27686 ⎠
Step 4. Bridge loaded (Horizontal truss effect)

The wind loads acting on the moving train and the through type bridge structure
both are assumed to act in the horizontal plane of truss bracing.
Total wind load = (P1 + P2) = (157.50 + 239.76) = 397.26 kN
For unloaded bridge, the wind load = 383.62 kN
Tensile force in the tension flange = 287.715 kN
Therefore, for the loaded flange, the tensile force in the tension flange of the
leeward girder
397.26
F = 287.715 × = 297.945 kN
383.62
P1 + P2
F
5 .0 m
F
6 pa ne ls @ 5 m = 3 0 m
Fig. 3.43
It causes the tensile stress only in the tension flange of the leeward girder.
Therefore, the increase of stress in the tension flange of leeward girder
⎛ 297.945 × 103 ⎞
F = ⎜ ⎟ = 10.646 N/mm2.
⎝ 27986 ⎠
It is to note that due to overturning effect and horizontal truss effect both,
the stress in tension flange of a leeward girder of through type bridge increases.
Step 5. Reaction due to overturning effect in case the bridge is loaded at the
end of leeward girder = 81.55 kN
Dead load, live load and impact load reaction = 1210 kN
The increase of stress due to overturning may be expressed as percentage
increase of stress due to dead load, live load and wind load.
The percentage incremental stress is directly proportional to the reactions in
these two cases. Therefore, pecentage incremental stress
⎛ 81.55 ⎞
= ⎜ × 100 ⎟ = 6.74 percent.
⎝ 1210 ⎠
3.17 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL TRUSS BRACING

The cross or double diagonal horizontal truss bracing as shown in Fig. 3.44 is
most commonly provided in the horizontal plane of the loaded flange of the
main girders.
The horizontal truss bracing is designed to resist the lateral loads (wind load,
racking force, and centrifugal force, if any). The wind load whichever is maximum
in case of loaded or unloaded spans of the bridge, is taken into consideration.
L ate ra l loa d p e r un it le ng th
R1 R1
Fig. 3.44
In case of deck type bridge, the laterals are connected so as to form approximate
squares and uniform panels throughout the span. In case of through type bridge,
the diagonals are connected with the floor beams. For the analysis, it is assumed
that the diagonal members subjected to tension remain active and others remain
dummy for one direction of wind. In case, the direction of wind is reversed, the
active diagonals become dummy, and the dummy diagonals become active. The
end struts (or floor beams) are subjected to maximum compression and the end
diagonals are subjected to maximum tension. The forces intermediate struts (floor
beams) and intermediate diagonals are comparatively less. The angle sections are
provided for the struts and the diagonals. The forces in end members are small
and require nominal size of sections only. The same size of angle sections are
provided for the intermediate members.
3.18 DESIGN OF CROSS-FRAMES

The cross-frames are provided as the transverse bracing for the deck type bridges
at all panel points in the vertical plane.
Figure 3.45 shows an end cross-frame. The end cross-frame is subjected to
maximum lateral load. The cross-frame is designed for lateral load for the loaded
P1
Fig. 3.45
or unloaded bridge whichever is maximum less the corresponding force at the

end panel of horizontal truss bracing. The diagonal member of cross-frame
subjected to tension is assumed to be effective member. The force in diagonal
member is R1 sec θ, where R1 is the reaction at the end of horizontal truss. This
force depends on the type of truss bracing used and assumption made. The
diagonal member is designed as the tension member. The angle section is used
for the diagonal members.
3.19 DESIGN OF INTERNAL GUSSET PLATE

The internal gusset plates are provided as the transverse bracing for the through
type plate girder bridges at all the panel points in the vertical plane. The internal
gusset plates transmit lateral forces acing on the top (compression) flanges of
the plate girders. The internal gusset plates used in the through type bridge are
shown in Fig. 3.46. The internal guset plates are connected with the beams and
the main girders.
P
In te rna l g u sset p late
Fig. 3.46
Example 3.12 Design the horizontal truss bracing and cross-frames for the
deck type plae girder railway bridge for a single metre gauge track as in Example
3.10.
Solution
(A) Design of Horizontal truss bracing
Step 1. The horizontal truss bracing with cross-diagonals as shown in Fig.
3.47 is provided between the loaded flanges (top or compression flanges) only.
The diagonals which carry tension, remain active.
Tota l la teral Lo ad = P H
1 30 m
1 .50 m 1 .50 m
1 6 p an e ls @ 1 .5 m = 2 4 m
Fig. 3.47
From Example 3.10

When the bridge is unloaded, the wind load acting on the bridge structure
(inclusive of windward and leeward girder) is 163.01 kN.
Step 2. When the bridge is loaded
Wind load on moving train = 67.92 kN
Wing load on the bridge structure = 67.92 kN
Racking force, 6.00 × 24 = 144.0 kN
Total lateral load, PH = 279.84 kN
The lateral load acing in the plane of horizontal truss bracing is maximum in
case the bridge is loaded. Therefore, the horizontal truss bracing is designed for
the lateral load
= 279.84 kN
Reaction at the end = 139.92 kN
Spacing between the main girder
= l.30 m
Span = 24 m
16 panels @ 15 m are provided in the horizontal truss bracing so that each
panel is approximaely square.
Lateral load at each intermediate panel
⎛ 279.84 ⎞
P = ⎜ ⎟ = 17.49 kN
⎝ 16 ⎠
Lateral load at end panel = 8.745 kN
End strut carries maximum compression = 139.92 kN
Shear force in the end panel
F = (139.92 – 8.745)= 131.175 kN
1.30
tan θ = = 0.8626, ∴ θ = 40° 47'
1.50
sin θ = 0.653, cosec θ = 1.532
Force in the end diagonal = (131.175 × 1.532) = 200.96 kN
End strut
Effective length of end strut = 1.30 m
Compresson in the end strut = 139.92 kN
The slenderness ratio for the double angle compression member and the value
of yield stress for steel may be assumed as 100 and 260 N/mm2. The permissible
stress in axial compression
σac = 82 N/mm2
⎛ 139.92 × 1000 ⎞
Cross-sectinal area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 1706.34 mm
2
⎝ 82 ⎠
Provide 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm with long legs connected.
Cross-sectional area provided

= 2 × 955 = 1910 mm2
From IS 833–94, the permissible stress in axial compression
= 2 × 955 = 1910 mm2
rxx = 31.8 mm, ryy = 25.5 mm,
∴ rmin = 25.5 mm
⎛ 1.30 × 1000 ⎞
Slenderness ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 50.98
⎝ 25.5 ⎠
σac = 135 N/mm 2
The safe load carrying capcity is more. Hence, safe.

End diagonal
Force in end diagonal = 200.96 kN
As per IS : 833–94, allowable stress in axial tension
= 0.60 × 260 = 156 N/mm2
Net cross-sectional area required
⎛ 200.96 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1288.21 mm
2
⎝ 156 ⎠
Allowing area for rivet holes = 460 mm2
Gross area required = 1748.21 mm2
Provide 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm for the diagonal membes with the
short leg connected together.
Gross area provided = 1910 mm2
Deduction for rivet hole (assuming that 22 mm diameter rivets are used)
= 2 ×6 × 23.5 = 282 mm2
Net area provided = 1628 mm2 > Net are required. Hence, safe.
2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm are provided for all struts and all diagonal
members.
(B) Design of Cross-frames
The cross-frames are provided between the windward girder and the leeward
girder in the vertical plane and at all the plane points of horizontal truss bracing.
Figure 3.48 shows an end cross-frame.
When the bridge is loaded, then the lateral load acting in plane of the
horizontal truss is maximum.
End reaction in the horizontal truss bracing = 139.92 kN
It is assumed that the diagonal member carrying tension remains active
member. Length of the diagonal member
= (1.802 + 1.302)1/2 = 2.22 m
⎛ 1.30 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.585
⎝ 2.22 ⎠
⎛ 139.92 ⎞
Force in the diagonal member = ⎜ ⎟ = 239.18 kN
⎝ 0.585 ⎠
F 0 .32 m
θ θ
1 .80 m
0 .32 m
1 .30 m
Fig. 3.48
Allowable stress in axial tension =156 N/mm2

Net cross-sectional area required
⎛ 23.18 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1533.20 mm
2
⎝ 156 ⎠
Allowing area for rivet hole = 300 mm2
Gross-area required = 1833.20 mm2
Provide 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 8 mm for the diagonal members with the
short legs connected together.
Gross cross-sectional area provided = 2514 mm2
Reduction for rivet hole =2 × 8 × 23.5 = 376.0 mm2
Net cross-sectional area provided
= 2514–376 = 2138 mm2
> Net area required. Hence, safe.
2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 8 mm are provided for all the cross-diagonal members
of all the cross-frames.
Example 3.13 Design the horizontal truss bracing and the internal gusset
plates for the through type plate girder bridge for a single broad gauge track as
in Example 3.11.
Tota l la te ral lo ad = P H
5 .0 m
6 pa ne ls @ 5.0 m = 30 m
Fig. 3.49
Solution
(A) Design of Horizontal truss bracing
Step 1. The horizontal truss bracing with cross-diagonls as shown in
Fig. 3.49, is provided btween the loaded flanges (bottom or tension flanges) of
plate girders in the throught type bridge. The diagonals which carry tension
remain active.
From Example 3.11
When the bridge is unloaded, the total wind load on the bridge = 383.62 kN
Step 2. When the bridge is loaded
Wind load on moving train = 157.50 kN
Wind load on windward and leeward girder both = 239.76 kN
Racking force, 6.00 × 30 = 180 kN
Total lateral load, PH = 577.26 kN
The lateral load acting in the plane of horizontal truss is maximum in case
the bridge is loaded. Therefore, the horizontal truss bracing is designed for lateral
load
= 577.36 kN
Reaction at the end = 288.63 kN
Spacing between the main girders = 5 m
6 panels @ 5.0 m are provided in the horizontal truss, so that each panel is a
square.
Lateral load at each intermediate panel point
⎛ 577.26 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 96.21 kN
⎝ 6 ⎠
Lateral load at the end panel point = 48.105 kN
The forces in struts are carried by the floor beams
Shear force in the end panel = (288.63 – 48.105) kN
= 240.525 kN
θ = 45°
Force in end diagonal
= 240.525 × sec θ = 24.06 × 2 = 340.15 kN
End diagonal
Force in end diagonal
As per IS : 833–94, allowable stress in axial tension
= 156 m/mm2
Net area provided = 2730 mm2. Hence, safe.
Pi
2 IS A 7 5 m m x 5 0 m m x 6 m m
10 m m 10 m m
th ick th ick
Fig. 3.50
Design of Internal gusset plates (see Fig. 3.50)

Wind load when the bridge is unloaded = 383.62 kN
Wind load when the bridge is loaded = 397.26 kN
The wind load is maximum when the bridge is loaded.
3976.26
Wind load per panel P1 = = 66.21 kN.
6
Problems
3.1 A plate girder single track main line broad gauge is of 24 m span between
bearings. Design a suitable section for the plate girder and calculate the
curtailment of flanges.
3.2 A deck type plate girder bridge is provided for a single broad gauge track
and standard main line loading. The total span of main girder from centre
to centre of bearing is 28 m. The main girders are provided at a spacing
of 2 m between their centre lines, 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and 0.40
kN per metre guard rails are provided. The weight of fastenings may be
taken a 0.20 kN per metre. The sleepers are spaced at 0.50 m from
centre to centre and are of 2.8 m × 250 mm × 250 mm size. The unit
weight of timber may be assumed as 7.50 kN per cubic metre. The floor
is open deck type. Design the maximum section of the main girder.
3.3 A through type plate girder is provided for a single metre gauge track.
The cross-girders are spaced 2.80 m apart, the total span of the main
girder from centre to centre of bearings being 28 m. The stringers are
spaced at 120 m between centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre stock rails and
0.40 kN per metre guard rails are used. The sleepers are spaced at 0.50
m from centre to centre and are of size 2 m × 250 mm × 250 mm. The
weight of timber may be assumed as 750 kN per cubic metre. Design the
maximum section of the plate girder. The main girders are provided at a
spacing of 4.8 m between their centre line. Adopt loading from Bridge
Rule.
3.4 In Problem 3.2, determine the increase or decrease of stresses in the
flanges of the leeward girder in the following cases :
(b) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(c) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
3.5 In Problem 3.3 determine the increase of stresses in the leeward girder
in the following cases :
(a) Overturing effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
(b) Overturing effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(c) Horizontal truss effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded.
3.6 Design the horizontal truss bracings and the cross-frames for the deck
type plate girder railway bridge for a single broad gauge track as in
Problem 3.4.
3.7 Design the horizontal truss bracings and the internal gusset plates for
the through type plate girder bridge for a single metre gauge track as
in Problem 3.5.
3.8 In a plate girder through bridge carrying a single broad gauge track,
the cross-girders are spaced at 4 m centres. The stringers are spaced at
2 m centres. Design the stringers if the spacing between main girders
is 4 m centre to centre.
3.9 Determine the increase or decrease of stresses in the flanges of leeward
girder of a deck type plate girder bridge for the broad gauge single track
due to overturning effect and the horizontal truss effect due to wind for
loaded and unloaded span. The particulars of the bridge are as follows:
Effect span of bridge = 30 m
Spacing between main girder = 2m
Depth of plate girder = 2.16 m
Intensity of wind for unloaded span = 2.40 kN/m2
Intensity of wind for loaded span = 1.50 kN/m2
Height of rolling stock above 600 mm
from rail level = 3500 mm
Height of rails above plate girder = 400 mm
Gross-area of compression flange = 30000 mm2

Gross moment of inertia of the
plate girder section about xx-axis = 12 × 1010 mm4
3.10 Design the horizontal truss bracing and the cross-frames for the deck
type single track broad gauge plate girder railway bridge for the
following particulars:
Effective span = 26 m
Spacing between main girders = 2.00 m
Depth of plate girder = 2.00 m
Intensity of wind for unloaded span = 2.40 kN/m2
Intensity of wind for loaded span = 1.50 kN/m2
Height of coach above 600 mm from
rain level = 3500 mm
Height of rails above the plate girder
including sleepers = 400 mm
Racking force = 6 00 kN/m.
CHAPTER
4
Design of Truss Girder Bridges
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The truss girders are used as the main load carrying members in the truss girder
bridges. The truss girder bridges are also known as the open web girder bridges.
The truss girder bridges are also termed as the lattice girder bridges. The truss
girder bridges have opened web work in contradistinction to the plate girders with
the continuous web. The truss girders are the triangulated framed structures.
The arrangement of the members and the connections at their ends are such that
the external loads are applied to the joints. The centroidal axes of members meet
at a point. The members are subjected to direct tension and compression. The
members of the truss girders are classified as chord members and the web members.
The uppermost members constitute the top chord or top boom. The lowermost
members form the bottom chord or bottom boom. The vertical members (or
verticals) and the diagonal members (or diagonals, which are internally sloping
members) are the web members. Those members which are absolutely necessary
for the stability of the truss bridge girders are known as the main members. The
main members are stressed by loads anywhere on the bridge girder. There are
sub-members in some truss girder bridges. In case the sub-members are removed,
even then the trusses would be stable. The sub-members act only when loads act
directly upon them or on certain portions of the span. The sub-members are also
known as secondary members.
In most of the truss girder bridges, the chord members carry bending moment
in the form of direct tension or compression and the vertical and/or diagonal
members carry the shear force in the form of direct tension or compression. The
members of truss girder bridges are joined through the gusset plates by riveting,
bolting or welding. The thickness of gusset plate in light truss bridges is kept as
10 mm or 12 mm. The thickness of gusset plate in the heavy truss bridges is kept
as 20 mm to 22 mm. The truss girder bridges are of spans greater than those
economical for the plate girder bridges.
The truss girders of bridges may be either single plane type or the double plane
type. In the single plane type truss, the gusset plates are used in one plane only.
There is only one gusset plate at each joint of the truss. The single plane type
truss is suitable for light loads, small members, and light bracing. In the double
plane type trusses, the gusset plates are used in two parallel planes.
4.2 TYPES OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES

The various types of truss girder bridges are as shown in Fig. 4.1.
(a ) H o w e truss (b ) W h ip p le tru ss
(c) W a rre n truss (d ) W a rre n truss

(w ith ve rticals)
(e ) D o ub le wa rren truss (f) W a rren tru ss (w ith ve rtica ls

a nd curved cho rd )
(g ) W a rre n truss (w ith (h ) W a rre n truss (curve d w ith

sub -divide d pa ne ls) sub -divide d pa ne ls)
(j) P ra tt truss (k) P ra tt tru ss (cu rve d ch o rd)
(l) P ra tt truss w ith su b-divide d (m ) P ratt truss w ith curve d

p an els (B altim o re tru ss) cho rd an d sub-d ivid e d p an e ls
(P e tit o r P e nn sylva nia tru ss)
(n ) P ra tt tru ss (su b-d ivid ed (p ) P ra tt tru ss (cu rve d ch ord

p an els) (B a ltim o re ) sub -divide d pa ne ls) (P etit or
P e nn sylva nia tru ss)
(r) K -tru ss
(s) Z -tru ss
(t) P a rab olic tru ss

(w ) Viere nd ee l tru ss
Fig. 4.1 Various types of truss girders for the bridges

DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 165
Various truss bridges shown in Fig. 4.1 are grouped as parallel chord truss
girder bridges, camel back or curved (inclined) chord truss girder bridges and
sub-divided truss girder bridges. The truss bridges are described as under.
4.2.1 Parallel Chord Truss Girder Bridges

Figure 4.1 (a) shows a Howe truss bridge. The diagonal members are in compression
and the vertical members are in tension. Howe truss is seldom made entirely in
steel. The top chord is constructed in timber and the bottom chord, and the vertical
ties are made in steel. Figure 4.1 (b) shows Whipple truss bridge. It is a double
intersection Pratt truss bridge. In long span bridges, with considerable depth,
this truss was designed to give short panels. It is a statically intermediate structure.
Whipple truss bridge has become obsolete. Figure 4.1 (c), (d) and (e) show single
Warren truss, Warren truss with verticals and double Warren truss bridges
respectively. It is considered that Warren trusses have more attractive appearance
as compared to Pratt truss. Warren trusses consist of combination of isosceles
triangles. The inclination of diagonals varies from 45° to 60°. The diagonal members
carrying compression and tension. The vertical members are occasionally introduced
in Warren trusses to support intermediate loads. The verticals stiffen the top
chord. In case of double Warren truss, it is assumed for analysis, that the shear
force in each panel is shared equally by both the diagonals. Warren trusses with
verticals have relatively high secondary stresses. Figure 4.1 (j) shows Pratt truss
bridge. The vertical members carry direct compression and the diagonal members
carry direct tension. The vertical members are comparatively short members.
The reversal of stresses may take place in some of the middle diagonal members of
Pratt truss bridges. Then the counter brace members are used as shown by dotted
lines in Figure 4.1 (j). In addition to this, the secondary stresses are also
comparatively less in these bridges. Therefore, it is desirable to use Pratt truss.
Pratt trusses are preferred next to Warren truss bridges. The parallel chord trusses
are used for 30 m to 60 m span.
4.2.2 Camel Back Truss Girder Bridges

The camel back truss girder bridges are also known as inclined or curved chord
truss bridges. Figure 4.1 (f) shows Warren truss bridges with curved chord.
Figure 4.1 (k) shows a Pratt truss bridge with curved chord. The camel back
truss girder bridges are used for longer spans than the parallel chord truss girder
bridges. In camel back trusses, the height of the trusses are larger where the
moments are large. The bending moments in simply supported span under the
uniformly distributed loads varies as the square of the span. The forces in chord
members of a truss girder are found by dividing the bending moment by the height
of truss girder. The bending moment is maximum in the centre. The heights of
inclined chord truss is also kept maximum at the centre. The bending moment
decreases towards the ends of span. The height of inclined chord truss also decreases
towards the ends. The forces in the chord members are kept approximately equal.
The height of vertical members also becomes short near the supports. The values
of compressive stresses in the vertical member are large, it is economical to design

short compression members. Further the inclined chord members share the shear
force of their corresponding panels. The vertical components of stresses in these
inclined chord members relieve the web members. Thus, it is seen that camel
back trusses become economical in weight. The camel back trusses are lighter in
weight than the parallel chord trusses. The cost of fabrication is slightly more.
The camel back trusses are suitable for 60 m to 120 m span.
4.2.3 Sub-divided Truss Girder Bridges

From the economic considerations, it is seen that inclinations of diagonals may be
kept approximately 45° with the horizontal and the height of truss to the span
ratio may vary from one-fifth to one-eighth. If the trusses are designed for larger
spans in the light of these recommendations, the panel lengths and the unsupported
lengths of the compression members would be excessive. Because of the large
panel lengths the floor system between the panel points becomes unreasonably
heavy and expensive. In order to shorten the panel length (the span of stringers),
the panels of trusses are sub-divided. Figures 4.1 (g), and (h) show sub-divided
Warren trusses. Figure 4.1 (l), (m), (n) and (p) show sub-divided Pratt trusses.
The sub-divided trusses shown in Figure 4.1 (l) and (n) are known as Baltimore
trusses. Baltimore trusses are Pratt trusses with parallel chord and sub-divided
panels. In sub-divided trusses, the additional sub-members or secondary members
are also introduced. The additional vertical members are known as sub-verticals.
The stresses from sub-verticals are transmitted to the lower panel points by sub-
struts as in Fig. 4.1 (l) or to the upper panel points by sub-ties as in Figure 4.1 (n).
The sub-members are stressed by the loads for certain limited position on the
span.
Further, it is more economical to use inclined chord sub-divided trusses for
large spans. Figures 4.1 (h) shows Warren truss with inclined chord and sub-
divided panels. Figures 4.1 (m) and (p) show the inclined chord and sub-divided
Pratt trusses. These trusses are known as Pettit or Pennsylvania trusses. In this
truss, the advantages of Pratt truss, sub-divided truss and inclined chord truss
have been used. Pennsylvania truss bridges are statically determinate bridge
structure for all positions of the loads. These are economical in construction and
satisfactory in service. These trusses (Baltimore and Pennsylvania trusses) have
almost entirely replaced Whipple trusses for long spans. The sub-divided trusses
also have their own disadvantages. The secondary trusses in these trusses are
very high. There are large number of members in these type of trusses. These
trusses do not appear too attractive.
Figures 4.1 (r), (s) and (t) show K-truss, Z-truss and parabolic truss bridges. K-
trusses have less secondary stresses and have the advantage of sub-divided trusses.
K-trusses keep desirable inclination for the diagonals. It has short panel lengths.
These are economical in material mainly on account of shortness of compression
members. The simple span truss girder bridge can be used upto 200 m span.
Figure 4.1 (w) shows Vierendeel truss girder bridge. Actually it is not a truss
by usual definition. The joints in Vierendeel truss bridge are moment resisting.
Vierendeel trusses support the load by means of bending resistance of its short
Contd.
heavy members. The analysis of Vierendeel truss is very difficult. These are efficient
structures.
4.3 DECK TYPE AND THROUGH TYPES TRUSS BRIDGES

In the deck type truss bridges, the floor system rests on the top chord. Figures 4.2
(a) (i) and (ii) show deck type Warren truss bridges with the verticals. Figures 4.2
(b) (i) and (ii) show deck type Pratt truss bridges. In the through type truss bridges,
the floor system rests on the bottom chord. Figure 4.2 (a) (iii) shows through type
Warren truss bridge with verticals. Figure 4.2 (b) (iii) shows through
(i) D eck typ e
(ii) D e ck typ e
(iii) Th ro ug h typ e
(a ) W a rren trusses w ith ve rtica ls
(i) D eck typ e
(ii) D e ck typ e
(iii) Th ro ug h typ e
(b ) P ra tt tru sses
Fig. 4.2
type Pratt truss bridge. The various types of through type truss bridges have been
shown in Figure 4.1. Although, the parallel chord trusses are used for the through
type truss bridges, but the lines of various members of parallel chord truss bridges
are more in harmony with deck type truss bridges. The camel back or inclined
chord trusses as shown in Figure 4.1 are more graceful for the through type
bridges.
4.4 COMPONENT PARTS OF A TRUSS BRIDGE

Figure 4.3 shows the various component parts of a through type railway bridges.
The various component parts consists of (i) the main vertical trusses, (ii) the
Top la teral
b racin g
Top C h ord
S w a y bra cin g
E n d flo or
b ea m
P o rta l B o tto m
b racin g la te ral bracin g
In te rm edia te flo or
b ea m s
End B o tto m cho rd
p osts
D iag on als
Ve rtica ls
S trin ge rs
E n d flo or be am
Fig. 4.3 Diagrammatic sketch of a through type Pratt truss railway bridge
floor system, (iii) the bottom lateral bracing, (iv) the top lateral bracing, (v) the
portal bracings and (vi) the sway bracings. These component parts are separately
shown in Fig. 4.4.
P o rta l
b racin g
Sway
Top la te ral b racin g b racin g
M ain ve rtica l trusses
B o tto m la te ral b racin g
Fig. 4.4 Component parts of a truss bridge
The floor system transfers the applied load to the main trusses. The floor system
consists of floor, longitudinal girders (stringers or rail bearers) and the trans-
verse girders (floor beams or cross-girders). The floor is supported by the longitu-
dinal girders. The longitudinal girders run parallel to the length of bridge. The
longitudinal girders span between two adjacent panel points of the main truss
girders. The longitudinal girders are supported by the transverse girders. The
transverse girders span between the main girders. These transverse girders
transmit the applied load to the main truss girders. The bridge consists of two
main truss girders. The truss girders are the main load carrying members. The
truss girders transmit the applied load to the abutments or piers through the
bearings. The top lateral bracings, bottom lateral bracings, sway bracings and
portal bracings are provided for the lateral stability and the torsional rigidity of
the bridge, and to resist the lateral loads and the longitudinal forces. The design of
various components of a truss girder bridge is done in the order in which the
applied load is transmitted from one component to the other.
4.5 ECONOMIC PROPORTIONS OF TRUSSES

The cost of a bridge includes the cost of superstructure and the cost of substructure.
The cost of superstructure includes the cost of materials, the cost of fabrication,
the cost of floor system, the cost of construction and the cost of maintenance.
Thus, it is seen that the economy of a bridge depends on many factors. It is difficult
to determine a mathematical expression for the most economy of the truss bridge.
The cost of fabrication depends on number and types of joints. It may not be
least when the weight of truss is minimum. A two panel truss with diagonals
inclined at 45° gives the least weight theoretically for given span and loading. In
this, the permissible stresses in tension and compression are assumed constant.
The permissible stress in compression is not constant. These stresses depend on
the slenderness ratios for the members. When the number of panels in a truss is
small, then the lengths of members are large. The slenderness ratios for the
members are also large. As a result of this, the permissible stresses in compression
have small values. The section of compression members adopted become heavy.
The weight of truss is increased. The weight of floor system also increases for large
panel length. The number of panels in a truss should be 6 to 8 for overall economy.
The ratio of height of truss to the span of a bridge producing the greatest economy
of material is that which makes the weight of chord members equal to the weight
of the web members of truss. The economic height to span ratio of truss bridge is
one-sixth to one-eighth. It varies with the type of truss bridges. The smaller ratios
are used for long span bridges. The larger ratios are adopted for the relatively
short span bridges. The minimum height (depth) of highway and railway bridges
as per IS: 1915–1961 is one-tenth of the span. The effective height (depth) of riveted
trusses is the distance between the gravity axes of chord. The span for the purpose
of determining the minimum height is taken as the distance between the centres
of bearings in the case of simply supported span. The effective height (depth)
between gravity axes should not be greater than three times the width between
centres of main girders as per code of practice for the design of steel bridges published
by the Railway Board.
The total length of all the diagonals in a truss inclined at an angle α with the
horizontal is equal to L sec α, where L is the span of truss. For given span and
loading the shear force in a panel F may be assumed to be constant. The force in a
diagonal is equal to F. cosec α as an average. The cross-sectional area of a diagonal

is proportional to F. cosec α. The volume of diagonal is proportional to F cosec α (L
sec α). When the inclination a is 45°, then, the volume of diagonals is minimum.
Therefore, for economic consideration for truss bridges, the inclination of diagonals
should be kept approximately 45° with the horizontal. In general, this inclination
may vary from 45° to 60°. The panel length may vary from 6 m to 9 m.
The distance or width between centres of trusses should be sufficient to develop
lateral strength and rigidity. As per code of practice for the design of steel bridges,
the width between centres of main girders should be sufficient to resist overturning
with the specified wind pressure and load conditions, otherwise, the provisions
should be made to prevent the overturning. In no case this width should be less
than one-twentieth of the effective span. In the through type truss bridges, the
clearance requirements usually provide this width more than what it is necessary.
4.6 SELF WEIGHT OF TRUSS GIRDERS

The dead load acting on the truss girder bridges also include the self-weight of
truss girders of the bridge. The self-weight of truss girder of the bridge is either
assumed depending upon the experience and by comparing with the existing truss
girder bridges on similar spans or determined by using the following empirical
formulae.
4.6.1 Hudson’s Formula

Mr. Clarence W. Hudson gave an empirical formula for the determination of the
self-weight of truss girders and bracings for the bridges. The self-weight determined
from this formula, is sufficiently accurate. The self-weight of trusses and the
bracings in kN per metre w, was expressed in terms of the net area of maximum
tension chord, in square mm, A. The total areas of two girders are as follows :
Area of the bottom chord = 2 × 100 A
Area of the top chord = 2 × 1.25 A
Area of the web system = 2 × 1.25 A
Area of the details = 2 × 1.00 A
Area of the bracing = 2 × 0.50 A
Total area of two trusses and bracings
= 10.00 A
The unit weight of steel is 78.50 kN/m2. Therefore,
⎛ 78.50 × 10.00 A ⎞
w = ⎜ ⎟ kN/m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
w = 0.785 ×10–3A kN/m ...(4.1)
In order to determine the value of net area of maximum tension chord A, the
self-weight of trusses and bracing is first assumed. Then, maximum force in tension
chord is determined due to dead load including weight of floor system and self-
weight, live load and impact load. The net area of maximum tension chord A, is
found by dividing the maximum force by the allowable stresses in axial tension
(140 N/mm2). The self-weight of truss girders including bracing w, in kN/m is
determined from Eq. 4.1, and compared with the assumed self-weight. The value
of assumed self-weight is modified, and the calculations are repeated, till the
assumed self-weight and the self-weight from Eq. 4.1 come in close agreement.
This method is sometimes convenient and reasonably accurate. But this method
can lead to quite erroneous results in certain instances. When the depth/span
ratio for a truss is high, then the weight of the web members is more. Similarly a
shallow truss girder will have more weight in the flanges. Hence, the above weight
proportions may not apply. However, the above proportionate weight of different
parts help in the work of estimating.
4.6.2 Fuller’s Formula

The self-weight of truss girders and bracing in kN per metre as per Fuller formula
is given by
w = (a . l + b) ...(4.2)
where, l = Span (length) of the bridge in metres
a, b = Constants
The dead load exercises a greater influence on the weight. The term representing
weight of truss girder increases faster than the span length. The exponent of l in
the term al becomes greater than one. The exponent increases with increase in
span length.
Constants a and b depend upon the type of bridge.
For the truss girder bridges, the weight of trusses and bracings in kN per
metre may be obtained from the formula given below upto 100 m span for the
bridges.
⎛ 15 l + 550 ⎞
w = ⎜ ⎟ kN/m ...(4.3)
⎝ 100 ⎠
4.7 ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF TRUSS

BRIDGES
In the design of truss girder bridges, the axial stresses (forces) in the various
members are determined on the following assumptions :
(a) All the members of the truss girder bridges are straight and free to rotate
at the panel points.
(b) All the panel points (joints) of the truss bridges lie at the intersection
of the gravity axes of the members.
(c) All the loads including the weight of the members are applied to the panel
points.
All the axial stresses are termed as primary stresses. The forces in the various
members due to dead load may be determined by the method of resolution of forces
about the joint or by the method of section. The dead load acting on the truss
girder bridges is uniformly distributed load. The forces in various members of the
truss girders may be found by drawing the influence line diagrams. The forces in
various members for the self-weight are the algebraic sum of the areas of influence
line diagram multiplied by the intensity of the load. The forces in various members
due to live load or moving load are determined by drawing the influence line
diagrams for the force for the respective members. The influence line diagrams for
the various members of the various types of trusses have been discussed in chapter
15. The live loads for the members are noted from Bridge Rules for bending moment
in case the influence line diagrams are drawn from criterion of bending moment,
and from shear force, in case the influence line diagrams are drawn from criterion
of shear force.
4.8 COMPRESSION MEMBERS

The properties of cross-section of compression members are found from the effective
sectional area. The effective sectional area of compression member is the gross
area less the deductions for excessive width of plates and the maximum deductions
for open holes, including holes for pins and black bolts occurring in a section
perpendicular to the axis of member. The unsupported width of a plate measured
between adjacent lines of rivets connecting the plate to other parts of the sections
shall be 50 t for steel conforming to IS : 226, where t is the thickness of single plate
or the aggregate thickness of two or more plates provided these plates are adequately
tacked together. Any excess over this width shall not be included in the effective
sectional area in computing the direct compressive stress. The unsupported width
of a plate forming any part of a compression member measured between adjacent
lines of rivets connecting the plate to other parts of the section, unless effectively
stiffened, shall not exceed 20 t for steel conforming to IS : 226. The open sides of
built up compression members of U or I sections shall be connected by lacing,
battening or perforated plates where the length of the outstand towards the open
sides exceeds 16 times the mean thickness.
The effective length of compression members in riveted trusses shall be taken
as in Table 4.1 except for battened struts for which all values given in Table 4.1
shall be increased by 10 percent. The ratio of effective length to the least radius of
gyration shall not exceed 120 far main members and 140 for wind bracing and
subsidiary members.
Table 4.1 (As Per IS : 1915–1961)

Effective Length T of members
For buckling normal to the
plane of truss
Member For including in the Compression Compression chord
plane of truss chord or or compression
member compression
effectively braced member unbraced
by lateral bracing
(a) Chord 0.85 × distance 0.85 × distance bet- as per
between centres of ween centres of IS : 1915–1961
intersection with the intersection with
web member lateral bracing
members or rigidly
connected cross
girder
(b) Web 0.70 × distance between 0.85 × distance Distance between
(1) Single centres of intersection between centre of centre of
triangulated with the main chord intersection intersections
system
(2) Multiple 0.85 × greatest 0.70 × distance 0.85 × distance
intersection distance between between centres of between centres of
system where centres of intersections with intersections with
adequate con- any two adjacent the main chord the main chords
nections are intersection
provided at
all points of
intersections
Note. The intersections referred to are those of the centroidal axes of members.
Floor beams alongwith the vertical members of the main truss girders (or floor
beams along the stiffeners of the main plate girders) form U-frames in half-through
type bridges. These U-frames act like elastic springs. The U-frames provide lateral
support to compression chord (compression flange). The effective length of the
compression chord (compression flange) is determined as follows :
(a) When δ is not greater than a3/40 EI
Effective length, l = a.
(b) When δ is greater than a3/40 EI
Effective length, l = 25 (E.I.a.δ)1/4
but l <
| a and
> effective span
l|
where, a = Distance between U-frames

I = Maximum moment of inertia of compression chord (compression
flange) about yy-axis of the girder
δ = Virtual lateral displacement at the centroid of compression chord
(compression flange) at the frame nearest to the mid-span of the
girder as shown in Fig. 4.5 (i).
δ is taken as horizontal deflection at the gravity axis of the frame (or at the point
of intersection of stiffeners with the centroid of the compression flange). The
horizontal deflection is found under the action of unit horizontal force applied at
this point in the plane of the frame only.
δ δ
Top cho rd
R e straine d
le g (C olum n )
do d
R o ad w a y c
Ic
C ro ss-g ird er
a = spa cing o f truss

g ird ers I b
U -F am e (P o ny fra m e)
Fig. 4.5 (i)
In cases of symmetrical U-frames where cross-girders and stiffeners are each of

constant moment of inertia throughout their own length
⎡ (d )3 (d )2 b ⎤
c c
δ = ⎢ + ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 EI c EI g ⎥
⎦
where, dc = Distance of the centroid of the compression flange from the top of
the cross-girder.
du = Distance of the centroid of the compression flange from neutral
axis of the cross-girder.
b = Half the distance between centres of the main girders.
Ic = Moment of inertia of a pair of stiffeners about the centre of the
web or a single stiffeners about the face of the web in its plane of
bending.
Ig = Moment of inertia of the cross-member (cross-girder) in its plane
of bending.
These U-frames shall have rigid connections in order to provide effective lateral
support. These are designed to resist in addition to the effect of wind and other
applied forces, a horizontal force, F acting normal to the compression chord (or
flange) of the girder at the level of the centroid.
⎡ ⎤
⎢ −3 ⎥
B = ⎢1.4 × 10 × l ⎥
⎢ ⎛C ⎞⎥
⎢ δ ⋅ ⎜ s − 1.7⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ fcc ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, Cs = Critical stress

l = 2.5 (E.I.A.δ)1/4
fcc = Calculated working stress in the chord (or flange)
δ = As mentioned above.
The various forms of sections used for top chord members are shown in Fig. 4.5 (ii).
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e )
Fig. 4.5 (ii)
The top chord members are most highly stressed compression members of the
truss. In the top chord members, much care is given in proportioning and detailing
to obtain the desired strength with economy and to provide satisfactory relations
with other connecting members. In general, it is preferable to provide as few parts
as possible. The thickness of webs is kept as thick as economic fabrication allows.
It gives proper distribution of stress. In the top chord members, the cover plates
are necessarily used on the top of sections. These plates connect the web plates and
make whole of the section to act together effectively as one unit. These plates
prevent rain water entering the section, and protect the parts of the members and
the joints from corrosion. The bottom of these top chord members are connected
only by lacing or by tie or stay plates, which are not continuous elements. The
centre of gravity of section is raised above the centre line of web because of cover
plate. This is not a desirable feature. Therefore, only one cover plate is used and
the thickness of this cover plate is kept as thin as possible. This thickness of cover
plate is kept sufficient to prevent it from buckling. A uniform section is provided
throughout the top chord of the truss girder. The minimum section may be designed
for the end panel. The strength or gross area of member may be increased by
providing plates, in the sides of members. In order to provide most economical
section, the relation between depth to width of the top chord compression members
may be such that the radii of gyration about xx-axis and yy-axis are equal. However,
the depth of top chord section may be adopted as 1/10 th of the distance between
centroidal axes of top and bottom chords. The clear width of top chord section may
be adopted as 1/10th of the distance between centroidal axes of top and bottom
chords plus twice the thickness of gusset plates. The thickness of each gusset
plate is kept 22 mm. The approximate radii of gyrations are noted (Refer Sec. 4.8,
in author’s Steel Structures Vol. I) for the trial section. The effective length of top
chord member is adopted as per Table 4.1. The maximum slenderness ratio is
then found for the trial section. The allowable stress in axial compression is found
corresponding to the maximum slenderness ratio. The area of top chord section is
found for the force. The area of top chord section is provided accordingly. The top
chord members are also subjected to bending due to self-weight. The self-weight of
members is computed. The members are checked for
⎛ σ ac.cal σbc.cal ⎞
⎜⎝ σ + < 1.00
ac σbc ⎟⎠
where,
σac.cal = Actual calculated axial stress in compression in the member
σac = Allowable axial stress in compression in the member
σbc.cal = Actual calculated bending stress in the extreme fibre of member
σbc = Allowable bending compressive stress in the member
and, it is also checked for the equivalent stress.
For the end posts, the sections similar to those of top chords are provided. The
forces in end posts are approximately equal to those in the end panels.
In addition to the top chord, some of the web members are also subjected to
compression. In a Pratt truss, the vertical members carry compression, while in
Warren truss each alternate diagonal carries compression. In case, the counter-
bracing is not provided and the reversal of stress takes place, then, such members
are also designed as compression members. The various forms of compression
members used as web members are as shown in Fig. 4.6.
The form of such compression members should be such that these should be
convenient for attachment to floor beams, and these may enter the top chord
conveniently. Usually, a built-up I-section is adopted for the web compression
members. The depth of such member is adopted as 1/10th the distance between
centroidal axes of the top and bottom chords. The member is designed as described
above.
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e ) (f)
Fig. 4.6
4.9 TENSION MEMBERS

The tension members shall preferably be of rigid cross-section. The properties of
the cross-section shall be computed from the effective sectional area. When plates
are provided solely for the purpose of lacing or battening, they shall be ignored in
computing the radius of gyration of the section. The open sides of built-up tension
members of U- or I-section shall be connected by lacing, battening or perforated
plates, when the length of the outstand towards the open side, exceeds 16 times
the mean thickness of the out stand. The net sectional area of a bolt or screwed
tension rod shall be taken as the area at the root of thread.
The various forms of sections used for bottom chord members are shown in
Figure 4.7.
The bottom chord members are most highly stressed tension members. In the
bottom chord, more sectional area is concentrated mainly in the two web plates
and plates connected to them. The angle sections are mainly used for connecting
the lacing. The angle sections and the flanges of rolled steel sections are turned
inward. Therefore, the connections of floor beams and bottom lateral bracing become
convenient. The material required for lacing is also reduced. The distance between
back to back of outside plates is made equal to the overall depth of the web members.
In this case, the gusset plates are fitted on the outer sides of the members at the
bottom chord joints. There is no advantage as to the strength of the members in
turning the angle, and the flanges outward. The connection of floor beams and the
bottom lateral bracing also becomes difficult. When the flanges are turned outward,
then the gusset plates are placed inside the members. A uniform section is provided
throughout the bottom chord of the truss girder. The minimum section may be
designed for end panels. The strength of section or net sectional area is increased
from member to member by providing additional plates in the sides. However the
distance between back to back of angles is kept constant. Therefore, the distance
between gusset plates and the length of floor beams remain same for whole of the
span.
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e ) (f)
(g ) (h ) (i)
Fig. 4.7
The net-sectional area is found for the force in the bottom chord tension members.
The gross area of the member required is determined by adding suitable allowance
for the estimated rivet holes for connection. The dimensions of cross-section of the
bottom chord member are kept same as that of the top chord member except for
top plates. The plates are not used either at the top or at the bottom of the section,
so that the rain water does not collect and the corrosion of elements is not caused.
The gross area is provided accordingly. From the gross area, the net area is again
computed. The net area provided should be greater than the net area required.
The bottom chord members are also subjected to bending due to self-weight.
Therefore, these are checked for
⎛ σat.cal σbc.cal ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ < 1.00
⎝ σat σbc ⎠
where,
σat.cal = Actual calculated axial stress in tension
σat = Allowable axial stress in tension and, it is also checked for the
equivalent stress.
In addition to the bottom chord, some of the web members are also subjected to
tension. In a Pratt truss, all the internal diagonal members are tension members,
while in a Warren truss each alternate diagonal carries tension. The various
forms of tension members used as web members are shown in Fig. 4.8.
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e )
Fig. 4.8
For the web tension members the ratio of unsupported length to the least radius
of gyration shall not exceed 250 for railway bridges and 300 for highway bridges.
The form of such tension members should be such that, the gusset plates attached
to these members may enter the top chord conveniently. Usually, a built-up I-
section is adopted for the web tension members. The depth of such members is
adopted as 1/10th the distance between centroidal axes of the top chord and the
bottom chord. The member is designed as described above.
Example 4.1 A Pratt truss girder through bridge is provided for single broad
gauge track. The effective span of bridge is 50 m. The cross-girders are spaced
5 m apart. The stringers are spaced 2 m between centre lines. 0.60 kN per metre
stock rails and 0.40 kN per metre check rails are provided. Sleepers are spaced at
0.45 m from centre to centre and are of size 2.8 m × 250 m × 250 mm. Weight of
timber may be assumed as 7.50 kN per cubic metre. The main girders are provided
at a spacing of 7 m between their centre lines. Design the central top chord
member and bottom chord member and the vertical and diagonal of central
panel. Also, design the joint, where the central top chord, vertical and diagonal
members meet. The bridge is to carry standard main line loading.
Solution
Design :
Preliminary
Effective span or truss girder bridge = 50 m
Panel length of bridge girder = 5 m
Spacing between main girders = 7 m.
Height of truss girder

For economical consideration
1 1
× span = × 50 = 7.14 m
7 7
As per IS 1915–1961 (Minimum)
1 1
× span = × 50 = 5 m
10 10
Provide 6 m height between centre of gravity of top chord members to centre of
gravity of bottom chord members. A Pratt truss girder bridge as shown in Fig. 4.9
is used.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
6m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10
1 0 P an els a 5 m = 5 0 m
(E leva tio n)
2m 7m
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
m m m m m m m m m m
(P lan )
Fig. 4.9
Step 1. Dead load

The dead loads acting on truss girder are as follows :
= 2 × 0.60 = 1.20 kN/m
Weight of check rails per track per metre
= 2 × 0.40 = 0.80 kN/m
Weight of fastenings (assumed) = 0.20 kN/m
Weight of stringers per track per metre (assumed)
10 ⎛ 2.8 × 250 × 250 × 7.50 ⎞
×⎜ ⎟ = 2.92 kN/m
0.45 ⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
Weight of stringers per track per metre (assumed)
= 3.00 kN/m
Weight of cross-girders per track per metre (assumed)
= 5.00 kN/m
Self-weight of both the truss girders by Fuller’s formula, as per Eq. 4.3.
⎛ 15l + 550 ⎞ ⎛ 15 × 50 + 550 ⎞

⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 13.00 kN/m
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Total dead load per track per metre is 26.12 kN/m
Total dead load per girder per metre is 13.06 kN/m Ω 13.2 kN/m.
Step 2. Influence line diagrams for forces in the members
The influence line diagrams for forces in U4L5, L4L5, L4 L4, L4L5 and U3U4 are
shown in Fig. 4.10.
(i) I.L.D. for force in U4U5
The influence line diagram for force in U4U5 is shown in Fig. 4.10 (b). The
maximum ordinate of the triangle
M L5 1 ⎛1 ⎞
= × ⎜ × 2.5 ⎟ = 2.08 units (compression)
6 6 ⎝2 ⎠
(ii) I.L.D. for force in U3U4
The influence line diagram for force in U3U4 is as shown in Fig. 4.10 (c). The
M L4 1 ⎛ 20 × 30 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ = 200 units (compression)
6 6 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iii) I.L.D. for force in L4L5
The influence line diagram for force in L4L5 is an shown in Fig. 4.10 (d). The
M U4 1 ⎛ 20 × 30 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟ 2.00 units (tension)
6 6 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iv) I.L.D. for force in U4U4
The influence line diagram for force in U4L4 is as shown in Fig. 4.10 (e). The
ordinates are as below :
m 4
y1 = = = 0.4 units
n 10
⎛ n − 1 − m ⎞ ⎛ 10 − 1 − 4 ⎞
y2 = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 units
⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
(v) I.L.D. for force in U4 L5
The influence line diagram for force in U4L5 is as shown in Fig. 4.10 (f). The
ordinates are as below :
m 4
y3 = cosec θ = × 1.3 = 0.52 units
n 10
⎛ n − 1 − m⎞ ⎛ 10 − 1 − 4 ⎞
y4 = ⎜ ⎟ cosec θ = ⎜ ⎟ ×1.3
⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
= 0.65 units
The point of intersection of influence line curve in Fig. 4.10 (e) base is at a
distance AO from left hand support.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
6m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10
1 0 P an els @ 5 m = 5 0 m
(a )
(– ) 2 .0
(b ) 1 .L.D fo r U 4 U 5
(– ) 2 .00
(c) 1 .L.D fo r U 3 U 4
(+ ) 2 .00
(d ) 1 .L.D fo r L 4 L 5
2 7.7 8 m
(+ ) y 1 = 0 .4
y 2 = 0 .5 (–)
2 2.2 2 m
(e ) 1 .L.D fo r U 4 L 4
2 2.2 2 m
y 4 = 0 .65 (+ )
(– ) y 3 = 0 .52
2 7.7 8 m
(f) 1 .L.D fo r U 4 L 5
Fig 4.10
AO = (20 + 222) = 22.22 m

Step 3. Forces in the members due to dead load
Dead load = 133 kN/m
Force in member U4U5
1
= L × 2.08 × 50 × 13.2 = – 636.4 kN (i.e., compression)
2

1
=– –2.00 × 50 × 13.2 = – 660 kN (i.e., compression)
2
Force in member L4L5
1
=+ × 2 × 50 × 13.2 = + 660 kN (i.e., compression)
2
Force in member U4L4
1 1
= [ × 27.78 × 0.5 – × 22.22 × 0.4] ×13.2
2 2
= – 33.0 kN (i.e., compression)
1 1
= [
–× 27.78 × 0.65 – × 22.22 × 0.52] × 13.2
2 2
= + 42.92 kN (i.e., tension)
Step 4. Forces in the members due to live load and impact load
(i) Member U4U5
Loaded length = 50 m
⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.313
⎝ 14 + L ⎠ ⎝ 14 + 50 ⎠
From Bridge Rules, for broad gauge, 50 m loaded length
Live load + Impact load per girder
1
= 1.313 × ( × 4380) = 2875.47 kN
2
Force in the member due to live load and impact load
1 ⎛ 2875.47 ⎞
= × 2.08 × 50 × ⎜ ⎟ = – 2990.49 kN (i.e., compression)
2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(ii) Member U3U4
⎛1 ⎞
= 1.313 × ⎜ × 4380 ⎟ = 2875.47 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 ⎛ 2875.47 ⎞
=– × 2 × 50 × ⎜ ⎟ = – 2875.47 kN (i.e., compression)
2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iii) Member L4L5

= 2875.47 kN
1 ⎛ 2875.47 ⎞
=+ × 2 × 50 × ⎜ ⎟ = + 2875.47 kN (i.e., tension)
2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
(iv) Member U4U4
(For tension)
Loaded length = 22.22 m
⎛ 20 ⎞
Impact factor = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.552
⎝ 14 + 22.22 ⎠
⎛1 ⎞
= 1.552 × ⎜ × 2404.4 ⎟ = 1865.81 kN
⎝2 ⎠
Force in member due to live load + Impact load
1 ⎛ 1865.81 ⎞
= × 0.4 × 22.22 × ⎜ ⎟ = + 373.16 kN (i.e., tension)
2 ⎝ 22.22 ⎠
(For compression)
Load length = 27.78 m
1
= 1.479 × ( × 2849.06) = 2106.88 kN
2
Force in member due to live load + Impact load
1 ⎛ 2106.88 ⎞
= × 0.5 × 27.78 × ⎜ ⎟ = 526.72 kN (compression)
2 ⎝ 27.78 ⎠
(v) Member U4U5

The force in member U4L5 may be found from force in member U4L5 by
multiplying by cosec θ = 1.3.
Compression = 1.3 × 373.16 = 485.11 kN
Tension = 1.3 × 526.72 = 684.74 kN
Design forces inthe members are as follows :

Forces in the member Design forces
D.L. (L.L. + L.L.) D.L. + L.L. + I.L.
Member Compres- Tension Compres- Tension Compres- Tension
sion sion sion
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
U4U5 686.4 — 2999.49 — 3676.89 —
U3U4 660 — 2875.47 — 3535.47 —
L4 L 5 — 660 — 2875.47 — 3535.47
U 4L 5 33.0 — 536.72 373.16 559.72 340.16
U 4L 5 — 42.92 485.11 684.74 442.19 727.66
Step 5. Design of top chord member
Forces in the member = 3676.89 kN (compression)
Allowance is not made for fatigue for the compression members.
Depth of truss girder = 6 m = 6000 mm
Depth of top chord member
1
= × 6000 = 600 mm
10
8 50 m m
7 56 m m
16 m
y = 18 0. 80 m m
X X
6 00 m m
6 44 m m
12 m m 12 m m
4 35 .2 m m
4 IS A 8 0 m m x 5 0 m m x 6 m m
Fig. 4.11
Width of top chord member

⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 6000 + 2 × 22 ⎟ = 644 mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
Try the section as shown in Figure 4.11.
Approximate radius of gyration,
rx = 0.39 h = 0.39 × 600 = 234 mm
ry = 0.55 b = 0.55 × 654 = 354 mm
rmin = 234 mm
Length of member from centre to centre of intersection is 5 m.
Effective length of member is 0.85 × 5000 = 4250 mm
4250
Maximum slenderness ratio is = 18.16
234
From IS : 833–94 allowable stress in axial compression, for the steel having
value of yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 154.37 N/mm2
⎛ 3676.89 × 1000 ⎞
Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 23818.86 mm2
⎝ 154.37 ⎠
Width of top cover plate of the section between centre to centre of rivet line
b = 762 mm
⎛b⎞ ⎛ 762 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ t ⎟ = ⎜ 16 ⎟ = 47.625 < 50
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Therefore, the whole width of top cover plate is effective in compression.
The area of section provided is as follows :
Top cover plate = 850 ×16 = 13600 mm2
Web = 2 × 600 × 12 = 14400 mm2
4 ISA 80 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm
= 4 × 746 = 2984 mm2
Total = 30984 mm2
More area is provided in order to adjust increase of force due to wind effect. The
c.g. of section from top is at a distance O
⎛ 850 × 16 × 8 + 2 × 746 × (11.6 + 16) + 2 × 736 ⎞

⎜ × (600 − 11.6 + 16) + 2 × 600 × 12 × 316) ⎟
y = ⎜ ⎟ = 180.80 mm
⎜ 850 × 16 + 2 × 746 + 2 × 746 + 2 × 600 × 12 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎡ 1 3 2 ⎤
⎢2 × 12 × 1.2 × 60 + 2 × 60 × 1.2 (30 − 18.08) + 85 × 1.6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Ixx = ⎢ × (18.08 − 0.8)2 + 2 × 7.46 × 18.08 – 2.76)2 + 2 × 7.46 ⎥ × 104 mm
⎢ × (43.52 − 1.16)2 + 4 × 14.4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
= 134601.18 × l04 mm4
⎡1 2 2 ⎤
Iyy = ⎢ × 1.6 × 85 + 2 × 60 × 1.2 × (32.1 + 0.6) + 4 × 48 ⎥ × 104 mm4
⎣18 ⎦
= 236053.09 × 104 mm4
1/2
⎛ 134601.18 × 104 ⎞
rmin = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 208.43 mm
⎝ 30984 ⎠
4250
Slenderness ratio = = 20.39
208.43
From IS : 833–94 allowable stress in axial compression for the steel having
σac = 150.883 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of the member
⎛ 150.883 × 30984 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 4674.96 kN. Hence safe.
The member may be checked for combined stresses and equivalent stress.
Step 6. Design of bottom chord member
Force in member = 3535.47 kN
To allow for the effect of fatigue
fmin = 660 kN, fmax = + 3535.47 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ 660 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.186
⎝ fmax ⎠ ⎝ 3535.47 ⎠
From IS : 1915–1961, K = 0.92
∴ Allowable stress in axial tension
= 0.92 ×0.6 × 260 = 143.52 N/mm2
⎛ 3535.47 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 24633.99 mm2
⎝ 143.52 ⎠
The overall dimension of the section is kept same as that for top chord section,
i.e., as shown in Figure 4.12.
6 00 m m
X X
4 IS A 2 00 m m
x15 0 m m
x 10 m m
6 00 m m
Fig. 4.12
The area provided is as follows :

2 web plates 600 mm × 12 mm
= 2 × 600 × 12 = 14400 mm2
2 additional plates with web
= 2 × 600 × 8 = 9600 mm2
4 ISA 200 mm ×150 mm × 10 mm
= 4 × 3400 = 13600 mm2
Total gross area provided = 37600 mm2
Use 22 mm diameter rivets. Assuming that 16 rivets would be necessary for
connecting main members, and for lacing.
Area of holes = [(4 × 23.5 × 10) + 4 × 23.5 (10 + 12 + 8)
+ 12 × 235 (8 + 12)] mm2
= 9400 mm2
Net area provided
(37600 – 9400) = 28200 mm2 > 24633.99 mm2
The member may be checked for combined and equivalent stress.
Step 7. Design of vertical member
Compressive force = 559.72 kN
Tensile force = 340.16 kN
L acin g
6 00 m m
4 IS A 12 5 m m x
75 m m x 8 m m
Fig. 4.13
The overall depth of vertical member is kept equal to the internal width of top
cord members less twice the thickness of gusset plate i.e., as shown in Figure 4.13.
Depth of members
= (644 – 2 × 22) = 600 mm
Length between centre to centre of intersection

= 6000 mm
Effective length of member
= 0.7 × 6000 = 4200 mm
Assuming allowable stress in axial compression, for the steel having yield stress
as 260 N/mm2 and slenderness ratio as 70.
σac = 115 N/mm2
⎛ 559.72 × 1000 ⎞
Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 4867.13 mm
2
⎝ 115 ⎠
Provide 4 ISA 125 mm × 75 mm × 8 mm as shown in Fig. 4.13.
Area provided = 4 × 1538 = 6152 mm2
Ixx = [5 × 67.2 + 4 × 15.38 × (30 –1.68)2] × 104 mm4
= 49676.42 × 104 mm4
Iyy = [4 × 245.5 + 4 × 15.38 × (4.15 + 0.5)2] × 104 mm4
= 2312.22 ×104 mm4
1/2
⎛ 2312.22 × 104 ⎞
rmin = ⎜ ⎟ = 61.31 mm
⎝ 6152 ⎠
⎛ 4200 ⎞
Slenderness ratio ⎜ ⎟ = 68.51
⎝ 61.31 ⎠
From IS : 833–1994 for steel having yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 116.64 N/mm2
⎛ 116.64 × 6152 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 717.56 kN. Hence safe.
⎝ 1000 ⎠
To check the member for tension
fmin = + 340.16 kN
fmax = – 559.72 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = (– 0.0608)
⎝ fmax ⎠
From IS : 1915–1961, K = 0.638
Allowable stress in axial tension, allowing the effect of fatigue
= 0.638 × (0.6 × 260) = 99.528 N/mm2
Net area required
⎛ 340.16 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 3416.73 mm2
⎝ 99.528 ⎠
Area of rivet holes

= 4 × 23.5 × 8 = 752 mm2
= (6150 – 752) = 5398 mm2
> 3417. 73. Hence safe.
Step 8. Design of diagonal member
fmin = 442.19 kN
fmax = + 727.66 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ 442.19 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ = – 0.607
f
⎝ max ⎠ ⎝ 727.66 ⎠⎟
From IS : 1915–1961, K is 0.6372
Allowable stress in axial tension, allowing the effect of fatigue
= 0.6372 × 0.6 × 260 = 99.40 N/mm2
Net area required
727.66 × 1000
= = 7320.52 mm2
99.40
Area of rivet holes
= 4 × 23.5 ×10 = 940 mm2
Gross area needed
= (7320 + 940) = 8260.52 mm2
Provide 4 ISA 125 mm × 95 mm × 12 mm
Gross area provided
= 4 × 2498 = 9992 mm2. Hence, safe.
The section for U4L5 is shown in Figure 4.14.
6 00 m m
4 IS A 1 25 m m x
95 m m x 12 m m
Fig. 4.14
Step 9. Design of joint U4

Use 22 mm diameter power-driven rivets.
π (23.5)2 × 100
= × = 43.35 kN
4 1000
23.5 × 10 × 300
= = 70.5 kN
1000
Force in U3U4 = 3535.47 kN
U4U5 = 3676.89 kN
The top chord member is a continuous member. The rivets are provided for the
difference of forces.
⎛ 3637.89 – 3535.47 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 3.26
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Provide 16 rivets
Force in U4L5(max.) = 559.72 kN
⎛ 559.72 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 12.91
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Force in U4L5 (max.) = 727.66 kN
⎛ 727.66 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 16.78 (say 20)
⎝ 43.35 ⎠
Step 10. The joint U4 is as shown in Figure 4.15. The gusset plates are kept
22 mm thick.
Example 4.2. The effective span of a through type truss girder highway through
two lane bridge is 64 m. The reinforced concrete slab is 250 mm thick inclusive of
the wearing coal. The foot paths are provided on either side of the carriageway.
The spacing between centre to centre of truss girder is 13 m. Suggest a suitable
truss girder for the bridge. Design the central top chord member, the central
bottom chord member, the vertical and diagonal member of the central panel.
Design the joint, where the central bottom chord, vertical and diagonal members.
The highway bridge is to carry IRC class A standard loading.
M em b er U 3 U 4 Joint U 4 U 4U 5
R ive ts
2 2 m m in
d ia m e te r
M em b er
U 4L 4
Fig. 4.15
Solution
Design :
A Pratt type truss girders for 64 m span with 16 panels as shown in Fig. 4.16
are provided for highway bridge.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9 U10 U 11 U 12 U 13 U 14 U 15
8m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L 11 L 12 L 13 L14 L 15 L 16
1 6 = P a ne ls @ 4 m = 6 4 m
Fig. 4.16
From IRC section I

Width of foot-paths
2 × 1.50 m = 3.00 m
The cross-girders are provided at all the panel points.
∴Numbers of cross-girders = 17
Handrails would be provided on both sides.
1 1
Height of truss girder = × span = × 64 = 8 m
8 8
1
(The minimum height of truss girders for highway bridge is ×span ). Weight
10
of reinforced concrete slab inclusive of wearing coat
⎛ 64 × 9.80 × 250 × 24 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 3763.2 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Step 1. Dead load
Weight of cross-girders (assumed @ 5.00 kN/m)
= 17 ×13 × 5 = 1105 kN
Weight of handrails for both the sides (assumed @ 1.50 kN/m
= 64 × l.50 = 96 kN
Self-weight of both the truss girders, from Fuller’s formula, as per Eq. 4.3
⎛ 15l + 550 ⎞ ⎛ 15 × 64 + 550 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ × 64
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
= 966.4 kN
Total dead load is 5930.6 kN
Dead load per truss girder is 2965.3 kN
Dead load per metre per girder is 46.233 kN/m
Transverse location of live load
For the design of members of the truss girder, the live loads are so placed that
the reaction on one truss girder is maximum.
For IRC section II.
Distance between centre to centre of two wheels of IRC class A train of loading
= 1.80 m
Width of carriageway is 6.80 m
The minimum distance between adjacent edge of wheels of two trains
⎡ (1.2 − 0.4) ⎤
g = ⎢0.40 + 2
× (6.8 − 5.5) ⎥ = 0.92 m
⎣ ⎦
The minimum clearance between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face
of kerb, for IRC class A loading
f = 0.150 mm
The transverse location of wheels of trains is as shown in Fig. 4.17.
8 .52 m
6 .72 m
3 .50 m P P P
P
13 m
Fig. 4.17
Reaction on the truss girder, A

⎡P ⎤
= ⎢ [(13 − 3.50) + (13 − 5.30) + (13 − 6.72) + (13 − 8.52) ⎥ = 2.15 P
⎣13 ⎦
For IRC section II, impact factor for steel bridges
⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
i = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.116
⎝ 13.5 + L ⎠ ⎝ 13.5 + 64 ⎠
Reaction on the truss girder A, including impact
= 2.15 × 1.116 P = 2.5 P
where, P represents the one wheel load of IRC class A train of loading.
In order to account for the effect of both the trains and the impact effect, either
the wheel loads of IRC class A loading may be increased or the forces in the members
may be increased by multiplying them by factor 2.5 P.
Step 2. Influence line diagrams for forces in members
(i) Member U7U8
The influence line diagram force U7U8 is as shown in Fig. 4.18 (b). The maximum
ordinate of the triangle
M L8 1 ⎛ 32 × 32 ⎞
= = ×
8 8 ⎝⎜ 64 ⎠⎟
= 2.00 units (Compression)
(ii) Member L7 L8
The influence line diagram for force in L7L8 is as shown in Fig. 4.18 (c). The
1 1 ⎛ 24 × 36 ⎞
= × MU7 = × ⎜
8 8 ⎝ 64 ⎠⎟
= 1.97 units (Tension)
(iii) Member L6 L7
The influence line diagram of force in L6L7 is as shown in Fig. 4.18 (d).
The maximum ordinate of the triangle
1 1 ⎛ 24 × 40 ⎞
= × MU8 = × ⎜
8 8 ⎝ 64 ⎠⎟
= 1.875 units (Tension)
(iv) Memeber U7U7
The influence line diagram for force in U7L7 is as shown in Fig. 4.18 (e). The
ordinates are as follows :
m 7
y1 = = = 0.437 units
n 16
⎛ n − m − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 16 − 7 − 1 ⎞
y2 = ⎜
n ⎟ = ⎜ 16 ⎟ = 0.5 units
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The influence line diagram for force in U7L7 is as shown in Figure 4.18 (f). The
(8 )
1/2
2
+ 42 (80 )1 / 2
cosec θ = = = 1.118
8 8
m 7
y3 = cosec θ = × 1.118 = 0.488 units
n 16
⎛ n − m − 1⎞ 8
y4 = ⎜
⎝ n ⎟⎠ cosec θ = 16 × 1.118
= 0.559 units
The influence line diagram for force in U6L7 is as shown in Fig. 4.18 (g). The
m 6
y5 = cosec θ = × 1.118 = 0.418 units
n 16
⎛ n − m − 1⎞ 9
y6 = ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ cosec θ = × 1.118
n 16
= 0.628 units
Step 3. Forces in the members due to dead load
Dead load = 46.33 kN/m
(i) Force in member U7U8
1
=– × 2 × 64 × 46.33 = – 2965.12 kN (i.e., compression)
2
(ii) Force in member L7L8
1
=+ × 1.97 × 64 × 46.33 = + 2920.64 kN (i.e., compression)
2
(iii) Force in member L6L7
1
= + × 1.875 × 64 × 46.33 = + 2779.8 kN (i.e., tension)
2
(iv) Force in member U7L7
1 1
= –[ × 34.13 × 0.5 – × 29.87 × 0.437 × 46.33]
2 2
= –92.26 kN (i.e., compression)
(v) Force in member U7L8
1 1
=–[ × 34.13 × 0.559 – × 29.87 × 0.437 × 46.33]
2 2
= + 102.93 kN (i.e., tension)
(vi) Force in member U5L7

1 1
=[ × 38.4 × 0.628 – × 25.6 × 0.418 × 46.33] = 303.16 kN
2 2
Step 4. Forces in members due to live load and impact load
(i) Force in member U7L8
1
Force in member U7U8 = × ML8
8
The force in member U7U8 is maximum when the bending moment ML8 is
maximum. The bending moment ML8 about panel point L8 is maximum, when the
shear force changes sign (in other words, when the average loading on the portion
left of L8 and the average loading on the portion right on L8 change sign from
heavy to light or from light to heavy).
Consider from right hand support, when first four loads are on portion L8B.
Average loading on L8B
1
= (75 + 13.5 + 13.5 + 3 × 34) = 5.81 kN/m (Light)
32
Average loading on AL8
1
= (57 + 4 × 34) = 6.03 kN/m (Heavy)
32
Consider from right support, when first five loads are on portion L8B.
Average loading on L8B
1
= (2 × 57 + 2 × 135 + 3 × 34
32
= 7.59 kN/m (Heavy)
Average loading on AL8
1
= (4 × 34) = 4.25 kN/m (Light)
32
Thus, it is seen that the force in member U7U8 is maximum for the longitudial
position of loading as shown in Figure 4.18 (b).
(i) Force in member U7U8
2
= [34 (18.7 + 21.7 + 24.7 + 27.7) + 57 (23 + 30.8)
32
+ 135 (27.6 + 26.5) + 34 (6.5 + 3.5 + 0.5)] = 488.88 kN
Force in member U7U8 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and
effect of impact
= 2.5 × 488.88 = 122.22 kN (Compression)
(ii) Force in member L7L8
The force in member L7L8 is maximum for the longitudinal position of loading
as shown in Fig. 4.18 (c). This position of loading has been fixed as discussed for
force in member U7U8.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9 U 10 U 11 U 12 U 13 U14 U 15
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10 L 11 L12 L13 L14 L15 B L 16

1 6 = P a ne ls @ 4 m . 64 m
(a )
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
5 .7 t
1 .2 m 5 .7 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
3 .4 t
1 .1 m 1 .3 5
1 .3 5
I.L.D . fo r U7 U8
(– ) 3 3 3 4 .3 3 .2 20 3 0 .5
m m m m m m m 3 m
m
(b )
I.L.D . fo r U7 U8
2 .00
1 .97
34
135
1 35
34 34 34 5 75 7
34 3 34 34 34
3 3 3 4 .3 3 .2 20 3 3 1 .5
(c) (+ ) m m m m m m m m m
m
1 .87 5 I.L.D . fo r L7 L 8
34
1 35
1 35
34 34 34 57 57 57 34 34 34 34 57 57
3.2 m
(d ) 3 3 3 4 .3 20 3 3 3 4 .3 1 .2
1.1
1.2
(+ ) m m m m m m m m m m
I.L.D . Fo r L 6 L 7
1 .3 5
y 1 = 0 .43 7 3 4.1 4 m
1 35
1.35
1.35
(e ) 34 34 34 34
57
(+ )
34 34 34 34 57 57 (-)
2 9.8 6 m
y 2 = 0 .5
I.L.D . fo r U7 U7
y 4 = 0 .55 9
1.35
1 .3 5
1 .3 5
(f) 34 34 34 34 57 57 (+ )
57 57 34 34 34 34
y 3 = 0 .48 8 I.L.D . fo r U 7 U 8
2 9 . 8 6m
y 6 = 0 .62 8 3 3.4 m
1 35
34 34 34 34 57 57 (+ )
57 57 34 34 34 34
(g )
y 5 = 0 .41 8
1 .3 5
1.35
2 5.6 m I.L.D . fo r U6 U7
Fig. 4.18

1.97 1.97
= [34(14.7+17.7 + 20.7 + 23.7) + 57 × 28] + [ 57 × 34.8 + 13.5
28 36
(31.6 + 30.5) + 34 (10.5 + 7.5 + 4.5 + 1.5)] = 495.08 kN
Force in member L7L8 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and effect
of impact
= 2.5 × 495.08 = 1237.70 kN (Tension).
(iii) Force in member L6L7
The force in member L6L7 is maximum for the longitudinal position of
loading as shown in Fig. 4.18 (d). This position of loading has been fixed as
discussed for member U7U8.
1.875 1.875
= [34(10.7 + 13.7+ 16.7 + 19.7) + 57 × 24] + [57 × 38.8 +13.5
24 40
+ (35.6 + 34.5) + 34(14.5 + 11.5 + 8.5 + 5.5) + 57(1.2 + 0)] = 483.36 kN
Force in member L6L7 including the effect of impact and adjacent passing vehicles
= 2.5 × 483.36 = 1208.4 kN (Tension).
(iv) Force in member U7L7
Force in U7L7 = S.F. in panel L7L8
The force in U7L7 is maximum, when shear force in panel L7L8 is maximum.
The maximum shear force in this panel occurs when the load in that panel is
equal to the total load divided by number of panels.
Total load = (2 × 13.5 + 2 × 57 + 4 × 34) = 277 kN
Load in the panel L7L8 for maximum shear force
227
= = 17.31 kN
16
For IRC class A train of vehicles, when wheel load of 13.5 kN is on the panel,
then maximum shear force occurs in the panel L7L8.
(A) Compression in member U7L7
The compression in U7L7 is maximum, when train of loading passes from right
to left. The position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (e) by firm lines.
Compression in U7L7
0.5
= [57 (32 + 30.8) + 34 (26.5 + 23.5 + 20.5 + 17.5)]
32
0.437 0.437
– [l3.5 × × 27.7 + 13.5 × 1.06] = 93.48 kN
28 1.85
Force in member U7L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and the
impact
= 93.48 × 25 = 233.7 kN.
(B) Tension in member U7L7

The tension in U7L7 is maximum when train passes from left to right. The
longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (e) by dotted lines.
Tension in U7L7
0.437 0.5
= [57(28 + 26.8) + 34(22.5 + 19.5 + 16.5 + 13.5)] – [13.5 ×
28 0.24
0.5
× 1.34 + 13.5 × × 13.7] = 76.23 kN
32
Tension in U7L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and the impact
= 25 × 76.23 kN = 190.575 kN (Tension)
(v) Force in U7L8
The position of loading is fixed as discussed for member U7L7.
(A) Tension in U7L8
The tension in U7L8 is maximum, when train passes from right to left. The
longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (f) by firm lines.
Tension in U7L8
0.599
= [57(32 + 30.8) + 34 (26.5 + 23.5 + 20.5 + 17.5)]
32
0.488 0.488
–[13.5 × × 27.7 + 13.5 × × 1.06] = 112.74 kN
28 1.86
The tension in U7L8 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle and the
impact
= 112.74 × 2.5 = 281.85 kN (Tension).
(B) Compression in U7L8
The compression in U7L8 is maximum when train passes from left to right. The
longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (f) by dotted lines.
Compression in U7L8
0.488
= [57(28 + 26.8) + 34 (22.5 + 19.5 + 16.5 + 13.5)]
28
0.559 0.559
– [1.35 × × 1.34 + 13.5 × × 31.7] = 85.90 kN
2.14 32
Compression in member U7L8 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicles
and impact
= 2.5 × 85.90 = 214.75 kN (Compression).
Force in member U6L7
The position of loading is fixed as discussed for member U7L7 .
(vi) Tension in U6L7
The tension in U7L7 is maximum when the train of loading passes from right to
left. The longitudinal position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (g) by
firm lines.
(A) Tension in U6L7
0.628
= [57(36 + 34.8) + 34(30.5 + 27.5 + 24.5 + 21.5+ 1.5)]
36
0.418 0.418
–[ 13.5 × × 23.7 + 13.5 × × 0.8] 124.8 kN.
25 1.6
Tension in the member U6L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle
and impact
= 124.8 × 2.5 = 312 kN (Tension).
(B) Compression in U6L7
The compression U6L7 is maximum when the train of loading passes from left
to right. The position of wheel loads is shown in Fig. 4.18 (g) by dotted lines.
0.418
= [57(24+ 22.8) + 34 (18.5 + 15.5 + 12.5 + 9.5)]
24
13.5 0.628
– [0.628 × × 35.7 + 13.5 × × 1.6] = 61.36 kN
24 2.4
Compression in the member U6L7 including the effect of adjacent passing vehicle
and the impact
= 61.36 × 2.5 = 153.4 kN (Compression).
Design forces in the members are as follows :
Forces in the member
(Dead Load) (L.L. + L.L.) D.L. + L.L. + I.L.
Member Compres- Tension Compres- Tension Compres- Tension
sion sion sion
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
U7U8 2965.12 — 1222.2 — 4187.32 —
L7L8 — 2920.64 — 1237.70 — 4158.34
L6L7 — 2779.80 — 1208.40 — 3988.20
U7L7 92.26 — 233.7 190.575 325.96 98.315
U7L8 — 102.93 214.75 281.85 111.82 384.78
U6L7 — 303.16 153.4 312.00 — 149.76
615.16
Step 5. Design of chord member
Force in the member = 4187.32 kN (Compression).
Allowance is not made for the effect of fatigue for the compression members.
Depth of the truss girder = 8000 mm
Depth of top chord member
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 8000⎟ = 800 mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
Width of top chord member
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 8000 + 2 × 22⎟ = 844 mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
Try the section as shown in Fig. 4.19.
Approximate radius of gyration
rx = 0.39 h = 0.39 × 800 = 312 mm
ry = 0.55 b = 0.55 × 844 = 465 mm
rmin = 312 mm
Length of the member from centre to centre of intersection
= 4000 mm
= 0.85 × 4000 = 3400 mm
Maximum slenderness ratio
3400
= = 10.9
312
Y
1 05 0 m m
9 70 m m
12 m m
y = 3 94 .86 m m
16 m m 8 44 m m 16 m m 8 00
mm
4 17 .14 m m
Fig. 4.19
From IS: 833–1994, allowable stress in axial compression for the slenderness
ratio 10.9 and the steel having yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 155.82 N/mm2
Area required
⎛ 4187.32 × 1000 ⎞
A = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 26872.80 mm
2
⎝ 155.82
Width of top cover plate of the section between centre to centre of rivet line
h = 970 mm
Ratio ⎜⎛ b ⎟⎞ = ⎛⎜ 970 ⎞⎟ = 80.8 > 50.

⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
Hence, length of plate (50 × 12) mm is only considered as effective.
The area of section provided is as follows :
Top cover plate = (50 × 12) × 12 = 7200 mm2
Web plates = 2 × 800 × 16 = 25600 mm2
Angles 4 ISA 80 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm
= 4 × 746 = 2984 mm2
Total = 35784 mm2
The c.g. of section from top is at a distance y
⎡105 × 12 × 6 + 2 × 746 × (11.6 + 12) + 2 × 746 ⎤

y = ⎢ × (800 − 11.6 + 12) + 2 × 800 × 16 × 412 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 105 × 12 × 2 × 746 + 2 × 746 + 2 × 800 × 16 ⎥⎦
= 394.86 mm
1
Ixx = [2 × ×1.6×803 + 2 × 80 × 2.6
12
× (40 – 39.486)2 + 105 × 1.2 × (39.486 – 0.6)2
+ 2 × 7.46 (39.486 – 2.76)2 + 2 × 7.46
× (41.714 – 1.16) + 4 ×12.3] × 104 mm4
= 371839.33 × 104 mm4
1
Iyy = [ × 1.2 × 1053 + 2 × 80 × 1.6 × 432
12
+ 4 × 48] × 104 mm4
= 589298.5 × 104 mm4
1/2
⎛ 4⎞
rmin = ⎜ 371839.30 × 10 ⎟ = 322.35 mm
⎝ 35784 ⎠
340
322.35
From IS : 833–94, allowable stress in axial compression, for the steel having
σac = 155.89 N/mm2
⎛ 155.89 × 35784 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 5578.36 kN
⎝ 1000
The member may be checked for combined and equivalent stresses.
Step 6. Design of bottom chord member L7L8
Force in member = 4158.34 kN
fmin = + 2920.64 kN, fmax = + 4158.34 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ 2920.64 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.702
⎜⎝ f ⎟
max ⎠ ⎝ 4158.34 ⎟⎠
From IS : 1915–1961, the value of K is 1.00
Allowable stress in axial tension = 0.6 × 260 =156 N/mm2
⎛ 4158.34 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 26656.03 mm2
156
The overall dimension of the section is kept same as that for the top chord
section i.e., as shown in Figure 4.20.
The area provided is as follows:
2 web plates 800 mm × 10 mm = 2 × 800 × 10 mm2
= 16000 mm2
2 additional plates 800 mm × 8 mm = 2 × 800 × 8 mm2
= 12800 mm2
8 00
x x mm
4 IS A 8 0 m m
x 50 m m x
6 mm
8 00 m m
Fig. 4.20
4 ISA 80 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm = 4 × 746 = 2984 mm2

Use 22 mm diameter rivets.

Assume that 4 rivets would be necessary for connecting main members and 4
rivets for lacing.
Area of rivet holes = 4 × (10 + 8 + 6) × 23.5 + 4 × 6 × 2.35
= 2820 mm2
Net area provided = (31784 – 2820) = 28964 mm2
> 26656.03 mm2. Hence, safe.
The member may be checked for combined and equivalent stresses.
Step 7. Design of vertical member U7L7
The overall depth of vertical member is kept equal to the internal width of top
and bottom chord members less twice the thickness of gusset plate i.e., as shown
in Figure 4.21.
Depth of member
= (844 – 2 × 22) = 800 mm
Length between centre to centre of intersections
= 8000 mm
= 0.7 × 800 = 5600 mm
Assuming allowable stress in axial compression, for the slenderness ratio 90
and the steel having yield stress as 260 N/mm2
σac = 92 N/mm2
Area required,
⎛ 325.96 × 1000 ⎞
A = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
91
= 3543.04 mm2
1 25 m m 1 25 m m
L acin g
8 00
mm
4 IS A 1 25 m m x
75 m m x 8 m m
1 25 m m 1 25 m m
Fig. 4.21
Provide 4 ISA 125 mm × 75 mm × 8 mm as shown in Fig. 4.21.

Area provided = 4 × 1538 = 6152 mm2
Ixx = [4 × 67.2 + 4 × 15.38 × (40 – 1.68)2] × 104 mm4
= 90606.15 × 104 mm4
Iyy = [5 × 245.5 + 4 × l5.38 ×(415 + 0.5)4] ×104 mm4
= 2312.22 × 104 mm4
1/2
⎛ 4⎞
rmin = ⎜ 2312.22 × 10 ⎟ = 61.31 mm
⎝ 6152 ⎠
5600
61.31
From IS: 833–1994, allowable stress in axial compression for steel having yield
stress as 260 N/mm2
= 90.66 N/mm2
⎛ 90.66 × 6152 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 557.74 kN. Hence, safe.
100
Step 8. Design of diagonal member U7L8
Tensile force = + 284.78 kN
Compressive force = – 111.82 kN
fmin = – 111.82 kN
fmax = + 384.78 kN
⎛ fmin ⎞ ⎛ −111.82 ⎞
⎜⎝ f ⎟ = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = – 0.29
max ⎠ 384.78 ⎠
From IS: 1915–1961, K = 0.724
Allowable stress in axial tension
= 0.724 × 0.6 × 260 = 112.94 N/mm2
⎛ 384.78 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 3406.82
112.94
Area of rivet holes = 4 × 23.5 × 10 = 940 mm2
Provide 4 ISA 90 mm × 60 mm × 10 mm.
Gross area provided = 1401 × 4 = 5604 mm2. Hence, safe.
The section for U7L8 is shown in Fig. 4.22.
90 m m 90 m m
8 00
mm
4 IS A 9 0 m m x
60 m m x 10 m m
90 m m 90 m m
Fig. 4.22
Step 9. Design of joint L7

Use 22 mm diameter power driven rivets.
π (23.5)2 × 100
× = 43.35 kN
4 1000
23.5 × 10 × 300 ⎞
= ⎛⎜ ⎟⎠ kN
⎝ 1000
= 70.5 kN
Force in L7L8 = 4158.34 kN
L6L7 = 3988.2 kN
The bottom chord member is a continuous member. The rivets are provided for
the difference of the forces.
Number of rivets
⎛ 4158.34 − 3988.2 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 3.92
43.35
Provide 8 rivets.
Force in U7L7 = 325.96 kN
Number of rivets
⎛ 395.96 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟
43.35 ⎠
= 7.52. Provide 8 rivets.
Force in U6L7 = 615.16 kN

⎛ 615.16 ⎞
Number of rivets = ⎜ = 14.19. Provide 16 rivets.
⎝ 43.35 ⎟⎠
The joint L7 is shown in Fig. 4.23. The gusset plates are kept 22 mm thick.
M em b er
U 7L 7
M em b er
U 6 L7
M em b er L 6 L 7 M em b er L 7 L 8
Fig. 4.23
4.10 BRACING OF DECK TYPE TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES

In addition to the dead load, live load and impact load, the truss girder bridge is
also subjected to lateral and longitudinal forces. In order to provide lateral stability
and torsional rigidity, the truss girder bridges are suitably braced. The bracing
consists of horizontal bracing and transverse bracing. The horizontal bracings
are also termed as horizontal truss bracings. The main horizontal truss bracing
is provided in the loaded chord of the girder. In case of the deck type truss girder
bridge, the top chord is the loaded chord, and the bottom chord is the unloaded
chord. The horizontal truss bracing is also provided in the unloaded chord of this
type of truss girder-bridge. The various type of horizontal truss bracings used are
shown in Sec. 3.16. The transverse bracings in case of the deck type truss girder
bridges consist of cross-frames. The cross-frames are provided in the vertical planes
at all the panel points of bridge.
4.11 BRACING OF THROUGH TYPE TRUSS GIRDER

BRIDGES
The bracings of through type truss girder bridge consist of top lateral (horizontal)
truss bracing, a bottom lateral horizontal truss bracing, portal bracings and
sway bracings. The top lateral (horizontal) truss bracing is provided in the horizontal
plane of the top chords of the truss girders. The bottom lateral (horizontal) truss
bracing is provided in the horizontal plane of the bottom chords of the truss girders.
The portal bracings are provided in the inclined plane of end posts of the truss
girder. The sway bracings are provided in the vertical planes at the panel points
along with the verticals of the truss girders.
4.12 WIND LOAD ON TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES

The wind load on truss girder bridge is determined as the product of appropriate
basic wind pressure and exposed area of the bridge. The appropriate basic wind
pressure for the railway bridges and the highway bridges have been given in Sec.
2.5. The exposed areas of unloaded and loaded truss girder bridges are as follows:
4.12.1 For Unloaded Truss Girder Bridges

The exposed area of unloaded span of the bridge as per Bridge Rules for the railway
bridges, and as per IRC section II for the highway bridges are considered as one
and half times the area of elevation of truss girders. However, this exposed area is
taken as 1.75 times or twice the projected area of the span, which is on safer side.
4.12.2 For Loaded Truss Girder Bridges

The exposed area of loaded span of the bridge as per Bridge Rules for the railway
bridges and as per IRC section II for the highway bridges, is considered as one and
half times the area of elevation of truss girders plus the area of moving load.
However, this exposed area is taken as 1.75 timers or twice the area of elevation of
truss girder plus the area of moving load, which is on safer side.
The areas of moving loads for the railway bridges, highway bridges, and foot
bridges have been discussed in Sec. 3.15.
4.13 WIND EFFECTS ON TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES

The wind effects on truss girder bridges are considered on the unloaded spans and
the loaded spans of the bridges, and the worst effects are taken into consideration
and properly accounted for.
The wind load has the following four distinct effects on the truss girder bridges:
1. Overturning effect of wind on the span.
2. Lateral effect on the top chords and wind bracing considered as
horizontal girder.
3. Lateral effect on the bottom chords and wind bracing considered as
horizontal girder.
4. Bending and direct stresses in the members transmitting the wind load
from the top to the bottom chords.
4.13.1 Overturning Effect

The wind loads P1 and P2 acting on the unloaded through type truss girder bridge
are shown in Fig. 4.24. The wind loads on truss girder are found as discussed in
Sec. 4.12.
P1
H e ig ht of
tru ss g irde r
h
P2
S (S pa cing ) 0 .8 m
2R L evel of b ea rin gs 2R
Fig. 4.24
The wind load acting over unloaded truss girder is determined by multiplying
the basic wind pressure and 1.75 times or twice the area of truss girders in elevation,
which one is on safer side. A part of this wind load, P1 is assumed to be acting on
the top chord. This part of wind load P1 can also be determined by multiplying the
basic wind pressure and twice the area of top chord, area of verticals, area of
diagonals and end posts and twice the area of top panel points (top gusset plates).
The remaining part of the wind load P2, is assumed to be acting on the bottom
chord. This part P1 of wind load can be found by the product of basic wind pressure
and twice the area of bottom chord, twice the area of bottom panel points (bottom
gusset. plates), area of verticals, area of diagonals and area of the end posts. These
wind loads P1 and P2 are assumed to act at the centre of gravities of top chord and
bottom chord respectively. The wind loads P1 and P2 result in an overturning
couple. The overturning couple has a tendency to overturn the bridge about the
level of bearings of truss girders. The overturning moment creates two equal and
opposite reactions 2R as shown in Fig. 4.24. These reactions furnish a resisting
moment to balance the overturning couple. Due to the overturning couple, an
additional thrust 2R is caused on the leeward girder. The overturning couple gives
an uplift 2R to the windward girder. The additional thrust is similar in action to
the dead load. The additional thrust assumed to be acting on the bottom chord.
This part P2 of wind provides reaction 2R (R, R at each end of the leeward girder)
as shown in Fig. 4.24. The additional thrust has a tendency to increase the
compressive forces already existing in the top chord and the tensile forces already
existing in the bottom chord of leeward girder. Whereas the uplift 2R due to
overturning couple in the windward girder causes opposite kind of forces in the top
and bottom chords and therefore, relieves the top chord and bottom chord from the
already existing force.
The value of reaction R may be found by taking the moment of wind loads about
one of bearings
2R × s = P1 (h + 0.80) + P2 × 0.8
1
R = [P1h + 0.80) + P2 × 0.80].
2s
The value of reaction R is expressed in terms of percentage of dead load reaction.
The increase of compressive force in top chord and tensile force in bottom chord of
the leeward girder are determined from those due to dead load only. The nature of
forces is additive in the already existing forces in the top and bottom chords of the
leeward truss girder. The wind loads acting on loaded through type truss girder in
railway bridges are shown in Fig. 4.25 and in highway bridges are shown in
Fig. 4.26 respectively.
These forces cause overturning couple about the level of bearings. The
overturning couple has the tendency to overturn the bridge. The overturning couple
causes additional thrust 2R1 in the leeward girder and uplift 2R1in the windward
truss girder. The nature of additional thrust over the leeward girder is similar to
that due to dead load, live load and impact load. The additional thrust causes
additional compressive force in top chord and additional tensile force in the bottom
chord of the leeward girder. The uplift causes opposite nature of forces in the
chords of windward girder and, therefore, relieves them from already existing
forces.
The values of reactions can be found by taking the moment about one of the
bearings. The wind load on area of moving load, in railway bridges acts at the
centre of gravity of the rolling stock as shown in Fig. 4.25. The wind load on area
W ind o n m o ving loa d
1 .50 m
R o ad surface
1 .45 m
S
Fig. 4.25
of moving load in the highway bridges acts at 1.50 m above the road surface as
shown in Fig. 4.26. The road surface is provided 1.45 m above the level of bearings.
The increase in compressive forces in the top chord and in tensile forces in the
bottom chord of leeward truss girder are determined from those due to normal
loads (dead load, live load and impact load) only.
P1
P3
(1 .41 5 m , M .G .)
(1 .75 m , B .G .) h
h3 0 .60 m
P2
S h 2 = 0 .80 m
L evel of b ea rin gs
2R1 2R 1
Fig. 4.26
The lateral effect on top chord, the lateral effect on bottom chord and the bending
stresses in the members transmitting the wind load from top chord to the bottom
chord have been discussed in Secs. 4.14, 4.15, 4.16 and 4.23 respectively.
4.14 TOP LATERAL BRACING

In case of the through type truss girder bridges, the top lateral (horizontal truss)
bracings are provided in the horizontal plane between the top chords of bridges.
W ind loa d pe r u nit le n gth
Top cho rd of w in d-w ard g ird er
S truts
D ia g on als
Top cho rd of le ew a rd girde r
Fig. 4.27
The top lateral bracing provides rigidity to the bridge structure. The top chords of
through type bridge are the compression chords. The top lateral bracing connects
both the top (compression) chords. The top lateral bracing also acts as lacing
between the top (compression) chords. This provides stability to these chords. The
top chords of main truss girders also act as chords of top horizontal lateral bracing
as shown in Fig. 4.27.
The cross or double diagonal horizontal bracing is most commonly used. This
type of diagonal bracing gives better appearance. The diagonals are connected at
the points of their intersections. The struts are used to connect opposite points and
to complete the horizontal truss. The top lateral (horizontal) truss bracing resists
wind load, acting at the centre of gravity of top chord. The maximum wind load on
the top chord is in case of unloaded span and the same is taken into consideration.
In addition to the wind, the top lateral bracing is also designed to resist transverse
shear force at any section. The transverse shear force is assumed equal to 2.5
percent of the sum of compressive force in both the top chords at the section
under consideration.
For the analysis, it is assumed that the diagonal member which is in tension,
remains effective. The other diagonal member remains dummy. When the direction
of wind changes, the former effective diagonal members become dummy members
and the former dummy diagonal members become effective tension members. The
end strut and the end diagonal member carry maximum forces. The strut and
diagonal are designed for these forces. The values of forces in strut and diagonal
are small. These require nominal sizes. The same sizes are adopted for intermediate
struts and intermediate diagonals. The single or double angle sections are adopted
for the struts and diagonals.
As regards lateral effect on the top chords, the maximum wind load act as
uniformly distributed load on the top chords as shown in Fig. 4.17. The top lateral
bracing acts as a simply supported horizontal girder. The top lateral bracing is
subjected to maximum moment in the centre. It is assumed from steel theory that
this moment is resisted by two equal and opposite forces in the chords acting at a
distance equal to the spacing of truss girders. The values of forces are determined
for each panel by equating the resisting moment to the corresponding moment.
This force is compressive in the top chord of the windward girder and tensile in the
top chord of the leeward girder. The nature of this force is additive for the top
chord of windward girder and subtractive for the top chord of the leeward girder.
4.15 BOTTOM LATERAL BRACING

In case of the through type bridge, the bottom lateral (horizontal truss) bracing is
provided in the horizontal plane between the bottom chords. The bottom chords of
main truss girders also act as chords of bottom horizontal (lateral) bracing. The
cross or double diagonal bracing as shown in Fig. 4.28 is most commonly used.
The cross or double diagonal bracing gives better appearance. The diagonals are
connected the floor beams and also at the point of their intersections. The bottom
lateral bracing resists wind load acting at the centre of gravity of the bottom
chord. In addition to the wind load, the bottom horizontal truss bracing also resists
racking force and the longitudinal force. The racking forces has been discussed in
Sec. 2.6. The longitudinal force has been discussed in Sec. 2.7. The maximum
lateral load (wind load in case of unloaded span and wind load plus racking force in
case of loaded span) is taken into consideration and properly accounted for.
The longitudinal forces have a tendency to develop bending stresses in the flanges
of the floor beams. In order to avoid this, the longitudinal forces are transmitted to
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
b b
c c
d d d d
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
(a ) S ing le tra ck
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
d d
e e
f f
c c
b b g
g
h h
a a
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
(b ) D o ub le tra ck
Fig. 4.28
the main truss girders by means of traction frames. In single track bridge, the
transverse struts are connected with the bottom flanges of the stringers (rail
bearers) at the points of their intersection with the diagonals of the bottom horizontal
(lateral) bracing as shown in Fig. 4.28 (a). Such transverse strut, ab with the
diagonals makes a Lo ab Lo c d Lo´ queen post truss. This queen post truss (traction
frame) transmits the longitudinal forces to the main truss. Similar traction frame
is also provided at the other end. In double-track bridges, the traction frame Lo’abcd
Loefgh Lo, is made as shown in Fig. 4.28 (b). Such traction frames are provided in
the end panels. It is not necessary to provide such traction frames in each panel. It
is desirable to provide such traction frames at intervals of 30 m. The longitudinal
forces are transmitted to these frames by the stringers. The magnitude of
longitudinal force depends upon the number of panels over which tractive or braking
forces are applied. These traction frames may also be provided at the top flange of
the stringers.
For the purpose of analysis, it is assumed that the diagonal members which are
in tension, remain effective. The other diagonal members remain dummy. When
the direction of wind changes, the former effective diagonal members become dummy
and the former dummy members become effective tension members. The diagonal
members are designed for the maximum lateral load of loaded and unloaded spans.
As regards the lateral effect on the bottom chord, the bottom lateral bracing act
as a horizontal truss girder. It is to note that for this purpose, only wind load is
considered and racking force is not taken into consideration. The bottom lateral
bracing is subjected to bending moment due to uniformly distributed wind load
acting on the bottom chord. It is assumed from steel theory, that this moment is
resisted by two equal and opposite forces in the bottom chords, acting at a distance
equal to the spacing of main truss girders. The value of force is found by equating
the moment and resisting moment. This force is compressive in the bottom chord
of the windward girder and tensile in the bottom chord of the leeward girder. The
nature of this force is additive for the bottom chord of the leeward girder and
subtractive for the bottom chord of windward girder.
Example 4.3 The effective span of a through type Pratt truss girder railway
bridge for a single broad gauge track is 50 m. Pratt truss girder consists of 10
panels @ 5 m. The height of girder between c.g. to c.g. of chords is 6 m. The
spacing between main truss girders is 7 m. The rail level is 800 mm above the c.g.
of bottom chord. The chord members are 600 mm deep × 644 mm wide. The
inner web members are 600 mm deep × 260 wide. The end posts are 600 mm deep
× 644 mm wide. Determine the increase or decrease of forces in the central chord
member of the leeward truss girder in the following cases :
(b) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is unloaded.
(c) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
(d) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is loaded.
Solution
A Pratt truss girder is as shown in Fig. 4.29.
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10
Fig. 4.29
Step 1. (Case I) Bridge is unloaded

Wind pressure = 2.40 kN/m2
The details of exposed area of truss girder area as follows :

S.No. Details of Depth Width Face Total
exposed area length/area
1. Top chord 0.60 m 0.644 m 0.60 m 40 m
2. Bottom chord 0.60 m 0.644 m 0.60 m 50 m
3. End posts 0.60 m 0.644 m 0.60 m 2 ×7.8 m
4. Verticals 0.60 m 0.26 m 0.26 m 9 × 6.0 m
5. Diagonals 0.60 m 0.26 m 0.26 m 8 × 7.8 m
6. Gusset plate area
@ 0 5 m2 for each
gussets 9 × 0 5 m2
at top and — — — 4.5 m2
11 × 0.5 m2 at
bottom — — — 5.5 m2
Wind load on windward girder is as follows :
1. Wind load on top chord = (40 × 0.60 × 2.40) = 57.60 kN
2. Wind load on bottom chord = (50 × 0.60 × 2.40) = 72 kN
3. Wind load on verticals = (9 × 6 × 0.26 × 2.40) = 33.70 kN
4. Wind load on diagonals = (8 × 7.8 × 0.26 × 2.40) = 38.94 kN
5. Wind load on end posts = (2 × 7.8 × 0.60 × 2.40) = 22.46 kN
6. Wind load on top gussets = (4.5 × 2.40) = 10.8 kN
7. Wind load on bottom gussets = (5.5 × 2.40) = 13.2 kN
Spacing between main girders = 7 m.
Wind load is assumed 75 percent of wind load on windward girder for leeward
girder.
Wind load on leeward girder is as follows :
1. Wind load on top chord = 0.75 × 57.60 = 43.20 kN
2. Wind load on bottom chord = 0.75 × 72.0 = 54 kN
3. Wind load on verticals = 0.75 × 33.70 = 25.27 kN
4. Wind load on diagonals = 0.75 × 38.94 = 29.21 kN
5. Wind load on end posts = 0.75 × 24.4 = 18.30 kN
6. Wind load on top gussets = 0.75 × 10.8 = 8.1 kN
7. Wind load on bottom gussets = 0.75 × 13.2 = 9.9 kN
Wind load acting on top chord
1 1
P1 = Wind load on top chord + wind load on verticals + wind load on
2 2
diagonals and end posts + wind load on top gussets
1 1 1
P1 = [(57.60 + 43.20) + (33.70 + 25.27) + (38.94 + 29.21) + (22.46 + 18.30)
2 2 2
+ (108 + 8.1)] = 203.64 kN
Wind load acting on bottom chord

1 1
P2 = Wind load on bottom chord + wind load on vertical + wind load on
2 2
diagonals and end posts + wind load on bottom gussets
1 1 1
P2 = [(72 + 54) + (33.70 + 25.27) + (38.94 + 20.21) + (22.46 + 18.30)
2 2 2
+ (13.2 + 9.9)] = 233.04 kN
Wind loads acting on top and bottom chords, when the bridge is unloaded are
shown in Fig. 4.30.
P1
6m
P2
7m 0 .80 m
L evel o f
2R 2R
b ea rin gs
Fig. 4.30
Step 2. Overturning effect due to wind, when bridge is unloaded.

Take the moment about level of bearings
2R × 7 = (P1 × 6.80 + P2 × 0.80)
= (203.64 × 6.80 + 233.04 × 0.8)
R = 112.23 kN, 2R = 224.45 kN
Due to overturning effect, a thrust of 224.45 kN acts downward on leeward girder.
Increase of stress in central top chord member U4U5 of the leeward girder
1 ⎛ 1 25 × 25 ⎞ ⎛ 224.45 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ ⋅ (50) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
2⎝6 50 ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠
= 233.80 kN (compression).
Increase of stress in central bottom chord L4L5 of the leeward girder
1 ⎛ 1 25 × 30 ⎞ ⎛ 224.45 ⎞
= × × ⋅ (50) ⋅ ⎜
2 ⎝⎜ 6 50 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 50 ⎠
⎟
= 224.45 (tension)
Step 3. Lateral effect of top chord bracing when the bridge is unloaded.
P1
7m
8 P a ne ls @ 5 m = 40 m
Fig. 4.31
Wind pressure acting on top lateral bracing is shown in Fig. 4.31.

The top chord members of the leeward girder are subjected to tension due to
lateral effect of the top lateral bracing. Therefore, the forces in these members
decrease.
Decrease in force in central top chord member, U4U5 due to top lateral bracing.
⎛ 203.64 × 40 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ = 145.46 kN
⎝ 8 7⎠
Step 4. Lateral effect of bottom bracing when the bridge is unloaded.
Wind pressure acting on bottom lateral bracing is shown in Fig. 4.32.
P2
7m
1 0 P an els @ 5 m = 5 0 m
Fig. 4.32
The bottom chord members of leeward girder are subjected to tension. Therefore,
the forces in these members increase.
Increase of force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
⎛ 233.04 × 50 ⎞ 1
= ⎜
8 ⎟ × = 208.07 kN (Tension)
⎝ ⎠ 7
Step 2. (Case II) Bridge is loaded
⎛ 203.64 × 1.50 ⎞
Wind load on top chord = ⎜ ⎟ = 127.275 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
⎛ 233.04 × 1.50 ⎞
Wind load on bottom chord = ⎜ ⎟ = 145.65 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
Wind load on moving train = 50 × 3.50 × l.50 = 262.50 kN
Wind loads acting on the loaded bridge are shown in Fig. 4.33.
P1
B ro ad g au ge
ro lling sto ck
3 .5 m
P3
1.7 5
0 .6
0 .8 0 m
P2
7m 0 .80 m
L evel o f
2R b ea rin gs 2R
Fig. 4.33
Step 6. Overturning effect due to wind, when bridge is loaded

Take moment about one of bearings
2R × 7 = [127.275 × 6.80 + 145.65 × 0.80 + 262.50
(0.75 + 0.60 + 0.80 + 0.80)]
R = 125.45 kN, 2R = 250.91 kN
Due to overturning a thrust of 250.91 kN acts downward on leeward girder.
Increase of stress in central top chord U4U5 member of leeward girder
1 1 ⎛ 25 × 25 ⎞ ⎛ 250.91 ⎞
= × × ⋅ (50 ) ⋅ ⎜
2 6 ⎜⎝ 50 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠
⎟
= 261.36 kN (Compression)
Increases of stress in central bottom chord member L4L5
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 20 × 30 ⎞ ⎛ 250.91 ⎞
= × × ⋅ (50 ) ⋅ ⎜
2 ⎝⎜ 6 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 50 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 50 ⎠
⎟
= 250.91 kN (Tension).
Step 7. Lateral effect or top chord bracing when the bridge is loaded
Wind load on top lateral bracing, when the bridge is unloaded
= 203.64 kN
Wind load on top lateral bracing, when the bridge is loaded
= 127.275 kN
Decreases in force in central top chord member due to lateral bracing when
bridge is unloaded
= 145.46 kN
Decrease in force in central top chord member due to top lateral bracing when
bridge is loaded
⎛ 145.46 × 127.275 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 90.91 kN
⎝ 203.64 ⎠
Step 8. Lateral effect of bottom chord bracing when bridge is loaded
Wind pressure acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is unloaded
= 233.04 kN
Increase of force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
= 208.07 kN (Tension)
Wind pressure acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is loaded
= (P2 + P3) = (145.65 + 262.50) = 408.15 kN
Increase of force in central bottom chord members due to bottom lateral bracing
⎛ 408.15 ⎞
= 208.07 × ⎜ ⎟ = 363.23 kN (Tension).
⎝ 233.80 ⎠
Example 4.4 The effective span of a through type Pratt truss girder two lane
highway bridge is 64 m. The highway bridge carries IRC class A loading. Pratt
truss girder consists of 16 panels @ 4 m. The depth of girder between c.g. to c.g.
of chord is 8 m. The spacing between main girders is 13 m. The chord members
are 800 mm deep × 844 mm wide. The vertical members are 800 mm deep × 260
mm wide and the diagonal members are 800 mm deep × 190 mm wide. The end
posts are 800 mm deep × 844 mm wide. Determine the increase or decreases in
the central chord members of the leeward truss girder in the following cases :
(a) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is unloaded
(b) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracing, when the bridge
is unloaded
(c) Overturning effects due to wind, when the bridge is loaded
is loaded.
Solution
A Pratt truss girder is shown in Fig. 4.34.
Step 1. (Case I) Bridge is unloaded
Wind pressure = 240 kN/m2
Length of diagonals = (82 + 42)1/2 = 8.94 m
The details of exposed area of truss girder are as follows :
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7 U8 U9 U 1 0 U 11 U 1 2 U 1 3 U 1 4 U 1 5
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2 L 1 3 L 1 4 L 1 5 L 1 6
1 6 P an els @ 4 m = 6 4 m
Fig. 4.34
S.No. Details of Depth Width Face Total

exposed area length/area
1. Top chord 0.80 m 0.844 m 0.80 m 56 m
2. Bottom chord 0.80 m 0.844 m 0.80 m 64 m
3. End posts 0.80 m 0.844 m 0.80 m 8 × 8.94 m
4. Verticals 0.80 m 0.26 m 0.26 m 15 × 8.0 m
5. Diagonals 0.80 m 0.19 m 0.19 m 14 × 8.94 m
6. Gussets for top chord
@ 0.5 m2 15 × 0.5 m2 7.5 m2
For bottom chord
@ 0.5 m2 17 × 0.5 m2 8.5 m2
Wind load on windward and leeward girders (assumed 100 percent of wind load
on windward girder) both is as follows :
1. Wind load on top chord
= 56 × 0.80 × 2.40 × 2 = 215.04 kN
2. Wind load on bottom chord
= 64 × 0.80 × 2.40 × 2 = 245.76 kN
3. Wind load on verticals
= 15 × 8 × 2.40 × 0.26 × 2 = 149.76 kN
4. Wind load on diagonals
= 14 × 8.94 × 0.19 × 2.40 × 2 = 114.15 kN
5. Wind load on end posts
= 2 × 8.94 × 0.80 × 2.40 × 2 = 68.66 kN
6. Wind load on top gussets
= 7.4 × 2.40 × 2 = 36 kN
7. Wind load on bottom gussets
= 8.5 × 2.40 × 2 = 40.8 kN
Wind load acting on top chord
1 1
P1 = Wind load on top chord + wind load on verticals + wind load on
2 2
diagonals and end posts + wind load on top gussets
1 1 1
P1 = [215.04 + × 149.76 + × 114.14 + × 68.65 + 36] = 417.28 kN
2 2 2
Wind load acting on bottom chord
1 1
P2 = Wind load on bottom chord + wind load on verticals + wind load on
2 2
diagonals and end posts + wind load on bottom gussets
1 1 1
P2 = [245.76 + × 149.76 + 114.15 + × 68.65 + 40.8] = 452.83 kN
2 2 2
Wind loads acting on top chord and on bottom chord, when the bridge is unloaded
are shown in Fig. 4.35.
P1
6m
P2
13 m 0 .80 m
2R 2R
Fig. 4.35
Step 2. Overturning effect due to wind when bridge is unloaded

Take the moment about the level of bearings
2R × 13 = P1 × 8.80 + P2 × 0.80
= 417.28 × 8.80 + 452.84 × 0.80
R = 155.17 kN, 2R = 310.33 kN
Due to overturning effect, a thrust of 310.33 kN acts downward on leeward
girder.
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 32 × 32 ⎞ ⎛ 310.33 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (64 ) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠
Increase of stress in central bottom chord member L7L8 of the leeward girder
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 28 × 36 ⎞ ⎛ 310.33 ⎞
= × × ⋅ (64 ) ⋅ ⎜
2 ⎝⎜ 8 ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 64 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 64 ⎠
⎟
Step 3. Lateral effect of top chord bracing when the bridge is unloaded
Wind pressure acting on top lateral bracing is shown in Fig. 4.36.
P1
13 m
1 4 P an els @ 4 m = 5 6 m
Fig. 4.36
The top chord members of leeward girder are subjected to tension due to lateral
effect of top lateral bracing. Therefore, the forces in these members decrease.
Decrease in force in central top chord member due to top lateral bracing
P1 × 56 1 ⎛ 417.28 × 56 1 ⎞
× = ⎜ × ⎟ kN
8 13 ⎝ 8 13 ⎠
Step 3. Lateral effect of bottom chord bracing when the bridge is
unloaded
Wind load acting on bottom chord bracing is shown in Fig. 4.37.
P2
13 m
1 6 P an els @ 4 m = 6 4 m
Fig. 4.37
The bottom chord members of leeward girder are subjected to tension. Therefore,
the forces in these members increase.
Increase of forces in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
P2 × 64 1 ⎛ 452.84 × 64 1 ⎞
× = ⎜ × ⎟ kN
8 13 ⎝ 8 13 ⎠
Step 4. (Case II) Bridge is loaded.
Wind load on top chord
⎛ 417.28 × 1.50 ⎞
P1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 260.8 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
Wind load on bottom chord
⎛ 452.54 × 1.50 ⎞
P3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 283.03 kN
⎝ 2.40 ⎠
From IRC section II
Length of IRC class A loading
= (8.2 + 1.2 + 4.9 + 1.2 + 4.9) = 20.4 m

Intensity of wind on ordinary highway bridge
= 3.00 kN/linear metre
Number of trains = 2
Wind load on moving trains
P3 = 20.4 × 3.00 × 2 = 122.4 kN
The wind load on moving train acts 1.5 m above road surface.
The road surface is 1.45 m above the level of bearings. The wind loads on loaded
bridge are shown in Fig. 4.38.
Step 5. Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
Take moment about one of the bearings
2R × 13 = P1 × 8.80 + P2 × 0.80 + P3 × 2.95
2R × 13 = 260.8 × 8.80 + 283.03 × 0.80 + 122.4 × 2.95
R = 110.87 kN, 2R = 221.73 kN
Due to overturning a thrust of 221.73 kN acts downward on leeward girder.
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 32 × 32 ⎞ ⎛ 221.73 ⎞
=×⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (64) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠
Increase of stress in central bottom chord member L7L8
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 28 × 36 ⎞ ⎛ 221.63 ⎞
= ×⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ × (64) × ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠
P1
W ind load on
m ovin g tra in
P3 8m
1 .50 m
P2 1 .45 m
13 m 0 .80 m
2R 2R
Fig. 4.38
Step 6. Lateral effect of top chord bracing when the bridge is loaded.
Wind load on top lateral bracing when the bridge is unloaded
P1 = 417.28 kN
Wind load on top lateral bracing when the bridge is loaded
P1´ = 260.8 kN
the bridge is unloaded
= 224.69 kN
the bridge is loaded
260.8
= 224.69 × = 140.43 kN
417.28
Step 7. Lateral effect of bottom chord bracing when the bridge is
loaded
Wind load acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is unloaded
P1 = 452.84 kN
Increase in force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
= 278.67 kN
Wind load acting on bottom lateral bracing when the bridge is loaded
= (P2 + P3) = (283.03 + 122.4) = 405.43 kN
Increase in force in central bottom chord member due to bottom lateral bracing
405.43
= 278.67 × = 249.49 kN
452.84
Example 4.5 Design the top lateral bracing and bottom lateral bracing for the
through type truss girder railway bridge for a single broad gauge track as in
Example 4.3.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. To lateral bracing
The horizontal truss bracing with cross-diagonals as shown in Fig. 4.39 is provided
between the top chords of windward and leeward truss girders. The diagonals
which carry tension remain active.
P1
7m
8 P a ne ls @ 5 m = 40 m
Fig. 4.39
From Example 4.3

When the bridge is unloaded, the wind load acting on the bridge structure on
windward and leeward girders P1 = 203.64 kN. This is also maximum.
Reaction at the end
1
= × 203.64 = 101.82 kN
2
8 panels @ 5 m are provided in the top lateral bracing.
Lateral load at each intermediate panel point
⎛ 203.64 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 25.45 kN
⎝ 8 ⎠
Lateral load at end panel = 12.73 kN
Shear force in end panel
= (101.82 – 12.73) = 89.09 kN
5
tan θ = = 1.2 , θ = 50° 12´
7
sin θ = 0.768, cosec θ = 1.305
Force in the end diagonal
= 89.09 × 1.305 =116.26 kN
Step 2. End strut
Effective length = 0.85 × 7000 = 5950 mm
Compression in end strut = 101.82 kN
Assume allowable stress in axial compression for the slenderness ratio 120 and
the steel having yield stress as 260 n/mm2
τac = 64 N/mm2
Cross-sectional area required
⎛ 101.82 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1590.94 mm
4
⎝ 64 ⎠
Maximum allowable slenderness ratio for compression members of wind
bracing = 140
Minimum radius of gyration
⎛ 5950 ⎞
rmin = ⎜ ⎟ = 42.5 mm
⎝ 140 ⎠
Provide 2 ISA 150 mm × 115 mm × 8 mm with 10 mm gusset plate
rx = 47.6 mm, ry = 46.2 mm
Area, A = 4116 mm2
⎛ 5960 ⎞
Slenderness ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 126.86 < 140
⎝ 46.2 ⎠
From IS: 833–1994, allowable stress in axial compression for the steel having
= 59.24 N/mm2
Force carrying capacity of member
⎛ 59.24 × 4116 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 243.83 kN. Hence safe.
1000
It is to note that the extra force carrying capacity of end strut also takes into
account 2½percent of axial compression of the member in the panel under
consideration for bracing.
Step 3. Diagonal member
Force in diagonal = 116.26 kN
⎛ 116.26 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 745.26 mm
2
⎝ 0.6 × 260 ⎠
Area of rivet hole = 235 mm2
Provide ISA 90 mm × 60 mm × 10 mm
Gross area provided = 1401 mm2. Hence safe.
Step 4. Bottom lateral bracing
The bottom lateral bracing with cross-diagonals as shown in Fig. 4.40 provided
between the bottom chords of windward and leeward truss girders. The diagonals
which carry tension remain active.
P2 + P3 + P4
1 0 P an els @ 5 m = 5 0 m
Fig. 4.40
From Example 4.3

Wind load on bottom chord when bridge is unloaded
P2 = 233.04 kN
Wind load on bottom chord when bridge is loaded
P2´ = 145.65 kN
Wind load on moving train P3´ = 262.50 kN
Racking force @ 6.00 kN/m
P4´ = 6.00 × 50 = 300 kN
Total lateral load= P2´ + P3´+ P4´ = 708.15 kN
The lateral load action in the plane of bottom lateral bracing is maximum in
case the bridge is loaded. Therefore, the bottom lateral bracing is designed for
lateral force = 708.15 kN.
End reaction = 354.075 kN

Wind load at each intermediate panel point = 70.815 kN
Wind load at end panel
1
= × 70.815 = 35.41 kN
2
Shear force in end panel
= (354.075 – 35.41) = 318.65 kN
cosec θ = 1.305
Force in diagonal member
= 318.655 × 1.305 = 415.86 kN
Allowable stress in axial tension
= 0.6 × 260 = 156 N/mm2
⎛ 415.86 × 1000 ⎞
Net area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 2665.76 mm
2
⎝ 156 ⎠
Assuming area for rivet hole = 640 mm2
Provide 2 ISA 150 mm × 115 mm × 10 mm.
Gross area provided = 2 × 2552 = 5104 mm2. Hence safe.
4.16 PORTAL BRACING

The top lateral bracing and bottom lateral bracing stabilize the bridge structure
in the horizontal plane. In order to prevent the distortion of rectangular section of
a through type bridge, the end posts are tied together to form a rigid frame. This
rigid frame in combination with the end posts of truss girders provides transverse
bracing. Since, this rigid frame is provided at the entrance of bridge, it is known
as portal bracing. The portal bracing may be provided in a single plane or in two
planes. In case the portal bracing is provided in single plane, it is located preferably
in the central transverse plane of the end posts, with diaphragms between the
webs of the end posts to provide for a distribution of the portal stresses. The portal
bracing should be as deep as clearance (head-room) allow. (The clearance diagrams
have been given in Sec. 1.8). The deep portal frames minimize the bending stresses
in the end posts and provide maximum rigidity.
The portal bracing is designed to resist the full end reaction due to wind load on
the top lateral bracing. The maximum wind load of unloaded span is taken into
consideration. The end posts transfer this reaction to the truss bearings.
In addition to the wind, the portal bracing is designed for an assumed cross-
1
shear at any section equal to 1 percent of the sum force in both the end posts or
4
both the top chords of the end panel whichever is more.
The various types of portal bracing which are used as shown in Fig. 4.41.
Fre e
L en gth
(a ) (b )
Fre e
L en gth
(c) (d )
(e ) (f)
(g )
Fig. 4.41
The portal bracing shown in Fig. 4.41 (a) consists of a plate girder bracing. This
is most effective where the head-room available is small. The portal bracing shown
in Figure 4.41 (b) is known as A-frame. This type of portal bracing is suitable
where greater head-room is available. This type is common for single track railway
bridges. The portal bracing shown in Figs. 4.41 (c), (d), (e) and (f) are used for
shallow head-room. These are common in double track railway bridges. The portal
bracing shown in Figs. 4.41 (g) and (h) are used where deep head rooms are available.
The deep head-rooms occur in heavy trusses. These rigid portal bracings are
necessary to assure sufficient rigidity.
As regards the portal effect in the bottom chords of main truss girders, it would
be noted that the inclined end posts are subjected to direct stresses. The windward
end post would be subjected to tension and the leeward end post would be subjected
to compression. The direct stresses in the end post produce horizontal reactions at
their bottom ends. One end of the truss girder is supported on rollers. Therefore,
the horizontal reactions at the bottom ends of the end posts are provided by the
bottom chords if the truss girders. The magnitude of this horizontal reaction is
equal to the horizontal component of the direct stress in the end post of the portal
bracing. As a result of the portal effect, the bottom chord of windward truss girder
is subjected to compression and the bottom chord of leeward truss girder is subjected
to tension. The compression and tension due to portal effect in the bottom chords of
the truss girders are uniform throughout their length. The vertical component of
direct stresses in the and posts are transmitted to the bearings.
4.17 ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF PORTAL

FRAMES
The end posts of a through type truss girder bridge are assumed to have fixed
supports. Therefore, the portal bracings act as rigid frames. Such portal bracings
are statically indeterminate to third degree. In order to have the analysis of the
portal bracings by the approximate method, three assumptions are necessary.
These assumptions are as follows :
1. The horizontal shear on the portal bracing is shared equally by both the
end posts.
2. A point of contraflexure occurs in the middle of free length of one end
post.
3. A point of contraflexure also occurs in the middle of free length of other
end port.
First assumption is reasonable in case the portal bracing is symmetrical and
the bending stiffnesses of the end posts are equal. Second and third assumptions
are also reasonable, since the points of reversal of curvature would occur near the
centre of free length of end posts. Second and third assumptions are equivalent to
assume hinges at the middle of free lengths of the end posts. Therefore, the portal
bracing with fixed bases may be analysed by considering end posts hinged at the
points of contraflexures.
4.18 ANALYSIS OF PORTAL BRACING

Figure 4.42 shows a portal bracing, drawn parallel to the plane of end posts.
This type of portal bracing is used where head-room is small. The member CC
may be a beam or a plate girder. The member A´ C´ and AC are the end posts. The
bottom ends of end posts are assumed to have fixed supports. The points of
contraflexure are assumed to occur at the centre of AD and A´D´ i.e., at A1 and A1´.
The horizontal shears in end posts are equal and are shown in Fig. 4.42. The
vertical reactions are found by taking the moment of all the forces acting on the
portal bracing above A1 and A1´ about A1 and A1´ .
⎛ h⎞
∴ V.s = P ⎜ a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h⎞
V = ⎜ a+ ⎟
s⎝ 2⎠
The bending moment at the bottom ends of end posts are maximum and are as
follows:
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
The bending moment at D and D´ on the end posts are also maximum and are
as under:
X
P F1
C' C
S d
D' D F2
X
h
2
P
A '1 2 A1
P
V' V
2
h
2
A' A
Fig. 4.42
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
P
The shear force in each end post is equal to . The axial stresses in the end
2
posts are equal to vertical reactions,
⎡ h ⎤
⎢ P ⎛⎜ a + ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2⎠
⎢i.e., V = ⎥
⎣ s ⎦
The axial stress in AĆ´ is tensile and that in AC is compressive.
In order to find the forces in the beam or plate girder, consider a section XX at
a distance x from C. Consider the equilibrium of right hand side portion of the
portal bracing. F1 and F2 represent force in the flanges and S represents shear
force at the section XX. It is assumed that the bending moment is resisted completely
by the flanges. Taking the moment at the centre of upper flange.
P⎛ h⎞
F2· a = ⎜ a + ⎟ –V ⋅x
2⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎡P ⎛ h⎞ ⎛ h⎞x⎤
F2 = a + ⎟ − P ⎜a + ⎟ ⎥
a ⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ s⎦
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡1 x ⎤
F2 = ⎜ a + ⎟⎢ − ⎥
a⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣2 s ⎦
P ⎛ h⎞
when x = 0, F2 = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2a ⎝ 2⎠
s
when x = , F2 = 0
2
P ⎛ h⎞
when x = s, F2 = − ⎜ a + ⎟
2a ⎝ 2⎠
P ⎛ h⎞
Thus, the force in bottom flange is zero at the centre and ⎜ a + ⎟ at the
2a ⎝ 2⎠
ends, compression at the leeward side and tension at the windward side.
Taking the moment at the centre of bottom flange
P h
F1· a = ⋅ −V ⋅x
2 2
1 ⎡ Ph P ⎛ h⎞ ⎤
F1 = ⎢ − ⎜a + ⎟x⎥
a⎣ 4 s⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
P ⋅h
when x = 0, F1 = –
4
s Ph
when x = , F1 = –
2 2
1 ⎡P ⋅h ⎤ ⎡P ⋅h ⎤
when x = s, F1 = − + P ⋅ a⎥ = − ⎢ + P⎥
a ⎢⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 a ⎦
Thus, the force in top flange is maximum tensile at right end, and maximum
P
compressive at the left end. The force in top flange at the centre is compressive.
2
The shear force at all points is equal to
P⎛ h⎞
S = V= ⎜ a+ ⎟
s⎝ 2⎠

Figure 4.43 shows a portal bracing drawn parallel to the plane of the end posts.
This type of portal bracing is used where head-room is small. The member CC´
is a continuous beam. It resists moment, shear and direct stress. FD and F´Dáre
two knee braces. These members carry direct stresses only. The end posts are also
continuous. The knee braces are hingned to the end posts. In this type of portal
bracing a section cannot be passed through the end posts or the beam except at the
ends of these members without taking into account the moment, shear and direct
stress in the unknowns. The ends of the beam C and C´ are assumed as hinged.
The bottom ends of end posts AC and AĆ´ are assumed to have fixed supports
as shown in Fig. 4.43 (a). The points of contraflexures are assumed at the centre of
AD and A´D´, i.e., at A1 and A1´. The horizontal shears in end posts are equal and
are shown in Fig. 4.43. The vertical reaction on this portal bracings are equal to
the axial forces in the posts. The vertical reactions may be found by taking moments
of all the forces acting on the portal bracing above A1 and A1´ about A1 and A1´.
⎛ h⎞
∴ V. s = P ⎜ a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h⎞
V = a+ ⎟
s ⎝⎜ 2⎠
P
The horizontal shears above A1 and A1´ in A1C and A1´ C are equal to . The
2
horizontal shears below A1 and A1´ are as shown in Fig. 4.43 (a); and are equal P to
P
. The moment MA at bottom end of post AC i.e., at A is equal to the horizontal
2
shear at the point of contraflexure in the end post multiplied by the distance from
the bottom to the point of contraflexure. The moments are maximum and are as
follows :
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ × ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Moment at A´,
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA´ = ⎜ × ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
Moment at D = ⎜ × ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
Moment at D´ = ⎜ × ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Moment at C = 0
Ph
F' F X
d d 4
P
C´ C
a
X
D' D
h
2
P P
2 2 B M D for
A1 A1 A C / A 'C '
P P
V 2 2 V
h
2
Ph
A S A
4
A B
Fig. 4.43
The bending moment diagram for the end post is shown in Fig. 4.43 (b). The
forces in the various members are as follows:
Forces in FD and F´D´
In order to find force in member FD, pass a section XX through the point C
(assumed as hinged). Resolve the force in FD in its horizontal and vertical
components at point D. Take moment about C.
P⎛ h⎞
FD sin θ, a = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h⎞ 1
FD = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2⎝ 2 ⎠ a ⋅ sin θ
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ (Compression)
2⎝ 2⎠ ad
Similarly force in F´D´,
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2
FD = a + (Tension)
2 ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎟ ad
Force in CD and C´D´

Force in CD = Vertical component of forces in FD – Direct force in A1D.
∴ CD = FD cos θ –V
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a2 + d2 )1 / 2 a
= ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ 2
2⎝ 2⎠ ad ( a + d2 )1 / 2
⎛ h⎞
P ⎜a + ⎟
2⎠
− ⎝
s
P ⎛ h⎞ P ⎛ h⎞
= ⎜ a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
2d ⎝ 2⎠ s ⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡1 2⎤
= ⎜ a + ⎟ ⎢ − ⎥ (Tension)
2⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣d s ⎦
Similarly force in C´D´,
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡1 2⎤
C´ D´ = ⎜ a + ⎟ ⎢ − ⎥ (Compression).
2⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣d s ⎦
Bending moment at F
By taking moment from right hand side
P⎛ h⎞
MF = V ⋅ d − ⎜ a+ ⎟
2⎝ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞d P ⎛ h⎞
= P ⎜a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ s 2 ⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 2d ⎤
= a + ⎟⎢ − 1⎥
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠⎣ s ⎦
Bending moment at F´
By taking moment from left hand side
P⎛ h⎞
MF´ = V´d – a+ ⎟
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞d P ⎛ h⎞
P = ⎜a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ s 2 ⎝ 2⎠
P⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 2d ⎤
= ⎜ a + ⎟⎢ − 1⎥
2⎝ 2⎠⎣ s ⎦
The bending moment at F´ is of opposite sign of that at F. The bending moment

at the centre of portion FF´ is zero. The values of bending moments at C and C´ are
also zero. The distribution of bending moment for the beam CC´ is shown in Fig.
4.43 (a).
Force in EE´
The force in EE´ is found by considering equilibrium from right half of the
portal bracing
P P
EE = P – = (Compression).
2 2
Force in FC
The force in FC is found by considering equilibrium of joint F
FC = FD sin θ – EF
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2 d P
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ −
2⎝ 2⎠ ad 2
a +d 2 2
P⎛ h ⎞ 1 P P ⋅h
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ − = (Tension).
2⎝ 2⎠a 2 4a
Force in C´F´
The force in C´F´ is found by considering equilibrium of joint F
C´ F ´ = F Ć´ sin θ + FF´
P⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2 d P
= ⎜ a+ ⎟ +
2⎝ 2⎠ ad ( a 2 + d2 )1 / 2 2
P⎛ h⎞1 P Ph
=
⎜ a+ ⎟ + =P+ (Compression).
2⎝ 2⎠a 2 4a
Shear force in C´F´ = V
⎛ h⎞ 1
= P ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ s
Shear force in FC and FĆ´
Shear force in FC is equal to shear force in FF´ less the vertical component of
force in FD
= V – FD cos θ
P⎛ h ⎞1 P ⎛ h⎞
= a + ⎟ − ⎜a + ⎟
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠s 2 ⎝ 2⎠
( a 2 + d2 )1 / 2 a
× × 2
ad ( a + d2 )1 / 2
⎛ h ⎞⎛1 1 ⎞
= P ⎜a + ⎟⎜ −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ s 2d ⎠⎟
Shear force in FĆ´ is also equal to shear force in FC.

Shear force in CD
Shear force in CD is equal to shear in A1D less horizontal component of force in
FD
P
= − FD sin θ
2
P P ⎛ h ⎞ ( a 2 + d 2 )1 / 2 a
= − ×⎜a + ⎟ × × 2
2 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ad ( a + d2 )1 / 2
P P⎛ h⎞1
= − ⎜a + ⎟ .
2 2⎝ 2⎠a

Figure 4.44 shows a portal bracing drawn parallel to the plane of the end posts.
S S Ph
C´ X 2 F X1 2 X C 4
P
o o
o
a
E G
θ
X2
D
D' X' X'
P P BM D
A '1 2 2 A1 h fo r
P P 2 A C / A 'C '
V' 2 2 V
h
2
A Ph
A' S
4
(a ) (b )
Fig. 4.44
The portal bracing shown in Fig. 4 44 is known as A-frame. This type of portal
bracing is used where greater head-room is available and it is common for single
track railway bridges. This type of portal bracing is similar to that shown in Fig.
4.43 except that the braces are made to meet at the centre as shown in Fig. 4.44.
This type of portal bracing is very simple. This is effective form of portal bracing.
The moment at F is zero (this has also been shown in Sec. 4.19). The member CC´
is not subjected to bending moment or shear. Generally, the members shown by
dotted lines are introduced in this type of portal bracing. This provides better
appearance. The members DF and D´F are also stiffened by the introduction of
CÉ´, E’E and CE, (the stresses in these members are zero) as the effective lengths
of the members DF and D´F become DE and DE´. This is also shown in the analysis.
The assumptions discussed in Sec. 4.17 are made for its analysis.
Vertical reactions
The vertical reactions are found by taking moment of all the above A1 and A1´.
⎛ h⎞
∴ V . s = P ⎜a + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞ 1
V = P ⎜a + ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2⎠ s
⎛ h⎞ 1
Also V´ = P ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2⎠ s
The direct or axial stresses ion end posts are equal to the vertical reactions.
Axial force in the end posts AA1
⎛ h⎞ 1
= P ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ (Compression)
⎝ 2⎠ s
Axial force in the end posts AÁ1´
⎛ h⎞ 1
= P ⎜ a + ⎟ ⋅ (Tension).
⎝ 2⎠ s
Moment at the fixed supports
The moments at the fixed supports are maximum, and are found as follows:
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MA´ = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
The moments are also maximum at D and D´. The values of moments at these
points are as follows :
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ P h ⎞ ⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
MD´ = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
But, it is to note that the moments at these points are of opposite sign than
those at supports.
The moments at the top of end posts are zero. These points C and C´ are assumed
as hinged.
The forces in the various members are as follows :
Forces in ED and E´D´
In order to find force in member ED, pass the section XX as shown in Fig. 4.44
(a). Resolve the force in ED in its horizontal and vertical components at point D.
Take the moment about C.
P ⎛ h⎞
ED sin θ ⋅ a = ⋅ ⎜a + ⎟
2 ⎝ 2⎠
P ⎛ h⎞ 1
ED = ⋅⎜a + ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ a sin θ
1/2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s⎞2⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
P ⎛ h ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
= ⋅⎜a + ⎟ ⎦
2 ⎝ 2⎠ s
a⋅
2
1/ 2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎥
= P ⋅⎜a + ⎟
⎦ (Compression)
⎝ 2⎠ a⋅s
Similarly, force in E´D´
1/ 2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s ⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
E´ D´ = P ⎜a + ⎟ (Tension).
⎝ 2⎠ a ⋅s
Forces in CE and CÉ´

The force in CE may be found by considering the section XX and taking the
moment F.
⎛ Moment about point F ⎞ MF

CÉ´ = ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ Perpendicular distance from F to CE ⎠ xCE
Consider the equilibrium of right hand portion

P⎛ h⎞ ⎛s⎞
MF = a + ⎟ −V ⋅ ⎜ ⎟.
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
⎛ h⎞
P ⎜a + ⎟
P⎛ h⎞ 2⎠ s
= a+ ⎟− ⎝ ⋅ =0
2 ⎝⎜ 2⎠ s 2
∴ CE´ = 0, Also ∴ CÉ´ = 0.

Forces in FC and FC´
The force in FC may be found by considering the section XX and taking moment
about D
⎛P h⎞
FC ⋅ a = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
FC = ⎜ ⎟ (Tension)
⎝ 4a ⎠
Consider a section X´X´. Take moment about D´
P h
P ⋅a + ⋅ + FC a = 0
2 2
⎡ Ph ⎤
∴ FC´ = –⎢ + P ⎥ (Compression).
⎣ 4a ⎦
Force in EF´
The force in EF´ is found by considering section X1X1 and taking moment about F
MF
EE´ =
x ´ EE
As shown above, moment MF is zero.
∴ EE´ = 0.
Forces in EF and E´F´
The force in EF is found by considering the equilibrium of joint E. The forces in
EF´ and CE are zero.
1/2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s ⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= P ⎜a + ⎟ (Compression)
⎝ 2⎠ s⋅a
Similarly, E´F´ = E´ D´
1/2
⎡ 2 ⎛ s ⎞2 ⎤
⎢a + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ h ⎞ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
= P⎜a + ⎟ (Tension)
⎝ 2⎠ s⋅a
The direct or axial stress in the portion CD of end post AC is equal to the
vertical reaction less the vertical component of the member ED. Similarly, the
axial stress in the portion C´D´ of end post AĆ´ is also equal to the vertical reaction
less the vertical component of the force in member E´D´.
The forces in the various members of the portal bracings as shown in Fig. 4.41
(c) and (d) are found in the same manner as that shown in Fig. 4.44. It is to note
all the members of the portal bracings shown in Figs. 4.41 (c) and (d) carry forces.
The analysis of portal bracing as shown in Fig. 4.41 (e) is also done in the same
manner as that shown in Fig. 4.44.

Figure 4.45 shows a portal with simple diagonal bracing. The portal bracing is
shown in the plane parallel to the end posts.
This type of portal bracing is used where deep head room is available. The
assumptions discussed in Sec. 4.17 are made in the analysis of this portal bracing.
The forces in the posts are same as discussed in the previous portal bracings,
except the shear above D and D´.
The diagonal members CD´ and CD are made to take tension. The members
CC´ and DD´ are then compression members. When the wind acts in the direction
as shown in Fig. 4.45, then the tension member CD acts as dummy member.
In order to determine the forces in the members, consider a section XX as shown
in Fig. 4.45.
Force DD´
Take moment about point C
P⎛ h⎞ P ⎛ h⎞
DD´ . a = a+ ⎟= a+ ⎟
2 ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠ 2a ⎝⎜ 2⎠
Force in CD´
Force in member CD´ is equal to shear in panel DD´ multiplied by cosec θ
CD´ = V . cosec θ
⎛ h ⎞ 1 ( a 2 + s2 )1 / 2 ⎛ h ⎞ 1 ( a 2 + s2 )1 / 2
P ⎜a + ⎟ ⋅ = P ⎜a + ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2⎠s a ⎝ 2⎠s a ⋅s
Force in CC´
Take moment about D´
P h
P ⋅ a + CC´ ⋅ a − ⋅ = 0
2 2
1 ⎡ Ph ⎤ P ⋅h
CC´ = ⎢ + Pa ⎥ = +P
a⎣ 4 ⎦ 4a
The diagonal members C´D and CD may also be made as compression members,
then the members CC´ and DD´ are made as tension members.
Analysis of the portal bracing as shown in Fig. 4.41 (f) is done by assuming that
the forces are taken by system of bracing in which diagonal members are in tension.
The maximum moments, shears and the axial stresses in the end posts are same
as discussed for the previous portal bracings.
C' x C
P
θ
D' D
x
h
2
P P
A '1 2 2 A1
P P
V' 2 2 V
h
2
A1 S A
Fig. 4.45

Figure 4.46 shown a portal bracing, drawn parallel to the posts. The assumptions
discussed in Sec. 4.17 are made for the analysis of this portal bracing. The forces
in the end posts are same as in the portal bracing discussed in Sec. 4.18. It is
assumed that the bending moment is completely resisted by the flanges CC´ and
DD´ and the shear is resisted by the web members. The shear force is constant
throughout the lattice girder (CC´D´DC). Therefore, the forces in the web members
are also constant. Consider any section XX at a distance x, as shown in Fig. 4.46.
The shear force S at any section XX is assumed as taken equally by the web
members cut by the section XX. Let n be the number of members cut by the
section XX. Then, vertical components of force in any web member is
⎛V ⎞ P ⎛ h⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜a + 2 ⎟
n
⎝ ⎠ s ⋅ n ⎝ ⎠
Half of the web members carry tension and the other half of web members carry
compression. In case the direction of wind changes, and acts in the opposite direction,
then the nature of forces in the web members also changes.
In order to determine the forces in the flange members, the section XX is drawn
such that it passes through the points of intersection of the web members. The
moment of forces may be taken about G. The forces in all the web members are
numerically equal. Half of the web members carry tension and half of the web
members carry compression. Therefore, the sum of moments due to the forces in
the web members about any point in the vertical line GH is zero. Let F1 and F2
represent forces in the top flange and in the bottom flange respectively.
x x
C' C F1 G C
P
a S
D' x D C2 H x D
x x
h
2
P P P
2 2 2
A '1 A1 A1
P P P
V' 2 2 V 2 V
h
2
A' S A A
(a ) (b )
Fig. 4.46
Taking moment about the point G,

P⎛ h⎞
F2 . a = ⎜ a + ⎟ –V ⋅x
2⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎡P ⎛ h⎞ ⎛ h⎞x⎤
= ⎢ ⎜ a + ⎟ − P ⎜a + ⎟ ⎥
a⎣2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ s⎦
P⎛ h ⎞⎛1 x ⎞
= a + ⎟⎜ − ⎟
a ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 s ⎠
when x = 0
P ⎛ h⎞
F2 = ⎜ a+ ⎟
2a ⎝ 2⎠
s
when x =
2
F2 = 0
when x = s
F2 = 0
x = s
P ⎛ h⎞
F2 = –⎜ a+ ⎟.
2a ⎝ 2⎠
Thus, the maximum tension in the bottom flange occurs at D´ and the maximum
compression occurs at D.
Taking moment about point H as shown in Fig. 4.46 (b)
P h
F1. a = ⋅ –V ⋅x
2 2
1 ⎡ Ph P ⎛ h⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎜a + ⎟x⎥
a⎣ 4 s⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
when x = 0
⎛ P ⋅h ⎞
F1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4a ⎠
s
when x =
2
P
F1 = –
2
when x = s
1 ⎡P ⋅h ⎤
F1 = – ⎢ + Pa ⎥
a⎣ 4 ⎦
Thus, the maximum tension in the top flange occurs at C, and the maximum
compression occurs at C´.
Example 4.6 Figure 4.47 shows a portal frame in a through type lattice girder
bridge subjected to a lateral load P = 97.5 kN. Determine the forces in the various
members of the portal frame. Also find the portal effect in the end post and in the
bottom chords of the lattice girders. The inclination of end post with the horizontal
is 50 ° 12'.
Solution
Figure 4.47 shows the portal bracing drawn parallel to the plane of end posts. A
and A´ are assumed as fixed supports. A1 and A1´ are assumed as points of
contraflexures. The horizontal shears in the end posts are assumed as equal.
X' X1 X
S S
= 3.5 m = 3.5 m
P = 9 7.5 kN C ' 2 2
F C
o o
a=3m
E' o E
D' X' X1 X D
h
= 2.4 m
2
7.8 m
P P
2 2 A1
A 1'
P P
2 2
V' V
h
= 2.4 m
2
A' S=7m A
Fig. 4.47
Step 1. Reaction
Horizontal reactions in the end posts at the point of contraflexures
P 1
= × 97.5 = 48.75 kN
2 2
The vertical reaction, V is found by taking moment about A1´
V × 7 = 97.50 × (3 + 2.4)
∴ V = 75.27 kN
Step 2. Portal effect in the end post
Axial force in the end post, AC
Axial force in the end post, A´B´
= 75.2 kN (Tension)
Moment at the fixed support

⎛P h⎞
⎜ + ⎟ = 48.75 × 2.4 = 117 kN-m
⎝ 2 2⎠
Moment at the point D
⎛P h⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟ = 48.75 × 2.4 = 117 kN-m
⎝ 2 2⎠
Moment at the top i.e., at C = 0
Step 3. Forces in the various members
(i) Forces in ED and E´D´
Consider a section XX as shown in Fig. 4.48. Resolve the force in ED in its
horizontal and vertical components at point D. Take moment about C.
P
ED sin θ × 3 = (3 + 2.4)
2
3.5
sin θ = = 0.76
(3.5 + 32 )1 / 2
2
∴ ED = 115.46 kN (Compression)
Similarly, force in E´D´ = 115.46 kN (Tension).
(ii) Forces in CE and CÉ´
Consider the section XX. Take moment about E,
⎛ MF ⎞
CE = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xCE ⎠
Consider equilibrium of right hand portion of the bracing
P
MF = (3 + 2.4) – 75.2 × 3.5 = 48.75
2
× 5.4 – 75.2 × 3.5 = 0
∴ CE = 0
Similarly, CÉ´ = 0
(iii) Forces in FC and FC´

Consider the section XX. Take moment about D´
P
FC´×3 = × 2.4
2
⎛ 97.5 2.4 ⎞
FC= ⎜ × = 39 kN (Tension)
⎝ 2 3 ⎠⎟
Consider section X´X´. Take moment about D´
⎛ 97.5 ⎞
97.5 × 3 + ⎜ × 2.4 ⎟ + FC´×3 = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠
FC´ = –136.50 kN (i.e., Compression)
(iv) Force in EE´

Consider the section X1X1. Take moment about F
⎛ MF ⎞
EF ´ = ⎜ x´ ⎟
⎝ EE ⎠
3 MF = 0
∴ EE´ = 0
(v) Force in EF and E´F´
Consider equilibrium of joint E
∴ EF = ED = 115.46 kN (Compression)
Also E´F´ = 115.2 kN (Tension)
Step 4. Portal effect in the bottom chord of the lattice girder
Additional tension in the bottom chord of the leeward girder
= V × cos θ (cos 50° 12´ = 0.64)
= 75.2 × 0.64 = 48.128 kN
Compression in the bottom chord of the windward girder
= 48.128 kN.
Example 4.7 Figure 4.48 shows a portal bracing in a through type truss girder
bridge, subjected to lateral force P = 130 kN. Determine the force in the various
members of the portal bracing. Also determine the portal effect in the bottom
chords of the truss girders. The inclination of end post with the horizontal is 63
°26'.
4 .33 m 4 .33 m 4 .33 m
p = 1 30 kN C' 2 G' 4 F 3 1 C
a=3m
E G E
4 .33 m 4 .33 m
D' 2 4 3 1 D
h
= 2 .97 m
2
P P
2 2
A '1 A1
P P
2 2 V
h
= 2 .97 m
2
A S = 13 m A
Fig. 4.48
Solution
Figure 4.48 shows the portal bracing drawn parallel to the plane of end posts. A
and A´ are assumed as fixed supports. A1 and A1´ are assumed as points of
contraflexures. The horizontal shear in the end posts are assumed as equal.
Step 1. Reaction
Horizontal reactions in the end posts at the points of contraflexures
P 130
= = 65 kN.
2 2
The vertical reaction V, is found by taking moment about A1
∴ V × 13 = 130 × (3 + 2.97)
V = 59.7 kN
∴ V = 59.7 kN
Step 2. Portal effect in the end post
Axial force in the end post AC = 59.7 kN (Compression)
Axial force in the end post AĆ´ = 59.7 kN (Tension)
Moment at the fixed support
⎛P h⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ = 65 × 2.97 = 193 kN-m
⎝ 2 2⎠
Moment at the point D
⎛P h⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟ = 65 × 2.97 = 193 kN-m
⎝ 2 2⎠
Moment at the top i.e., at C = 0
Step 3. Forces in the various members
(i) Forces in ED and E´D´
Consider section 1–1 as shown in Fig. 4.48. Resolve the force in ED in its horizontal
and vertical components at point D. Take moment about point C
4.33
sin θ = = 0.822
(4.332 + 32 )1 / 2
P
ED sin θ × 3 = (3 + 2.97)
2
⎛ 65 × 5.97 ⎞
E´ D´ = ⎜ ⎟ = 157.36 kN (Compression)
⎝ 3 × 0.822 ⎠
Similarly, E´ D´ = 157.36 kN (Tension)
(ii) Forces in CE and CE´

Consider section 1–1. Resolve the force in CE in its vertical and horizontal
components at C. Take moment about point F.
P
(3 + 2.97) − V × 4.33 + CE cos θ × 4.33 = 0 (cos θ = 0.5714)
2
⎛ 5.97 × 4.33 − 65 × 5.97 ⎞

CE = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 4.33 × 0.5414 ⎠
= – 52.36 kN (i.e., Compression)
Similarly, CÉ´ = + 52.36 kN (Tension)
(iii) Force in FC and EĆ´
Consider section 1–1. Resolve force in CE in its horizontal and vertical components.
Take moment about D
P
= 2.97 + 52.5 sin θ × 3 – FC × 3 = 0
2
FC = 106.8 kN (Tension)
Consider section 2–2. Resolve the force CÉ´ in its horizontal and vertical
components. Take moment about D´
13 × 3 + 52.5 sin θ × 3 + 65 × 2.97 + F Ć´ × 3 = 0

FĆ´ = – 236.8 kN (i.e., Compression)
(iv) Forces in GE and GÉ´
Consider section 3–3. Take moment about F
3
– 59.7 × 4.33 + 65 × (3 + 2.97) + GE × =0
2
−65 × 5.97 + 59.7 × 4.33

GE =
1.5
= – 211 kN (i.e., Compression)
Similarly,
GÉ´ = 21.1 kN (Tension)
(v) Forces in GF and GF´
Consider section 3–3. The vertical component of force in GF is equal to shear force
at section 4–4.
GF cos θ = 59.7
59.7
GE = = 104.5 kN (Tension)
0.5714
Similarly, GF´ = 104.5 kN (Compression)
(vi) Force in FF´

Consider section 4–4. Take moment about point G from right side of the section
65 × (2.97 + 1.5) – 59.7 × 6.5 + FF ´ × 1.5 = 0
+66 × 59.7 − 66 × 4.47

FF ´ =
1.5
= 65 kN (Compression)
Step 4. Portal effect on the bottom chords of the truss girder
Force in end post AC = 59.7 kN (Compression)
∴ Additional tension in the bottom chord of the leeward girder
= 59.7 cos 63° 26´ = 59.5 × 0.4472 = 26.7 kN.
Force in end post AĆ
= 59.7 kN (Tension)
∴ Compression in the bottom chord of windward girder
= 59.7 × cos 63° 26´ = 59.7× 0.4472 = 26.7 kN.
4.23 SWAY BRACING

The sway bracings are provided to stabilize and to add rigidity to the bridge structure
in transverse vertical planes. The sway bracings are used to maintain rectangular
cross-section of the bridge. The sway bracings are provided at all the intermediate
panel points of the through type truss girder bridges. The sway bracings do not
provide any relief to the lateral system unless the stresses are calculated for the
complete space frame. The sway bracings are also made as deep as head-room
allows. As per IS : 1915–1961 and also Code of practice for design of steel bridges
published by Railway Board, the sway bracings are proportioned to transmit to
the lower chords through the web members at least 50 percent of the top panel
lateral load and the vertical web members are designed to resist the resulting
bending moment.
When the top lateral bracing is stiff, them, theoretically, there are no stresses
in the sway bracings. The above recommendation is made only for guidance to
arrive at suitable size of the members. The heavy bracings tend to equalize the
loads in double track and highway bridges, in case one track or one side is only
loaded.
In general, the various forms of the sway bracings and their analysis are similar
to those of portal bracings.
Problems
4.1 A top boom member of a highway bridge is subjected to a compressive
stress of 2500 kN. Its length from node to node is 4.00 m and the full
length of top boom is 20.00 m and it is not supported transversely by any
sway bracing for its entire length. It is formed of
(i) two channels ISMC 350 × 100 @ 0.421 kN/m spaced at 275 mm between
backs of channels,
(ii) two web plates 225 mm × 19 mm and between roots attached centrally to
the channel web,
(iii) a top cover plate 500 mm × 22 mm, and
(iv) suitable lacing and batten plates are provided at the bottom of the section.
Give all calculations to show that the section is adequate to resist the
stress imposed on the section. Use any formula you know for estimating
the permissible stress as applied to such structures.
4.2 A through type highway steel bridge 48 m span, is supported on two N-
girders each consisting of 10 bays of 48 m each, the height of the N-girder
being 48 m. The dead load of the bridge including self-weight of the two
N-girders is 90 kN/m and the rolling load on the bridge, to be carried by
the two girders is equivalent to 100 kN/m. Design the top and bottom
chords at the fifth panel of the bridge and the diagonal member in the
third bay from left.
4.3 A Pratt truss girder through bridge is provided for a single metre gauge
track. The effective span of the bridge is 50 m. The cross-girders are 4 m
apart. The stringers are spaced at 1.20 m between centre lines. 0’60 kN
per metre stock rails and 040 kN per metre guard rails are provided. The
sleepers are spaced at 0.50 m from centre to centre and are of size 2 m ×
250 mm × 250 mm. Weight of timber may be assumed as 7.50 kN per
cubic metre. The main girders are provided at spacing of 5 m between
their centre lines. Design the central top chord member, the central bottom
chord members and the vertical and diagonal members of central panel.
Design the joint, where the central top chord, vertical and diagonal
members meet. The bridge is to carry standard main line loading.
4.4 Determine the increase or decrease of forces in the central chord members
of the leeward truss girder in Problem 4.3, in the following cases :
(b) Lateral effects of top chord and bottom chord bracings, when the bridge
is unloaded.
(c) Overturning effect due to wind, when the bridge is loaded.
is loaded.
4.5 Design the top lateral bracing and bottom lateral bracing for the through
type truss girder railway bridge for a single metre gauge track as in
Problem 4.3.
4.6 An A-type portal bracing of a truss girder is subjected to a horizontal
reaction of 100 kN at the top, from left to right. The total length of portal
bracing is 6.60 m. The knee braces have been connected at 2. 80 m from
the top. Determine the forces in the various members of the portal frame.
Also determine the portal effect in the end post and in the bottom chords
of the truss girder. The inclination of the end post with the horizontal is
45°.
4.7 Analyse completely the portal bracing shown in Fig. P.4.7 carrying a
lateral load of P = 100 kN. Also draw the B.M., S.F., and axial force
diagrams for AD and BC.
1 00 kN D 4m 4m C
E
3m
H J
F G
6m
A B
Fig. P.4.7
CHAPTER
5
Design of End Bearings for
Steel Bridges
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of plate girder and truss girder steel bridges over the large spans became
possible with the development of steel as a structural material. The rapid
response of steel bridges to changes in temperature was seen and need to
accommodate expansion and contraction was seriously considered. The sliding
bearings (one steel plate sliding over the other) was attached with the one end of
the bridge structure was kept fixed. The structural components of the bridge
structure become light as the quality of the material (steel) was improved. The
appreciable deflections along the span and rotations at the supports of the bridge
structures under the loads were noticed. The rocker bearings were used at the
fixed ends of the bridge structures to allow the rotation and rocker and roller
bearings were used at the free ends to permit horizontal movement and rotation.
Recently, the bearings made of materials like plastic and elastomers evolved by
some special companies have been used under modern steel and concrete bridges.
In addition to provide longitudinal movements and rotations, the elastomeric
bearings have a useful capacity of damping down the vibration of the bridge
structures.
For all spans in excess of 9 m, the provisions are made for change in length due
to temperature and stress variation. The provisions for expansion and contraction
should be such as to permit movement of the free bearings to the extent of 25 mm
for every 30 m of length. For spans greater than 15 m on rigid pier or abutment,
the bearings, which permit angular deflection of the girder ends, are provided,
and at one end, there shall be a roller, rocker or other effective type of expansion
bearing. For wide bridges and skew spans, consideration shall be given to the
lateral expansion and contraction.
5.2 FUNCTIONS OF END BEARINGS

The longitudinal movements and rotation occur in the steel bridges due to
DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES 253
superimposed loads and temperature changes. The bearings are provided at both
the ends of a bridge girder. One end of the bridge girder is kept fixed in position
and it is referred as fixed end. While the other end of the bridge girder is kept free
for the horizontal movement and it is referred as free end. The bearings are provided
for the following functions :
1. The bearings are provided to transmit the end reaction to the abutments
and/or piers and to distribute it uniformly, so that the bearing stress does not
exceed the allowable bearing stress of the material.
2. The bearings are provided to allow free movement in the longitudinal
direction (expansion and contraction) due to change in temperature and stresses.
3. The bearings are provided to allow rotation at the ends, when the
bridge girders are loaded and deflections take place.
The accurate function of bearings vary between different bridge girders and
even from point to point within the same bridge girder. An individual bearing may
transmit to a limited extent, some combination of forces and longitudinal movements
and rotations about three references axes. Separate bearings may be used to reduce
the effect of impact due to live loads, to damp off structural vibrations, or to limit
the transmission of sound waves.
The precise functions of bearings are carefully considered in the beginning of
the complete design. The finally selected bearings should closely match in
performance, and the initial assumptions. The real behaviour of a bridge girder
will depend upon its end bearings provided. The bearings influence the performance
of the bridge girder. The span of a bridge girder is determined from the positions of
bearings. The frictional resistance of bearings to horizontal movements and rotations
may set up forces and bending moments in the surrounding structural components.
For accurate analysis of the bridge girder, the characteristics of the bearings
should be assessed in the beginning of the complete design.
The horizontal movements and rotations in a bridge girder may be reversible or
irreversible. The temperature changes and temporary superimposed loads cause
reversible effects. While the permanent loads and settlement of supports cause
irreversible effects.
For the approximate initial assessment, the maximum range of longitudinal
movement, due to all causes of steel bridges may be assumed 0.09 percent (the
proportion of expansion length). It is more difficult to estimate the rotations. However,
the end rotation of beam of uniform section may be assumed as four times the
allowable central deflection divided by the span.
In the design of bearings, provisions shall be made for the transmission of
longitudinal and lateral forces to the bearings and the supporting structures.
Provisions shall be made against any uplift to which the bearing may be subjected.
All bearings are designed to permit inspection and maintenance.
5.3 TYPES OF END BEARING

The end bearings may be broadly classified in the following three categories:
1. Mechanical bearings
2. Elastomeric bearings
3. Combined mechanical and elastomeric bearings.
5.3.1 Mechanical Bearings

The mechanical bearings permit longitudinal movements and rotations by sliding,
rocking or rolling actions, generally on metal parts. The traditional types of ferrous
end bearings allow horizontal movements by steel sliding upon steel, cast iron or
hard copper alloy and rotational movements on rockers, rollers or pins.
Non-ferrous mechanical bearings were developed and manufactured from
aluminium alloy castings. The pure aluminium has very good resistance to
corrosion. Most of aluminium casting alloys in this characteristic. The aluminium-
silicon and aluminium-magnesium alloys have been seen to possess satisfactory
resistance to corrosion. The aluminium alloy bearings should never be used in
contact with copper or its alloys, since alloys of aluminium are very sensitive to
galvanic action. The aluminium alloys having oxidised surface may safely be used
in contact with steel in rural areas and not in industrial or marine environments.
5.3.2 Elastomeric Bearings

The elastomeric bearings provide horizontal movements and rotations by
compressing and shearing actions of layers of rubber-like materials. Several rubber-
like layers interleaved with and bonded to thin sheets of steel are used in the
elastomeric bearings. These bearings are manufactured from long strips, plain
pads or laminated layers. The elastomeric bearings are not suitable when the
bridge girders are subjected to repeated uplift forces, since the material of these
bearings are placed in tension. The elastomers are essentially compression
material. The elastomeric bearings may provide horizontal movements of
about 70 mm. The elastomeric bearings may provide more than approximately
0.02 radian rotations about horizontal axis.
5.3.3 Combined Mechanical and Elastomeric Bearings

The combined mechanical and elastomeric bearings are used whenever the
horizontal movements exceed the practical limit for an elastomeric bearing. All
the horizontal movements are permitted by the mechanical bearings while the
elastomeric bearings allow rotations.
The bearings may also be classified in the following two categories.
(i) Fixed bearings, and
(ii) Expansion bearings.
5.3.3.1 Fixed Bearings

The fixed bearing retain their positions and permit the rotational movements
only.
5.3.3.2 Expansion Bearings

The expansion bearing allow horizontal movements.
A fixed bearing is provided at one end of a simply supported bridge girder and
an expansion bearing is used at it is other end. A continuous bridge girder needs
only one fixed bearing and expansion bearings at all supports except one.
5.4 SELECTION OF TYPE OF END BEARINGS

The initial selection of a particular type of an end bearing which suits for a
particular bridge depends upon the following factors :
1. Type of super-structure 2. Type of supports
3. Length of span 4. Loadings
5. Horizontal movements 6. Rotational movements
7. Plan area 8. Life and maintenance
9. Inclination 10. Environment
11. Vibrations 12. Cost
5.4.1 Type of Super-Structure

High level slab bridges need no special bearing. The submersible slab bridges
require bearings to resist the uplift forces. The girder bridges are provided with
fixed and expansion bearings.
5.4.2 Type of Supports

In case the piers support the bridge girders, then the bearings having resistance
to horizontal movement should not be used. Such bearings influence the entire
design of the piers.
5.4.3 Length of Span

The bridge structures over spans below 10 m require no formal bearings. The
traditional steel bearings are used for small to medium span steel bridges. It is
usual to adopt proprietary bearings in all other cases. Some special companies
manufacture the standard mechanical bearings to suit the particular requirements.
Such bearings are referred as proprietary mechanical bearings. These
manufacturers publish catalogues. These catalogues are revised and improved
regularly.
The positions of the bearings determine the span for the bridge structure. The
type of bearing influences the performance of the bridge structure. The complete
analysis of a bridge structure depends upon the type of bearings used at the ends.
5.4.4 Loadings
The standard mechanical bearings are suitable to transmit the vertical loads over
30,000 kN and horizontal loads over 3000 kN while the elastormeric bearings are
capable of resisting vertical loads upto 3000 kN and horizontal forces upto 20 kN
only. The elastomeric bearings are not suitable to resist repeated uplift forces. The
properly designed mechanical bearings may be used for such cases.
5.4.5 Horizontal Movements

The mechanical bearings have practically unlimited capacity to accommodate
horizontal movements. The elastomeric bearings may be provided for limited
horizontal movements upto 70 mm only. Such bearings offer smallest resistance
in case the horizontal movement is upto 20 mm only. Its resistance increases
nearly linearly with the horizontal movement.
5.4.6 Rotational Movements

The mechanical bearings may permit rotation of 0.08 radian about horizontal axis
whereas it is difficult to design the elastomeric bearings with appreciable loadings
to allow rotations more than 0.02 radian. Correctly selected mechanical bearings
may permit greater (virtually unlimited) rotations in plan than the elastomeric
bearings.
5.4.7 Plan Areas

Theoretically, the elastomeric bearings may be designed and manufactured to any
plan shape whereas the shape of proprietary bearing is fixed.
5.4.8 Life and Maintenance

The elastomeric bearings deteriorate steadily with time. Oil, oxygen and ozone
attack such bearings. The life of elastomeric bearings is considerable (45 to 80
years) if these are enclosed. However, these bearings may be replaced after 50
years. These bearings require no maintenance.
The properly designed mechanical bearings last upto the life of bridge structures
(100–120 years or more). These bearings need regular inspection and maintenance,
painting and greasing. These bearings should be accessible for maintenance.
5.4.9 Inclination
The mechanical bearings are provided at right angles to the longitudinal axis of
the skew bridges where the skew angle or inclination is small (less than 20 degrees).
The elastomeric bearings may be placed parallel with the supported member. The
sliding bearings are provided at both the supports if the skew angle is more than
20 degrees and the span length along the longitudinal axis is less than 10 m. The
fixed bearings are used when this span exceeds 10 m.
5.4.10 Environment
The aluminium alloy mechanical bearings are used when the bridge structures
are constructed in polluted industrial atmosphere.
5.4.11 Vibrations
The elastomeric bearings are excellent to resist the vibrations, impact and sound
waves. These bearings have industrial atmosphere.
5.4.12 Cost
The initial cost of elastomeric bearings is low and these bearings prove to be cheap.
The initial cost of mechanical bearings is high. However, the selection is seldom
governed by economics.
It would not be possible to achieve all the desirable characteristics simultaneously.
However, efforts are made to select the bearings which suit the particular type of
bridge structure.
5.5 FERROUS MECHANICAL BEARINGS

The ferrous mechanical bearings are attached with the steel girder bridges. These
bearings provide horizontal movements by metal-to-metal sliding on rollers. The
rotational movements are provided by rockers, rollers or pins. The different types
of ferrous bearings used for the steel bridges (depending upon the magnitude of
end reaction and the span of bridge) are as follows:
1. Plate bearings 2. Rocker bearings
3. Roller bearings 4. Knuckle pin bearings
5. Bearing adopted by Railway Board 6. Spherical bearings.
5.5.1 Plate Bearings

The plate bearings are simplest type of bearings. The plate bearings are used for
small spans upto 20 m and small end reaction of the bridge. Figure 5.1 shows a plate
B ridg e girde r
S o le plate
(S h oe p la te)
B e d pla te
(W a ll plate)
C ircu la r h ole for fixed b ea rin g
E llip tica l slotted ho le

fo r e xp an sio n b ea rin g
Fig. 5.1
bearing. The plate bearing consists of two plates. A sole plate or shoe plate is
attached to the bridge girder. The sole plate rests on bed plate or wall plate. The
wall plate is anchored to the masonry. Two anchor bolts fixed in masonry pass
through the wall plate and the sole plate.The size of wall plate is found by the end
reaction and the allowable bearing pressure on the masonry. The plates are made
rigid to distribute the end reaction as uniformly as possible over the required area
of the masonry.
When the anchor bolts pass through the circular holes in the sole plate, then
the plate bearings act as fixed bearings. One end of the bridge girder is fixed or
anchored to the masonry through the fixed bearings. The fixed bearings are designed
for the end reaction (vertical load) and the longitudinal forces. The magnitude of
end reactions used are large. Therefore, the fixed bearings designed for end reactions
(vertical loads) only are strong enough to take the longitudinal forces.
In order to allow the longitudinal movement, the slotted holes are provided in
the sole. In order to reduce the friction, the surfaces of sole plate and wall plate in
contact are well machined and smoothly finished. The sole plate can slide upon the
B ridg e girde r
Fig. 5.2
wall plate. The plate bearings act as expansion bearings of sliding type. In the
expansion bearing, the longitudinal movement (expansion or contraction) takes
place with change of temperature and loads. As per the recommendations of IRC
section II, the longitudinal force at any free bearing shall be limited to the sum of
dead load and live load reactions at the bearings multiplied by the coefficient of
friction. The coefficients of friction for the different surfaces in contact are given in
Sec. 2.7. The magnitudes of such longitudinal forces are high in long span bridges
and the dead load and live load reactions are also high.
The plate bearings have three disadvantages. The edge of plate nearest to the
end of span has a tendency to lift along with the deflection of bridge girder. Therefore,
the end reaction is not distributed uniformly. Secondly, in order to have longitudinal
movement, the sliding friction is to be overcome. Thirdly, the plane bearings have
a tendency to force the deck beyond the normal travel during the hot summer. In
cold climates, these bearings tend to freeze (i.e., the horizontal movement is
restricted). The abutments are pulled away from the approach fill due to enough
frictional resistance. Therefore, for the large span bridges, the more efficient devices
are necessary.
B ridg e girde r
C ircu lar h ole for

fixe d bearing
S lotted h ole for

e xp an sion b ea rin g
Fig. 5.3
The end reaction is distributed uniformly by providing a deep cast steel bed
block as shown in Fig. 5.2. Such bed blocks have adequate rigidity. The sole plates
of plate bearings are many times made curved as shown in Fig. 5.3. The curved
sole plate allows rotation. For large spans, the plate bearings are not suitable. The
rocker bearings and roller bearings are used in such cases.
The coefficient of friction for machine contact surface for steel sliding upon steel
or cast iron is 0.25 and that for steel upon copper alloy is 0.15. After some corrosion
has taken place, these values both become nearly 0.33 for steel sliding upon both
cast iron and copper alloy. Under the service condition, the coefficient of friction
for steel sliding upon steel is 0.50.
5.5.2 Rocker Bearings

The fixed end rocker bearings are of various types. It includes cylindrical rockers
rotating on flat plates, cylindrical or spherical rockers rotating inside the concave
seatings and knuckle pin bearings. A fixed rocker bearing consists of a cylindrical
rocker rotating on a flat surface is shown in Fig. 5.4. Such types of bearings are
suitable for small loads. The dowels are used to restrain the horizontal sliding.
These dowels pass from one to another. The load carrying capacity of the rocker
depends upon the diameter of the rocker’s surface. The load carrying capacity of
such rollers may be increased by hardening the rocker and plate. In such rocker
bearings, instead of dowels, nibs projecting from the sides of the plates are used.
Fig. 5.4
Figure 5.5 shows a typical rocker bearing. The cast steel shoe and cast steel bed
block are used in these types of bearings. A cylindrical pin is inserted in between
the cast steel shoe and the cast steel bed block. The pin allows rotation at the ends
of bridge girder. The rocker bearing acts as hinged bearing. The end reaction of a
bridge girder is transmitted to the pin by direct bearing through the shoe attached
with the girder. The vertical plates are used to transmit the end reaction. The
B ridg e girde r
Fig. 5.5
number of plates (two or three) depends upon the magnitude of end reaction. The
end reaction is further transmitted to the cast steel bed block and then to the
supporting structure. Two outer vertical plates completely encircle the pin. In
case the bearing is subjected to an uplift, then the uplift is resisted by these plates.
The middle plates provide only bearing with the cylindrical surface of the pin. The
cylindrical pin is subjected to bending, shearing and bearing. The required bearing
area is provided by the product of total thickness of plates and the diameter of pin.
The thickness of all the plates is kept equal. Therefore, the end reaction is
transmitted equally by these plates. The value of bending movement is found by
multiplying force transmitted by outer plate of the shoe to the outer plate of bed
block and centre to centre distance between these plates. The size of base plate is
found as the allowable bearing stress in the masonry and the end reaction.
The rocker bearings are also subjected to lateral and longitudinal forces in
addition to the end reaction (vertical loads). The increase of end reaction due to
lateral and longitudinal forces are also taken into consideration. The lateral forces
and the longitudinal forces are assumed to act at the level of cylindrical pin of the
rocker bearing. The base plate is subjected to movement along both the directions.
The total bearing stress in the masonry should not exceed the allowable bearing
stress.
The rocker bearings are designed for the end reaction and then checked for
lateral forces and longitudinal forces.
Figure 5.5 shows the rocker bearing for the fixed end. In the rocker bearing for
the free end of the bridge girder the underside of shoe is curved, which rotates on
the horizontal bearing plate and allows longitudinal movement. This acts as rocker
type expansion bearing.
5.5.3 Roller Bearings

The roller bearings as shown in Fig. 5.6 are also used for the long span bridges.
Figure 5.6 (a) shows a single roller used in the bearing. The rollers provide the
rotation as well as the longitudinal movement. Figure 5.6 (b) shows number of
rollers used in the bearing. The roller bearings act as roller type expansion bearings.
The rollers are kept in position by means of dowels, lugs or keys as shown in
Figure 5.6 (a). The roller bearings for spans above 35 m should preferably be
protected from dirt by oil or grease boxes.
So long as the size of rollers is small the complete circular rollers are provided.
When the size of rollers becomes large, then the sides of rollers are cut in order to
reduce the length of shoe, and to make the bearings more compact. These rollers
with cut sides are known as segmental rollers. In order to avoid overturning or
displacement of these rollers, these are geared with upper and lower plates. The
spacing between segmental rollers and the width of rollers may be found as shown
below :
B ridg e girde r
S e gm e nta l rolle r
(a )
B ridg e girde r
S e gm e nta l
ro lle rs
(b )
Fig. 5.6
It is assumed that the rollers do not slip but only roll during rolling. When, the
roller rolls to the maximum position, as shown in the Fig. 5.7 (a), then, the vertical
axis of roller turns through an angle θ, and the centre of roller travels through a
forward motion, B.
⎛d⎞
Then, sin θ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝D⎠
where, d = Width of segmental roller

D = Diameter of segmental roller
B = Horizontal travel
⎛ 2B ⎞ ⎛ 114.6B ⎞
tan θ = θ = ⎜ ⎟ radians = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ D ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
⎛ 114.6B ⎞
Therefore, d = D sin ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.1)
⎝ D ⎠
(d + a )
d
d D
b
B
D
D θ
2 θ θ θ
a
(a )
(b )
Fig. 5.7
The distance between adjacent segmental rollers a (i.e., the spacing between
the segmental rollers) should be such that the rollers do not come in contact during
the forward motion as shown in Fig. 5.7 (b).
Then, (a + d) = (d + b) sec θ ...(iii)
a = [b sec θ + d (sec θ – 1)] ...(5.2)
where, b = Least allowable perpendicular distance between the faces of adjacent
rollers, after their revolved positions.
The spacing between adjacent segmental rollers a, is found, knowing b, d and θ.
A roller is required to move between guides. The flanges attached on the sides of
contact plates serve as guide usually. Any possibility of lateral movement or skewing
of a roller is prevented. The pinions are attached to the ends of a roller. The
pinions move in racks connected to the sides of the contact plates. This ensures
the correct rolling movement. The possibility of displacement of a roller by relative
rotation between the two contact plates is also eliminated. The multiple rollers are
carefully arranged. The load is distributed uniformly over all rollers. Any single
roller must not be overloaded. The use of multiple rollers is preferred as compared
to that of single roller.
The considerations of serviceability decide the load carrying capacity of the
roller bearing. It does not depend on the collapse load. The overloading of roller
bearing may cause either indentation of the contact plates or development of flats
on the roller surface, which will increase the resistance to movement. The rolling
motion is likely to be ceased completely. In practice, the contact plates are slightly
hardened to avoid the indentation of the plates.
5.5.4 Knuckle Pin Bearings

A knuckle pin is inserted between top casting (attached at the end of a bridge
girder) and bottom casting. The knuckle pin bearings allow rotation.
The roller bearings are also used to support the cast steel shoe with pin bearings
as shown in Fig. 5.8. In such cases the roller also acts as hinged bearing.
Fig. 5.8
The following points are kept in mind while designing a shoe and a pedestal for
the roller bearing.
1. The shoe transmits the end reaction to the pin. The end reaction must be
distributed from the pin to the various rollers uniformly.
2. The size and number of rollers provided should be adequate to have proper
stress and free movement.
3. The rollers should be so arranged that these can be readily cleaned of
accumulated dirt and dust.
4. The detail should be so arranged that the rollers do not become displaced
from their positions.
5. The end reaction should be distributed from rollers or from the shoe
uniformly to the masonry.
5.5.5 Bearing Adopted by Railway Board

The design of bearing adopted by Railway Board, as shown in Fig. 5.9 has top
casting and bottom casting, which makes a total height about 1.0 m. If the rollers
are used alone, the overall height would be much less. The whole bearing is enclosed
in a sheet metal box. The box is completely filled with lubricating oil. This design
does not require practically any maintenance. In this bearing, the continuous
support (bearing) is provided to the pin. The pin is subjected to bearing pressure
only.
The design of knuckle pin in such bearings is based simply upon the allowable
bearing stress of the material used. The full projected area of the knuckle pin (the
B ridg e
g ird er
Top
casting
P in o ver
con tin u ou s
b ea rin g
B o tto m
casting
Fig. 5.9
product of pin diameter and the length of seating) is determined for the vertical
loading. The lateral load is taken by the flanges on the pin in the similar manner
as in the roller bearings.
5.5.6 Spherical Bearings

In spherical bearing, a spherical convex rocker (attached with distributed plate
connected with the bottom of bridge girder) rotates in a spherical concave seating
(attached to a base plate). The spherical bearings allow rotations nearly 0.01
radian in any direction.
5.6 ALLOWABLE STRESSES ON FERROUS BEARINGS

The allowable stresses on different types of bearings are as follows. These stresses
are as per IS : 1915–1961 (but converted in S.I. units).
5.6.1 Cylindrical Roller Bearing

(i) Cylindrical rollers on curved surfaces
The permissible load per unit length shall be as follows :
(a) Single or double rollers :
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ K3 ⎢ ⎥ kN/mm ...(i)
100 ⎢ 1 − 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ Ds Ds2 ⎥⎦
1
(b) Three or more rollers :
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⋅ K4 ⎢ ⎥ kN/mm ...(ii)
100 ⎢ 1 − 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ Ds Ds2 ⎥⎦
1
where, for mild steel conforming to IS : 226.

K3 = 0.80, K4 = 0.50
DSI and Ds2 are the diameters in mm of the convex and concave surfaces,
respectively.
These expressions (i) and (ii) are used for a convex rocker rotating in a concave
seating even though the rocker may be only a segment of a roller. The vertical load
carrying capacity with a concave seat is more than with a flat surface, as the
contact surface is increased.
(ii) Cylindrical roller on flat surfaces
For rollers of diameter not less than 100 mm, the permissible load shall be as
follows:
(a) Single or double rollers
1
⋅ K 3 Dr kN/mm ...(iii)
100
(b) Three or more rollers
1
⋅ K 4 Dr kN/mm ...(iv)
100
where K3 and K4 are as mentioned above.
Dr = Diameter of roller in mm.
The expressions (i) and (ii) reduce to the expressions (iii) and (IV), since the
seating is over a flat surface, where Ds2 is infinite.
5.6.2 Spherical Bearings

The permissible load on the spherical bearings of mild steel as per IS : 226 are as
follows :
2
1 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
⋅ kN ...(v)
100 125 ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢ − ⎥
⎣⎢ Ds1 Ds2 ⎥⎦
For high tensile structural steel

2
1 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
⋅ kN ...(vi)
100 75 ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ Ds1 Ds2 ⎥⎦
where Ds1 and Ds2 are as mentioned above.
B.S. 153 specifies the load carrying capacity of a spherical bearing of diameter
Ds1in a spherical concave seating of diameter Ds2 as below :
(a) For mild steel
2
1 1 ⎛ Ds1 ⋅ Ds2 ⎞
⋅ ⎜ ⎟ kN (vii)
100 130 ⎝ Ds2 − Ds1 ⎠
(b) For high yield stress steel
2
1 1 ⎛ Ds1 ⋅ Ds2 ⎞
⋅ ⎜ ⎟ kN (viii)
100 78 ⎝ Ds2 − Ds1 ⎠
(c) High load steel for rocker and seating
2
1 1 ⎛ Ds1 ⋅ Ds2 ⎞
⋅ ⎜ ⎟ kN ...(ix)
100 15 ⎝ Ds2 − Ds1 ⎠
When the steels of intermediate strength are used the interpolation may be
done.
5.6.3 Sliding Bearings

The permissible pressure for steel sliding on steel, hard copper alloys or on cast
iron, shall not exceed 32 N/mm2.
The permissible stresses in pins of mild steel as per IS : 226, as per IS : 833–1994
shall be as follows :
In shear 100 N/mm2
In bearing 300 N/mm2
In bending 600 σy
For turned and fitted knuckle pins and sphere in bearing, the permissible stress
on the projected area shall not exceed 120 N/mm2.
The allowable working pressure under bearings for bed plates as per Code of
practice for the design of steel bridges published by Railway Board are as follows :
The area of bearings or bed plates shall be so proportioned that with the
eccentricity of loads due to combination of dead load with live load, impact load and
forces due to curvature, the maximum pressure on material forming the bed shall
not exceed the following limits :
Granite 3.6 N/mm2
Sand stone 2.95 N/mm2
(As per Indian Railway Standard, concrete bridge code)

Cement concrete
M 10 2 N/mm2
M 15 3 N/mm2
M 20 4 N/mm2
M 25 5 N/mm2
Reinforced concrete
M 10 2.5 N/mm2
M 15 3.75 N/mm2
M 20 5 N/mm2
M 25 6.25 N/mm2
The above mentioned limits may exceeded by 33 13 percent when wind pressure
effects and forces and forces effects due to earthquake are also taken into
consideration.
The centre of pressure under flat bearing plates attached to the girders shall be
assumed to be at one-third of the length from the front edge.
Slab bases for bearings. The effective area for distributing the load to the
foundation shall be taken as the contact area of the member communicating the
load to the slab plus the area given by a projection of twice the thickness of the slab
around the contact area of the member.
Example 5.1 The effective span of a plate girder deck type bridge for a single
metre gauge track is 24 m. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction is
750 kN. The vertical reaction due to overturning effect of wind at each of the
girder is 115 kN. Design a suitable bearing.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. Dead load, live load and impact load reaction
= 750 kN
Step 2. Longitudinal force per girder
1
Tractive effort = × 248 = 124.0 kN
2
1
Braking force = × 255 = 127.5 kN
2
Allowable pressure in cement concrete = 4 N/mm2
Area of bed plate required
750 × 1000
= = 1875 × 100 mm2
4
Provide 550 mm × 400 mm bed plates, and 550 mm × 250 mm rocker plates.
Step 3. Design of Rocker Plate

Maximum bending moment
⎛ 750 × 1252 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 250 × 2 × 1000 ⎟⎟ = 23.4 kN-m
⎝ ⎠
Let t 1 be the thickness of rocker plate then,
1
×550 × t 12 × 185 = 23.4 × 106
6
1/2
⎛ 6 × 23.4 × 106 ⎞
t1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 37.15 mm
⎝ 550 × 185 ⎠
Provide 36 mm thick rocker plate.
Step 4. Design of Anchor Bolts
It is assumed that longitudinal force is taken equally by bearings at both ends.
Longitudinal force for one bearing
1
= × 127.5 = 63.75 kN
2
Provide two anchor bolts in one bearing.
Allowable shear = 100 N/mm2
63.75 × 1000
Area of each bolt = = 318. 75 mm2
2 × 100
Provide 25 mm diameter bolts.
Step 5. Design of Thickness of base plate
⎛ 720 × 1000 ⎞
Bearing pressure = ⎜ ⎟ = 3.41 mm
2
⎝ 550 × 400 ⎠
Projection = 75 mm
Let t 2 be the thickness of bed plate and consider 1 mm wide strip.
⎛ 752 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 3.41 × ⎟ = 9590.625 N-mm
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
1
∴ × 1 × t22 × 185 = 9590.625
6
1/ 2
⎛ 6 × 9590.625 ⎞
t2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 185 ⎠
= 17.64 mm
Provide 18 mm thick bed plate.
The sole plate is also kept 18 mm thick. The bearing designed is shown in
Figure 5.10.
7 50 kN
S o le plate
R o cker plate
38 m m
B e d pla te
75 m m 75 m m
4 00 m m
Fig. 5.10
Example 5.2 The effective span of a plate girder through type bridge for a
single broad gauge track is 30 m. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction
is 1200 kN. The vertical reaction due to overturning effect of wind at each end of
the girder is 80 kN. The lateral load due to wind at each bearing is 34 kN. Design
the rocker bearing.
Solution
Design : Step 1
Dead load, live load and impact load reaction = 1200 kN
Vertical reaction due to wind = 80 kN
Longitudinal load from Bridge Rule, for 30 m span, for broad gauge per track.
Tractive effort = 476 kN
Braking force = 457 kN
Longitudinal load per girder
1
= × 476 = 238.0 kN
6
Allowable stress in cement concrete
= 4 N/mm2
Area of bed plate required
1200 × 1000
= = 3000 × 100 mm2
4
Provide 700 mm × 700 mm bed plate as shown in Fig. 5.11. A large bed plate is
provided, since, it will also be subjected to lateral load and longitudinal force.
80 0 m
3 mm 3 mm
7 00 m m 1 00 m m
75 m m
25 m m
2 37 .5 4 00 kN 4 00 kN 4 00 kN
mm
25
mm
2 37 .5
mm
25 28 m m 28 m m
mm
75 m m
Fig. 5.11
Step 2. Design of Rocker bearing

As per IS : 800–1984
Allowable stress in bearing on projected area
= 0.75 fy
Allowable stress on mild steel pins
In shear = 100 N/mm2
In bearing = 300 N/mm2
In bending = 0.66 fy
Provide 150 mm diameter pin
Thickness of rib plates required
⎛ 1200 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 42.66 mm
0.750 × 250 × 150 ⎠
Provide 25 mm thick, 3 rib plates
Total thickness = 75.0 mm
Load shared by each plate
1
= × 1200 = 400 kN
3
Let the gap between two outer plates of top casting and bottom casting be 3 mm.
Distance between centre to centre of two outer plates
= (25 + 3) = 28 mm
Maximum bending moment in pin

28
= 400.0 × = 11.2 kN-m
103
Maximum bending stress in the extreme fibre of pin,
⎛ 11.2 × 106 ⎞
σb = ⎜ ⎟ = 33.82 N/mm2. Hence safe.
π 3
⎜ × 150 ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
Maximum shear stress,
4 ⎛ 400.0 × 1000 ⎞
τv.cal = ×
3 ⎝⎜ π / 4 × 1502 ⎠⎟
= 30.2 N/mm2. Hence safe.
Vertical load due to dead load, live load, impact load and wind load
= (1200 + 80) = 1280 kN
Let the height of pin above base = 300 mm
Lateral load due to wind at each bearing = 34 kN
Moment due to wind at the base
= 34.0 × 0.30 = 10.2 kN-m
Moment due to longitudinal force
= 238 × 0.30 = 71.4 kN-m
Maximum pressure below the base
⎛ 1280 × 1000 ⎞ ⎛ 10.2 × 106 ⎞ ⎛ 71.43 × 106 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 700 × 700 ⎠ ⎝ 1 / 6 × 700 × (700 )2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 / 6 × 700 × (700 )
2
⎠
= 4.04 N/mm2 < 1.25 × 4 N/mm2. Hence, safe.
Allowable stress for occasional loads is 1.25 × allowable stress for normal loads.
Step 3. Design of base plate
Therefore, design pressure for base
4.04
= = 3.23 N/mm2
1.25
Let the projection of the base = 75 mm
Maximum bending moment per mm strip
3.23 × (75)2
= = 9084.38 mm
2
Let t be the thickness of base plate.
1
Then, × 1× t 2 × 185 = 9084.38
6
t = 17.16 mm
Provided 20 mm thick base plate.

The base plate is tested at section XX as shown in Fig. 5.12.
25 m m 25 m m 25 m m
1 59 .12 m m
2 10 m m
X X
7 0.8 8 m m 3 .23 N /m m 2
20
mm
7 00 m m
Fig. 5.12

⎡ 3.23 × 700 × (350 )2 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ = 138.486 kN-m
⎣ 2 × 1000 ⎦
Let the distance of XX-section from the base be y ,
⎡ ⎛ 210 ⎞⎤
⎢ 700 × 20 × 10 + 3 × 210 × 25 × ⎜⎝ 2 + 20⎟⎠ ⎥
y = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 700 × 20 + 3 × 210 × 25 ⎦
= 70.88 mm
The moment of inertia of base block
⎡1 3 2 3 × 2.5 × (21)3 ⎤
⎢
I = 12 × 70 × 2 + 70 × 2 × ( 6.088 ) + ⎥ 4 4
⎢ 12 ⎥ × 10 mm
⎢ +3 × 2.5 × 21 × (5.412 ) ⎥⎦
2
⎣
= 15636.85 ×104 mm4
Bending stress,
⎡138.486 × 106 × (230 − 70.88) ⎤
σb =
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 15636.85 × 104 ⎦
2
= 140.92 N/mm . Hence, safe.
Example 5.3. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction at the end of
a bridge girder as 1300 kN. The vertical reaction of each end of the girder due to
overturning effect of wind is 60 kN. Design the roller bearing. The least allowable
perpendicular distance between the faces of adjacent rollers after their revolved
position may be taken as 6 mm. The centre of roller travels 25 mm.
Solution
Design :
The maximum end reaction at the support due to dead load, live load, impact
load, and vertical reaction at each end of the girder due to overturning
= (1300 + 60)= 1360 kN.
Step 1. Design of Pin
The pin bearing is provided with continuous seating
Minimum size of pin = 100 mm
Assume length of pin = 400 mm
Bearing area provided
400 × 100 = 4 × 104 mm2
Bearing stress on the pin
1360 × 103
= = 34 N/mm2
4 × 104
< 1.33 × 300 N/mm 2 (Allowable bearing
stress)
Step 2. Design of Rollers on flat surface
Provide 100 mm diameter, three rollers. Permissible load for 3 or more rollers
1
= K 4 . Dr kN/mm
100
⎛ 0.50 × 100 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0.50 kN/mm
100
Total length of rollers required
⎛ 1360 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2720 mm
0.50 ⎠
⎛ 2720 ⎞
Length of each roller = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 906.66 mm
3 ⎠
Provide 100 mm diameter, 3 rollers each 0.950 m long.
Least allowable perpendicular distance between the faces or adjacent rollers
after their revolved position
b = 6 mm
Horizontal travel B = 25 mm
Diameter of rollers D = 100 mm
From Eq. 5.1, the width of segmental rollers
°
⎛ 114.6 × B ⎞
d = D sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠
°
⎛ 114.6 × 2.5 ⎞
= 100sin ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ 10 ⎠
= 100 × 0.48 = 48 mm
Provide 50 mm width for the rollers
From Eq. 5.2, the spacing between adjacent rollers
a = b sec θ + d (sec θ –1)
°
⎛ 114.6B ⎞
θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 28.65°
⎝ D ⎠
∴ a = 6 × sec (28.66)° + 50 (sec 26.65° – 1)
= 13.7 mm
The spacing between adjacent rollers is kept equal to 150 mm.
The bearing designed is shown in Figure 5.13.
Top casting
P in 1 0 0 m m d ia m e te r
4 00 m m lo ng
B o tto m
casting
3 rolle rs
e ach 0.9 50 m 1 00 m m
lo ng
65 m m 65 m m
Fig. 5.13
5.7 NON-FERROUS MECHANICAL BEARINGS

Non-ferrous mechanical bearings based upon aluminium alloy castings were
developed along with the increase in the concrete bridges, which do not need
painting. The aluminium alloy castings have satisfactory resistance against
corrosion. Non-ferrous mechanical bearings are manufactured by some companies

having special rights. As such, these bearings are referred as proprietary
mechanical bearing. These bearings are similar in concept to the traditional designs
of ferrous bearings. Adequate trade literature is published by the manufacturers
of such bearings. The manufacturer’s catalogues are revised and improved with
time. These bearings are selected after going through the latest editions of these
catalogues.
The mechanical bearings based upon the principle of ball and socket are also
manufactured from non-ferrous metal. Such bearings are referred as ball and
socket type bearings. These bearings offer freedom of rotation about any horizontal
axis, normally upto 0.09 radians. These bearings have ability to accommodate
inclination of the superstructure. These bearings also permit the rotations in plan
about the vertical axis.
These ball and socket type of bearings have convex rocker in the form of segment of
a sphere and a concave seating. The concave seating has a lining of polytetra
fluorethylene. The complete assemblies are restrained in elastomeric discs. The vertical
load is transmitted nearly radially. The seating behaves like a spherical shell.
5.8 ELASTOMERIC BRACINGS

The natural rubber and synthetic materials having many rubber-like
characteristics are referred as elastomers.
1. Natural rubber is cheap and it is adequate for most of the civil
engineering applications. It has moderate weathering resistance. It is inflammable
material. It burns readily. It is attacked by oxygen, but this remains confined to
the surface. It is also readily attacked by ozone. The extensive deep cracks are
produced in the material in the direction perpendicular the tensile strain. The
rubber compounds specially prepared for bearings are protected by incorporating
anti-oxidants and anti-ozonants inside the material. Natural rubber absorbs all
the derivatives of petroleum and aromatic hydrocarbons (in case such materials
remain in direct contact), swells and looses its mechanical properties. The hardness
of a small specimen of natural rubber by about 4 IRHD (International rubber
hardness). It is equivalent to about 20 per cent change in the elastic modulii. The
elongation at break for this material may fall to about 85 percent of its original
value. The natural rubber bridge bearings should have a useful life of at least fifty
years. At present, the rubber bearings are in use for about twenty years. The
natural rubber has a number of shortcomings. As such, the synthetic materials
have been developed and used as elastomers.
2. Many elastomers are produced with a wide range of physical properties,
depending upon the composition and the manufacturing process. The elastomers
are generally characterized by measuring its hardness. The hardness of elastomer
is measured by reversible elastic indentation under a steel point. It is measured in
degrees on International Rubber scale (IRHD). The IRHD scale ranges from 0 for
very soft material to 100 for very hard material. The hardness of erasers and car
tyres are about 30 and 60 IRHD respectively. The approximate properties of some
elastomers are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Approximate properties of elastomers*

Hardness E G K εU
IRHD N/mm 2 N/m 2 Percent
50 2.3 0.6 0.75 > 450
60 3.7 1.0 0.60 400
70 6.2 1.4 0.56 300
* Long, J.E. ‘Bearings in Structural Engineer published by Newnes-Butterworths,
London, 1974 p. 12).
E = Elastic modulus
G = Shear modulus
K = Empirically determined constant
εU = Ultimate tensile strain.
The elastic modulus of elastomer increases with increase in its hardness. The
elastic modulii in tension and compression are roughly equal. The elastic modulus
of an elastomer is always small as compared with most of the engineering materials,
whereas the bulk modulus is high. The bulk modulus of an elastomer is compared
with that of water. The actual value of bulk modulus varies with hardness and
other factors. Its value is normally in excess of 1000 N/mm2. For many applications,
an elastomer may be treated as incompressible. The tensile breaking stress based
on original cross-sectional area of most elastomers exceeds 10 N/mm2 at normal
temperature.
3. Neoprene (chloroprene rubber) is best known synthetic rubber. It
was introduced about 40 years ago. Chloroprene synthetic rubber was given a
trade name as ‘Neoprene’. As regards resistance to ageing, weathering, flames
and attack by oils and fuels, neoprene is superior to natural rubber. Neoprene
may be produced with hardness ranging from 30 to 90 IRHD. Neoprene elongates
less than the natural rubber of same hardness. A neoprene bearing tends to be
larger than the equivalent natural rubber bearing. Neoprene has good resistance
to flame ; tearing and abrasion. Neoprene bonds readily with metals. It weathers
well. The useful life of Neoprene bearings is at least sixty years. Provision for the
removal and replacement of Neoprene bearings may be kept as a precautionary
measure during the life of structure, if this exceeds about 50 years.
In India, Neoprene bearings were first used over the north abutment of a
prestressed concrete across river Coleroon in Tamil Nadu state. The total thickness
of each bearing is 30 mm. Five Neoprene layers 300 mm × 500 mm reinforced
with galvanised iron mesh of 1 mm wire size and 4.6 mm mesh spacing. Since
then, Neoprene bearings have been provided in many bridges.
Butyl rubber, silicone rubber, nitrile rubber, Butadienceslyrene rubber etc. are
the numerous synthetic rubbers. Some of these have been used in bearings.
5.9 STATIC BEHAVIOUR OF ELASTOMER

The behaviour of elastomer subjected to static loading in (i) compression, (ii) shear
and (iii) torsion in plan may be described as under :
5.9.1 Compression
A rectangular block of an elastomer subjected to vertical load P is shown in Fig. 5. 14.
The block is under compression. The loaded faces of the block are prevented from
slipping by friction or physical bonding. The vertical stiffness of such a block
depends upon its freedom to bulge at the sides as shown in Fig. 5.14 (a) and it is
dc
t
B L
(a ) E levatio n (b ) S ide vie w
Fig. 5 .14
expressed in terms of shape factors, S. The shape-factor, S is defined as the ratio

of loaded plan area to the force-free surface area. The shape-factor, S for different
shape of an elastomer block is as follows :
(i) A rectangular block
⎡ L.B ⎤
S = ⎢2( ) ⋅ t ⎥ ...(5.3)
⎣ L+B ⎦
(ii) For square block (L = B)
L
S = ...(5.4)
4t
(iii) For circular block
1 1 D
S = πD 2 × = ...(5.5)
4 πD ⋅ t 4t
(iv) For very long rectangular block

A very long rectangular block in which the length, L is greater than five times
the width, B, the bulging at the ends is neglected. The shape-factor of such a strip
is found by considering unit-length
B
S = ...(5.6)
2⋅t
The vertical stiffness of an elastomer block increases rapidly with the increase
in shape-factor. From Eqs. (5.5 to 5.6) it is seen that the shape-factor shall be large
when the thickness of block, t is small and the vertical stiffness shall also be large.
In case, the thickness of two blocks is the same, and the plan area of one is larger
than the other, the block of larger plan area shall be more stiffer than the other.
For the vertically stiff-block, the compression in bulk cannot be neglected.
The vertical compressive strain is determined by Lindley, P.B. for a rubber
block carrying uniform compressive stress σc is given by
ec = σc ...(5.7)
E (1 + 2 K ⋅ S 2 )
where K is an empirically found constant. For a completely incompressible material,
the value of K may be taken as unity. The value of K decreases with the increase
in the hardness of an elastomer. The term
E (1 + 2K . S2)
in the denominator of Eq. 5.7 may be called as the apparant modulus Ea. Therefore,
σc
ec = Ea ...(5.8)
The total vertical strain, e v in the bulk of an elastomer is equal to sum of the
vertical strain e c and the bulk strain, e k .
ev = e c + ek
⎛σ σ ⎞
or ev = ⎜ c + c ⎟ ...(5.9)
⎝ Ea Ek ⎠
⎡ σc ⎤
⎢ E ⋅E ⎥
or ev = a k ...(5.10)
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ( Ea + Ek ) ⎦⎥
Ea ⋅ Ek
may be termed as ‘modified modulus’, Em.
( Ea + Ek )
⎛σ ⎞
Therefore, ev = ⎜ c ⎟ ...(5.11)
⎝ Em ⎠
The product of total vertical strain and the thickness of the elastomer block
gives the total compression or vertical deflection.
⎛ σc ⋅ t ⎞
dc = e v . t = ⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠ ...(5.12)
m
The average compressive stress, σc is obtained by dividing the vertical load by

plan area, A.
⎛P⎞ P ⋅t
σc = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ A ⎠ A ⋅ Em
⎛ P ⋅t⎞
or dc . A = ⎜ ...(5.13)
⎝ Em ⎟⎠
P ⎛ E ⋅ A⎞
or = ⎜ m
dc ⎝ t ⎟⎠
⎛ Em ⋅ A ⎞
or Kc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(5.14)
t ⎠
where Kc is termed as compressive rating of block. It is defined as the vertical load
required to produce unit vertical deflection.
The apparent modulus for a long strip as found by Lindley, P.B., it is given by
4
Ea = E (1+K .S2) ...(5.15)
3
Therefore, the vertical compressive strain in the elastomer strip under the
uniform compressive stress is given by
σc 3σ c
ec = = ...(5.16)
Ea 4 E (1 + K ⋅ S 2 )
It is to note that the compressive strain in an elastomer strip is independent of
length L, for uniform loading. Therefore, it is referred per unit length. The vertical
deflection may be determined as per Eq. 5.12.
⎛ σc ⋅ t ⎞
dc = ⎜ ...(i)
⎝ Em ⎟⎠
Multiplying both the sides of the above equation by width, B,
⎛ B × σc × t ⎞
A × dc = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ Em
⎛ P ⋅t ⎞
or B . dc = ⎜⎝ L ⋅ E ⎟⎠ (3 P = σc × B × L)
m
⎛ P 1⎞ ⎛ B ⋅ Em ⎞
or ⎜⎝ d × L ⎟⎠ = ⎜
⎝ t ⎟⎠
...(5.17)
0
⎛ B ⋅ Km ⎞ ⎛ B⎞
or Kc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2S . Em ⎜3 S = ⎟ ...(5.18)
t⋅ ⎠ ⎝ 2t ⎠
where, Kc is termed as compressive rating per unit length. It is defined as the
uniformly distributed load per unit length to produce unit vertical deflection.
The force-free surface of both circular and very long rectangular blocks bulge in
the form of a parabola due to symmetry. Lindley, P.B. ‘Engineering with natural
rubber’, NR Technical Report, The Natural Rubber Producers Research Association,
London (1986). Lindley, P.B. derived the following expression for the maximum
central bulge, b, from the initial unstrained position, due to a vertical deflection d.
(i) For circular block
⎛ 3 D ⋅ dc ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
b = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ S ⋅ dc ⎟⎠ ...(5.19)
2 t 2
where, D = Diameter of the block
⎛ 3 B ⋅ dc ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
b = ⎜⎝ ⋅ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ S ⋅ dc ⎟⎠ ...(5.20)
4 t 2
where, B = Width
A short rectangular block also bulges parabolically in plan. Eq. 5.20 may be
used to determine the bulge approximately.
In direct compression, the strength of most of the elastomers is generally 150
N/mm2 or more.
In case, the slip occurs in the loaded forces freely in the lateral direction, the
vertical stiffness of a block decreases.
The compressive rating of block, Kc is approximately obtained as below :
E⋅A
Kc = ...(5.21)
t
For small deflection, the bulge is uniform as shown in Fig. 5.15.
(i) For circular block
0.5
D ⎧⎛ t ⎞ ⎫
b = ⎨⎜ ⎟ − 1⎬ ...(5.22)
2 ⎩⎝ t − dc ⎠ ⎪⎭
(ii) For long rectangular block
B ⋅ dc
b = ...(5.23)
2(t + dc )
dc
t
b B b
Fig. 5.15
Shear. The load/deflection relationship of an elastomer block in shear nearly

linear in case the loaded faces do not slip. This relationship is also independent of
shape-factor. In case, the shear stress in the block is τ, then, the shear strain is
found as
⎛τ⎞
es = ⎜ ⎟ ... (5.24)
⎝G ⎠
The tangent of the angle of deformation, tan φ as shown in Fig. 5.16 gives the
shear strain.
es = tan φ
⎛H ⎞
Since, τ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
⎛ H ⎞
es = tan φ ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.25)
⎝A G⎠
where,
H = Total horizontal force.
φ t
sap
sp H
Fig. 5.16
The relatively horizontal displacement, ds, between top and bottom faces of the
block is approximately given by
⎛ t⋅H ⎞
ds = t . tan φ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.26)
⎝ A ⋅G ⎠
The shear rating of the block, Ks is defined as the shear load necessary to
produce unit relative displacement. It is given by
H ⎛ A ⋅G ⎞
Ks = = ...(5.27)
ds ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠
or
For a strip, the shear rating is expressed per unit length
⎛ H 1 ⎞ ⎛ A ⋅G ⎞
∴ Ks = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.28)
⎝ ds L ⎠ ⎝ t ⋅ L ⎠
⎛ B ⋅G ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
or Ks = ⎜ ⎟ = 2S . G ⎜3 = B⎟
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
where B is the width of the strip. It is to note that the shear stiffness of a block or
a strip remains same in all the horizontal directions.
In case the angle of deformation, φ due to shear is large, then the relative
horizontal displacement is to be obtained as below :
⎡ tan φ ⎤
ds = ⎢ 2
⋅ t⎥ ...(5.29)
⎣ (1 + tan φ) ⎦
The vertical displacement, dvs due to shear is determined as under:

dvs = ds . tan φ ...(5.30)
Torsion in plan
The structural bearings twist in plan occasionally only. The parallel force twists
in relation to its other face held. In the context of structural bearing, this is a
secondary problem. It needs only approximate treatment. The relative torsional
stiffness is defined as torque required to cause unit angle of twist.
T
Kτs = ...(5.31)
θ
(i) For circular elastomeric disc
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ πG ⋅ D ⎞
4
Kt = ⎜ θ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 32t ⎟⎟ ...(5.32)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
where, the diameter of D is such greater than the thickness of the block.
(ii) For a circular disc with a central hole of diameter, d
T πG 4
Kt = =
θ 32t
(
D − d4 )
The angular distortion, θ causes the shear strain in both the cases
⎛ 16T ⎞ ⎛ D⋅θ⎞
eφ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ 2t ⎟ ...(5.33)
⎝ πGD3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5.10 TYPES OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

Unconfined pad bearings and confined pot bearings are two types of elastomeric
bearings. Unconfined pad bearings are further sub-divided into two categories :
‘unreinforced’ and ‘reinforced’. Elastomeric bearing of rectangular shape consisting
of one single layer of synthetic material without any metal is known as unreinforced
bearing. Slab bridges with spans upto 10 m and transferring uniformly distributed
loads are supported on unreinforced bearings. Elastomeric bearings of rectangular
shape consisting of several rubber-like layers strengthened with metal (steel) plates
is known as reinforced bearing. Girder bridges transmitting heavy concentrated
loads are supported on reinforced bearings. Elastomeric layers are bonded to thin
metal plates during the manufacturing process. The metal plates may remain
visible at the sides or may be covered with elastomeric layer. Laminated reinforced
bearings and moulded reinforced bearings are further two classes of reinforced
bearings.
In a laminated reinforced bearing, elastomeric layer is bonded with suitable
adhesives on both the sides of one metal plate. Such metal plates with elastomeric
layers on their both the sides are further bonded in the next operation.
In a moulded reinforced bearing, the several elastomeric layers including the
alround cover with metal plates are moulded together in one operation. Moulded
reinforced bearings are preferred. The plan dimensions of the overall bearing may be
selected from the preferred numbers recommended in IS : 1076–1967.
5.11 DESIGN OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

In Britain, the elastomeric bearings for static loading are designed as per
specifications issued by the department of the Environment in its memorandum
No. 802 (Provisional rules for the use of the rubber bearings in highway bridges,
H.M.S.O., London, 1962 revised in 1972). The bearings for highway bridges are
designed by following the specifications as laid down in memorandum No. 802. In
addition to this, the specifications drafted by International Union of Railway Pairs,
(January 1969) are also available. These specifications have been referred in U.I.C.
Code 772 R ‘Code for the use of rubber bearings for rail bridges’. Indian Road
Congress has also drafted specifications (Draft specifications for elastomeric
bearings) in 1976, but it is still unpublished.
The specifications in memorandum No. 802 are based on the concept of limiting
strains. The strains are limited to the specified values. Such limitations guard
against the failure of the elastomer in fatigue. The unreinforced pad bearings
are designed as follows :
(i) The area of elastomeric bearing in plan is determined for the total vertical
load, P
⎛P ⎞
A´ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.34)
⎝ σc ⎠
The average vertical compressive stress is limited to the allowable limits (σc<
2 SG). When a horizontal movement, ds occurs in the bearing, the vertical load
acts on the reduced effective area. In case this horizontal movement, ds takes place
in the direction of length L of a rectangular block as shown in Fig. 5.17, the
effective area shall be reduced to (L – ds). Due to this fact, the shape factor of the
bearing is not changed.
ds ds
( L –d s )
L
Fig. 5.17
Total compression i.e., the vertical deflection as found from Eq. 5.12 permitting
for the effects of compression in bulk shall not be greater than 15 percent of the
total thickness, t of the elastomer in the bearing. By this restriction, the linear
elastic design theory is not violated.
(ii) In order to avoid the tension at the rear edge of the elastomer, Fig. 5.18,
the rotation about the horizontal axis is limited. The life of the elastomer is likely
to be reduced due to direct tensile strain.
⎛ 2d 2P 0.2 t ⎞
α < ⎜ c = = ⎟ ...(5.35)
⎝ L LK c L ⎠
(iii) The thickness of elastomer is limited to ensure the stability against
overturning.
1
t < ×L ...(5.36)
5
L C e ntre o f
P p ressure
6
α dc
α
L L
2 2
Fig. 5.18
where L is the plan dimension of the pad parallel to the bridge girder being
supported.
(iv) The horizontal movement due to shear, ds is limited to 0.7 times the
thickness
ds < 0.7 × t ...(5.37)
where, ds is determined from Eq. 5.26.
(v) For stability against sliding,
H < μP ...(5.38)
where, H is the horizontal force and μ is the coefficient of friction.
Reinforced pad bearings are designed as follows :
(i) The area of elastomeric bearing is determined for the total vertical load, P
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛P ⎞
A´ = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(5.39)
⎝ Permissible stress ⎠ ⎝ σc ⎠
(ii) The total shear stress, τt in the thickest layer of a reinforced bearings
shall not exceed 5 G. The total shear is calculated as under :
τt = τH + τP + τα ...(5.40)
where, τH = Shear stress due to horizontal load
⎛H ⎞
τH = ⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
τP = Shear stress due to vertical load

⎛3 1 P ⎞
= ⎜2×S × L⋅B ⎟
⎝ t ⎠
and τα = Shear axis due to rotation, α about the horizontal axis
⎛ G ⋅ L2 ⋅ α ⎞
τα = ⎜⎜ 2t ⋅ t ⎟⎟ (t i = thickness of the layer)
⎝ i ⎠
(iii) Uplift must not be produced at the most lightly loaded edge of the pad
bearing when the rotation a occurs about the horizontal axis. The total vertical
deflection, dc and vertical deflection
⎛ P ⋅t ⎞
dc = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 A´GS + 2P ⎠ in each layer are
found by experimentally
derived expressions.
⎛ ( P/ A ′ ) ⎞
or dc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 10GS + 2P/A ′ ⎠
⎛ σc ⋅ t ⎞
or dc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.41)
⎝ 10GS + 2σ c ⎠
⎛ σc ⋅ ti ⎞
or dc = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟
⎝ 4GSi + 3σc ⎠
where, A´ = Reduced effective area
Si = Shape factor of individual layer
⎡ L⋅B ⎤
Si = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ( L + B ) ⋅ tt ⎥⎦
(iv) The rotation required for the reinforced pad bearing
⎛ 6∑dci ⎞
α < ⎜ ⎟ ...(5.42)
⎝ L ⎠
(v) For the stability against sliding, the condition as given by Eq. 5.38 should
be satisfied.
(vi) The horizontal movement due to shear is limited as per condition given by
Eq. 5.37.
(vii) The thickness of a steel plate, ts interleaved between two elastomeric layers
of thickness t 1 and t 2 is determined as below :
2 (t1 + t2 ) ⎛ P ⎞
ts = ⋅⎜ ⎟ ...(5.43)
σs ⎝ A´ ⎠
where, σs = Permissible tensile stress for the steel plate (0.60fy N/mm2.fy is
yield stress of the steel)
(viii) For stability against overturning, the vertical compressive stress σc is

limited as below :
L ⋅ G ⋅ Si ⎞
σc < 0.67 ⎛⎜ ⎟ ...(5.44)
⎝ t ⎠
It is normally satisfied, when
⎛L⎞
t < ⎜ ⎟
⎝5⎠
5.12 ELASTOMERIC POT BEARINGS

Elastomeric pot bearings (confined bearings) are employed when the vertical load
and the rotation at the end of a bridge girder are large where the elastomeric
A n ch o rag e A n ch o rag e
Top p la te L ug Teflon
P.S .C .
Pot Pot
S e al S e al
(N e op ren e ) P a d (a ) U n ila te ral p ot be aring
Top p la te Teflon
P iston
(S e al) (S e al)
N e op ren e P ad B o tto m plate N e op ren e P ad
(b ) M ultilatera l p o t b ea rin g
Top p la te
Pot N e op ren e pa d Pot
S e al B o tto m plate S e al
(N e op ren e ) (N e op ren e )
(c) Fixed po t be aring
Fig. 5.19
unconfined pad bearings may be insufficient. Circular unreinforced neoprene pad

of small thickness enclosed in a steel pot is used in the pot bearing. The bulging of
neoprene confined pad does not occur. The behaviour of the pad is similar to that of
a fluid under high pressure. It permits a rotation of 1 in 50. The horizontal movement
is accommodated by incorporating teflon layers as shown in Figure 5.19. The
unilateral pot bearing as shown in Figure 5.19 (a) allows horizontal movement in
one direction. The multilateral pot bearings as shown in Figure 5.19 (b) permit
horizontal movement in any direction. Figure 5.19 (c) shows a fixed type pot
bearings. These bearings allow rotation about any horizontal axis.
The elastomeric pot bearings are specially suitable for continuous span bridges
on curves.
Problems
5.1 The effective span of a plate girder deck type bridge for a single metre
gauge track is 22 m. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction is
700 kN. The vertical reaction due to overturning effect of wind at each
end of the girder is 100 kN. Design a suitable bearing.
5.2 The effective span of a plate girder through type bridge for a single broad
gauge track is 28 m. The dead load, live load and impact load reaction is
1500 kN. The vertical reaction due to overturning effect of wind at each
end of the girder is 80 kN. The lateral load due to wind at each bearing is
40 kN. Design the rocket bearing.
5.3 The dead load, live load and impact load reaction at the end of a bridge
girder is 1000 kN. The vertical reaction at each end of the girder due to
overturning effect of wind is 50 kN. Design the roller bearing. The least
allowable perpendicular distance between the faces of adjacent roller
after the revolved position may be taken as 6 mm. The centres of rollers
travel 25 mm.
5.4 Design and sketch the details of sliding bearing suitable for steel roof
truss 20 metres span. Assume maximum temperature difference for
expansion 50°C, coefficient of thermal expansion for mild steel 0.000012
per degree centigrade per unit length.
5.5 Design the roller bearing for the ends of a truss girder of a bridge for the
following data:
(i) Combined dead load, live load and impact load reaction at each end
of a girder = 1400 kN
(ii) Vertical reaction due to the overturning effect of wind at each end of
the girder = 100 kN
(iii) Horizontal travel = 25 mm
(iv) The perpendicular distance between the faces of the adjacent rollers
after the revolved position be taken as 6 mm.
5.6 The maximum vertical reaction at the end of a bridge girder is 1600 kN.
Design a roller bearing if the least allowable perpendicular distance
between the faces of adjacent after their revolved position is 6 mm, and
the centres of rollers travel 25 mm.
6. Design of Steel Chimmeys
7. Design of Steel Tanks
8. Design of Steel Bunkers and Silos
9. Design of Industrial Buildings
10. Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
11. Design of Light Gauge Steel Members
12. Plastic Analysis and Design of Steel Structures
13. Design of Steel Towers, Trestles and Masts
14. Design of Aluminium Structures

CHAPTER
6
Design of Steel and Other Structures
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel chimneys are also known as steel stacks. The steel chimneys are made of
steel plates and supported on foundation. The steel chimneys are used to escape
and disperse the flue gases to such a height that the gases do not contaminate
surrounding atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of steel chimney is kept large
enough to allow the passage of burnt gases. The cross-sectional area of steel chimney
depends on the type and quantity of fuel to be used in a plant, available draft for
carrying the burnt gases. The cross-sectional area of steel chimney depends on the
type and quantity of fuel to be used in a plant, available draft for carrying the
burnt gases up the chimney and losses due to friction within the chimney. The
height of steel chimney is kept to provide the required draft. The draft is defined
as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any point in the duct or steel
chimney and the ambient atmospheric pressure. The draft depends on the height
of steel chimney above sea-level, the type of fuel to be burnt, the type of furnace
and the temperature of burnt gases. When the gases in a steel chimney are heated,
then the gases expand. The hot gases occupy larger volume than before. The weight
of gases per cubic metre becomes less. As a result of this, the unit pressure at the
bottom of chimney due to weight of hot gases also becomes less than the unit
pressure due to weight of cold air outside of chimney. The difference between two
pressures results in the flow of the burnt gases up the chimney. For the purpose of
the structural design of the steel chimney, the height and diameter of chimney at
the top are known data.
The steel chimney is made cylindrical in shape. The lower portion of steel
chimney is widened or flared, in order to provide a large base and greater stability.
The widened section of the chimney at the base reduces the unit stresses in the
steel at the base of the chimney. The loads acting on the steel chimney are
transferred to the foundation easily by the widened section. The base of the chimney
may be made bell-mouthed or conical. The fabrication of bell-mouthed base is
costly. The bell-mouthed base does not have any advantage over the conical base.
Therefore, the conical base is provided generally. The recommended height of flared
portion of the chimney is equal to one-third the height of the chimney. The bottom
diameter of the flared portion shall not be less than one and a quarter times the
diameter of stack, (i.e., d1 = 5/4.d).
The steel chimneys are designed and constructed conforming to code of practice
for design and construction of steel chimneys, IS : 6533–1971.
6.2 TYPES OF STEEL CHIMNEYS

The steel chimneys are of two types :
1. Self-supporting steel chimneys 2. Guyed steel chimneys.
6.2.1 Self-Supporting Steel Chimneys

When the lateral forces (wind or seismic forces) are transmitted to the foundation
by the cantilever action of the chimney, then the chimney is known as chimney,
d
h C ylind rical
p ortion
X X
H = H eigh t o f
chim ne y
B re ech
o pe ning
Flare d
p ortion
C le a n o ut
d oo r
d1
Fig. 6.1 Self-supporting steel chimney

DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 293
self-supporting chimney. The self-supporting chimney together with the

foundation remains stable under all working conditions without any additional
support. A self-supporting chimney is shown in Fig. 6.1. The self-supporting
chimneys are made upto 10 m diameter and from 50 m to 100 m in height.
6.2.2 Guyed Steel Chimneys

In high steel chimneys, the mild steel wire ropes or guys are attached to transmit
the lateral forces. Such steel chimneys are known as guyed steel chimneys. In
guyed steel chimneys, all the externally applied loads (wind, seismic force, etc.)
are not totally carried by the chimney shell. These attached guys or stays do share
these applied loads. These guys or stays ensure the stability of the guyed steel
chimney. These steel chimneys may be provided with one, two or three sets of
guys. In each set of guys, three or four or sometimes six wires are attached to the
collars. When one set of guy is used, then the guys are attached to a collar at one-
third or one-fourth of the height from the top. When more than one set of guys are
used, then these are used at various heights.
A particular type of steel chimney is selected depending on the advantage and
disadvantages with reference to economy. A choice between self-supporting and
guyed steel chimney is made by considering some of the important factors. Number
of units, type of equipment and the type of fuel to be used are considered. In case
the chimney is to be used for boilers, the surface area, output efficiency, draft
requirements etc. are taken into account. The mode of operation of the equipment
shall also be considered.
The temperature of the flue gases before entering the chimney and its likely
variation, are studied. The type of lining is decided knowing the composition of the
flue gases. The specific weight, the quantity of dust and data about the
aggressiveness of the flue gases must be known. The local statutory regulations,
relating to height, dispersion of ash, provision for earthing aviation warning lamp,
health etc. are the factors which should be considered for selecting a type of steel
chimney. The mode of erection is also considered.
The design of self-supporting chimney has been discussed in this chapter.
6.3 STEEL PLATES FOR CHIMNEY

The width of steel plates required for the steel chimney varies from 0.9 m to 2.5 m.
The steel plates of 1.50 m width are most commonly used. The thickness of steel
plates should not be less than 6 mm. The thickness of steel plates in the two upper
sections of the chimney should not be less than 8 mm to resist more corrosion
likely at the top of chimney. The thickness of steel plate in the flared portion
should not be less than the thickness at the lowest section of the cylindrical portion.
The steel plates are available in thickness of 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25,
28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56 and 63 mm. For the ease in construction, the upper
diameter of plates forming the side of chimney is kept less than the lower diameter.
Each course fits telescopic over the lower course.
The steel plates are sheared or planed to proper bevel for caulking. The steel
plates of chimneys are caulked from the inner side of chimney. The caulking is
done with a round-nosed caulking tool.
The steel plates (or all steel work) are painted in order to avoid corrosion. One
coat of approved paint is applied before leaving the shop. Two coats of approved
paint are applied both inside and outside after the chimney is erected. The paint
applied should be heat-resistant. A graphite or carbon paint or other tried heat-
resistant paint may be applied. The painting should never be done in wet or freezing
weather. The thickness shall not be less than 6 mm. The corrosion resistant steel
plates may be used in the chimney. The steel having an admixture of 0.25 to 0.30
percent of copper is more resistant to corrosion than steel not containing copper.
Copper bearing steel plates may be used for self-supporting steel chimneys.
The thickness of steel chimney obtained from stress calculations and deflection
consideration shall be increased by permitting an allowance for corrosion determined
from the considerations of the design life of the chimney and aggressiveness of the
flue gases. The allowance for corrosion permitted is decided depending upon the
expected amount of internal corrosion of steel plates. For 10 years of design life,
the corrosion allowance for non-copper bearing quality of steel for slight, normal
and exceptional internal corrosion is 2 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm, respectively.
In case the design life for the steel chimney is 20 years, then this allowance for
said quality of steel and amount of internal corrosion is 4 mm, 5 mm and 8 mm,
respectively. Ths copper bearing quality of steel is used when it is essential. The
quality of steel needs less corrosion allowance as compared to that of non-copper
bearing quality of steel.
However, the minimum thickness of shell of a chimney shall not be less than 6 mm.
6.4 RIVETED JOINTS IN CHIMNEYS

In the upper part of the steel chimney, lap joints are used in the vertical seams
and also for the horizontal seams. Lap joints are also used in the vertical seams of
the cylindrical portion and flared portion of the steel chimney. In the lower part of
the chimney, butt-joints are used in the horizontal seams with the heavy plates.
Butt joints are also used in the vertical seams in the bell-mouthed flare of large
chimney. The recommended types of riveted joints and diameter of rivets necessary
for different thickness of plates are given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Thickness of steel Diameter of steel Type of riveted joint
plates (mm) (mm)
6 16 Single riveted lap joint
8–10 18 Double riveted lap joint
12–16 22 Triple riveted lap joint
Thicker than 16 24 Butt joint
The spacing of rivets along the caulked edges of plates shall not be greater than
10 times the thickness of plates. The spacing of rivets shall not be less than 2.5
times the diameter of rivet.
The steel plates more than 16 mm thick and not more than 22 mm thick are
sub-punched with a punch 5 mm smaller than the nominal diameter of rivet, and
reamed to a diameter of 1.5 mm larger than the rivet. The plates thicker than
22 mm are drilled.
6.5 LINING FOR CHIMNEY

The guyed steel chimneys are usually unlined. The self-supporting chimneys are
usually made with lining. Sometimes, the self-supporting chimneys are also left
unlined. The unlined chimneys have also given excellent service. In general practice,
the self-supporting chimneys are all made with lining. The steel chimneys are
lined in order to protect the chimneys from heat, to act as a protecting cover and
thus reduce the corrosion on the steel plates, and to maintain the temperature of
the flue gases.
The fire brick, common brick, solid grade diatomoceous (mole earth) bricks,
acid resisting bricks, moler concrete, refractory concrete, gunitings with sand and
cement mixtures, vitrobestos are the various materials used for lining. The material
used for lining should be capable of withstanding high temperature upto 2000°F.
The lining is required from below the breech opening to the height, where the heat
of gases does not damage the chimney. The height of lining should not be less than
10 times the diameter or one-third height above the breech opening. The lining
may be done from the base to the top of chimney. The self-supporting chimneys
are usually lined throughout the full height of the chimney.
Lining materials. The brief-description of lining made of different materials,
construction and maintenance of lining is as following.
6.5.1 Fire Bricks

In order to suit the dimensions of the steel chimneys, the fire bricks are made in
radial forms. The alumina content between 28 and 32 percent in fire bricks is
satisfactory for most of the application. These bricks are set in the mortar. The
mortar is made from ground clay or any other suitable heat resisting cement. The
fire brick lining acts as a protective lining. It reduces the corrosion. It also protects
the chimney upto a temperature of 1200°C. The fire bricks have high density. As
such this type of lining is not suitable in maintaining the temperature of flue
gases. Its strength and hard surface give necessary protection to the steel chimney
from abrasion. The fire bricks having thermal conductivity 1 to 1.25 kcal/mh °C,
bulk density 1820 kN/m–3, crushing strength 14 N/mm2 and the coefficient of
thermal expansion 11 × 10–5/°C are considered suitable. When the steel chimneys
are to discharge flue gases having a temperature higher than 1200°C, then the
special duty lining shall be used. The joints between the fire bricks shall be properly
filled and shall be as thin as possible. The mortar is not placed between steel
chimney and bricks.
6.5.2 Insulating Refractory Bricks

These bricks are used to achieve all the three functions of lining stated above.
Three different grades of these bricks are available to suit temperatures of 850°C,
1250°C and 1500°C, respectively.
6.5.3 Solid Grade Diatomaceous (moler earth) Bricks

These bricks are made to suit diameter of chimney and to suitable thickness as
needed by the designer. These bricks are set in mortar. The mortar is made from
the brick material ground to powder with the addition of portland or alumina
cement depending on the temperature of the flue gases. The lining provided with
these bricks gives the necessary protection from heat and also maintains the
temperature of the flue gases. These bricks provide protective cover depending
upon the nature of the flue gases. These bricks are used for temperature of 150–
800°C. The co-efficient of thermal expansion for this material is very low. Its
material has exceptional resistance to rapid temperature changes. These bricks
have thermal conductivity of 0.14 – 0.19 kcal/mh°C, bulk density of 6.90 – 7.05
kN/m2, crushing strength over 4.6 N/mm2 and co-efficient of linear expansion
2.1 × 10–6/ °C.
6.5.4 Acid Resisting

When the flue gases are highly acidic and have a temperature below 150 °C, then
the lining is made from the acid resisting bricks. These bricks are set in acid
resisting cement. This type of lining is not suitable to resist short fluctuations in
temperature.
The refractory and acid resisting lining are provided with the necessary expansion
joints. Horizontal joints are provided at every 6 m. Such section of lining shall be
supported by internal rings which are firmly fixed to the chimney shell. A gap is
left at the top of each of the sections to keep clear of the ring above to allow for
expansion. This expansion gap is filled with asbestos fibre, mineral wool or such
other pliable filling.
6.5.5 Moler Concrete

The aggregate for moler concrete is made from moler earth bricks in appropriate
gradings and mixed with alumina cement. The moler concrete may be precasted
to shapes needed, casted in situ or gunited. In no case, the thickness of monolithic
lining shall be less than 50 mm. A minimum cover of 25 mm shall be provided to
anchorage where the corrosive conditions exist. This lining protects the chimney
from heat and maintains the temperature of the gases. This lining provides
protective covering in temperature range of 150° to 980° C depending upon the
type of flue gases.
6.5.6 Refractory Concrete

This type of lining may be casted in situ or gunited. This lining is similar to fire
brick lining in its use and fulfils the similar requirements. The aggregate for this
type of concrete is made from fire bricks or insulating refractory bricks of appropriate
gradings. This lining is used to line the chimneys less than 1 m in diameter with
brick.
The moler bricks or refractory and insulating concrete lining do not need
expansion joints as these linings have low thermal expansion.
6.5.7 Sand and Cement Mixture

This is useful as lining by guniting for low temperature range, normally below
150°C.
6.5.8 Guniting
The guniting is done by commencing from the bottom and progressing upwards. It
is done in narrow strips. The height of each band depends on the diameter of the
chimney, the thickness of the insulation and materials used, so that the initial
setting starts after the strips are completed. All incomplete lining is removed at
the end of the day’s work. It is removed by trowel and left square to the chimney
and at the level where the full thickness of the insulation exists. Studs of 3.15 mm
diameter and length equal to half the thickness of guniting are spot welded to the
inside surface of the steel chimney at 500 mm distances. These studs are staggered
both ways, on to which welded wire fabric of mesh 150 mm square is welded. The
mesh acts as reinforcement for guniting.
6.5.8.1 For Lining Supporting Rings

In the upper part of the chimney, the lining is supported on steel angles riveted to
the inside of chimney. For steel chimneys upto about 50 m height 125 mm thick
fire brick lining is used. The fire brick lining consists of 100 mm of fire brick and
Top stiffe ne r
C h im ne y she ll
10 m m
M in era l
12 m m w o ol or
a sb esto s
ro pe
M in era l
w o ol or
a sb esto s
ro pe
C h im ne y
L in ing she ll
In su la tion In su la tion L in ing

(a ) D e tail of an gle iro n ring (b ) D e ta ils of lin in g ne ar
for su pp ortin g the lin in g ch im ney h ea d
Fig. 6.2
25 mm of backing. ISA 100 mm × 75 mm and 10 mm to 12 mm thick are used to

support 100 mm thick lining. The angle section is placed with 100 mm leg
horizontal. In case the height of steel chimney is more than 50 m, then 175 mm
lining consisting of 150 mm fire brick and 25 mm backing is used. ISA 150 mm ×
75 mm and 10 mm to 12 mm thick are used to support 15 mm lining. The angle
section is placed with 150 mm leg horizontal. The vertical leg is kept downward as
shown in Fig. 6.2. The angle sections are attached with every second horizontal
section. It is not necessary to attach these angles with the horizontal joints except
that a support is provided at joint connecting the conical base to the main body of
the chimney. These angles may then be placed 2 m to 5 m apart. These angles
support lining and also stiffen the chimney. For an independent lining, a 200 mm
thick wall is necessary for the lower half and 100 mm brick wall for the upper half
of the chimney. When the supporting rings are used, the first layer of the lining
shall extend beyond the edge of the ring by not less than 12 mm and not more than
one third of the thickness of lining. It is done to protect the lining and also to allow
the condensate to fall below clear off the lining. The method of providing angle
support and stiffeners is shown in Fig. 6.2 (a).
A cap ring is provided at the top of chimney as shown in Fig. 6.2 (b). The cap
ring prevents the upper part of chimney from collapse and protect the lining also.
The top cap is made about 25 mm thick and 300 mm wide. The top cap may be
made of cast-iron. It is bolted with the top with non-corrosive bolts.
6.6 BREECH OPENING

The breech opening is also known as flue opening. The flue opening is provided for
the entrance of flue gases. The flue gases come from furnaces of the boilers.
A breech opening is provided in the steel chimney as shown in Fig. 6.1. The
area of breech opening is kept about 20 percent larger than the internal cross-
sectional area of the chimney. The maximum width of the breech opening should
not be greater than two-thirds of the diameter. In order to compensate the removed
material, the reinforcement should be provided all around the breech opening. The
vertical reinforcement provided should be 20 percent larger than the material
removed in the ratio of diameter to the long chord perpendicular to the face of the
opening. The horizontal reinforcement provided at the top and bottom of the opening
is kept equal to the vertical reinforcement. The reinforcing material provides
sufficient vertical stiffness. In order to transfer and distribute the stress into the
steel of the chimney, the reinforcing material should be extended above and below
the opening. In the self-supporting steel chimney the breech opening is kept well
above the flared base, so that it does not extend into the flared base.
The steel chimneys may have one breech opening, two breech openings, in the
same direction, two breech openings at right angles and three breech openings as
shown in Fig. 6.3 (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively.
The number of flue-openings may be one, two, three or four depending on the
requirement. It is suggested that a maximum of two flue-openings may be provided
at one level so that the chimney remains safe enough to resist the applied forces at
the plane of the openings. However, it is possible to provide three openings in one
plane. This is done only when the number of flue openings is three only. The width
of opening does not exceed one-third of the diameter of the chimney at that plane.
D D
A1
A1 A1
(a ) O n e b re ech op en in g (c) Tw o b ree ch o pe ning s
a t righ t a ngle s
A1 f = T hickn ess
of she ll plate
D D
A1 A1
A1 A1
(b ) Tw o bree ch o pe ning s (d ) T hre e bre e ch o pe ning s
Fig. 6.3
A cleanout door as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 6.1 is provided preferably on

the opposite side of the breech opening near the base. The minimum size of cleanout
door shall be 500 mm × 800 mm clear. The cleanout doors are also properly
reinforced. The cleanout door serves the purpose for removal of ash and inspection
of inside of the steel chimney.
6.7 LADDER
A permanent ladder as shown in Fig. 6.4 is provided outside of all large chimneys
for easy maintenance. The ladder may be provided from the base or 3 m above
2 50
3 35 m m 3 50 m m
mm Flat
50 m m x 6 m m
20 m m φ
C h im ne y L ad de r
she ll ru ng 3 0°
4 00 m m
3 0°
Flat
50 m m x 8 m m
Fig. 6.4 Detail for ladder connection

the base to the top of the chimney. The ladder is built of 60 mm × 20 mm bars with
18 mm round rings, 300 mm apart. In case the height of steel chimney is more
than 20 m, then, safety enclosure or cage is provided. The safety rings are made of
50 mm × 10 mm bars braced on the outside with one 50 mm × 8 mm vertical bar.
The inside clearance of these rings should not be less than 600 mm in width and
depth. The spacing between these rings shall not be more than 3 m.
6.8 MAINTENANCE AND PAINTING OF STEEL CHIMNEY

The designed lives of both lined and unlined chimneys are ensured by periodical
inspection and attending the necessary maintenance work.
6.8.1 Unlined Chimneys

The thickness of chimney plates are inspected and checked by ultrasonic test or by
any other suitable approved method. In case the thickness of plate is found
insufficient anywhere, it is compensated by patch work with new plates. Both the
exterior and interior surfaces are painted.
Before painting, the surfaces are prepared. The rust, loose particles, dirt etc.
are completely removed with wire brush, emery cloth etc. Wherever, the
temperature of the flue gases exceeds 150°C, the surfaces are cleaned by sand-
blasting or acid pickling.
The interior surface upto 150°C is painted with medium heat resisting and
anticorrosive paints either with brush or by spray over appropriate priming coat.
Such paints are to conform to IS : 161–1950. In case, the temperature of flue gases
is likely between 150°C and 300°C, the heat resisting and anticorrosive paints
conforming to IS : 158–1968 are applied. When the temperature of flue gases is
likely to exceed 300°C, spraying with zinc or aluminium dust is done. Black colour
paints are applied on the inner surface and aluminium paints are used for the
exterior surface. The painter’s trolley is used for painting the exterior and interior
surfaces of the chimney.
A Z-bar is provided near the top of chimney. The Z-bar acts as a track for the
painter’s trolley. The Z-bar also stiffens the top of the chimney. The section modulus
of Z-bar should not be less than 0.66 d2 × 103 mm3, where d is the diameter of the
chimney in metres. The painter’s trolley is suspended from this track. The trolley
can move around the chimney. The details of painter’s trolley are shown in Fig.
6.5. For chimneys of diameter exceeding 3 m at the top, two such painter’s trolleys
are used.
6.8.2 Lined Chimneys

The lined chimneys are inspected every alternate year. In addition to the checking
of thickness of chimney plates, the condition of lining and insulation is also checked.
The chimneys with riveted and bolted construction are checked near the flange
angles. An accumulated rust between the flange angles is removed. The rivet
heads on the interior surface are also checked.
3 50 m m
D 2 5 m m M in
Tro lley
w h ee l 1 25 m m
1 85 m m
B o lt
20 m m φ
B o lt 75 75
Tro lley 20 m m φ
tra ck 2 45 m m 1 45 m m
IS A 7 5 x 7 5 x 10
B ra cke t B ra cke t
sup po rting Tro lley S u pp ortin g IS A 1 00 x 1 00 x 10
w h ee l
Tro lley
tra ck IS A 1 00 m m th ick
1 00 x 10 0 x1 0 p la te gu id e
fo r trolley
B o lt 1 50 m m w h ee l
C h im ne y 40 40
20 m m φ
she ll
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES
1 0 m m th ick
75 m m p la te be nt
1 0 m m p la te 80 m m to sha pe
b en t to sha p e
Fig. 6.5
301
The interior surface of lined chimney requires priming coal only. The exterior
surfaces of the chimney is painted as described for unlined chimneys depending
upon the service temperature.
6.9 LIGHTENING CONDUCTOR

It is not necessary to provide a lightening conductor with the steel chimney under
ordinary circumstances. In case, the chimney is supported such that there is no
metal connection between the ground and chimney, then, a suitable form of metal
connection is provided. The metal in the chimney should be well grounded so that
the chimney is not damaged from lightening discharge. The lightening conductors
are provided to protect the steel chimneys against lightening in accordance with
IS : 2309–1963. The lightening conductors and earthing connections are inspected
and maintained in good conditions for efficient functioning.
6.10 FORCES ACTING ON STEEL CHIMNEY

The various forces acting on the self-supporting steel chimney are as follows :
1. Self-weight of the steel chimney
2. Weight of lining
3. Wind pressure
4. Seismic forces.
6.10.1 Self-Weight of the Chimney

The self-weight of steel chimney, W s acts vertically. Consider a horizontal section
XX as shown in Fig. 6.1. The thickness of steel plates of chimney above the section
XX, may be assumed constant. The self-weight of chimney is given by
Ws = ρ. (πd) . (t) . (h)
where
ρ = Unit weight of steel = 79 kN/m3
d = Diameter of chimney in metres
t = Thickness of steel plates in metres
h = Height of steel chimney above the section XX in metres
∴ Ws = 79 (π dt . h) kN ...(6.1)
The compressive stress in the steel plates at the section XX due to the self-
weight of chimney is given by
⎛ Ws ⎞ ⎛ 79π ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ h ⎞
fs1 = ⎜ πdt ⎟ = ⎜ π ⋅ d ⋅ t ⎟ kN/m
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 0.079 h N/mm2 ...(6.2)
6.10.2 Weight of Lining

The weight of the lining in the steel chimney, WL, also acts vertically. The thickness
of brick lining may be assumed as 100 mm. The weight of lining
WL = ρl . π . d(0.1) . h
where ρl = Unit weight of brick lining
= 20 kN/m3
∴ WL = (2p . d . h) kN ...(6.3)
The compressive stress in the steel plates at the section XX, due to the weight of
lining
⎛ WL ⎞ ⎛ 2πd ⋅ h ⎞
fs2 = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎠ ⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎠
⎛h⎞
= 0.002 ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(6.4)
⎝t⎠
6.10.3 Wind Pressure

The wind pressure acts horizontally. The wind pressure acting on a structure
depends on the shape of the structure, the width of the structure, the height of the
structure, the location of the structure, and the climatic condition. The wind pressure
per unit area increases with the height of the structure above the ground level. In
order to simplify the design, the steel chimney is divided into number of segments
of equal height. The height of each segment may be kept 10 m. The intensity of
wind pressure over each segment may be assumed as uniform. The intensity of
wind pressure corresponding to the mid-height of each segment may be noted from
IS : 875–1984. The wind pressure on the flared portion may be found by using
average diameter. The wind pressure is assumed to act at the mid-height of each
segment and as also in the flared portion. It has also been practice to take uniform
wind pressure over the full height of chimney. The wind pressure
P = k . p1 × (Projected area of chimney)
where, k = Shape factor. It accounts for the shape of the structure. The shape
factor for cylindrical portion is 0.7.
p1 = Intensity of wind pressure
∴ P = 0.7 × (p1 × d´ × h ) kN
where, d´ = Outer diameter of the chimney.
In addition to the overturning effect due to wind pressure, the wind has also
aerodynamic effect. The aerodynamic effect of wind has not been taken into
consideration for the design of steel chimney.
6.10.4 Seismic Forces

The seismic forces also act horizontally. The seismic forces act on a structure,
when the structures are located in the seismic areas.
The following load combinations for calculations of stress at any point of steel
chimney are considered:
(i) Dead load + Wind load + Temperature effect.
(ii) Dead load + Earthquake (seismic) load + Temperature effect.
The worst combination out of the effect due to seismic (earthquake) forces and
wind effect is only taken into consideration. Only one effect is considered for the
design of the structure out of these two forces.
6.11 BENDING MOMENT ON SELF-SUPPORTING STEEL

CHIMNEY
The wind force acts as uniformly distributed load on the self-supporting steel
chimney. For the purpose of determining bending moment at any section XX Fig.
6.1, the wind force is assumed to act at the middle height above the section. The
bending moment due to wind at section XX, h metres below the top.
⎛ h⎞
Mw = ⎜ P × ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 2⎠
where P = Total wind force.
Substituting the value of from Eq. 6.5,
⎛ h⎞
Mw = 0.7 × ⎜ p1 × d´×h × ⎟ kN-m ...(ii)
⎝ 2⎠
Sometimes, the self-supporting steel chimney is erected between the constructed
buildings. A portion of the chimney extends over the roof of the building as shown
in Fig. 6.6. The remaining portion of the chimney remains protected from the
H2
R o of -le ve l
Ms Ms
(H 1 – x) ( H 1 – x)
Mx Mx
H1
Ms
x x
M s+ M s ( H 1 – x )
H /2
C a se (a ) C a se (b )
Fig. 6.6 Chimney Extending Over-roof
wind. The bending moment for the part of chimney above the roof is calculated in
accordance with the expression (ii) above, the bending moment of chimney below
the roof (protected from the wind) shall be determined as under:
When the chimney is not fixed at the roof
⎛ x1 ⎞
Mx = ⎜ H × Ms ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ H2 ⎞
Ms = ⎜ P × 2 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ ⎠
When the chimney is fixed at the roof
⎛ H ⎞
Mx = Ms . ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ ...(v)
H1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
The maximum bending moment occurs at the base of the chimney
⎛ H ⎞
Mmax = Ms . ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ ...(vi)
H1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
This bending moment acts as over turning moment on the steel chimney. The
overturning moment Mw, due to the wind pressure causes compressive stress on
the leeward side of the steel chimney and the tensile stress on the windward side
of the steel chimney. The maximum compressive stress and tensile stress on the
extreme fibre of steel chimney due to wind are equal.
6.12 BENDING STRESS ON STEEL CHIMNEY DUE TO

WIND
The bending stress, fw at the extreme fibre of steel chimney due to overturning
moment, Mw (moment due to wind in kN-m) is given by
⎛M d⎞
fw = ⎜ w × ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ I 2⎠
where, I = Moment of inertia of circular ring section of the steel chimney
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎛ Mw ⎞
or fw = ⎜ I ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎜ (d / 2 ) ⎟ ⎝ Z ⎠
⎝ ⎠
where, Z = modulus of section of chimney ring section with no breech opening
t = thickness of steel plate (viz., without corrosion allowance)
I ⎛ π ⋅ d3 ⋅ t ⎞
Z = =⎜ ⎟
d ⎜ d ⎟
⎜ 8 × ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛π ⎞ ⎛ 3.14 ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ d2 ⋅ t ⎟ = ⎜ × d2 × t ⎟
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
= 0.785 (d2 × t)
⎛ Mw d ⎞
⋅ ⎛ 4Mw ⎞
∴ fw = ⎜ πd3t 2 ⎟ = ⎜ kN/m2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎝ π ⋅ d2 ⋅ t ⎟⎠
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ Mw ⎞
or fw = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(6.6)
⎝ 250 d2 ⋅ t ⎠
IS : 6533–1971 ‘Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Steel Chimney’
recommends the value of section modulus of steel chimney ring with no breech
opening as below
Z = 0.77d2. t ...(iii)
The modulus of section of chimney-cross-section with breech openings as shown
in Figs. 6.3 (a), (b), (c) and (d) are given by the following expressions, respectively
⎛ A ⎞
Z1 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 0.65 1 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ A ⎞
Z2 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 0.30 1 ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ A1 ⎞
Z3 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 0.70 ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ A A3 ⎞
Z4 = 0.77 d2 . t ⎜1 − 1.30 1 − 0.216 13 ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ d d ⎠
It is to note that these expressions are applicable for thickness of the plate less
than 0.015 d.
6.13 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

The windward side of steel chimney is subjected to tensile stress due to the combined
effect of the wind and weight of steel chimney. The leeward side of steel chimney is
subjected to compressive stress due to the combined effect of the wind, weight of
steel chimney and the weight of lining. On the compressive side the efficiency of
the joint depends on the strength of rivet in shear and in bearing and does not
depend on the tensile strength of plate. The efficiency of joint on compression side
is 100 percent. The efficiency of joint on the tension side is 70 percent.
In order to prevent the flattening of the steel plates on the tension or windward
side, and buckling of the steel plates on compression or leeward side, the permissible
stress in compression on gross-sectional area is adopted less than the permissible
stress in tension on the net sectional area. The permissible stresses in steel chimney
in axial tension, shear and bearing shall be adopted as specified in IS : 800–1984.
The allowable stresses in axial compression and in bending for circular chimneys
depend upon the effective height of the steel chimney h1, the-radius of gyration,
k(0.707 × radius) the diameter and the thickness t of the chimney to be considered
for different types of steel chimneys is given in Fig. 6.7.
C C
b b
B B
a a
A A
S e lf G uye d G uye d
sup po rting w ith fixed b ase w ith pin n ed ba se
S tress BC AB BC AB
a xial
h 1 = 2L h1 = 2 b h 1 = 0 .85 a h1 = 2 b h1 = a
b en ding
h1 = L h1 = b h 1 = 0 .8 5a h1 = b h1 = a
h = E ffe ctive h e ig ht of ch im n ey
Fig. 6.7
The allowable stress in axial compression and in bending for circular steel
chimney have been given in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 as per IS : 6533–1971 (‘Code of
Practice for Design and Construction of Steel Chimneys’).
The combined stress shall comply with the requirements of IS : 800–1984.
The member or part of the steel chimney reasonably exposed to adverse
temperature shall be considered. The allowable stresses are obtained by multiplying
the basic stresses specified in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 by the appropriate temperature
coefficient, kt. The value of kt may be noted from Table 6.4 as specified in IS: 6533–
1971.
Table 6.2 Allowable sress in axial compression for circular steel chimneys
308
Allowable stress in N/mm2
d/t ratio
h1/k 100 and 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
ratio less
0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 124.0 107.0 92.8 85.8 78.3 71.8
10 125.0
20 125.0 *
30 125.0 125.0
40 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0
50 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0
60 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 124.0
70 116.0 116.0 107.0
80 103.5 103.5 92.8
90 90.6 ** 90.6 85.8
100 78.6 78.6 78.3 71.8
110 68.0 68.0 68.0
120 58.9 58.9

130 51.3 51.3
140 45.0 45.0
150 39.7 39.7
160 35.3 35.3
170 31.5 31.5
180 28.4 *** 28.4
Table 6.2 Contd.
h1/k 100 and 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
ratio less
190 25.5 25.5
200 23.2 23.2
210 21.1 21.1
220 19.2 19.2
230 17.6 17.6
240 16.2 16.2
250 15.0 15.0
300 10.6 10.6
350 7.72 77.2*
* For ratio of d/t and h1/k in the zone above zig-zag line, the stresses from the top line may be read.
** For ratio of dlt and h1/k in the zone below zig-zag line, the stresses from the column headed ‘100 and less’ may be read.
***Above values of the stresses have been converted in S.I. units from those given in M.K.S. units.
DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES
309
Table 6.3 Allowable stresses in bending for circular steel chimneys
Allowable stress in kN/mm2 310
h1/k ratio d/t ratio
100 and 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
less
Upto 130 165.0 157.5 153.0 149.5 146.5 145.0 143.5 140.0 137.0 118.0 102.5 94.5 86.6 78.7
140 159.0 157.5 153.0
150 151.0 151.0 151.0 149.5 146.5 *
160 145.0 145.0 145.0 145.0 143.5 140.0
170 138.5 138.0 138.5 138.5 137.0
180 132.0 132.0
190 126.0 ** 132.0
200 118.0 118.0
210 116.5 116.5
220 113.5 113.5
230 112.0 *** 112.0
240 108.5 108.5
250 107.0 107.0
260 105.5 105.0

270 104.0 104.0
280 102.5 102.5
290 101.0 101.0
300 99.2 99.2 94.5 86.6 78.7
* For ratios of dlt and h1lk in zone above zig-zag line, the stresses from the top-line may be noted.
** For ratios of dlt and h1/k in zone below zig-zag line, the stresses from the column headed ‘100 and less’ may be noted.
*** Above values of the stresses have been converted in S.I. units from those given in M.K.S. units.
Table 6.4 Values of temperature coefficient, kt

Temperature 0.20 250 300 350 400°C
kt 1.00 0.75 0.67 0.60 0.50
Note. The temperature of steel chimney wall shall not exceed 400°C.
In case, the increase in stresses is solely due to wind forces, the allowable stresses
may be exceeded by 25 percent. However, the thickness of steel plates shall not be
less than that needed if the wind forces were neglected.
Similarly, when the effect of seismic load is considered, the allowable stresses
may be exceeded by 25 percent. The thickness of steel plate shall not be less than
that required if the seismic forces were not taken into account.
The permissible stresses in rivets are adopted as per IS : 833–1994.
6.14 DESIGN OF THICKNESS OF STEEL PLATES FOR

SELF-SUPPORTING CHIMNEY
The windward side of steel chimney is subjected to tensile stress due to the combined
effect of the wind and weight of steel chimney. The weight of lining is omitted in
calculating the maximum tension, since the maximum wind pressure may act on
the steel chimney before the lining is done. The maximum wind may also act,
when the chimney is under repair and the lining has been removed for renewal.
The maximum total tensile stress on windward side.
⎛ 4 M w Ws ⎞ ⎛ 4 M w − Ws ⎞
σt1 = ⎜ − = ⎟⎠ N/mm
2
⎝ πd2t πdt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ πdt
⎛ 4Mw ⎞
< ⎜ − 0.079h⎟ N/mm2
⎝ 250π ⋅ d 2 ⋅ t ⎠
< η1 × ft ...(6.7)
where, σt = Permissible stress in tension in steel plates
η1 = Efficiency of the joint on the tension side.
Thus the thickness of steel plate from tension side,
⎛ 4 Mw ⎞
− Ws
⎜ d ⎟
t1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(6.8)
⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅ ( η1 ⋅ σt ) ⎠
The leeward side of steel chimney is subjected to maximum compressive stress
due to the combined effect of wind, weight of steel chimney and weight of lining.
The maximum total compressive stress on leeward side.
⎡ 4 M w Ws WL ⎤
σ c2 = ⎢ + + ⎥ kN/m
2
⎣ πd2t πdt πdt ⎦
⎡ 4Mw ⎤
= ⎢ d + Ws + WL ⎥ kN/mm2
⎢ ⎥
⎣ πdt ⎦
⎡ Mw h⎤
⎢ 2
=+ 0.079h + 0.002 ⎥ kN/m2
⎣ 250πd t t⎦
< η2 . σ2 ...(6.9)
where, σc = Permissible stress in compression in steel plates
η2 = Efficiency of the joint on the compression side
= 1 (∴ η2 = 100 percent)
Thus, the thickness of steel plates from compression side
⎡ 4Mw ⎤
⎢ d + Ws + WL ⎥
t2 = ...(6.10)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ π ⋅ d ⋅ σ c ⎦
The thickness of steel plates at the various horizontal sections are found. The
thickness of steel plates at the junction of cylindrical and flared portions, and the
base of flared portion are also found. The thickness of steel plates of flared portion
should not be less than the thickness of steel plates in the cylindrical portion. The
thickness of steel plates of chimney is kept in excess than what is necessary (in
order to protect them from corrosion) by allowance for corrosion, which depends
upon design life of the steel chimney.
6.15 DESIGN OF BASE-PLATE

Cast iron, cast steel or structural steel circular base plates are provided for the
self-supporting steel chimney. It is preferable to use cast steel base plates as
L ug
C /L of x A n ch o r
a ncho r b olt
b olts
B a se
p la te
l x
b = W idth of ba se b = W idth of ba se
p la te p la te
(a ) (b )
Fig. 6.8
compared to the cast iron base plates. The structural steel base plates are even
better than cast steel base plates for high steel chimneys. The width of base plate
should be sufficient to transmit the compressive stresses to the foundation. The
allowable bearing pressure on a good cement concrete foundation is 4 N/mm2.
Thickness of base plate should be such that the bending stress and shearing stress
in the base plate do not exceed the allowable bending and shearing stresses. There
are two methods of connecting the flared portion of the steel chimney with the base
plates. These methods are as shown in Fig. 6.8.
The maximum compressive stress at the base plate on the leeward side of the
chimney
σbc = ⎡ 4 M w Ws + WL ⎤
⎥ kN/m
2 ...(6.11)
⎢ 2 + 2
π
⎣ 1 d t π d1 t ⎦
where, d1 = Diameter of the steel chimney at the base of the flared portion.
The maximum compressive stress per unit circumferential length at the base
plate on the leeward side of the chimney.
F1 = σbc × (t × 1) kN/m ...(6.12)
⎛ 4 M w Ws + WL ⎞
∴ F1 = ⎜ + × (t × 1) kN/m
⎝ πd12t πd1t ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 M w Ws + WL ⎞
or F1 = ⎜ + kN-m
⎝ πd12t πd1 ⎟⎠
The width of the base plate
⎛ F1 ⎞
b = ⎜ ...(6.13)
⎝ σbcr ⎟⎠
where, σbcr = Permissible bearing stress on the foundations.
In case the anchor bolts are provided on inside and outside of the steel chimney,
then the base plate may be kept symmetrical with chimney, as shown in Fig. 6.8
(a). The unsupported length of base plate l, measured from the extreme edge upto
the critical section XX, as shown in Fig. 6.8 (a) are equal. In case the anchor bolts
are provided on the outside only, then the unsupported length l, would be kept
more than the inner unsupported length l, would be kept more than the inner
unsupported length. The critical section is marked upto the root of angle section.
The thickness of base plate is found as under:
The maximum bending moment at the critical section XX
1
M =
2
(
⋅ σbcr ⋅ l2 ) ...(i)
The moment of resistance of unit length of base plate at the critical section
1
MR =
6
(
⋅ 1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ σbs ) ...(ii)
where, a = thickness of the base plate at the critical section. It is to note that
this includes the thickness of the angle section used for the
connection
σbs = Permissible bending stress in the base plate (0’75fy, where, fy is
the yield stress for steel).
Equating (i) and (ii)
M = MR
⎛1 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⋅ 1 ⋅ a ⎟⎠ ⋅ σbs = ⎜ σbs ⋅ l ⎟
6 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1/2
⎛ 3σ ⎞
a = l . ⎜ bs ⎟ ...(6.14)
⎝ σbs ⎠
The thickness of base plate may be found by deducting the thickness of the
angle section from the total thickness obtained as per Eq. 6.14. The critical section
may be checked for shear stress. It is to note that the total thickness of base plate
a, has been found by using permissible bearing stress on the foundation instead of
actual bearing stress. This provides comparatively more thickness. In case the
unforeseen wind pressure increases such that the bearing pressure on the foundation
may reach the permissible bearing stress, even then, the base plate would be safe.
6.16 DESIGN OF ANCHOR BOLTS

The windward side of the steel chimney is subjected to the uplift pressure due to
the overturning effect of wind. The anchor bolts (holding down bolts) are provided
to resist this uplift pressure. The uplift pressure is found by considering the
combined effect of wind pressure and the weight of chimney only. The weight of
A n ch o r
b olt
D irectio n of
w in d d2
9 = S pa cing o f
a ncho r
b olts
Fig. 6.9
lining is omitted as discussed in Sec. 6.14. It is assumed that all the anchor bolts
are drawn up tight. Further it is assumed that the line of rotation is perpendicular
to the direction of wind and passes through the centre of the horizontal base section
of the steel chimney as shown in Fig. 6.9. The initial tension in the anchor bolt, if
any, is neglected.
The maximum tensile stress at the base plate on the windward side of the
chimney
⎛ 4Mw Ws ⎞
σt = ⎜ − kN/m2 ...(6.15)
⎝ π ⋅ d1 ⋅ t π ⋅ d1 ⋅ t ⎟⎠
2
The maximum tensile stress per unit circumferential length at the base plate
on the windward side of the chimney
F2 = σ1 × (t × 1) kN/m ...(6.16)
The maximum uplift force in one anchor bolt
= F2 . g = σt × (t × 1) × g kN
⎡ 4Mw Ws ⎤
= ⎢ 2
− ⎥ × g kN ...(6.17)
⎣ π ⋅ d1 π ⋅ d1 ⎦
where, g = spacing of the anchor bolts in metres.
The number of anchor bolts may be found by dividing the circumference of
anchor bolt ring by the spacing of anchor bolts. The permissible stress in axial
tension at the root of threads of anchor bolt is adopted from IS: 833–1994.
6.17 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION

A plain cement concrete or reinforced cement concrete foundation is used for self
supporting steel chimney. The chimney foundation is usually designed as a circular
slab and it is constructed as the circumscribing octagon. In the design of the
foundation of the chimney, a designer is to deal with either the bearing condition
of the soil is favourable and economical where the chimney may be directly supported
by the soil or the bearing condition of the soil is poor where the chimney has to be
placed on piles. The foundation is designed to resist the stresses resulting from the
following combinations.
(i) Dead load + Live load
(ii) Dead load + Wind or seismic forces, and
(iii) Dead load + Live load + Wind or seismic forces.
The weight of chimney lining etc. are considered as live load.
The weight of foundation is kept sufficient to prevent the overturning. The size
of foundation at the bottom is kept sufficient so that the bearing pressure in the
soil remains less than the allowable pressure in the soil. It is economical to use the
round or eight-sided foundations. Therefore, the shape of foundation block is
generally in the form of a frustum of a cone or a frustum of an eight-sided pyramid.
The square shaped foundations are not provided since the corners of square shaped
foundations are subjected to high pressure when the direction of wind is parallel to
the diagonal. The plain cement concrete is used so long as the slope of side of the
foundation with the vertical is less than 45 degrees. In case the slope of side of
foundation with the vertical is greater than 45 degrees then, the reinforced cement
concrete foundation is used.
The size and weight of foundation should be such that the underside of foundation
is under compression only. In that case, the bottom of foundation block remains in
contact with the soil. In case, the design of foundation is such that the compressive
stress at one edge of the foundation is zero, and it increases to maximum compressive
stress at the other edge, under the extreme conditions of loading, then, such design
of foundation is most economical. In such design of foundation, the unit stress due
to the overturning moment of the wind is just equal to the unit stress due to the
weight of the foundation and steel chimney. It is to note that the weight of lining
is omitted as discussed in Sec. 6.14. However the maximum compressive stress on
the leeward side due to wind, weight of foundation, steel chimney and lining should
not exceed the allowable unit pressure on soil.
In case the plain cement concrete foundation is provided, then, it is assumed
that the depth of foundation h1, is kept equal to 0.4 times the width of foundation.
For round foundation, the resultant thrust due to wind pressure, weight of steel
chimney, weight of lining and weight of foundation should not lie outside the
middle quarter of the foundation. The foundation block is not subjected to tension
in such condition. The maximum eccentricity is then limited to one-eighth the
width of foundation. The maximum eccentricity
⎛ Mw ⎞ b
e = ⎜ =
⎝ Ws + WL + WF ⎟⎠ 8
⎛ 8 Mw ⎞
∴ b = ⎜ ...(6.18)
⎝ Ws + WL + WF ⎟⎠
where, b = Width of the round foundation
WF = Weight of the foundation block
As compared to the weight of foundation, the weight of steel chimney Ws, and
the weight of lining W L, are small. For preliminary design the weight of steel
chimney and the weight lining are neglected. The weight of foundation
⎛π ⎞
WF = ⎜ b2 × 0.4b × 24⎟ kN
⎝4 ⎠
Then, the resisting moment due to weight of foundation is equal to the overturning
moment due to wind. Therefore,
1
WF . b = Mw
8
⎛π 2 ⎞ 1
or ⎜⎝ b × 0.4b × 24⎟⎠ × b = Mw
4 8
3
or π × b4 = Mw
10
∴ b = 1.015 (Mw)1/4 ...(6.19)
The width of foundation is then, revised by considering the weight of steel chimney
and weight of lining.
The intensity of soil pressure is determined. It is given by

⎛ W + WL + WF ⎞ ⎛ M w ⎞
p = ⎜ s ⎟⎠ ± ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ A Z ⎠
where, A and Z are the area and section modulus, respectively for the foundation
slab. If the radius of the circle of the circumscribing octagon is R, then the area of
foundation is 3.312 R2 and Z = 0.81 R2 as per (IS : 6533–1971).
In case, the entire footing is in compression, then
⎛ Ws + WL + WF ⎞ ⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ is greater than ⎜⎝ ⎟.
A Z ⎠
The successive trials are made for R to utilize fully. The soil pressure should
not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
(a ) Fo u nd ation p la n
( W S + W L + W F)
e fm ax
k5
b
(b ) Fo u nd ation th ickne ss (c) S o il p ressure d ia gra m
Fig. 6.10 Soil pressure diagram
The full utilisation of the bearing of soil may lead to situations where only the
part of foundation is in compression, Fig. 6.10. In such a situation, the footing is
designed as a circle, though it is constructed as octagonal.
⎛ W + WL + WF ⎞
Let f = ⎜ s ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ A ⎠
The maximum soil pressure is obtained from the following procedure :
The eccentricity
⎛ Mw ⎞
e = ⎜ ⎟
W
⎝ s + WL + WF ⎠
e f
and thereby values are determined. The values of zero stress and ratio max
b f
are found from Fig. 6.11 as per (IS : 6533–1971) and thus, the value of fmax is
e
calculated. It is recommended in code IS : 6533-–1971 that the value should not
b
k5
exceed 0.255 and be not less than 0.6.
b
1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
Va lu es o f k 5 / D
Valu e s o f f m ax / F
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0 0 .20 0 .30 0 .40 0 .50

( e / D ) va lues
M axim u m so il pressu re an d ne utral axis for
circular footing
Fig. 6 .11
6.18 STABILITY OF STEEL CHIMNEY

The steel chimney as a whole or any part of it is checked for stability. The weight
or anchorages shall be so proportioned that the least resisting moment including
anchorage shall not be less than the sum of 1.5 times the maximum over-turning
moment due to dead loads and imposed loads with the wind/seismic loading
considered as imposed loads.
The probable variation in dead load during construction, repair or during such
other temporary phase of work is taken into account, so that the stability of steel
chimney is ensured at all times.
While the stability of steel chimney is checked, it is also seen that when the
resulting pressure and shear forces are transferred to the supporting soil through
the foundation, the failure of the foundation will not occur.
Example 6.1 A self-supporting steel stack is 80 metres high and its diameter
at the top is 3 metres. Design the plates for the stack. Also design the base plate,
lugs and anchor bolts. The foundation and riveted joints need not be designed.
Adopt the wind force as per IS : 875. The location of place is such that the intensity
of wind pressure upto 30 m height is 1.50 kN/m2.
Solution
Design : The steel chimney is shown in Fig. 6.12(a). The height of steel chimney
is 80 m and its diameter at the top is 3 m.
3m
10 m
X1 X1
5 m
X2 X2
5 m
X3 X3
5 m
X4 X4
5 m
X5 X5
5 m
X6 X6
80 m
10 m
X7 X7
10 m
X8 X8
5 m
X9 X9
10 m
X10 X 10
10 m
X 11 X 11
4 .5 m
Fig. 6.12 (a)
Step 1: Flared portion

A conical flared portion is provided in the lower portion of the steel chimney. The
recommended height of flared portion
H 80
= = = 26.67 m.
3 3
Adopt the height of flared portion as 25 m. The diameter of conical flared portion at
its bottom,
5 5
d1 = × d = × 3 = 3.75 m.
4 4
Adopt the diameter of flared portion as 4.5 m.
Step 2 : Intensity of wind pressure
The location of place is such that the intensity of wind pressure upto 30 m height
is l.50 kN/m2. The intensities of wind pressure at higher heights as per IS : 875
are as follows :
0 to 30 m = 1.50 kN/m2, at 50 m = 1.67 kN/m2

at 35 m = 1.56 kN/m2, at 60 m = 1.72 kN/m2
at 40 m = 1.58 kN/m2, at 70 m = 1.77 kN/m2
at 45 m = 1.63 kN/m2, at 80 m = 1.83 kN/m2
The above intensities of wind at the respective heights are shown in Fig. 6.12 (b).
The shape factor for steel chimney circular in plan is 0.7.
Step 3. Over-turning moment due to wind, Mw
Usually, the intensity of wind pressure is adopted as the average value of those at
upper and lower section. However, for simplicity, the maximum intensity of wind
pressure (i.e., at the top) has been used in calculations.
W ind p ressure
(kN /m 2 )
80 m
P1 1 .83
10 m 10 m
7 .5 m
X1 X1 70 m
1 .77
5m P2
X2 5m X2 10 m
5m 1 .77
P3
X3 5m X3 60 m
1 .72
5m P4
X4 5m X4 10 m
P5 1 .72
5m
X5 5m X5 50 m
1 .67
5m P6 5m
X6 5m X6 45 m
P7 1 .63
5m
10 m 5m 40 m
P8 1 .58 5m
X7 5m X7 35 m
P9 1 .56 5m
10 m 5m 30 m
1 .50
P10
X8 5m X8
1 .50
5m P 11
X9 X9
7 .5 m
1 .50
10 m P12 30 m
X10 10 m X10
1 .50
10 m
5m
X 11 X 11 0m
Fig. 6.12 (b)
The over-turning moment about the respective sections are as under :

h1, h2, h3...etc. represent the heights of respective forces P1, P2, P3...etc. above
the section considered, Fig. 6.12 (b).
(i) At section X1X1
P1.h1 = 0.7× 1.83 × 3 × 10 × 5 = 192.15 kN-m
(ii) At section X2X2
P1 . h1 = 0.7× 1.83 × 3 × 10 ×10 = 384.30 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 2.5 = 46.46 kN-m
Total = 430.76 kN-m
(iii) At section X3X3
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 × 10 × 15 = 576.45 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 139.39 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 2.5 = 46.46 kN-m
Total = 762.30 kN-m
(iv) At section X4X4
P1 . h1 = 0.7× 1.83 × 3 ×10 × 20 = 768.60 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 12.5 = 232.31kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 139.39 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 5 × 5 × 2.5 = 45.15 kN-m
Total = 1185.45 kN-m
(v) At section X5X5
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 ×10 × 25 = 960.75 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 17.5 = 325.24kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 12.5 = 232.31 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 135.45 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 2.5 = 45.15 kN-m
(vi) At section X6X6
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 × 10 × 30 = 1152.90 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 22.5 = 418.16 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 17.5 = 325.24 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.73 × 2 × 5 × 12.5 = 225.75 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 135.45 kN-m
P6 . h6 = 0.7 × 1.67 × 3 × 5 × 2.5 = 43.84 kN-m
(vii) At section X7X7
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 ×10 × 40 = 1537.20 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 32.5 = 604.01 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 27.5 = 511.09 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 22.5 = 406.35 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 ×17.5 = 316.05 kN-m
P6 . h6 = 0.7 × 1.67 × 3 × 5 × 12.5 = 219.19 kN-m

P7 . h7 = 0.7 × 1.63 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 128.36 kN-m
P8 . h8 = 0.7 × 1.58 × 3 × 5 × 2.5 = 41.48 kN-m
(viii) At section X8X8
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 ×10 × 50 = 1921.50 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 42.5 = 789.86 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 37.5 = 696.64 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 32.5 = 586.95 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 27.5 = 496.65 kN-m
P6 . h6 = 0.7 × 1.67 × 3 × 5 × 22.5 = 394.54 kN-m
P7. h7 = 0.7 × 1.63 × 3 × 5 × 17.5 = 299.51 kN-m
P8 . h8 = 0.7 × 1.58 × 3 × 5 × 12.5 = 207.38kN-m
P9 . h9 = 0.7 × 1.56 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 122.85 kN-m
P10 . h10 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3 × 5 × 1.5 = 39.38 kN-m
(ix) At section X9X9
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 × 10 × 56 = 2113.65 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 47.5 = 882.79 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 5 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 42.5 = 789.86 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 37.5 = 677.25 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 32.5 = 586.95 kN-m
P6 . h6 = 0.7 × 1.67 × 3 × 5 × 27.5 = 482.21 kN-m
P7 . h7 = 0.7 × 1.63 × 3 × 5 × 22.5 = 385.09 kN-m
P8 . h8 = 0.7 × 1.58 × 3 × 5 × 17.5 = 290.33 kN-m
P9 . h9 = 0.7 × 1.56 × 3 × 5 × 12.5 = 204.75 kN-m
P10 . h10 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3 × 5 × 7.5 = 118.13 kN-m
P11 . h11 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3.15 × 5 × 2.5 = 41.34 kN-m
Total = 6572.35kN-m
(x) At section X10X10
P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 ×10 × 65 = 2497.95 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 57.5 = 1068.64 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 52.5 = 957.71 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 47.5 = 857.85 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 42.5 = 767.55 kN-m
P6 . h6 = 0.7 × 1.67 × 3 × 5 × 37.5 = 657.56 kN-m
P7. h7 = 0.7 × 1.63 × 3 × 5 × 32.5 = 556.24 kN-m
P8 . h8 = 0.7 × 1.58 × 3 × 5 × 27.5 = 456.25 kN-m
P9 . h9 = 0.7 × 1.56 × 3 × 5 × 22.5 = 368.55 kN-m
P10 . h10 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3 × 5 × 17.5 = 275.63 kN-m
P11 . h11 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3.15 × 5 × 12.5 = 206.72 kN-m
P12 . h12 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3.60 × 10 × 5 = 189.00 kN-m
(xi) At section X11X11

P1 . h1 = 0.7 × 1.83 × 3 ×10 × 75 = 2882.25 kN-m
P2 . h2 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 67.5 = 1254.49 kN-m
P3 . h3 = 0.7 × 1.77 × 3 × 5 × 62.5 = 1161.56 kN-m
P4 . h4 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 57.5 = 1038.45 kN-m
P5 . h5 = 0.7 × 1.72 × 3 × 5 × 52.5 = 948.15 kN-m
P6 . h6 = 0.7 × 1.67 × 3 × 5 × 47.5 = 832.91 kN-m
P7. h7 = 0.7 × 1.63 × 3 × 5 × 42.5 = 727.39 kN-m
P8 . h8 = 0.7 × 1.58 × 3 × 5 × 37.5 = 622.13 kN-m
P9 . h9 = 0.7 × 1.56 × 3 × 5 × 32.5 = 532.35 kN-m
P10 . h10 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3 × 5 × 27.5 = 433.13 kN-m
P11 . h11 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3.15 × 5 × 22.5 = 372.09 kN-m
P12 . h12 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 3.60 × 10 ×1 5 = 567.00 kN-m
P13 . h13 = 0.7 × 1.50 × 4.10 × 10 × 5 = 215.25 kN-m
Total = 11587.15 kN-m
Step 4. Thickness of chimney plate
It is assumed that the design life of the steel chimney shall be 20 years and coal
is used as a fuel for the boiler. The chimney shall be lined and insulated. The
corrosion alowance is 4 mm for slight internal corrosion.
(i) At section X2X2 (Height from top is 15 m)
Diameter of chimney = 3 m
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 3 mm without corrosion.
D ⎛ 3 × 1000 ⎞
ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 1000
t ⎝ 3 ⎠
3000
Radius of gyration, k = 0.7 × = 1050 mm
2
Effective height for axial stress
h1 = 2 × 15 × 1000 = 30000 mm
h1 ⎛ 30000 ⎞
Ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 28.57
k ⎝ 1050 ⎠
For bending stress,
1
h1
2 1
= × 28.57 = 14.28
k 2
Allowable stress in axial compression
= 71.8 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending
= 78.7 N/mm2
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. The maximum tensile
stress on windward from Eq. 6.7
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ 2
− 0.079 ⎟ < n1. ft
⎝ 250 πd t ⎠
⎛ 430.76 ⎞
0.7 ×1.25 × 71.8 = ⎜ 2
− 0.079 × 15 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t ⎠
t = 0.00095 m = 0.95 mm
The maximum compressive stress on the leeward side of the steel chimney
from Eq. 6.9
⎛ Mw h⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + 0.002 ⎟ < n2 × fc
⎝ 250πd t t⎠
⎛ 430.76 15 ⎞
(1.00 × 1.25 × 71.8) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 15 + 0.002 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.00103 m = 1.03 mm.
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is (1.03 + 4) mm = 5.03.
Adopt 6 mm.
(ii) At section X5X5 (Height from top is 30 m)
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 5 mm without corrosion.
D ⎛ 3 ×1000 ⎞
ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 600
t ⎝ 5 ⎠
h1 = 2 × 30 × 1000 = 60,000 mm
Radius of gyration,
3000
k = 0.7 × = 1050 mm
2
h1 60000
Ratio = = 57.14
k 1050
For bending stress,
1
h1
2 1
= × 57.14 = 28.57
k 2
= 71.8 N/mm2
= 78.7 N/mm2
stress on windward side from Eq. 6.7
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ − 0.079 ⎟ < n × f
⎝ 250πd2t ⎠ 1 t
⎛ 1698.90 ⎞
(0.7 ×1.25 × 71.8) = ⎜ 2
− 0.079 × 30 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t ⎠
∴ t = 0.003688 m = 3.688 mm
from Eq. 6.9
⎛ Mw h⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + 0.002 ⎟ < n2 × f c
⎝ 250 × πd t t⎠
⎛ 1698.90 30 ⎞
(1.00 × 1.25 × 71.8) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 30 + 0.002 × ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.00344 m = 3.44 mm
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is (3.688 + 4) mm = 7.688.
Adopt 8 mm.
(iii) At section X8X8 (Height from top is 55 m)
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 7 mm without corrosion
⎛D⎞ ⎛ 3 ×1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 428
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
h1 = 2 × 55 × 1000 = 110000 mm
⎛ 3000 ⎞
Radius of gyration, k = ⎜ 0.7 × ⎟ = 1050 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
Ratio of gyration,
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛ 110 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 144.76
⎝k⎠ ⎝ 1050 ⎠
For bending stress,
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ 2 h1 ⎟ ⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 104.76 ⎟ = 52.38
⎜ ⎟ ⎝2 ⎠
⎝ k ⎠
= 73.554 N/mm2
= 114.92 N/mm2
stress on windward side from Eq. 6.7
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ 2
− 0.079h ⎟ < n1 . ft
⎝ 250 × πd t ⎠
⎛ 5555.57 ⎞
(0.7 ×1.25 × 73.554) = ⎜ − 0.079 × 55 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 32 × t ⎠
t = 0.01144 m = 11.44 mm
from Eq. 6.9
⎛ Mw 0.002 ⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + × h⎟ < n2 × fc
⎝ 250 × πd t t ⎠
⎛ 5555.57 55 ⎞
(1.00 ×1.25 × 73.554) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 55 + 0.002 × ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 3 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.01023 m = 10.23 mm
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is
(11.44 + 4 mm) = 15.44. Adopt 16 mm.
(iv) At section X11X11 (Height from top is 80 m)
Diameter of chimney = 4.5 m
Assuming the thickness of steel plate as 11 mm without corrosion
⎛D⎞ ⎛ 4.5 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 409
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠
Effective height for axial stress,
h1 = 2 × 80 × 1000 = 160,000 mm
Radius of gyration,
1
k = 0.7 × × 4.5 × l000 = 1575 mm
2
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛ 160000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 101.59
⎝k⎠ ⎝ 1575 ⎠
For bending stress,
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ 2 h1 ⎟ = 50.79
⎜ ⎟
⎝ k ⎠
= 76.915 N/mm2
= 115.21N/mm2
stress on windward side from Eq. 6.7,
⎛ Mw ⎞
⎜ + 0.079h ⎟ < n1. ft
⎝ 250 × πd2t ⎠
⎛ 11587.15 ⎞
(0.7 × 1.25 × 76.915) = ⎜ 2
− 0.079 × 80 ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 4.5 × t ⎠
t = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm
from Eq. 6.9,
⎛ Mw 0.002h ⎞
⎜ 2
+ 0.079h + ⎟ < n2 × fc
⎝ 250 × πd t t ⎠
⎛ 11587.15 0.002 × 80 ⎞
(1.00 × 1.25× 76.915) = ⎜ 2
+ 0.079 × 80 + ⎟
⎝ 250 × π × 4.5 × t t ⎠
∴ t = 0.009896 m = 9.896 mm
Therefore, total thickness with corrosion allowance is (9.9 + 4) mm = 13.9 mm.
Adopt 18 mm.
Step 5. Modulus of section of steel chimney at the various sections
For 20 year design life of steel chimney, the value of slight corrosion allowance
(assumed) is 4 mm.
The modulus of section of steel chimney (without breech opening) is calculated
with t as the thickness of steel plate without allowance for corrosion
Z1_2 = 0.77 d2 . t
Z1_2 = 0.77 × 30002 × (6–4) = 13860 × 103 mm3
Z3_5 = 0.77 × 30002 × (8–4) = 27720 × 103 mm3
Z6–8 = 0.77 × 30002 × (16–4) = 83160 × 103 mm3
The diameter of steel chimney varies from section X8X8 to X11X11.
Step 6. Self-weight of steel chimney and lining
The thickness of lining increases from top to bottom. The weight of chimney
may be assumed as 0.64, 0.80, 0.96 and 1.28 kN/m2 per metre height of the chimney
at the sections X2X2, X5X5, X8X8 and X11X11, respectively.
At section X2X2
π × 3 × 15 × 0.64 = 90.432 kN
Add 10 percent for stiffeners
= 1.10 × 90.423 = 99.475 kN
Area of cross-section π × 3 × 1000 × (6–4) = 18840 mm2
At section X5X5
π × 3 × 15 × 0.64 = 90.432 kN
π × 3 × 15 × 0.80 = 113.04 kN
= 203.472 kN
= 1.10 × 203.472 kN
= 223.82 kN
Area of cross-section
π × 3 × 1000 × (8–4) = 37680 mm
At section X8X8
π × 3 × 15 × 0.64 = 90.432 kN
π × 3 × 15 × 0.80 = 11.3040 kN
π × 3 × 25 × 0.96 = 226.080 kN
= 429.552 kN
= 1.10 × 429.552 = 472.507 kN
π × 3 × 1000 × (16–4) = 113040 mm2
Step 7: Check for stresses
Actual stresses at section X2X2
⎛ 99.475 × 103 430.76 × 106 ⎞

= ⎜ ± ⎟ N/mm2
⎝ 18840 138.60 × 103 ⎠
= (5.28 ± 31.08) N/mm2
⎛ 223.82 × 103 1698.90 × 106 ⎞

= ⎜ ± ⎟ N/mm2
⎝ 37680 27720 × 103 ⎠
= (5.94 ± 61.28) N/mm2
⎛ 472.507 × 103 5555.57 × 106 ⎞

= ⎜ ± ⎟ N/mm2
⎝ 113040 83160 × 103 ⎠
= (4.18 ± 66.81) N/mm2
(It is also assumed that the chimney shall not be exposed to temperature more
than 200°C, in which case, the appropriate temperature coefficient, k t remains to
be unity).
Step 8: Design of Breech (flue) opening
(i) Portion of chimney between sections X8X8 and X11X11
Let there be two flue (breech) openings in the same direction.
Size of the openings = 1.8 m × 2.0 m
Width of the openings, A1 = 1800 mm

Height of centre line of openings above the base is 2 m. The diameter of the
chimney at this level is 4.35 m. The thickness of plate less corrosion allowance is
(16–4) = 12 mm.
(ii) Modulus of the chimney at the centre line of flue opening
⎛ A ⎞
Z = 0.77d2t ⎜1 − 1.3 1 ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
⎛ 1800 ⎞
= 0.77 × 43502 × 12 × ⎜1 − 1.3 ⎟ mm
⎝ 4350 ⎠
= 80790 × 103 mm3
= π × 4350 × 12 – 2 × 2000 × 12 (for opening)
= 115908 mm2
(iii ) Weight of chimney
Weight of the chimney above X8X8
= 472.507 kN
Weight of the opening X8X8 and X11X11
π × 3.75 × 25 × 1.28 = 376.80 kN
Total = 849.307 kN
Add 10 percent for overlap, rivets and stiffeners.
Total weight = 1.10 × 849.307 kN = 934.238 kN
⎛ 934.238 × 103 11587.15 × 106 ⎞

Actual stress = ⎜ ± 3 ⎟
N/mm2
⎝ 115908 80790 × 10 ⎠
= (8.06 ± 143.42) = 151.46 N/mm2.
(iv) Allowable stress
h1 = 2 × 80 × 1000 = 160000 mm
Radius of gyration, k
1
= 0.7 × × 4.5 × 1000 = 1575 mm
2
⎛D⎞ ⎛ 4.5 × 1000 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ Ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 375
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛ 160000 ⎞
Ratio ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 101.59
⎝k⎠ ⎝ 1575 ⎠
For bending stress,
⎛1 ⎞
⎜ 2 h1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ = 50.79
⎝ k ⎠
= 76.915 N/mm2
= 127.5 N/mm2
These stresses are increased by 25 percent for wind. Therefore allowable stress
in bending is 159.375 N/mm2, which one is greater than 151.46 N/mm2.
(v) Check for interaction expression
⎛ 8.06 143.42 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 76.915 159.375 ⎠
= 0.105 + 0.899 = 1.044
It exceeds unity very slightly. Hence, the section is adequate.
Area of steel plates removed for flue openings
= 2 × 2000 × 12 = 48000 mm2
The vertical reinforcement provided is kept 20 percent larger than the area
removed.
∴ Area of steel to be provided
= 1.20 × 48000 = 57600 mm2
Area of vertical reinforcement on each side of two flue openings
1
=× 57600= 14400 mm2
4
Provide 2 ISA 200 mm × 200 mm × 25 mm (one on outer side and one on the
inner side of the opening).
Area provide = 2 × 9380 = 18760 mm2
The area of reinforcement provided on the top and the bottom of openings are
kept the same.
Step 9 : Design of Base Plate
The maximum compressive force per unit circumferential length
⎛ M w Ws + WL ⎞
F1 = ⎜ 2 + ⎟ × (t ×1) kN/mm
⎝ πd1 t πd1t ⎠
1 ⎛ M w Ws + WL ⎞
= ⎜ + × 1000 N/mm
1000 ⎝ πd12 πd1 ⎠⎟
⎛ 4 × (11587.15) 934.238 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ 3.14 × 4.52 3.14 × 4.5 ⎠
= 795.04 N/mm
Allowable bearing stress for M 15 grade of concrete is 40 N/mm2.
Width of the base plate required
⎛ 795.04 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 159 mm
⎝ 1.25 × 4.0 ⎠
Provide 300 mm wide plate. Two angle sections (2 ISA 130 mm × 130 mm × 10
mm) are used to transmit the pressure at the bottom of the flared portion of the
steel chimney. The length of projection of the base plate beyond angle section
1
= (300 – 2 × 130 – 18) = 11 mm
2
Length of cantilever portion of the base plate upto the critical section XX as
shown in Fig. 6.13
= (11 + 130 –10) = 131 mm
The thickness is designed for allowable pressure instead of actual bearing
pressure. Total thickness at the critical section XX, from Eq. 6.14
1/2
⎛ 3σc ⎞
a = l. ⎜ ⎟
⎝ σbc ⎠
1
⎛ 4 ⎞2
= 131 ⎜ 3 × 1.25 × × 1.85 ⎟ = 32.345 mm
⎝ 1.33 ⎠
Thickness of base plate
= (323.45 – 10) = 22.345 mm
Provide 24 mm thick base plate as shown in Fig. 6.13.
S tack
p la te
6 mm
th ick 12 m m
1 20 m m
d B a se p la te
th ick
3 00 m m
4 N /m m 2
Fig. 6.13
Step 10 : Design of Anchor bolts (Holding down bolts)

The maximum tensile force per unit length of circumference
⎛ 4 M w Ws ⎞
F2 = ⎜ 2
− ⎟ × (t × 1 ) kN/m
⎝ πd1 t πd1t ⎠
1 ⎛ 4 M w Ws ⎞
= ⎜ − × 1000 N/mm
1000 ⎝ πd12 πd1 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 × 11587.15 Ws ⎞
= ⎜ −
⎝ 3.14 × 4.6
2 πd1 ⎟⎠
(neglecting even second term)
= 728.92 N/mm
Provide 37 mm diameter anchor bolts
Area at the root of threads
= 840 mm2
Strength of anchor bolts
(840 × 120 × 1.25 )
= = 126 kN
1000
Spacing of the anchor bolts
⎛ 126 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 172.86 mm
⎝ 728.92 ⎠
Provide anchor bolts at 160 mm spacing.
Step 11 : Design of Lug
The lugs are provided for greater stability. The lug or a bracket for each anchor
bolt is built up of 2 ISA 200 mm × 100 mm × 15 mm with a clear space of 45 mm
in between them for the bolts. The angles are kept about 750 mm long as shown in
Fig. 6.14. A filler plate is provided between the lug angle and the stack plate. The
filler plate is also kept 750 mm long and 450 mm wide and 22 mm thick. An ISA
200 mm × 100 mm × 15 mm and 250 mm long is placed on the top of the two
vertical angles.
Strength of 22 mm diameter rivet in single shear
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜1.25 × π × 23.5 × 100 ⎟ kN
⎝ 4 1000 ⎠
= 54.19 kN
Maximum pull which can be transmitted by one anchor bolt
= 126 kN
⎛ 126 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 2.325
⎝ 54.19 ⎠
IS A 2 00 m m x 10 0 m m
x x 15 m m 2 R ivets
22 m m φ
C e ntre lin e o f
a ncho r b olt
1 6 R ive ts
L ug (B ra cke t)
2 IS A 2 00 m m x 10 0 m m 22 m m φ
x 15 m m
Filler
p late
22 m m
Fig. 6.14
Provide 4 rivets, (2 rivets in each vertical leg), 2 separate rivets are provided to
connect the horizontal angle at the top. The rivets may be checked for eccentric
riveted bracket connection in which the c.g. of rivets is out of plane of force
transmitted.
Problems
6.1 Design a self-supporting chimney of 100 m height. The diameter of
cylindrical shell is 4 m. The chimney has a 100 m thick brick lining
supported on the shell.
6.2 Design the lug for the steel stack in Problem 6.1.
6.3 A self-supporting steel chimney is 60 m high and has a diameter 3 m at
the top. Design the plate of the chimney. Also design the base plate and
the anchor bolts. The foundation and the riveted joints need not be designed.
The horizontal pressure may be assumed as l.50 kN/m2. The bearing
stress in cement concrete is 40 N/mm2.
Multiple Choice Questions

6.1 Steel chimneys are commonly made in
(a) Square shape (b) Rectangular shape
(c) Cylindrical shape (d) Octagonal shape.
6.2 A self-supporting steel chimney transmits the lateral forces to the
foundation by
(a) Propped beam action (b) Cantilever action
(c) Simply supported action (d) Fixed beam action
6.3 The allowable stresses for the design of seel chimney depend upon
(a) The ratio of area of cylindrical portion to the area of flared portion
(b) The ratio of volume of cylindrical portion to the volume of flared
portion
(c) The ratio of weight of cylindrical portion to the weight of the
flared portion
(d) The ratio of effective height to the radius of gyration.
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions
6.1 (c) 6.2 (b) 6.3 (d)
CHAPTER
7
Design of Steel Tanks
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The steel tanks are defined as vessels made of steel plates. The steel tanks are
either placed on ground or placed on towers. When the steel tanks are placed on
ground, then, these are supported on cement concrete foundation or on steel grillage
foundation. These steel tanks with vertical cylindrical surface and flat bottom and
supported on ground are known as surface tanks. When the steel tanks are placed
on the towers or stagging, then, the steel tanks are known as elevated steel tanks.
The steel tanks are placed on towers in order to provide necessary pressure head.
The elevated steel tanks are generally used in connection with pumping stations.
The steel tanks are used for storage and supply of water and other liquids, like
petroleum, diesel, and kerosene oil. The supply of the water is made to municipal
areas, industries and locomotives of railways. The steel tanks are filled by means
of risers or inlet pipes, water or other liquids are generally stored in the steel
tanks at atmospheric pressure. In case the water or other liquids are stored at
pressure more than the atmospheric pressure, then, the steel tanks are known as
pressure vessels or pressure tanks. The designs of steel tanks used for storage of
water at atmospheric pressure are only discussed in this chapter. The capacity of
steel tank is defined as the volume contained between level of overflow and the
lowest specified level. The life of steel tanks depends on the maintenance.
The steel tanks are designed conforming to code of practice for use of steel in
gravity water tanks IS: 805–1981.
The minimum thickness of the steel plates of the tanks shall be 6 mm except
for roofs. In case, the tank water contains salts, the thickness of steel plates shall
be 1.5 mm more thicker than that calculated.
7.2 TYPES OF STEEL TANKS

The steel tanks used for the storage and supply of water are classified according to
the general shapes of the tanks. The following are various types of steel tanks:
1. Rectangular steel tanks.
2. Circular steel tanks.
3. Pressed steel tanks.
The elevated steel tanks are also of two types. In one type of the steel tanks, the
flat bottom is used. The flat bottom of tank rests on the steel grillage. The
rectangular steel tanks have flat bottoms. In other type of steel tanks, the suspended
bottoms having no grillage are used. The circular elevated steel tanks have
suspended bottoms. There is saving in cost and in material for the given capacity
in case of the circular steel tanks with the suspended bottoms. Further, the
suspended bottoms may be thoroughly inspected and painted. Therefore, the circular
steel tanks are most commonly used. The circular steel tanks are further classified
according to the general shapes of the suspended bottoms. The following are various
types of circular steel tanks.
1. Circular steel tanks with hemispherical bottom.
2. Circular steel tanks with segmental bottom.
3. Circular steel tanks with elliptical bottom.
4. Circular steel tanks with conical bottom.
The circular steel tanks have cylindrical shell. The hemispherical, segmental,
and elliptical bottom tanks are most commonly used. The conical bottom tanks
are particularly used on railways where the sedimentation in water is found most
frequently. The slope of conical bottom is kept such that the mud collects at the
apex of the bottom. The collected mud is removed from the tanks time to time by
means of a washout valve. The circular steel tanks are also made with flat bottom.
Such steel tanks are known as stand pipes. But these are used on ground.
The pressed steel tanks are also rectangular in shape. The pressed steel tanks
are made of plates which are pressed hot or cold in a press. The pressed steel tanks
are also of the following three types (as per IS: 804–1958).
Type 1–Tanks with all flanges external.
Type 2–Tanks with all flanges internal.
Type 3–Tanks with bottom flanges internal and side flanges external.
Type 1–tanks are normally used where a plain internal surface is necessary or
where there are no restrictions as to external access or where the exterior of the
tank is to be lagged. Type 2– tanks are normally used at a location where access
to the exterior for erection is precluded due to insufficient space inside a building.
Types 2 and 3–tanks are suitable for use where they are to be erected on a solid
level floor. The top of each of the above types or pressed steel tanks may be either
open or closed.
7.3 RECTANGULAR STEEL TANKS

A rectangular steel tank is shown in Fig. 7.1. The rectangular steel tanks are
made of steel plates with flat bottom. The widths of steel plates generally adopted
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 337
are 1.20 m, 1.25 m and 1.30 m depending upon the availability of plates. The
thickness of steel plates should not be less than 6 mm. The bottom plates are
provided in the transverse direction. These plates are turned up at the ends. These
plates form a butt-joint with the side plates of the tanks. The tee-sections are
provided in the inner-side to cover joints in the bottom. These sections are also
turned up at the end. These tee-sections may provide cover in the inner side of
vertical side plates. These tee-sections also act as vertical stiffeners for the side
plates. The flat strips are provided on the outer sides to cover all the horizontal
Tan k
L on gitud in al Tra nsverse

B e am s b ea m s
C o lu m n s
W ind b racin g
E n d b ea m
lon gitu dina l b ea m s
Inte rm ed ia te
Tee stiffe ne rs
Fo rge d bo sse s
E nd b ea m
Fig. 7.1 Rectangular steel tanks
and the vertical joints. The end bottom corners are curved. The forged bosses are
provided at the four bottom corners steel tanks are supported on longitudinal
rolled steel beams. The longitudinal steel beams rest on transverse beams. The
transverse beams rest on the columns. The columns are suitably braced to form
staging. The cross-diagonal bracings are provided to resist the wind pressure.
The rivets connecting tee-section, bottom plates of the tank, and the outer flat
strips are designed to resist horizontal shear. The spacing of rivets along the
caulked edges of plates shall not be greater than 10 times the thickness of plates.
The stays or ties are provided in the longitudinal and transverse directions.
The round bars and flat bars may be used for stays. The effect of corrosion is less
on the round bars. But, the round bars sag more severely due to their self weight.
The longitudinal stays rest on the transverse stays. Due to this arrangement, the
longitudinal stays are partly relieved of bending stresses due to their self-weight.
The stays are usually provided at the middle of the tank. The stays are subjected
to tension due to overturning effect of water pressure and weight of overhang of
the tank about the outer beams. Sometimes, the stays are also provided at the top.
The stays are connected with the vertical tie stiffeners. In case the stays are not
provided at the top, then, the upper half of the side above the stays resist the water
pressure by cantilever action.
7.4 STAND PIPES

A stand pipe is shown in Fig. 7.2. The stand pipes are circular tanks with flat
bottom. The stand pipes are cylindrical shells made of steel plates. The height of
O utside
la d de r
h
d
x x
In le t O utle t
Fig. 7.2 Stand pipes
Contd.
stand pipes in most cases is considerably greater than its diameter. The stand
pipes are supported directly on the foundations. The stand pipes are commonly
used for storage of liquids in industries.
During the storage of oil products in the surface tanks, the evaporation of oil
takes place. As a result of the evaporation, the gases accumulate under the roof.
The extent of this evaporation varies both with change in temperature (“low
breathing”) and upon discharging and charging (“high breathing”) and leads to
great losses. To reduce the losses of the oil products, tanks of various types are
employed.
The low pressure tanks with an internal pressure upto 0.002 N/mm2 are used
for the storage of light oil products with a low vapour pressure (kerosene, diesel
fuel etc.), as well as of dark refined oil products and oils.
The increased pressure tanks with an internal pressure 0.02 to 0.03 N/mm2 are
used for the storage of oil products with a high vapour pressure (various grades of
petrol, oil etc.).
The stand pipes are also used for storage and supply of water. In such cases the
stand pipes are constructed on high level grounds. The stand pipes are only
economical in case the capacity of tank is more important than the pressure. The
stand pipes are also economical at the places where the local conditions are such
that the elevated steel tanks are not necessary.
The steel plates used for the sides of the stand pipes are kept slightly different
in diameters, so that the courses are placed overlapping each other inside and
outside, alternately. The thickness of side and bottom plates should not be less
than 6 mm. As far as possible, lap joints are provided for the horizontal seems in
the sides and for the bottom plates. The bottom plates of the stand pipes up to 6 m
diameter are flanged up to connect with the side plates. In case the diameter of
stand pipe is more than 6 m, then the angle section is riveted inside the tank to
connect the side plates with the bottom plates.
In hot climates, the conical roof is provided over the tank. The conical roof
prevents the water from becoming a breeding place for mosquitoes and flies. In
case the pitch of roof is 1 in 4, then the conical roof does not require any structural
support. In case the pitch of roof is flatter than 1 in 6, then it is necessary to
provide structural support for the roof. The structural elements used for supporting
the roof consist of radial channel rafters. The radial channel rafters are connected
to tank on one side and a ring near the peak of roof on the other side. The thickness
of steel plates in roof should not be less than 5 mm. In cold climates, the roofs are
not provided on the stand pipes used for the storage and supply of water on account
of formation of ice. The stiffening angles are used at the top of the tank, when the
roofs are not provided.
In order to resist the uplift pressure, the anchor bolts are connected with the
sides of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.3. The anchor bolts are embedded deep in the
cement concrete.
The following are various accessories which are usually necessary for the stand
pipes.
7.4.1 Manhole
A circular manhole of 600 mm diameter or an elliptical manhole of 300 mm × 540
mm size is provided on the side and near the bottom i.e., in the first shell ring of
the tank for cleaning purpose. A hinged cover is provided for the manhole. The
cover is attached to the shell ring. The manhole is properly reinforced.
Ve rtica l
p la te
G ro ut A n ch o r
b olt
Fig. 7.3
7.4.2 Pipe Connections

The pipes are connected to the stand pipes with the sides or bottom for filling and
emptying tank. The flangers are provided for the connection of inlet and outlet
pipes of specified sizes.
7.4.3 Outside Ladder

An outside ladder 375 mm wide is provided with the tank from a point about 2.5 m
above the ground level to the top of the stand pipe. The ladder is made of 60 mm ×
10 mm bars with 18 mm round rungs 300, mm apart. The ladder is fastened to
the stand pipe at every 3.5 m to 5 m.
It is to note that an inside ladder is not necessary. In cold climates, where there
is possibility of formation of ice, the inside ladder should not be provided on the
stand pipes in any case.
7.4.4 Roof Ladder

A roof ladder is provided on the stand pipe roofs. The roof ladder may be of revolving
type.
7.4.5 Painter’s Trolly Track

A painter’s trolley track is also provided with the stand pipe. The track consists of
a curved angle. The vertical leg of the curved angle is kept upward. The stack is
fastened with the tank by short lug angles spaced about 0.6 m to 0.9 m centres. A
light traveller with two wheels is installed on this track. A painter’s trolley track
is also provided inside the tank.
7.4.6 Roof Door

A door is provided in the roof for the inspection of the stand pipe. The roof door is
provided near the outside ladder of the tank. The roof door is kept about 600 mm in
diameter. A hinged cover is provided on the roof door.
7.4.7 Overflow
An overflow pipe is connected at suitable height to drain off the surplus water.
7.5 STRESSES IN STAND PIPES

A stand pipe may be considered as a thin cylinder. Consider a horizontal section
XX, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The hydrostatic pressure (internal pressure) acting
radially at any point
p = w.h ...(i)
where, w = Unit weight water
(10 kN/m3 = 10 × 10–6 N/mm3)
h = Height of stand pipe above section XX in metres
∴ p = 10 × 10–6 × (1000 h) N/mm2 ...(ii)
This internal pressure, p acting radially over 1 mm strip of the tank results in
the bursting force F1.
Consider a strip of 1 mm depth at the horizontal section XX. The horizontal
section XX, represents the middle line of the strip. The bursting force acting on
this strip
F1 = p . d
where, d = Diameter of stand pipe in metres.
P1 = 10–6 × (1000 h) × (1000 d) N/mm
= 10 h . d N/mm ...(iii)
Let σ be the circumferential stress (also known as hoop stress or tensile stress)
acting on the vertical section of this strip of 1 mm height. This stress acts
tangentially. The bursting of tank is resisted at two sections. Then the force resisting
the bursting (viz., tensile strength of plate)
F2 = 2 × σ × (t ×1) N/mm ...(v)
where t = Thickness of plates in mm.
The stand pipe is in equilibrium. For equilibrium, the force resisting the bursting
is equal to the force causing the bursting.
∴ F2 = F1
Substituting the values from (iii) and (iv),

2 × σ × t × 1 = 10 h.d
5 h⋅d ⎞
∴ σ = ⎛⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.1)
⎝ t ⎠
If, the maximum allowable tensile stress in the plate is σat = 0.6fy and η is the
efficiency of riveted joint in the vertical direction, then
⎛ 5 h⋅d ⎞
t = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.2)
⎝ η⋅ σat ⎠
The thickness of steel plates of the stands pipes at the various sections may be
found from Eq. 7.2. The steel plates are in contact with the water. Therefore, the
thickness of steel plate provided is kept 1.5 mm in excess than required.
7.6 DESIGN OF ANCHOR BOLTS FOR STAND PIPES

The anchor bolts are provided to resist the uplift pressure due to the combined
effect of wind and the self-weight of tank. The weight of water is not taken into
consideration, since, the maximum uplift may be caused, when the stand pipe is
empty. The wind pressure acting on the stand pipe
P = k . p1. (Projected area of stand pipe)
where k = Shape factor. The shape factor for cylindrical tank is 0.7
P1 = Intensity of wind pressure in N/m2
P = 0.7p1 × (d × H) kN ...(i)
where, H = Total height of the stand pipe in metre.
The wind pressure acts at the middle height of the tank. The overturning moment
at the base of the stand pipe due to the wind pressure
H
Mw = 0.7 p1 (d . H)
kN-m
2
= 0.35 p1 d . H2 kN-m ...(ii)
The maximum compressive and maximum tensile stresses in bending at the
⎛M d⎞
extreme fibres of the stand pipe are equal. Their magnitude σw = ⎜ w × ⎟
⎝ I 2⎠
where, I = Moment of inertia of the circular ring section of the stand pipe
⎛ 6 d⎞
⎜ 0.35 p1 ⋅ d ⋅ H × 10 × 1000 2 ⎟
σw = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ d3 3 ⎟
⎜ π × (1000) × t ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
σw = ⎜ 1.4 p1 ⋅ H ⎟ N/mm2 ...(iii)
⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎠
The self-weight of stand pipe W s calculated in kN acts vertically downward.

The compressive stress in the steel plate due to self-weight of stand pipe
⎡ Ws × 1000 ⎤ ⎛ Ws ⎞
σ1 = ⎢ π(1000 d )t ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(iv)
⎣ ⎦ ⎝ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎠
Therefore, the net uplift pressure due to combined effect of wind and self-weight
of stand pipe
⎛ 2 ⎞
σ2 = (σw – σ) = ⎜ 1.4 p1 H − Ws ⎟
⎝ π ⋅ dt π ⋅ dt ⎠
⎡1.4 p1 H 2 − Ws ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ N/mm
2 ...(v)
⎣ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎦
The uplift force per mm circumferential length
F3 = σ2 × t × 1
⎡1.4 p1 H 2 − Ws ⎤
F3 = ⎢ ⎥ × (t × 1) N/mm2 ...(vi)
⎣ π ⋅ d ⋅t ⎦
∴ The maximum uplift force in the anchor bolt (i.e., tensile force)
( g × 1000 )
T = F3 × = F3 . g
1000
⎡1.4 p1 H 2 − Ws ⎤
T = ⎢ ⎥ × g kN ...(7.3)
⎣ πd ⎦
where, g = Spacing of anchor bolts in metres.
The number of anchor bolts may be found by dividing the circumference of
anchor bolt ring by the spacing of anchor bolts. The permissible stress in axial
tension at the root of the threads of anchor bolls is 0.6 × fy N/mm2.
7.7 ELEVATED CIRCULAR STEEL TANK

An elevated circular steel tank is shown in Fig. 7.4. The elevated circular steel
tanks are made with suspended bottoms. The circular steel tanks are made with
hemispherical, segmental and conical bottoms. The hemispherical, segmental or
elliptical bottoms are commonly used. The conical bottom is rarely used. It is
difficult to make a satisfactory connection of conical bottom with the circular
girder. The conical bottom tanks are used in railways for the reason discussed in
Sec. 7.2. For small tanks, with hemispherical bottom, the ratio of height of cylindrical
shell to the diameter is approximately 1 : 1. The ratio is 1 14 : 1 for the tanks
having capacity more than 4,50,000 litres. For the elliptical bottom tanks, this
ratio is 0.6 : 1 for the tanks less than 6,75,000 litres capacity and 0.5 : 1 for tanks
of 6,75,000 litres capacity and more. For the hemispherical bottom tanks, the
theoretical drop of the bottom from spring line is one half the diameter of the tank.
For the elliptical bottom tanks, this drop is one-fourth the diameter.
The steel plates used for the sides of the cylindrical shell are kept slightly different
in diameters, so that the courses are placed overlapping each other inside and
outside, alternately. The shell plates are shaped to suit the curvature of the tank.
The thickness of the plates in the cylindrical shell should not be less than 6 mm.
The nominal plate thickness as recommended in IS : 805–1981 for the different
nominal tank diameter is adopted as given in Table 7.1. The minimum thickness
of plates in the suspended bottom should not be less than the thickness of plates in
the lowest course of the cylindrical part of the tank. The plates are sheared or
planed to a suitable bevel along the edges by caulking. These plates are caulked
along the bevelled edges from the inside of the tank. The caulking of plates is done
Fina l
C o nica l
ro of
C ylind rical
she ll
d
H
B a lcon y
S u sp e nd ed
b ottom
O utside
la d de r
W ind
b racin g
C o lu m n
R ise r/inle t
p ip e
W ind b racing in
h orizo ntal
p la ne
Tow e r
2 .5 m
Fig. 7.4 Circular steel tank
with round-nosed tool. In case the tanks are used for the storage of oil, then the
plates are bevelled on both sides by inside and outside caulking. There is generally
a dished circular plate in the lower-portion in the bottom of a hemispherical bottom
tank. The dished plate is also known as saucer plate. The rest of bottom of tank is
made with plates with radial seams. In case, the length of radial joints is more
than 6 m, then two sets of plates with a horizontal seam between the spring line
and the saucer plate are used. The tank plates are suitably reinforced where the
pipes enter the tank.
Table 7.1 Nominal plate thickness (as per is : 805–1968)
Nominal plate thickness Nominal tank diameter
10 mm 9 m and less
12 mm 18 m and less
16 mm 36 m and less
Over16 mm All sizes
The number of plates in each ring of the cylindrical shell is kept equal to the
number of columns. The columns are connected in the middle of each plate of the
lowest shell ring.
The thickness of plates in the lower cylindrical courses of tanks with suspended
bottoms shall not be less than 8 mm, for tank capacity (5 to 7) × 105 litres, and 10
mm for tanks of capacity (7 to 10) × 105 litres. For larger tanks, the thickness
shall be at least 1.5 mm greater than that calculated.
7.8 RIVETED JOINT IN ELEVATED CIRCULAR STEEL

TANKS
In the bottom of the circular steel tanks, lap joints are used in the horizontal
seams and radial seams. The lap joints are also used in the vertical and horizontal
seams of the cylindrical portion of the tank. The recommended types of riveted
joints and diameters of the rivets necessary for different thickness of plates are
given in Table 7.2.
The spacing of rivets along the caulked edges of plates shall not be greater than
10 times the thickness of plates. The spacing of rivets should be such that they
make most economical seams. The efficiency of joint in tension is 70 to 75 percent.
The rivets are placed from inside the tank. The rivets are driven from outside of
the tank. In general, the rivets are driven and the new heads are formed from the
opposite sides of the plates on which the caulking is done.
The steel plates more than 10 mm thickness and not more than 22 mm thickness
are sub-punched with a punch 5 mm smaller than the nominal diameter of rivet
and reamed to a diameter 1.5 mm larger than the rivet. The plates thicker than
22 mm thickness are drilled.
Table 7.2
Thickness of steel plates Diameter of rivets Types of riveted joints
(mm) (mm)
6 16 Double riveted lap joint
8 18 Double riveted lap joint
10–12 22 Triple riveted butt joint
14–18 22 Double riveted butt joint
20 22 Triple riveted butt joint
22–24 24 Triple riveted butt joint
The number of radial seams or sections of the hemispherical bottom is kept in

the multiples of number of columns supporting the tank. These joints or sections
are reinforced at the lower parts where the holes are made for piping.
7.9 ACCESSORIES OF ELEVATED CIRCULAR STEEL

TANK
The following are the various accessories which are usually necessary for the
elevated steel tanks :
1. Tank roof ; 2. Trap door; 3. Outside ladder; 4. Pipe connections;
5. Overflow; 6. Painter’s trolley track; 7. Stiffening angles; 8. Balcony
7.9.1 Tank Roof

A conical roof or dome-shaped steel or iron roof is generally provided to cover the
tank when the tank is situated in outside location. A cover is also needed when the
tank is inside a building. The thickness of the plates in roof should not be less than
5 mm. The pitch of roof is kept 1 in 6. The roof plates are assumed self-supporting
upto 6.75 metres diameter of the tank. In case, the diameter of the tank is more of
than 6.75 metres, it is necessary to provide structural supports for the roof. The
structural elements supporting the roof consist of radial angle rafters. When the
columns are vertical, and there is no balcony provided with the steel tank, then
the roof should project 150 mm all around. In case the balcony is provided with the
tank, the roof should project 150 mm from the edge of balcony. This provides
better appearance. 6 mm diameter rivets are used for the roof plates. These rivets
are driven cold.
7.9.2 Trap Door

A trap door is provided in the roof of the tank. The trap door is kept 600 mm
square. For the safety of the persons operating the trap door, a platform with
railing is provided near the top of high tanks.
7.9.3 Outside Ladder

An outside ladder 375 mm wide is provided with the tank from a point about 2.5
metres above the ground level to the top of the tank. The ladder is a made of 60
mm × 20 mm bars with 18 mm round rungs 300 mm apart. For large steel tanks.
9 metres or more in diameter, a walk is provided from the column nearest the
ladder to the expansion joint on the inlet pipe.
7.9.4 Pipe Connections

A riser or inlet pipe is provided in each elevated tank. The size of inlet pipe depends
upon the rate at which the tank is filled. It is not necessary to provide an outlet
pipe. The outlet pipe is provided if it is demanded. Otherwise, the inlet pipe is also
used as outlet pipe. Cast iron expansion joints with rubber packing are provided
with all the pipes entering the tank. The arrangements are also made for tightening
the expansion joints. The expansion joints are usually fastened to the bottom of
the tank with bolts and lead washers. All the pipes entering the tank are thoroughly
braced laterally with the adjustable diagonal bracing at the panel points of the
tower.
7.9.5 Overflow
An overflow pipe is connected at suitable height to drain off the surplus water. A
height of 150 mm as free board shall be added to the required height of the tank
while designing the tank.
7.9.6 Painter’s Trolley Track

A Z-bar is provided near the top of the tank. The Z-bar provides a support for the
painter’s trolley. In addition to this, the Z-bar stiffens the tank also. The section
modulus of Z-bar should not be less than 0.66 d2 × 103 mm3; where, d is the
diameter of the tank in metres. In case the upper part of the tank is thoroughly
held by the roof construction, this may be reduced.
7.9.7 Stiffening Angles

In large circular tanks, in order to prevent plates from buckling during wind
storms, circular stiffening angles are provided. The distance between the stiffening
angles is found from the following expansion
⎛ 16t1 / 2 ⎞
n = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.4)
⎝ d ⎠
where,
n = Approximate distance between the stiffening angles in metre
t = Thickness of the plates in mm
d = Diameter of the tank in metres
7.9.8 Balcony
A balcony is provided around the circular steel tank. The balcony is kept 900 mm
wide. The floor-plate of the balcony is kept 6 mm thick. The floor plate is punched
for drainage. A suitable railing about 1 metre in height is provided with the balcony.
The balcony is fastened to the tank by means of a single angle.
7.10 FORCES ACTING ON THE CIRCULAR TANK

The various forces or the loads acting on the tank are as following.
7.10.1 Dead Load

The dead load consists of the weight of the structural and ornamental steel work,
platform, roof construction, piping etc.
7.10.2 Live Load

The live load consists of the contents of the tank, the wind pressure, the movable
load on the platform and roof. The live load on the platform and roof is assumed as
1.44 kN/m2 or a 1.00 kN concentrated load applied at any point. The live load on
the platform and roof is not considered as acting together with the wind pressure.
In case the tanks are used for storage and supply of water, then the tanks are
mainly designed for water pressure.
The wind pressure acting on a structure depends on the shape of the structure,
the width of the structure, the height of the structure, the location of the structure
and the climatic conditions. The wind pressure per unit area increases with the
height of the structure above the ground level. The intensity of wind pressure
acting on a structure may be noted from IS : 875–1984.
7.10.3 Seismic Forces

The seismic or earthquake forces act horizontally. The seismic forces act on a
structure when the structures are located in the seismic areas.
The worst effect out of effect due to seismic forces and wind effect is only taken
into consideration. Only one effect is considered for the design of she structure out
of these two effects.
7.11 STRESSES IN ELEVATED CIRCULAR STEEL TANKS

The stress per linear vertical mm of the plate of the cylindrical shell of the tank is
given by
⎛w ⋅h ⋅d ⎞
F1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
where w= Unit weight of water (10 kN/m3)
= 10 × l06 N/mm3
h= Height of tank above a horizontal section in metres
d= Diameter of the tank in metres
⎛ 1000d ⎞
F1 = 10 × 10–6 × (1000 h) × ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
F1 = 5. h . d N/mm ...(7.5)
If t is the thickness of plates of the tanks in mm, then the stress in plates is
given by
F1
σ = N/mm2
(t × 1)
⎛ 5h ⋅ d ⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(7.6)
⎝ t ⎠
7.12 STRESSES IN SPHERICAL BOTTOM

An elevated circular steel tank with a segmental bottom is shown in Fig. 7.5.
d
r
b
H1
r1 θ
H2
x x
C ircu la r
g ird er
T1 (a ) T1
W
(b )
Fig. 7.5
Consider a section XX as shown in Fig. 7.5. Let W be the weight of water

column in kN acting at the section XX. The weight of water column
W = (w × π.b2 × h) kN ...(i)
where
w = Unit weight of water (10 kN/m3)
b = Radius of water column in metres
h = Height of water column above in section XX, in metres
∴ W = (10 π . b2. h) kN ...(ii)
b = r1 · sin θ ... (iii)
where r1 = Radius of segmental bottom of the tank in metres
∴ W = (10 π . r21 . h sin2 θ) kN
The weight of water column per mm of the circumference
1000 W
= N/mm
(2 × 1000 b)
⎡1000 × 10 π r12 h sin2 θ ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥ = 5r1h N/mm
⎣ π (2r1 sin θ) × 1000 ⎦
Let T1 be the meridional tension per mm of circumference. The weight of water
column per mm of circumference is balanced by the vertical component of meridional
tension per mm of circumference. The vertical component of meridional tension
per mm of circumference is T1 sin θ.
∴ T1 sin θ = 5r1 . h sin θ ...(7.7)
T1 = 5h . rl N/mm
The stress in the radial joint in the segmental bottom
⎛ 5h ⋅ r1 ⎞
T1´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ t ⎠
⎛ 5h ⋅ r1 ⎞
∴ T1´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(7.8)
⎝ t ⎠
where, t = Thickness of plate of the segmental bottom in mm.

For hemispherical bottom, the radii of hemispherical bottom and the cylindrical
shell are equal i.e.,
⎛d⎞
r1 = r = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
Therefore, the meridional tension per mm of circumference, in case of
hemispherical bottom
T2 = (5 h . r) N/mm ...(7.9)
The stress in the radial joint in the hemispherical bottom
⎛ 5h ⋅ r ⎞
T2´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.10)
⎝ t ⎠
It is to note that the stress in radial joint in a hemispherical bottom is one-half
of the stress in a cylindrical shell of same radius and the same internal pressure.
The curvature in case of segmental and hemispherical bottoms are same in all
the directions.
Therefore, the stresses in circumferential joints are equal to the stresses in the
radial joints.
The maximum stresses in the radial and circumferential joints in segmental
and hemispherical bottom of tanks, occur at the lowest point of the bottom.
7.13 STRESSES IN CONICAL BOTTOM

An elevated circular steel tank with a conical bottom is shown in Fig. 7.6.
Consider a horizontal section XX, as shown in Fig. 7.6. Let W be the weight of
water column in kN acting at the section XX. The weight of water column
W = (w . π . r12 . h ) kN ...(i)
where,
w = Unit weight of water (10 kN/m3)
r1 = Radius of water column in metres
h = Height of water column above the section XX, in metres
d
r
r1
H1
H2 x x
C ircu la r
g ird er
θ
T3 T3
(a )
1
mm
1
m
m
(b )
Fig. 7.6
∴ W = 10 π . r12 . h kN ...(ii)
The weight of water column per mm of the circumference
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 10 π r12 h × 1000 ⎞
⎜ 2πr ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5hr1 N/mm ...(iii)
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 π r1 × 1000 ⎠
Let T3 be the meridional tension per mm of the circumference. The weight of
water column per mm of circumference is equal to the vertical component of the
meridional tension per mm of the circumference.
∴ T2 sin θ = 5 . h . r1
∴ T3 = 5h . r1 cosec θ N/mm ...(7.11)
The stress in the radial joint in the conical bottom
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r1 cosec θ ⎞
T3´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ t ⎠
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r1 cosec θ ⎞
or T3´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.12)
⎝ t ⎠
where, t = Thickness of the plate of conical bottom in mm.
In order to determine the stress in the circumferential joint in the conical bottom,
consider two horizontal planes through the cone so that the intercept along the
cone is 1 mm in length. The normal pressure acting on the tapered ring is p.
p = wh = 10 × 10–6 × (1000 h) N/mm2 ...(i)
This normal pressure may be resolved into two components, p1 along the element
of the cone and, p2 along the horizontal direction. Then
p2 = p . cosec θ ...(ii)
p1 = p . cot θ ...(iii)
The stress in the circumferential joint
⎡ −6 ⎤
T3´´ = ⎢10 × 10 × 1000 h × cosec θ × (2r1 ) × 1000 ⎥ N/mm2
⎣ 2×t ⎦
⎛ θ⎞
∴ T3" = ⎜10 p ⋅ r1 ⋅ cosec t ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.13)
⎝ ⎠
This is to note that the stress in circumferential joint in the conical bottom of
a tank is twice the stress in the radial joint.
The maximum stresses in a radial joint and the circumferential joint may be
found as follows. The stress in the radial joint of the conical bottom of tank, from
Eq. 7.12
⎛ 5h ⋅ r1 cosec θ ⎞
T3´ = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2
⎝ t ⎠
Now h = (H1 + H2 – r1 tan θ)
⎡ 5( H1 + H 2 − r1 tan θ) r1 cosec θ ⎤
∴ T3´ = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
t
dT3´ ⎡ 5( H1 + H2 − 2r1 tan θ) ⎤

dr1
= ⎢⎣ t ⎥⎦ cosec θ
dT3´
For maximum stress in the radial joint, =0
dr1
∴ H1 + H2 – 2r1 tan θ = 0
tan θ =
( H1 + H2 )
2r1
H2
∴ tan θ =
⎛ d⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
H2 ( H1 + H2 )
∴ =
⎛ d⎞ 2r1
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
d ⎛ H1 ⎞
r1 = ⎜⎝1 + H ⎟⎠
4 2
The maximum value of r1 shall be equal to the radius of cylindrical shell,

d
i.e., r1 = r =
2
d d⎛ H ⎞
∴ < ⎜ 1+ 1⎟
2 4⎝ H2 ⎠
or H2 < H1
In general, the height of conical bottom of the tank H2, is less than the height of
cylindrical shell. Thus, it is seen that the maximum stress occurs at the junction
of cylindrical shell and the conical bottom.
The maximum stress in the radial joint
⎛ 5 hr cosec θ ⎞
T3.max = ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
2 ...(7.14)
⎝ t ⎠
The maximum stress in the circumferential joint
⎛ 10 ⋅ h ⋅ r cosec θ ⎞
⎟⎠ N/mm
2 ...(7.15)
⎜⎝
⋅t
7.14 STRESSES IN CONNECTION BETWEEN SIDE

AND BOTTOM PLATES
The maximum stress in the radial joint at the junction of cylindrical shell and the
conical bottom as per Eq. 7.14 is given by
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r cosec θ ⎞
T3´max = ⎜ ⎟⎠ N/mm
2
⎝ t
The meridional (radial) tension per mm of circumference at the junction of
cylindrical shell and the bottom is given by
⎛ 5 ⋅ h ⋅ r cosec θ ⎞
T3 max = ⎜ ⎟⎠ , (t ×1)N/mm
2
⎝ t
= 5 h . r cosec θ N/mm
The horizontal component of the meridional (radial) tension at the junction of
cylindrical shell and the conical bottom causes hoop compression at the junction.
The compressive stress at the ring
⎡ (5hr cosec θ) ⋅ cos θ × 1000 r ⎤

P3 = (T3 max . cos θ ×1000 r) = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ kN
1000
= 5 hr2 cot θ kN ...(7.16)
The plates at the junction are not sufficient to resist this compressive force, and
the buckling of plates may occur. An angle iron ring is provided to resist this
compressive force and to avoid the possible buckling of the plates. The angle iron
ring is designed as a compression member. The slenderness ratio of the angle ring
π r
is taken as ⋅
, where r1 is radius of gyration of the angle section about the
r
3 1
vertical axis.
The stress in the radial joint in the segmental bottom is given by Eq. 7.8,
5h ⋅ r1
T1´ = N/mm2 ...(i)
t
The meridional tension per mm of the circumference in the segmental bottom
is given by Eq. 7.7,
T1 = 5h.r1 N/mm ...(ii)
The horizontal component of the meridional tension per mm of circumference
in the segmental bottom at the junction is T1 cos θ. The height of water column h,
above the junction is equal to the height of cylindrical shell H1. Therefore, the
hoop compression
⎛ (5H1r1 cos θ × 1000 r⎞

P = (T1, cos θ × 1000 r) = ⎜ ⎟ = (5H1 r1 r cos θ kN)
⎝ 1000 ⎠
At the junction,
(r1 − H 2 )
cos θ =
r1
where, H1 = Height of segmental bottom
5Hr1r1 (r1 – H 2 )
∴ P1 = kN
r1
∴ P1 = 5Hr(r1 – H2) kN ...(7.17)
For hemispherical bottom, the height of hemispherical bottom, and the radius
of hemispherical bottom are equal. Therefore, the hoop compression in the ring is
zero.
7.15 CIRCULAR GIRDER

A circular girder is provided to support the circular tank with segmental or
hemispherical bottom as shown in Fig. 7.5, and to support the circular tank with
conical bottom as shown in Fig. 7.6. The circular girder supports the weight of
tank, the weight of contents in the tank and the self-weight. The total load acts as
uniformly distributed load along the girder. The circular girder is supported by
four or more columns. The circular girder transmits the load to the columns. The
circular girder is subjected to shear, bending moment and torsion. The circular
girder acts as a beam curved in plane. A complete circular beam loaded with
uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. 7.7.
The circular girder is simply supported on columns. The columns are placed at
equal distances along the circumference as shown in Fig. 7.7. As a result of
symmetry, the vertical reactions in the columns are equal. The vertical reaction
in each column is equal to the total vertical load divided by the number of columns.
Therefore, the circular girder is a statically determinate. The shear force and
torsion at the centre of each span are zero due to symmetry. The torsion at each
support is also zero due to symmetry. The torsion is maximum at the sections
where the bending moment is zero. The bending moment at the supports
WR ⎛ 1 1 φ⎞
M1 = – ⎜ − cot ⎟ ...(7.18)
n ⎝φ 2 2⎠
where
W = Total vertical load in kN
n = Number of columns.
The maximum bending moment at the centre (i.e., midway between the columns)
in kN-m
⎡ φ⎤
2sin2 ⎥
φ WR ⎢ 4
M2 = M1cos + ⎢sin φ − ⎥ ...(7.19)
2 2n ⎢ φ ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
The maximum torsion (kN-m) occurs at a point P, angle φ´ from support
WR W φ´ R ⎛ sin φ´ ⎞
T = M1 sin φ´ – (1 − cos φ´) + × ⎜1 − ...(7.20)
2n 4 ⎝ φ´ ⎟⎠
The values of maximum shear, maximum positive and negative bending moments
and maximum torsion in a circular girder supported on 4, 6, 8 or 12 columns are
given in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3
Number Load on Maximum Bending Bending φ´ Maximum
of columns shear moment moment at torsion
columns (kN) (kN) at columns the centre (kN-m)
(kN-m) (kN-m)
W W
4 –0.03415WR +0.01762WR 10°20´ 0.0053 WR
4 8
W W
6 –0.01482WR +0.00751 WR 12°44´ 0.00151WR
6 12
W W
8 –0.00827 WR +0.00416 WR 9°33´ 0.00063 WR
8 16
W W
12 –0.00365 WR +0.00190 WR 6° 21´ 0.000185 WR
12 24
Note. φ' is the angular distance from column to point of maximum torsion. W
is total vertical load, and R is radius of circular girder.
The circular girder is designed for the maximum bending moment. The circular
girder is checked for shear stresses due to shear force and bottom.
1. For circular section subjected to torsion. The angle of twisted is
calculated as under:
T q
= =G.θ
J r
⎡ T ⎤
∴ θ = ⎢⎛ π ⎥ ...(7.21)
4⎞
⎢⎜ ⋅ d1 ⎟ G ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎦
where, T = Torsional moment
J = Torsional constant. It is also equal to polar moment of inertia of
⎛ πd4 ⎞
the circular section, ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
d1 = Diameter of circular section
r = Radial distance of any fibre of circular section from the centre
q = Shear stress due to torsion
G = Shearing modulus of elasticity
θ = Angle of twist per unit length.
2. For rectangular section subjected to torsion. A rectangular section
is shown in Fig. 7.8 (a). The angle of twisted is found as below :
⎛ T ⎞
θ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ ...(7.22)
⎝ β ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ G ⎠
where,
1
β= 3 , in case the rectangle is assumed to be very narrow
b = Width of longer side of the rectangle
c = Width of shorter side of the rectangle
1
J= b ⋅ c3
3
⎛ T ⎞
qmax = c . Gθ = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
2 ⎟ ...(7.23)
⎝ 3b⋅c ⎠
3. For angle section subjected to torsion. An angle section is shown in
Fig. 7.8 (b). Equation 7.22 and Eq. 7.23 for a narrow rectangular section can be
utilized also for approximate solutions in the cases in which the width of the cross-
section is small. The angle section has uniform thickness. The angle of twist is
obtained by substituting (b = 2a – c) for the developed length of centre line. The
maximum stress is found from Eq. 7.23. The maximum stress occurs at the re-
entrant corner. The maximum stress is found by multiplying the stress obtained
by Eq. 7.23 by stress concentration factor K, which is larger than unity. The
stress concentration factor is given by
1/ 2
⎛c⎞
K = 1.74 ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.24)
⎝r⎠
where, c = Thickness
r = Radius of the fillet.
c
c2 c2
b a b1 b1
c1 c1
c2 c2
c a b2 b2
(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
Fig. 7.8
4. For channel section subjected to torsion. A channel section is shown

in Fig. 7.8 (c). The cross-section of channel section may be divided into three
rectangles as shown in Fig. 7.8 (c). The angle of twist θ is found by substituting
(b1c13 + 2b2c22) for bc3. Therefore, the angle of twist per unit length
⎡ T ⎤
θ = ⎢1 3 3 ⎥ ...(7.25)
(b
⎣3 1 1c + 2b c
2 2 ) ⋅ G ⎦
qmax = c.G θ
⎡ T ⋅c ⎤
= ⎢1 3 3 ⎥ ...(7.26)
(b
⎣3 1 1c + 2b c )
2 2 ⎦
c = c1 or c2 where qmax is required.

Equation 7.25 and Eq. 7.26 are approximate equations. These equations can
also be used for I-sections with flanges of uniform thickness. The maximum stress
occurs at the re-entrant corners. The maximum stress is found by multiplying
Eq. 7.26 by a stress concentration factor given by Eq. 7.24.
The angle sections or channel sections are generally used for the circular girder.
The angle sections and channel sections are open-sections, which are weak in
torsion. It is also practice to avoid circular girder. The tanks are directly placed on
the columns. The columns are directly riveted to the sides. In such cases, the
additional material is provided in the tank plates to take the shear. The shear
may be resisted by providing thick tank plates or reinforcement plates at the
column connection. The bending moments are taken by upper and lower flange
angles. The columns are connected in such a manner that the efficiency of the
tank plates shall not be less than that of the vertical seams.
7.16 STAGING FOR CIRCULAR STEEL TANKS

The number of columns in the staging or tower supporting the circular steel tank
depends upon the size of the tank. The tower or staging consists of four, six, eight
or twelve columns. There should not be less than four columns in the staging. The
three column tower is rarely built. In case of three-column towers, the wind stresses
are high. When the line of sight is parallel to one side, the appearance of a three-
column tower is very objectionable. A three column tower is built for very special
cases as over the corners of a low building. The tanks less than 10 m in height to
the bottom commonly have vertical columns. The tower columns are kept inclined
or battered for high tanks. The inclination or batter in a vertical plane passing
1 1
through a column and the vertical axis of the tank is about 1 to 1 : 12 for
4 2
circular tanks with hemispherical bottoms upto about 22,50,000 litres capacity.
The batter is about 1 : 12 for large capacity circular steel tanks with hemispherical
or elliptical bottoms. The wind stresses are reduced in towers having battered
columns. The appearance of structures with inclined columns is also better than
that with vertical columns. The height of the tower shall be the distance from the
top of masonry to the connection of the bottom with the cylindrical shell of the tank.
The thrust exerted by the columns in the inward direction against the tank is
opposed by a circular girder. The width of circular girder should not be less than
600 mm, if the columns are inclined. The width of circular girder may be reduced
to 450 mm if the columns are vertical. The columns are placed in such a position
with regard to the connection that the bending moments produced in the column
is reduced to the minimum.
The connections between the columns and the tank are made in such a manner
that the centre of gravity of the column sections intersect the tank at the centre of
the girder connections. This avoids the eccentric loading in the columns and local
stresses in the tank plates. Sufficient rivets are provided above this intersection to
transmit the total column load.
The columns are provided with steel caps and base plates. The size and thickness
of base plates are kept sufficient to distribute the column loads on the foundation
without causing excessive pressures.
All the columns are well secured to its foundation by means of anchor bolts. The
anchor bolts are made of wrought iron or mild steel. 12 mm thick anchor plates
are provided under the nuts. The anchor bolts are set in the foundation. The
strength of anchor bolts should be sufficient to resist safely the stressess caused by
the wind pressure. The anchor bolts should be capable to resist the shearing forces
on the column footing.
The columns of towers are usually built of two channels laced on both sides or
plates on one side and lacing on the other side or rolled steel H section or built-up-
H-sections.
7.17 STRESSES IN COLUMNS

The columns are subjected to vertical loads due to self-weight of the tank, the
weight of contents in the tank and the self-weight of the columns and wind pressure.
The columns are placed at equal distances along the circumference as shown in
Fig. 7.7. As a result of symmetry, the vertical reactions or loads in the columns
are equal. The vertical reaction or load in each column is equal to the total vertical
load W, divided by the number of columns. The stresses in the columns due to
overturning effect of wind is found as follows :
The wind force acting on the structure is found by multiplying the intensity of
wind and the exposed surface. The exposed surface consists of exposed surface of
tank including roof and the bottom, and the exposed surface of the columns and
bracing. The exposed surface of columns and bracing may be adopted as 20 percent
of the average of overall area of the columns.
In order to account for the effect of shape of the structure, the wind force is
reduced by multiplying it by shape factor. The values of shape factors adopted as
per IS : 875–1984 are given in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4
Shape of structure in plan Shape factor, k
m = 0 to 4 m = 4 to 8 m = 8 and above
Circular 0.7 0.7 0.7
Octagonal 0.8 0.9 1.0
Square
(i) wind perpendicular to diagonal 0.8 0.9 1.0
(II) wind perpendicular to face 1.0 1.15 1.3
Note. m represents the ratio of height to the base width.

The wind force is assumed to act through the centre of gravity of the exposed
area. In order to determine the stresses in the columns at any point due to wind,
a horizontal section XX1 is drawn through the columns. The vertical reaction due
to wind in the individual column depends upon the number of columns and the
direction of wind. The following cases are considered to find axial forces in the
columns due to wind.
1. Axial forces in four-column tower. Figure 7.9 shows a section of four-
column tower. The horizontal section is drawn through the points of contraflexures.
Consider a case when the direction of wind is normal to the face 1–4. Let Mw be the
overturning moment due to the wind force about the section. The line XX passing
through the c.g. of base and perpendicular to direction of wind represents a line of
rotation. The columns 2 and 3 are subjected to thrust while columns 1 and 4 are
subjected to uplift.
All the columns are at equal distance from the line of rotation XX. The thrust in
columns 2 and 3 are equal. The pulls in columns 1 and 4 are equal. Let the
vertical reaction in each column be R. The reactions in these columns provide a
resisting couple. Since, the columns are in equilibrium, the resisting couple and
the overturning moment are equal. Therefore,
r
2R × 2 = Mw
2
⎛ Mw ⎞
R = ⎜ ...(7.28)
⎝ 2 2 ⋅ r ⎟⎠
Consider the case, when the direction of wind is parallel to the diagonal as
shown in Fig. 7 9. The line YY represents the line of rotation. It passes through
c.g. of the base and it is at right angles to the direction of wind. It passes through
C a se II
D irection of
w in d S
1 2
C a se I r
r
D ia g on al
r r
2 2
D irection of
w in d r
4 3
r
Fig. 7.9
the centre of columns 2 and 4. The axial forces in these columns due to wind effect
are zero. The column 1 is subjected to uplift R1. The column 3 is subjected to
thrust R1. The uplift in column 1 and thrust in column 3 are equal, since these
are at equal distance from the line of rotation. The overturning moment is equal to
the resisting couple. Therefore,
R1 × 2r = Mw
⎛M ⎞
R1 = ⎜ w ⎟ ...(7.28)
⎝ 2r ⎠
It shows that the axial force in column is more, when the direction of wind is
along the diagonal. It gives worst case of loading.
2. Axial forces in six-column towers. Figure 7.10 shows a section of six-
column tower. The horizontal section is drawn through the points of contraflexures.
Consider a case when the direction of wind is normal to the face 1–6. Let Mw be the
overturning moment due to the wind force about the section. The line XX passing
r
1 3
r
C a se 1
r 3 0° r
3 0°
r 3 r 3
2 2
D irectio n of
w in d
6 r 4
Fig. 7.10
through the c.g. of base and perpendicular to the direction of wind represents a
line of rotation. The line of rotation XX passes through the centres of columns 2
and 5. The axial forces in columns 2 and 5 due to wind are zero. The columns 1, 3,
4 and 6 are at equal distance from the line of rotation. Therefore, the axial forces
in these columns are equal. The columns 1 and 6 are subjected to uplift pressure
R, and columns 3 and 4 are subjected to thrust R.
The overturning moment is balanced by resisting couple. Therefore,
3
2R × 2r = Mw
2
⎛ Mw ⎞
R = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.29)
⎝ 2 3 ⋅r ⎠
Consider the case, when the direction of wind is parallel to the diagonal as
shown in Fig. 7.10. Line YY represents the line of rotation. The columns 1, 2 and
3 are subjected to uplift pressure and 4, 5 and 6 are subjected to thrust. The axial
force, R in any column is proportional to perpendicular distance y, from the line of
rotation columns. Therefore
⎛M ⋅y⎞
R = ⎜ 2 ⎟
...(7.30)
⎝ ∑y ⎠
Let R1 be the axial force in columns 2 and 5, and R2 be the axial forces in
columns 1, 3, 4 and 6. Then
R2 ⎛ r⎞
= ⎜ 2⎟
R1 ⎝ r⎠
1
∴ R2 = 2
R1 ...(i)
Take the moment of all the axial forces in the columns about the line of rotation
YY. Then
⎛ r⎞
⎜ 2R1 × r × 4 R1 × ⎟ = Mw
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ R1 r ⎞
or ⎜ 2R1 × r + 4 × × ⎟ = Mw
⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛ Mw ⎞
∴ R1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.31 a)
⎝ 3⋅r ⎠
⎛ Mw ⎞
and R2 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.31 b)
⎝ 6⋅r ⎠
It shows that the axial force in column is more, when the direction of wind is
along the diagonal. It gives worst case of loading.
When there are eight columns in the tower, and the direction of wind is along
one of the diagonals, then, axial force in the extreme column
⎛M ⎞
R1 = ⎜ w ⎟ ...(7.32)
⎝ 4r ⎠
In general, the axial forces in vertical column, when the direction of wind is
along the diagonals and the number of columns is n, then axial force in the extreme
column
⎛ Mw ⎞
R1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(7.33)
⎜ n⋅r ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
When the columns are inclined or battered, then, the axial forces in inclined column,
located at the extreme distance from the line of rotation, due to wind blowing along
the diagonal may be found from the following
⎛ M w cos φ ⎞
R1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(7.34)
⎜ n⋅r ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
where, n = Number of columns in the tower
r = Radius of column circle in the plane considered
φ = Inclination of the columns with the vertical.
When the inclined columns are used, then the thrust is exerted by the columns
in the inward direction against the tank. A horizontal girder is used to resist the
thrust exerted. The horizontal girder is provided at the level where the columns
are connected with the sides of circular tank. The horizontal girder is supported
on four, six, eight or twelve columns. The forces in horizontal girder due to horizontal
thrust at the top of columns are found from Table 7.5.
Table 7.5
Bending Moment Shear Compression
Number Under Midway Under Midway Under Midway
of the between the between the between
columns load load load load load
4 +0.068 H –0.0352HD1 0.50 H 0 0.50H 0.707 H
6 +0.045HD 1 –0.0225HD1 3.50 H 0 0.50H 1.00 H
8 +0.034 HD1 –0.0165 HD1 0.50 H 0 0.50H 1.31 H
12 +0.022HD 1 –0.011HD1 0.50 H 0 0.50H 1.93 H
where, H = Horizontal thrust at the top of each column
D1 = Diameter of horizontal girder.
7.18 WIND BRACING

The columns are subjected to wind pressure. The wind bracings are provided to
resist the wind pressure in the vertical planes and also in the horizontal planes.
The wind bracings provide lateral support to the columns. Therefore, the wind
bracing is also known as lateral bracing. The wind bracings provided is in the
form of diagonal bracing. The wind bracings are provided at intervals so as to form
three panels. In addition to the wind pressure, the lateral bracings also resist
transverse shear equal to 25 percent of axial load in the columns. The wind bracing
is preferably made of roads with adjustable clevises or turnbuckles. The wind
bracings may also be made of other structural member.
7.19 PRESSED STEEL TANKS

A pressed steel tank is shown in Fig. 7.11. The pressed steel tanks are rectangular
in shape. The various type of pressed steel tanks and their suitability for use have
stays fo r d ee p ta nks
A lterna tive first tie r
M ild ste el cle ats
Fig. 7.11 Pressed steel rectangular tank with external flanges

section stays
R o lle d stee l
been discussed in Sec. 7.2. The pressed steel tanks have come into use to large
extent because of their ease in the erection, facility in transport, standard
construction, ease in dismantling and re-erection
The pressed steel tanks are made of mild steel plates as shown in Fig. 7.12. These
plates are heated uniformly in a furnace and formed in press. The furnace and press
are capable of taking the whole plate at one time. These plates are also pressed cold.
It should be seen that the cracks do not develop in these plates while these are
pressed cold. When these plates are pressed depressions are formed in the plates.
These plates gain extra strength. The flanges of these plates are pressed square as
shown in Fig. 7.12 (b) or partly square and partly at an angle of 45° to the face of the
plate or all 45° to the face of the plate as shown in Fig. 7.12 (c).
P a rtly sq ua red
p artly at 45 °
P re sse d steel p la te S q ua re flan ge s flan ge s
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 7.12 Pressed steel plate
Table 7.6 Minimum nominal thickness of plates

Depth of tank (m) Location of plates Thickness of plates (mm)
1.25 Bottom, Sides 3.0
2.50 Bottom and first tier of sides 6.5
Top tier of sides 5.0
Second tier of sides 6.5
Top tier of sides 5.0
Second and third tier of sides 6.5
Top tier 5.0
The nominal size of unit plate is 1.25 m square. The size of tank is specified as
multiples of the nominal dimension of 1.25 m. The thickness of plates used for
different depths of tanks used for storage of cold liquids with specific gravity not
exceeding 10 is adopted as per Table 7.6 as per IS: 804–1958. The water or liquid
at a temperature not exceeding 40°C is called as cold liquid.
In case of hot liquids with specific gravity not exceeding 1.0, the thickness of
plates for different depths of tanks conforms to that laid down in Table 7.6 except
that no plate of the tank is less than 6.5 mm thick. The water or liquid at a
temperature above 40°C but not exceeding 100°C is called as hot liquid.
The width of the flanges of the pressed steel plates is kept suitable for the
connecting bolts used. The holes in the flanges are accurately drilled or punched
in jigs so that the bolt holes may be alignable and interchangeable with those of
any other matching flange. These plates are joined by hexagonal bolts and nuts.
The bolts and nuts are made of mild steel. The bolts and nuts are finished black.
The spacing of bolts in the flanges should not exceed 75 mm pitch. The diameter of
the flange bolts should not be less than 14 mm. The flange bolts are fitted with a
flat washer under the nut, wherever necessary. All the joints are made leak proof
P itch
Joint Joint
C o rne r joint In te rm e d ia te jo in t
(a ) Flan ge joint
Joint P itch
Joint
C o rne r joint In te rm e d ia te jo in t
(b ) Flan ge joint
(c) C o rne r d etail
Fig. 7.13
by filling a plastic compound in the joint. The material used for joining should be
insoluble in the liquid to be stored and should be non-toxic. The flange joints, when
the flanges are partly squared, are shown in Fig. 7.13 (a). The flange joints, when
the flanges are squared, are shown in Figs. 7.13 (b) and (c).
All the outside edges of gussets should be cut nearly and accurately and the
edges should be ground, where necessary. All burns left by the drill and the sharp
edges of all bolt holes should be completely removed.
7.20 CAPACITY OF PRESSED STEEL TANK

The pressed steel tanks are available in market also for different capacities of tanks.
The nominal capacity of tank depends upon the normal dimensions of the tank
i.e., size of the tank. The size of tank is specified as multiples of nominal dimensions.
The pressed mild steel tanks are made 1.25 m, 2.50 m, 3.75 m and 5 m deep. The
pressed steel tanks are not recommended for depths greater than 5 m. The nominal
capacities, typical sizes and approximate weights of type-1 tanks with open tops
for the depths mentioned above are given in Tables 7.7, 7.8, 7.9 and 7.10 as per IS:
804–1958.
7.21 STAYS IN PRESSED STEEL TANKS

The pressed steel plates are connected by bolts and nuts. The bolts are provided in
a single line. These joints do not resist the bending moment. Therefore, the sides
of tanks are supported by stays at the junctions of two or more plates. The stays
are made from mild .steel round bars or other rolled steel sections. The stays are
attached to the plates by bolting to the flanges or by mild steel cleats of equal
strength bolted to the tank plates. These stays are connected from sides to bottom
as shown in Fig. 7.11. For tanks of limited length and breadth, the stays may be
horizontal from and to end/or side to side. If the top cover acts as an effective tie,
the top horizontal stays may be omitted. The stays are designed to resist water
pressure.
Table 7.7 Nominal capacities, typical sizes and approximate weights of tanks
with external flanges
Tanks 1.25 m deep, plates 5 mm thick throughout
Nominal Number Nominal Approximate
sizes of capacity Total Approximate outside
Length × plates (litres) Weight dimensions
Breadth in tank empty
(m × m) (kN)
Length Breadth Depth
(m) (m) (m)
*1.25 × 1.25 5 1950 4.00 1.40 1.40 1.33
2.50 × 1.25 8 3900 7.00 2.65 1.40 1.33
3.75 × l.25 11 5850 9.00 3.90 1.40 1.33
5.00 × 1.25 14 7800 12.00 5.15 1.40 1.33
2.50 × 2.50 12 7800 10.00 2.65 2.65 1.33
*Thickness of plates for this tank only is 3 mm throughout.
Contd.
Table 7.7 contd.

(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
3.75 × 2.50 16 11700 13.50 3.90 2.65 1.33
5.00 × 2.50 20 15600 16.50 5.15 2.65 1.33
6.25 × 2.50 24 19500 20.50 6.40 2.65 1.33
3.75 × 3.75 21 17550 17.50 3.90 3.90 1.33
5.00 × 3.75 26 23400 22.00 5.15 3.90 1.33
7.50 × 3.75 31 29250 26.00 6.40 3.90 1.33
6.25 × 3.75 36 35100 30.50 7.65 3.90 1.33
8.75 × 3.75 41 40950 35.00 8.90 3.90 1.33
5.00 × 5.00 32 31200 27.00 5.15 5.15 1.33
6.25 × 5.00 38 39000 32.00 6.40 5.15 1.33
7.50 × 5.00 44 46800 3700 7.65 5.15 1.33
8.57 × 5.00 50 54600 42.00 8.90 5.15 1.33
10.00 × 500 56 62400 48.00 10.15 5.15 1.33
6.25 × 6.25 45 48750 38.00 6.40 6.40 1.33
7.50 × 6.25 52 58500 44.00 7.65 6.40 1.33
7.50 × 7.50 60 70200 49.50 7.65 7.65 1.33
8.75 × 8.75 77 95550 64.50 8.90 8.90 1.33
Tanks 2.50 m deep, plates 5 mm and 6.5 thick
(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
2.50 × l.25 14 7800 14.00 2.65 1.40 2.58
3.75 × 1.25 19 11700 19.00 3.90 1.40 2.58
5.00 × 1.25 24 15600 24.50 5.15 1.40 2.58
Contd.
Table 7.8 contd.

(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
2.50 × 2.50 20 15600 20.00 2.65 2.65 2.58
3.75 × 2.50 26 23400 26.50 3.90 2.65 2.58
5.00 × 2.50 32 31200 33.00 5.15 2.65 2.58
6.25 × 2.50 38 39000 39.00 6.40 2.65 2.58
3.75 × 3.75 33 35100 33.50 3.90 3.90 2.58
5.00 × 3.75 40 46800 41.00 5.15 3.90 2.58
6.25 × 3.75 47 58500 48.50 6.40 3.90 2.58
7.50 × 3.75 54 70200 55.50 7.65 3.90 2.58
8.75 × 3.75 61 81900 63.00 8.90 3.90 2.58
5.00 × 5.00 48 62400 49.50 5.15 5.15 2.58
6.25 × 5.00 56 78000 58.00 6.40 5.15 2.58
7.50 × 5.00 64 93600 67.00 7.65 5.15 2.58
8.75 × 5.00 72 109200 75.50 8.90 5.15 2.58
10.00 × 5.00 80 124800 84.50 10.15 5.15 2.58
6.25 × 6.25 65 97500 68.50 6.40 6.40 2.58
8.75 × 8.75 74 117000 77.00 7.65 6.40 2.58
7.50 × 7.50 82 140400 88.50 7.66 7.65 2.58
8.75 × 8.75 105 191100 110.00 8.90 8.90 2.58
Tanks 3.75 m deep, plates 5 mm and 6.5 mm thick
(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
3.75 × 3.75 45 52650 50.50 3.90 3.90 3.83
5.00 × 3.75 54 70200 61.00 5.15 3.90 3.83
Contd.
Table 7.9 contd.

Nominal Num- Nominal Approximate
sizes ber capacity Total Approximate outside
Length × of (litres) Weight dimensions
Breadth plates in tank empty
(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
5.00 × 5.00 64 93600 72.00 5.15 5.15 3.83
6.25 × 5.00 74 117000 84.00 6.40 5.15 3.83
6.25 × 6.25 85 146250 65.50 6.40 6.40 3.83
7.50 × 6.25 96 175500 109.00 7.65 6.40 3.83
7.50 × 7.50 108 210600 123.50 7.65 7.65 3.83
8.75 × 7.50 120 245700 136.50 8.90 7.65 3.83
8.75 × 8.75 133 286650 151.00 8.90 8.90 3.83
10.00 × 8.75 146 327600 166.00 10.15 8.90 3.83
11.25 × 8.75 159 368550 181.00 11.40 8.90 3.83
10.00 × 10.00 160 374400 182.00 10.15 10.15 3.83
11.25 × 10.00 174 421200 200.00 11.40 10.15 3.83
12.50 × 10.00 188 468000 215.00 12.65 10.15 3.83
11.25 × 11.25 189 437850 216.00 11.40 11.40 3.83
12.50 × 11.25 204 526500 233.00 12.65 11.40 3.83
12.50 × 12.50 220 585000 252.00 12.65 12.65 3.83
13.75 × 12.50 236 643500 270.00 13.90 12.65 3.83
13.75 × 13.75 253 707850 299.00 13.90 13.90 3.83
15.00 × 13.75 270 772200 309.50 15.15 13.90 3.83
15.00 × l5.00 288 842400 330.00 15.15 15.15 3.83
16.25 × 15.00 306 912600 350.00 16.40 15.15 3.83
16.25 × l6.25 325 1988650 373.00 16.40 16.40 3.83
Table 7.10 Nominal capacities, typical sizes and approximate weights of
tanks with external flanges
Tanks 5 m deep, plates 5 mm and 6.5 mm and 8 mm thick
(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
3.75 × 3.75 57 20200 71.00 3.90 3.90 5.08
5.00 × 3.75 68 93600 88.50 5.15 3.90 5.08
Contd.
Table 7.10 contd.

(m × m) (kN)
(m) (m) (m)
5.00 × 5.00 80 124800 102.50 5.15 5.15 5.08
6.25 × 5.00 92 156000 118.00 6.40 5.15 5.08
6.25 × 6.25 105 195000 135.50 6.40 6.40 5.08
7.50 × 6.25 118 234000 153.00 7.65 6.40 5.08
7.50 × 7.50 132 280800 172.00 7.65 7.65 5.08
8.75 × 7.50 146 327600 190.50 8.90 7.65 5.08
8.75 × 8.75 161 382200 210.00 8.90 8.90 5.08
10.00 × 8.75 176 436800 231.50 10.15 8.90 5.08
11.25 × 8.75 191 491400 251.00 11.40 8.90 5.08
10.00 × 10.00 192 499200 253.00 10.15 10.15 5.08
11.25 × 10.00 208 561600 274.00 1140 10.15 5.08
12.50 × 10.00 224 624400 296.00 12.65 10.15 5.08
11.25 × 11.25 225 631800 300.00 11.40 11.40 5.08
12.50 × 11.25 242 702000 321.00 12.65 11.40 5.08
12.50 × l2.50 260 780000 345.00 12.65 12.65 5.08
13.75 × 12.50 278 858000 370.00 13.90 12.65 5.08
13.75 × 13.75 297 943800 396.00 13.90 13.90 5.08
15.00 × 13.75 316 1029600 422.00 15.15 13.90 5.08
15.00 × 15.00 336 1123200 450.00 15.15 15.15 5.08
16.25 × 15.00 356 1216800 477.00 16.40 15.15 5.08
16.25 × 16.25 377 1318200 507.00 16.40 16.40 5.08
7.22 ACCESSORIES OF PRESSED STEEL TANKS

The following are the various accessories which are usually necessary for the
pressed steel tanks :
1. Tank roof. All the three types of pressed steel tanks may be with
closed top. In the case of closed top tanks, the mild-steel cover plates shall be
3 mm thick. The design and construction of the cover shall be such that the rain
water can be drained off easily. The roof covering shall be supported by rolled
steel or pressed steel bearers or trusses.
2. Manhole. In the case of closed top tanks, a manhole 470 mm in
diameter if circular or 450 mm × 450 mm if square, is provided in the tank roof
covering. The manhole provides access to the inside of the tank. In the case of
closed tanks, there shall be no opening at the junction of the top cover with the
sides which will allow mosquitoes inside the tank.
3. Vent pipe. The vent pipe may be provided if required. The vertical
vent pipe, if necessary shall be provided on the top with a flanged bend, the
mouth of the bend being fitted with a mosquito-proof netting.
4. Internal ladder. In case the depth of pressed steel tank is more than
2.5 m, a mild steel internal ladder is provided. In the case of covered tank, the
ladder shall be adjacent to the manhole. The ladder provides access to inside of
the tank.
5. Inlet pipe. A riser or inlet pipe is provided in the pressed steel tank. The
inlet pipe is arranged so as to minimize the vibrations.
6. Pipe connections. Pads for connection, tapped bosses, screwed flanges
or stockets as required should be welded to the inside or outside or bolted to the
tank plate. Pads shall be machined over full width of the face and drilled and/or
tapped to suit flanges. Single pads shall be provided for connections on one side of
the plate and double pads for connections on both sides of the plates. The connection
shall be so proportioned to avoid embossment of the plate.
7. Overflow. A bell mouth type overflow pipe shall be provided through the
bottom of the tank.
All parts of steel tanks are finished with two coats of suitable anti-corrosive
paint. The paint shall be suitable for storage of the water or liquid for which the
tank is intended.
7.23 STAGING FOR PRESSED STEEL TANKS

The number of columns in the staging or towers supporting the pressed steel
tanks depends upon size of the tank. In case the size of tank is small, then the
tank is supported on a tower consisting of four columns. In case the size of tank is
large, then the tank is supported on number of towers as shown in Fig. 7.14. Each
tower consists of four columns. The towers are subjected to self-weight of tank,
weight of contents in the tank and the wind pressure. The columns of towers are
braced in the vertical plane and also in the horizontal planes in order to resist
wind pressure. In general cross-diagonal bracings are provided.

The permissible stresses as given in IS: 800–1984 are considered as the basic
stresses for the purpose of design of tanks. The inner faces of steel plates of tank
remain in contact with water. These plates are more susceptible to corrosion.
Therefore, the permissible stresses for steel tank plates as recommended in IS :
800–1984 are reduced by multiplying by 0.8. The permissible stresses in steel
plates in contact with water are given in Table 7.11.
Table 7.11 Permissible stresses in water tanks
Type of stress Stress (N/mm 2)
1. Direct tension 0.8 × 0.6 fy = 0.48 fy
2. Bending tension and bending 0.8 × 0.66 fy = 0.528 fy
compression in plates
3. All other stresses (rivets) 0.8 times those specified in IS: 800
P re sse d stee l tan k
B e am s B e am s
Tow e r Tow e r
W ind b racin g
W ind b racin g
C o lu m n s
C o lu m n s
(a ) E levatio n
W ind b racin g in
h orizo ntal plan e
(b ) P lan
Fig. 7.14
Example 7.1 Design an overhead riveted steel rectangular flat bottom tank of
capacity 70000 litres. The available width of plates is 1.22 m and lengths upto
6.1 m.
The staging consists of 4 columns, spaced 4.88 m × 3.66 m and the bottom of
the tank is 9.14 m above the ground level. Design also the supporting beams.
Show by a neat sketch the tank with the staging indicating a suitable arrangement
of the braces you will propose.
Solution
Design :
Step 1. Capacity of tank = 70000 litres
= 70000 × l03 × l03 mm3
= 70 m3
Assume normal depth of water in the tank = 2.35 m
⎛ 70 ⎞
Area of bottom of the tank = ⎜ ⎟ = 29.787 m2
⎝ 2.35 ⎠
The length of tank is adopted as 6.90 m. This length is provided by 5 plates each
1.22 m, in width and 0.40 m overhangs on both sides as shown in Fig. 7.15.
2 .50 m
1 .01 m 4 .88 m 1 .01 m
IS L B 45 0 IS L B 32 5
@ 6 5-3 kg/m @ 4 3.1 kg/m
9 .14 m
6 .90 m
0 .40 m
1 mm 1 .22 m
a
3 .66 m
4 .46 m 1 .22 m
b
1 .22 m
0 .40 m
0 .44 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
1 .22 m
0.4 0 m
Fig. 7.15
∴ Width of tank required
⎛ 29.787 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4.317 m
⎝ 6.90 ⎠
Provide 4.46 m width. This width is provided by 3 spacings between four
longitudinal beams @ 1.22 m and 0.40 m overhangs on both sides as shown in
Fig. 7.15.
∴ Capacity of tank = (6.90 × 4.46 × 2.35) = 72.30 m3 > 79 m3
Allow a free board of 150 mm.
∴ Overall height of tank = (1.35 + 0.15) = 2.50 m
∴ Size of tank = (6.90 m × 4.46 m × 250 m)
The length of bottom plates is available upto 6.10 m. The length provides the
width of bottom of the tank. The remaining length is bent on both sides which
forms but joints in the vertical sides at 0.82 m height.
Ste 2. Thickness of plates
Consider 1 mm width of the plate in the bottom of tank as shown in Fig. 7.15.
The plates are assumed simply supported at the joint. The unit weight of water is
10 × 10–6 N/mm3.
Span of the plate = 1.22 m
The tank is assumed full including the free board
Height of water column = 2.50 m
Weight of water column acting on this strip of 1 mm width
= (l0 × 10–6 × 2500 × 1220 × 1) = 30.50 N
1
The self-weight of the plate may be assumed as th of weight of water column.
2
∴ Self-weight of the plate
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 30.50 ⎟ = 1.525 N
⎝ 20 ⎠
Total weight acting on 1 mm width of the strip
= (30.50 +1.525) = 32.025 N
⎛ 32.045 × 1110 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4883.l N-mm
⎝ 8 ⎠
Allowable stress in bending in plate is 0.8 × (0.66 × 250) N/mm2.
Section modulus required
⎛ 4883.8 ⎞
Z = ⎜ ⎟ = 36.991 mm
3
⎝ 0.8×165 ⎠
Let the thickncss of plate be t mm
∴ Section modulus of the plate
⎛1 2⎞
⎜ × 1 × t ⎟ = 36.998
⎝ 6 ⎠
t = 14.9 mm
Provide 16 mm thick plates. The side plates are also kept 16 mm thick.
Step 3. Tee-covers
The tee-sections are used in the inner side of the tank to cover the joints of the
bottom plates. The flat strips are provided on the outer side to cover all these
joints. The tee-sections support the weight of water column over it, the weight of
plates and the self weight.
Consider the tee-section, ab as shown in Fig. 7.15.
Span = 1.22 mm
Width of water column = 1.22 m
Height of water column = 2.50 m
∴ Weight of water column
⎛ 2500 × 1220 × 1220 ⎞
= ⎜10 × 10−6 × ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠
= 37.210 kN
From ISI Handbook No. 1 weight of plates, 16 mm thick and 1.22 m × 1.22 m size
⎛ 16 ⎞
= ⎜ 79 × × 1.22 × 1.22 ⎟ = 1.88 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Self-weight of tee-section ISNT 100. @ 150 N/m as shown in Fig. 7.17
= (0.150 × 1.22) = 0.183 kN
Weight of the flat strip
⎛ 100 10 ⎞
= ⎜ 79 × 1.22 × × ⎟ kN
⎝ 1000 1000 ⎠
= 0.096 kN
Total weight
= (37.210 + 1.88 + 0.183 + 0.096) kN
= 39.37 kN
⎛ 39.37 × 1.22 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4.803 kN-m
⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 4.803 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
Z1 = ⎜ 3
⎟ = 36.386 ×10 mm
3
⎝ 0.8 × 165 ⎠
The tee-sections, outer flat strip and portion of bottom plates of the tank are
considered as effective for resisting this bending moment. Let 16 mm diameter
rivets be used for connections. The c.g. of combined section after deducting two
rivet holes lies at a distance y from bottom as shown in Fig. 7.16.
⎡19.10(2.79 + 1.6 + 1) + 1.6 × 10 × 1.8 ⎤

⎢ 3.6 ⎥ × 100 × 10
⎢ + 10 × 1 × 0.5 − 2 × 1.75 × 3.6 × ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
y =
[19.10 + 16 + 10 − 12.6] × 100
= 30.8 mm
The moment of inertia of the built-up section about XX-axis
Ixx = [173.8 + 19.10(2.79.+ 1 + 1.6 – 3.08)2 + 10
1
× 2.6 × (3.08 – 1.3)2 + 10 × (2.6)3] × 104
2
= 421.74 × l04 mm4
The section modulus of the built-up section excluding rivet holes
⎛ 4 ⎞
Z1´ = ⎜ 421.74 × 10 3
⎟ = 43.3 ×10 mm
3
⎝ 126 − 30.8 ⎠
10 m m
9 5..2 m m 1 00 m m
10 m m
y = 30 .8 m m 16 m m
10 m m
1 00 m m
Fig. 7.16
The section modulus provided is greater than that required. Hence, safe.
Maximum shear force
⎛ 39.70 ⎞
F = ⎜ ⎟ = 19.85 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
F ⋅ Ay
Horizontal shear per mm is
I
⎡19.85 × 100(10 + 16)(30.8 − 13) ⎤

⎢= ⎥ kN/mm
⎣ 421.74 × 104 ⎦
= 0.2178 kN/mm
Strength of 16 mm diameter rivet in single shear
⎛π 100 ⎞
= ⎜ × (17.5)2 × 0.8 × ⎟ = 19.23 kN
⎝4 1000 ⎠
Two rivets are provided in a row
∴ Pitch of rivets
⎛ 2 × 19.23 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 176.58 mm
⎝ 0.2178 ⎠
The spacing of rivets along the caulked edges of plates should not be greater
than 10 times the thickness of plate. Therefore, the rivets are provided at 100 mm
pitch.
Step 4. Stays
The stays are provided at 1.22 m centre to centre in the longitudinal direction
and 1.22 m centre to centre in the transverse directions. The stays are connected
T
h 2 .50 m
S ta y
P
h = 2 .50
3 3 m
wh x1 W a te r
x3 p ressure
x2
O verh an g
Fig. 7.17
with the tee-sections which act as stiffeners. The stays are provided at the middle
height of the tank. The stays resist the water pressure and weight of overhanging
portion of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.17.
The water pressure (unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3)
⎛1 ⎞
P = ⎜ × 10 × 2.50 × 2.50 × 1.22 ⎟ = 38.13 kN
⎝2 ⎠
This water pressure acts at one-third height from the bottom.
Weight of water column
W1 = (10 × 0.40 × 1.22 × 2.50) = 12.2 kN
This acts at x1 = 0.20 m from point of contact with the beam

Weight of the side plates
⎛ 79 × 2.50 × 1.22 × 16 ⎞
W2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 3.855 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
This acts at x2 = 0.40 in from point of contact with the beam
Weight of bottom plates
⎛ 79 × 1.22 × 0.40 × 16 ⎞
W3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.617 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
This acts at about x3 = 0.250 m from point of contact with the beam.
Take moment of all these forces about the point of contact with the beam as
shown in Fig. 7.17.
2.50 ⎡ 1.50 ⎤
T× = ⎢38.13 × + 12.20 × 0.20 + 3.85 × 0.40 + 0.617 × 0.25 ⎥
2 ⎣ 3 ⎦
∴ T = 28.73 kN
It is to note that the tension in stay and water pressure are the horizontal
forces, and both these forces are not equal. The difference between these forces is
resisted by the plates.
Allowable stress in direct tension is 0.8 × (0.6fy) N/mm2
Cross-sectional area required
⎡ 28.70 × 1000 ⎤
= ⎢ 0.8 × (0.6 × 250) ⎥ = 239.42 mm
2
⎣ ⎦
Provide 45 mm wide × 10 mm thick flat strips. The longitudinal stays also rest
on these transverse stays.
Step 5. Longitudinal beams
The rectangular steel tank is supported on four longitudinal beams as shown
in Fig. 7.15. The longitudinal beams are kept 1.22 mm centre to centre. The
longitudinal beams rest on transverse beams spaced at 4.88 m as shown in Fig.
7.15. The tee-sections transmit the load to the longitudinal beams. The load
transmitted to each intermediate longitudinal beam is shown in Fig. 7.18.
W2 W1 W1 W1 W1 W2
0 .40 0 .40
1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m
0 .61 0 .61 0 .61 0 .61

4 .88 m
1 .01 m 1 .01 m
Fig. 7.18
Load transmitted by each intermediate tee-section

W1 = 39.37 kN
The load transmitted by each end tee-section consists of weight of water column,
weight of vertical plate, weight of the bottom plate, and its self-weight.
∴ End panel load,
1.01
W 2 = (10 × 2.50 × 1.22 × 1.01 + 38.55 + 0.617 × + 0.279) Ω 36.50 kN
040
Self weight of beam is assumed as 0.50 kN/m and this weight acts as uniformly
distributed load. The beam is symmetrically loaded.
∴ Reaction due to superimposed load
= (36.50 + 2 × 39.37) = 115.24 kN
Reaction due to self-weight
= 0.50 × (1.01 + 2.44) = 1.725 kN
Maximum bending moment due to superimposed load occurs at the centre
= [115.10 × 2.44 – 36.50 × 3.05 – 39.37 × (1.22 + 0.61) – 39.37 × 0.6l] kN-m
= 73.21 kN-m
Maximum bending moment due to self-weight of the beam at the centre
= [1.725 × 2.44 – 0.50 × 3.35 × 3.45/2]
= 1.233 kN-m
The total bending moment at the centre
= (73.21+ 1.233) = 74.44 kN-m
⎛ 74.44 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ mm
3
⎝ 0.66 × 250 ⎠
= 451.15 × l03 mm3
Provide ISLB 350 @ 495 N/m for intermediate and also for end beams. Section
modulus provided
= 751.9 × 103 mm3 > needed. Hence, safe.
Step 6. Transverse beams
The transverse beams support longitudinal beams. These beams are supported
on columns as shown in Fig. 7.19.
Load transmitted by intermediate longitudinal beams (Fig.7.19)
W = (115.10 + 1.725) =116.825 kN
Ω 117 kN
It is assumed that the load transmitted by end beam is also 117 kN.
Self-weight of beam (assumed)
w = 1 kN/m
Maximum bending moment occurs at the centre
⎛ ( )⎞
= ⎜117.00 + 1.22 + 1 × 3.66 × 3.66 ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠
= 144.414 kN-m
W W W W
1 .22 m 1 .22 m 1 .22 m
W
3 .66 m
Fig. 7.19
Section-modulus required
⎛ 144.414 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.66 × 250 ⎠
3
= 875.236 × 10 mm 3
Provide ISMB 450, @ 724 kN/m

Section modulus provided 1350.7 ×103 mm3 is greater than needed.
Hence, safe.
The tank is shown in Fig. 7.15 with proposed lateral bracing for the staging.
Example 7.2 Design an elevated steel tank, circular in shape for 2,00,000
litres capacity with circular girder supported on suitable number of columns.
The shape of bottom may be assumed suitably. The roof covering and staging for
the tank need not be designed.
Solution
Design :
Step 1.
Capacity of tank = 2,00,000 litres
⎡ (200 × 103 ) × 106 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ = 200 m3
⎣ 109 ⎦
The circular tank with hemispherical bottom, as shown in Fig. 7.20, is provided.
The height of tank is assumed as 0.80 times the diameter of the tank.
⎡π 3 1 4 ⎛d⎞ ⎤
3
Capacity of tank = ⎢ × d × (0.8d ) + × × π ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣4 2 3 ⎝2⎠ ⎦
π 3
= 0.2 πd3 + d = 0.283 πd3
12
∴ 0.2837πd3 = 200 m2, d = 608 m, say d = 6.10 m
Height of cylindrical shell of the tank
= 0.80 × 6.10 = 4.88 m
Step 2. Thickness of plates
The stress in the plates (hoop stress) in cylindrical shell from Eq. 7.6.
5h ⋅ d
σ = N/mm2
t
Let the efficiency of riveted joint be 70 percent. Then thickness of plate
⎛ 5h ⋅ d ⎞
t = ⎜
⎝ n ⋅ σ ⎟⎠
Allowable stress in tension in the plates is 0.8 × (0.60 × 250) N/mm2
⎛ 5 × 4.88 × 6.10 ⎞
∴ t = ⎜⎝ 0.70 × (0.6 × 250) × 0.8 ⎟⎠ = 1.772 mm
The thickness of plates should not be less than 6 mm.

∴ Provide 6 mm thick plates in the cylindrical shell of the tank.
The stress in the plates (stress in the radial joint of hemispherical bottom from
Eq. 7.10,
5h ⋅ r
T2´ = N/mm2
t
The efficiency of the joint is assumed as 70 percent. The maximum stress in the
radial joint of the hemispherical bottom occurs at the lowest bottom point.
C o nica l roo f
6 .10 m
C ylind rical she ll 4 .88 m

th ickne ss o f p la te s 6 m m
1 .5 m 1 .5 m
Fig. 7.20
⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ h = ⎜ 4.88 + × 6.10⎟ = 7.93 m
⎝ 2 ⎠
1
r = × 6.10 m
2
Thickness of bottom plates
⎡ 5 × 7.93 × 6.10 ⎤
t = ⎢ 0.8 × (0.6 × 250) × 0.70 × 2 ⎥ = 1. 44 mm
⎣ ⎦
Provide 16 mm thick plates in the hemispherical bottom of the tank.
Step 3. Riveted connections
Hoop stress in the vertical joint of cylindrical shell of the tank, from Eq. 7.6
5h ⋅ d
σ = N/mm2
t
The stress per linear vertical 1 mm of the plate
sh ⋅ d
F1 = (t ) = 5h ⋅ d N/mm
t
= (5 × 4.88 × 6.10) = 148.84 N/mm
Provide 16 mm diameter rivets for 6 mm thickness of the plate.
⎡ π (17.5)2 × 0.8 × 100 ⎤
=⎢ × ⎥ = 19.23 kN
⎣4 1000 ⎦
Strength of rivet in bearing on 6 mm thickness
⎡ 6 × 0.8 × 300 ⎤
= ⎢⎣17.5 × ⎥⎦ = 25.2 kN
1000
∴ Riveted value, R = 19.23 kN
Provide double riveted lap joint. There are two rivets.
⎛ 2 × 19.23 × 1000 ⎞
Pitch of rivets = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 258 mm
148.14
The spacing between the rivets along the caulked edges of the plates should not
be greater than 10 times the thickness of plates i.e., 10 × 6 = 60 mm. Provide 16
mm diameter, two rivets in a row and at 60 mm spacing. Provide double riveted
lap joint for horizontal joint. Provide rivets at 60 mm spacing.
The stress in the radial joint per 1 mm of the circumference (hoop stress) of the
hemispherical bottom, Eq. 7.9
⎛ 6.10 ⎞ 6.10
= 5 × h × r = 5 × ⎜ 4.88 +
⎝ ⎟× N/mm
2 ⎠ 2
= 120.93 N/mm < 148.84 N/mm
∴ Provide 16 mm diameter rivets at 60 mm spacing.
Step 4. Riveted connections between sides and bottom plates
There are no inclined or compressive stresses in a hemispherical bottom of the
tank. Therefore, the horizontal connection between the side and bottom plate is
also provided as double riveted lap joint with 16 mm diameter rivets at 60 mm

spacing.
Step 5. Circular girder
The circular girder is supported on six columns.
Weight of water, (when the tank is full of water). (w = 10 kN/m3)
= 10 × 200 = 2000 kN
Self-weight of tank
⎡ 6 ⎛ 6.10 ⎞
2
6 ⎤
= ⎢ π × 6.20 × 4.88 × + 2π × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎥ × 79 = 72 kN
⎣ 1000 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 1000 ⎦
The thickness of plates in conical roof may be adopted as 5 mm. The pitch of
conical roof is kept 1 in 4.
∴ Height of conical roof
6.10
= = 1.525 m
4
∴ Weight of conical roof
1/2
π ⎡ 2 ⎤ 5
= × 6.10 × ⎢⎜⎛ 6.10 ⎟⎞ = (1.525)2 ⎥ × × 79 = 12.90 kN
2 ⎝
⎣ 2 ⎠ ⎦ 1000
Weight of tank and conical roof is increased by 20 percent for rivet and overlap.
∴ Weight of tank and conical roof
= l.20 × (72 + 12.90) = 101.88 kN
Assume self-weight of circular girder = 1.60 kN/m
∴ Weight of circular girder
1.60 × π × 6.10 = 30.646 kN
Total weight acting on the girder
W = (2000 + 101.88 + 30.646) = 2132.53 kN
When the circular girder is supported on six columns, then the maximum
bending moment (hogging) occurs at the supports.
= – 0.01482 WR
⎛ 6.10 ⎞
= – ⎜ 0.01482 × 2132.53 × ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= – 96.39 kN-m
Maximum torsion occurs at a point 12°44´ from supports.
Maximum torsion
= 0.00151 WR
⎛ 6.10 ⎞
= ⎜ 0.00151 × 2132.53 × ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 9.82 kN-m
Maximum shear force in the circular girder

⎛ 2132.53 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 177.71 kN
6×2 ⎠
Maximum allowable stress in the bending is
= 0.8 × (0.66 × 250) N/mm2
⎡ 96.39 × 106 ⎤
⎢ = ⎥ = 73022 × l03 mm3
⎣ 0.8 × (0.66 × 250) ⎦
The section of circular girder consists of l.50 m of plate of the cylindrical
shell of the circular tank and 2 ISA 200 mm × 200 mm × 25 mm.
1
Torsional constant = ∑ b ⋅ t 3
3
⎡1 (200 − 25) ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
= 2 ⎢ × 200 × (25)3 + × (25)3 ⎥ + ⎢ × 1500 × (6)3 ⎥ = 412.22 × l04 mm4
⎣2 3 ⎦ ⎣3 ⎦
The section of circular girder adopted is shown in Fig. 7.21.
IS A 2 00 x 2 00 m m 5 8.8
x 25 m m mm
0 .75 m
C ircu la r g ird er 1 .50

X X
m
Tan k plate
6 mm
31 m m
0 .75 m
5 8.8 IS A 2 00 m m x
mm 2 00 m m x 25 m m
Fig. 7.21
Shear stress due to torsion

T 9.82 × 106
q= ⋅ tmax = × (25 + 6) = 73.85 N/mm2
K 412.22 × 104
The cross-sectional area of circular girder
= (2 × 9380 + 1500 × 6) = 27760 mm2
Shear stress due to shear force
⎛ 177.71 × 1000 ⎞
t v.cal = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 6.4 N/mm
2
⎝ 27760
Total shear stress
= (73.85 + 6.4) = 80.25 N/mm2
< 100 N/mm2. Hence safe.
Moment of inertia of the section
⎡1 ⎤
I = ⎢ × 0.6 × (150)3 + 2 × 243.3 + 2 × 93.8 (75 − 5.88)2 ⎥ ×104 mm4
⎣12 ⎦
= 1053486.6 ×104 mm4
Section modulus of the section
⎛ 4⎞
Z = ⎜ 1053486.6 × 10 ⎟ = 14046.5 × 103 mm3
⎝ 750 ⎠
> Section modulus required. Hence, safe.
Bendings stress
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 93.39 × 106 ⎞
σbt = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ = 6.65 N/mm3
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ 14046.5 × 103 ⎟⎠
Hoop stress
⎛ 5h ⋅ d ⎞
σ = ⎜ N/mm2
⎝ t ⋅ η ⎟⎠
⎛ 5 × 4.88 × 6.10 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 35.44 N/mm2
⎝ 6 × 0.70 ⎠
∴ σ + σbt + = (35.44 + 6.65) = 42.09 N/mm2
Total shear stress = 80.25 N/mm2
Principal stress
1/2
42.09 ⎡⎛ 42.09 ⎞ 2 ⎤
σ1 = + ⎢⎜ ⎟ + (80.25)2 ⎥
9 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
= 104.04 N/mm2 < 0.8 × 150 N/mm2
(Allowable stress in tension in the plate). Hence, safe.
The circular girder provided is shown in Fig. 7.20 along with circular tank.
It is to note that if eight number of columns would have been provided, then
magnitude of torsion would have been less. Then, light angle sections would have
also sufficed.
Example 7.3 An elevated rectangular steel water tank, open at top is required
to have a capacity of 90,000 litres with a free board of not less than 150 mm. The
bottom of the tank is at 10 m above ground level. Using 1.25 m × 1.25 m standard
pressed steel plates and suitable allowable stresses, design the tank, its stays and
supporting beams.
Solution
Design: Step 1. Capacity ot pressed steel tank
= 90,000 litres = 90,000 × 103 × 103 mm3 = 90 m3
Let the overall height of the tank be 2.50 m
Free board provided = 0.15 m

∴ Height of water level in the tank = (2.50 – 0.15) = 2.35 m
⎛ 90 ⎞
Area of base of the tank = ⎜ = 38.3 m3
⎝ 2.35 ⎟⎠
Provide 6.25 m × 6.25 m × 2.50 m pressed steel tank. The arrangement of
standard 1.25 m pressed steel plates is shown in Fig. 7.22.
6 .25 m x 6 .25 m x 2 .5 m ta nk
1 .25 m
2 .50 m
1 .25 m
1 .25 1 .25 1 .25 1 .25 1 .25

m m m m m
10 m
3 .75 m
Fig. 7.22
Capacity of the tank provided

= (6.25 × 6.25 × 2.35) = 91.5 m2 > 90 m3. Hence, safe.
From IS : 804–1958
Thickness of bottom plates = 6.5 mm
Thickness of first tier of side plates = 6.5 mm
Thickness of top tier of side plates = 50 mm.
Step 2. Stays
The general arrangement of stays provided is shown in Fig. 7.23. The tank is
assumed full of water including the free board.
D ia g on al stay a t
m id dle joint
1 .25 m
2 .50 m
1 .25 m
4 5° 4 5° 4 5° 4 5°
(E leva tio n)
D ia g on al stay a t
e ach jo in t
C1 C1
L6 L6
1 .25 m
L5 L5
1 .25 m
L4 L4
6.2 5 m
D ia g on al stays 1 .25 m
L3 L3
1 .25 m
L2 L2
1 .25 m
L1 L1
1.2 5 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m
C1 C1
6 .25 m
(P lan )
Fig. 7.23
Consider top 1.25 m height of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.24 (a). Water pressure,
P1= ( 12 × wh × h × 1.25) kN, (w = 10 kN/m3)
P1 = ( 12 × 10 × 1.25 × 1.25 × 1.25) = 9.765 kN.

Let the horizontal component of force in the top stay be T1. Take moment about
point X. Since, the joint cannot take any bending moment, the bending moment
about point X is zero
⎛ 9.766 × 1.25 ⎞
1.25 × T1 = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 3
∴ T1 = 3.255 kN
The inclination of stays with the horizontal is 45°.
∴ Force in top stay.
F1 = T1 sec 45° = 3.255 2 = 4.60 kN
Consider 2.50 m height of the tank as shown in Fig. 7.24 (b).
1
Water pressure P2 = 2
× wh × h × 1.25 kN, (w = 10 kN/m3)
P3 = ( 12 × 10 × 2.50 × 2.50 × 1.25) = 39.06 kN

Let the horizontal component of force in the bottom stay be T2. Since the joint
cannot take any bending moment, the bending moment about X1 is zero. Take
moment about X1 .
⎛ 39.06 × 2.50 ⎞
3.255 × 2.50 + T2 × 1.25 = ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 3
∴ T2 = 19.53 kN
∴ Force in the bottom stay
F2 = 19.53 sec 45° = 19.53 × 2 = 27.618 kN
Allowable stress in axial tension is 0.8 × (0.60 × 250) N/mm2
Net area required for top stay
⎛ 4.60 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ = 38.33 mm2
⎝ 0.8 × 0.60 × 250 ⎟⎠
Net area required for bottom stay
⎛ 27.618 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ = 230.15 mm2
⎝ 0.8 × 0.60 × 250 ⎟⎠
Provide 40 mm wide × 6 mm thick mild steel flats for top stays and 60 mm wide
× 6 mm thick mild steel flats for bottom stays. The stays are connected to cleat
angles by 16 mm diameter rivets.
Net area provided by top stay
(40 –17.5) × 6 = 135 mm2 > 38.33 mm2. Hence, safe.
Net area provided by bottom stay

= (60 – 17.5) × 6 = 255 mm2 230.5 mm2. Hence, safe.
The horizontal stays are also provided at the top of tank to connect the vertical
side plates as shown in Fig. 7.23.
Supporting beams
The pressed steel tank is supported on six longitudinal beams L1L1 . L2L2,
L3L3, L4L4, L5L5 and L6L6. These beams are supported by two transverse or cross
beams C1C1 and C2C2. The cross-beams are supported by the columns.
T1
S tay
T2
T1 P2
1 .25 m P1
1 2 .50 m 2 .50 m
× 1.25 m 3 3
3
wh wh
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.24
The stays connecting bottom plates and the vertical side plates are inclined 45°
with the horizontal. The stays carry tension. The vertical components of stays act
upward at the bottom and downward at the sides. The longitudinal beams resist the
weight of water, weight of tank, and the vertical components of the stays. The
beams are also designed to take the weight of water in the tank when the tank is full
of water including free board. Weight of water (including free board), (w = 10 kN/m2)
= (l0 × 2.5 × 6.25) = 976.56 kN
From IS : 804–1958
Weight of empty lank = 68.500 kN
Total weight = 1045.06 kN
Weight on intermediate longitudinal beams
⎛ 1045.06 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 209.01 kN
⎝ 5
Weight on end longitudinal beams
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 209.01⎟ = 104.51 kN
⎝2 ⎠
Vertical component of force in top stay (Figs. 7.25, 7.26)
1
V1 = 4.60 cos 45° = 4.60 × = 3.25 kN
2
Vertical component of force in bottom stay
1
V2 = 27.68 cos 45° = 27.60 × = 19.53 kN
2
Step 3. Longitudinal beams L3L3 and L4L4
Weight of water + tank on each beam is 209.01 kN
Assume self-weight = 4.3 kN
Total weight W = 213.31 kN
L3 L 3
The forces acting on intermediate beam are shown in Fig. 7.25.
L 4 L4
V1 V1 V1 V1
V2 V2 V1 V1 V2 V2
1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m
W
1 .25 m 3 .75 m 1 .25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.25
Reaction at support (Fig. 7.28)

R = 12 [213.31 + 2(19.53 + 3.25) – 2 ×1953 – 4 × 3.25] = 103.41 kN
Bending moment at the support
⎡ 213.31 1.252 ⎤
= ⎢(19.53 + 3.25) × 1.25 = × ⎥
⎣ 6.25 2 ⎦
= 55.14 kN-m (Hogging)
Bending moment at the centre
⎡ 6.25 1 ⎛ 213.31 ⎞ ⎛ 6.25 ⎞
2
⎛ 103.41 × 3.75 ⎞ ⎤
⎢(19.53 + 3.25) × + ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ –⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥
2 2 ⎝ 6.25 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2
= ⎢ ⎥ kN-m
⎢ ⎛ 19.53 × 3.75 ⎞ ⎛ 2 × 3.25 × 1.25 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ −⎜ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 2 ⎦⎥
= 3.26 kN-m (Hogging).
L2 L 2
The forces acting on intermediate beam are as shown in Fig. 7.26.
L 5 L5
Reaction at support
⎡ (213.31 + 2 × 19.53 − 6 × 19.53) ⎤

R2 = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2
= 67.60 kN (Fig. 7.28)
⎡ 213.31 1.252 ⎤
= ⎢19.53 × 1.25 + × ⎥
⎣ 6.25 2 ⎦
V2 V2
V2 V2 V2 V2 V2 V2
1 25 m 1 25 m 1 25 m 1 25 m 1 25 m
W
1 25 m 3 .75 m 1 25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.26

⎡19.53 × 6.25 1 ⎛ 213.31 ⎞ ⎛ 6.25 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 12.53 × 3.75 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ + ⋅+⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ −2×⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥
2 2 ⎝ 6.25 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2
= ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎛ 19.53 × 1.25 ⎞ ⎛ 67.60 × 3.75 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ −⎜ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 2 ⎦⎥
Weight of water + tank on each beam
= 104.51 kN
Assume self-weight = 4.65 kN
Total weight = 1091.6 kN
L1 L1
The forces acting on end beam are shown in Fig. 7.27.
L6 L6
V1 V1
V2 V2 V2 V2
1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m
W
1 .25 m 3 .75 m 1 .25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.27
Reaction at support
⎡109.16 + 2 × 19.53 + 2(19.53 + 3.25) ⎤
R1 = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2
= 96.89 kN (Fig. 7.28)
⎛ 109.16 1.252 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ × ⎟ = 13.645 kN-m
6.25 2 ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎛ 109.16 6.25 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 19.53 × 3.75 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ×⎜ × ⎟ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎝ 6.25 2 ⎠ 2 ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
⎛ 96.89 × 3.75 ⎞ 1.25
⎢− ⎜ ⎟⎠ + (19.53 + 3.25) × ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 2 ⎦⎥
= – 45.53 kN-m (Sagging)
Maximum bending moment out of all these longitudinal beams

= 55.14 kN-m
These beams are laterally unsupported. Assume allowable bending stress in
compression = 90 N/mm2
⎛ 55.14 × 106 ⎞
= ⎜ 3
⎟⎠ = 612.66 ×10 mm
3
⎝ 90
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISMB 350 @ 4.95 kN/m
Zx x = 751.9 × l03 > mm3 > 612.66 × l03 mm3
For 3.75 m span, the allowable stress in bending in compression would be even
more. Hence, safe.
Step 6. Cross-beams ClCl and C2C2
The forces acting on each cross-beam would be reaction from the longitudinal
C1C1
beams and the self-weight. The forces acting on cross-beam are shown in
C2C2
Fig. 7.28.
R R
R2 R1 R2 R1
1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m 1 .25 m
W kN /m
1 .25 m 3 .75 m 1 .25 m
6 .25 m
Fig. 7.28
The self-weight of beam is assumed as 1.00 kN/m

Reaction at support
⎛ 2 × 96.89 + 2 + 67.60 + 2 × 103.41 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 267.90 kN
⎛ 1.25 ⎞
= ⎜ 96.89 × 1.25 + 1.00 × 1.25 × ⎟ kN-m
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 121.89 kN-m
⎛ 6.25 ⎛ 3.75 ⎞ ⎛ 103.41 × 1.25 ⎞ ⎞

= ⎜ 96.89 × + ⎜ 67.60 × ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
⎜ 1.00 6.25 6.25 3.75 ⎟
⎜ + × × × 267.90 × ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 2 ⎠
= – 3.267 kN-m (Sagging)
= 121.89 kN-m
The cross-beams are also laterally unsupported. Assume allowable bending stress
in compression as 94 N/mm2
⎛ 6 ⎞
= ⎜ 12189 × 10 ⎟ = 1296.7 × 103 mm3
⎝ 94 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISMB, 450 @ 7.24 kN/m
Zx x = 1350.7 × 103 mm3
For 3.75 m effective span, the allowable stress in bending in compression would
be even more. Hence, safe.
It is to note that the design of staging (i.e., columns and bracings) for pressed
steel tank is similar to that for ordinary rectangular steel tank.
Example 7.4 Design the staging for the rectangular steel tank of Example 7.1.
Take intensity of wind pressure as 1.50 kN/m.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. From Example 7.1. The staging consists of 4 columns, spaced 4.88 m ×
3.66 m. The bottom of tank is 9.14 m above ground level. The columns are divided
into three number of panels. The diagonal bracings are provided in the vertical
plane and also in the horizontal plane at the panel points.
Intensity of wind pressure = 1.50 kN/m2
It is assumed that the wind acts perpendicular to the longer side of the
rectangular tank.
Step 2. From Example 7.1.

Length of longer side of the tank = 6.90 m
ISLB 350 @ 4.95 kN/m are used as longitudinal beams, and ISMB 450, @ 7.24
kN/m are used as transverse beams. The depth of steel tank is 2.50 m. The depth
of tank and beams is assumed as 3 m for determining the wind pressure.
Wind pressure on tank and beams (Fig. 7.30)
P1 = (l.50 × 3 × 6.90) = 31.05 kN
This wind pressure acts at (8.365 + 1.5) = 8.865 m from the ground level.
Total height of column
= (9.14 – 0.325 – 0.450) = 8.365 m
Centre to centre distance between columns parallel to longer side = 4.88 m
Area of one face of the staging
= 8.365 × 4.88 = 41.5 m2
The exposed area of columns and bracings is assumed as 20 percent of the area
of face of staging.
∴ Exposed area of columns and bracings
⎛ 20 × 41.5 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 8.30 m
3
⎝ 100 ⎠
Wind pressure on staging, (Fig. 7.30)
P = 1.50 × 8.30 = 12.45 kN
⎛ 8.365 ⎞
The wind pressure acts at ⎜ ⎟ = 4.182 m above the ground level.
⎝ 2 ⎠
Take moment above the base of the columns.
∴Overturning moment due to wind about the base
⎛ 8.36 ⎞
Mw = ⎜ 31.05 × 8.865 + 12.45 × ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 327.23 kN-m
Figure 7.29 shows the plan of columns at the base.
The line YY represents line of rotation. The line of rotation YY is perpendicular
to the direction of wind and it passes through the c.g. of base. The columns 2 and
3 are subjected to thrust and columns 1 and 4 are subjected to uplift. All these
columns are at equal distance from the line of rotation. Therefore, the forces in
these columns are equal. The thrust in column 2 and 3 and uplift in columns 1
and 4 are equal and act in opposite directions, and provide a resisting couple. The
resisting couple is equal to overturning moment
∴ 2R × 3.66 = Mw
where, R = Axial force in each columns due to wind
⎛ 327.33 ⎞
∴ R = ⎜ ⎟ = 44.72 kN
⎝ 2 × 3.66 ⎠
Y
1 2
C
4 .88 m
O
D irectio n of
w in d
4 3
Y
3 .66 m
Fig. 7.29
The axial load on each column due to weight of tank and water and the self-
weight of beams is equal to reaction at the end of each transverse beam.
Step 3. From Example 7.1
Reaction at the end of transverse beam
⎛ 1.00 × 3.66 ⎞
= ⎜ 2 × 117.00 + ⎟ = 235.83 kN
⎝ 6 ⎠
When the effect of wind load is taken into account, the permissible stresses are
exceeded by 33 12 percent.
The axial load in column due to wind is less than one-third the axial load in the
column due to weight of water and tank. Therefore, the columns are designed for
weight of water and tank, weight of beams, and self-weight of column.
∴ Axial load on column (assumed) = 8.17 kN
Self-weight of column (assumed) = 8.17 kN
∴Total load = 244.00 kN
8.365
Length of one panel = = 2.788 m
3
∴ Effective length of column = 2.788 m
Assume allowable stress in axial compression = 100 N/mm2
⎛ 244.00 × 1000 ⎞
∴ Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 2440 mm
2
⎝ 100 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. l, select ISHB 150, @ 271 N/m
Sectional area = 3448 mm2

Minimum radius of gyration = 35.4 mm
∴ Maximum slenderness ratio
⎛ 2.788 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 78.8
⎝ 35.4 ⎠
From IS: 800–1984, for steel having fy = 250 N/mm2
Allowable stress in axial compression = 102.32 N/mm3
Safe load carrying capacity of the column
⎛ 3448 × 102.32 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 352.8 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
> 244.00 kN. Hence, safe.
Step 4. Bracings
The bracings in each panel consist of cross-diagonals as shown in Fig. 7.30. The
bracings are designed to resist the shear in the panel due to wind transverse shear
equal to 2.5 percent of axial load in the columns.
Wind force in each panel
P ⎛ 12.45 ⎞
=⎜ = ⎟ = 4.15 kN
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
The wind force in each panel is assumed to act at its two ends as shown in Fig.
7.30 (b).
2 .50 m
P1 P2
0 .77 5
P
2
P
6
9 .14 m
P
8 .86 5 m 6
P
P
6
4 .18 2 m
P θ
6
P
2
3 .66 3 .66
m m
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.30
The maximum shear to wind in the lowermost panel.

∴ Horizontal shear due to wind in the lowermost panel
⎛ 4.15 ⎞
= ⎜ 31.05 + 5 × ⎟ = 41.425 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
This horizontal shear is distributed in two parallel faces, since, the wind bracing
are provided in two parallel faces.
∴ Horizontal shear due to wind to be resisted by bracing in one face
1
= × 41.425 = 20.72 kN
2
In addition to this the bracings are designed for transverse shear equal to 2.5
percent of column load
∴Transverse shear in a panel
2.5
= [2(235.83 + 44.72) + 2(235.83 – 4472)] kN
100
= 23.583 kN
Transverse shear to be resisted by bracing in one face
1
= 2
× 23.583 = 11.792 kN
∴Total lateral force to be resisted by bracing in a panel in one face
= (20.72 +117.92) = 32.512 kN.
Step 5. Diagonal bracing
The diagonal member of bracing subjected to tension is considered as effective
⎛ 2.788 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.763, θ = 37. 21´
⎝ 3.66 ⎠
Force in a diagonal bracing
= 32.512 × sec θ = 32.512 × 1.259 – 40.93 kN
Allowable stress in axial tension with wind
= 1.33 × 0.8 × (0.6 × 250) N/mm2
Net area required
⎛ 40.93 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 256.45 mm
2
⎝ 1.33 × 0.8 × 0.6 × 250 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. l, provide ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm for the diagonal
bracing member.
Use 16 mm diameter rivets.
∴ Net area provided = A1 + kA2
Net sectional area of the connected log
1
A1 = (65 – 1.75 – 2 × 6) × 6 = 267 m2
Area of the outstanding (unconnected) leg

A1 = (65 – 12 × 6) × 6 = 372 mm2
⎛ 3 A1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 267 ⎞
k = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 0.683
⎝ 3 A1 + A2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 × 267 + 372 ⎠
Net effective sectional area
An = (267 + 0.683 × 372) = 521.076 mm2
> 256.45 mm2. Hence, safe.
Step 6. Horizontal bracing
The horizontal bracing is subjected to compression.
∴ Force in horizontal bracing = 32.512 kN
It is assumed that the horizontal bracing is connected by more than one rivet.
∴ Effective length = 0.85 × 3.66 × 1000 = 3111 mm
The maximum slenderness ratio for a compression member in wind bracing
should not be more than 350
⎛ 3111 ⎞
∴ rmin = ⎜ ⎟ = 12.444 mm
⎝ 250 ⎠
From IS I Handbook No. 1, try ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 8 m
∴ rmin = 15.5 mm
Cross-sectional area = 1221 mm2
⎛ 311 ⎞
∴ Slenderness ratio = ⎜ ⎟ = 200.71
⎝ 15.5 ⎠
∴ Allowable stress in axial compression with wind with steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
= 1.33 × 27.787 N/mm2
∴ Force carrying capacity of the member
⎛ 1221 × 1.33 × 27.787 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟ = 45.124 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Step 7. Base plate
The slab bases are provided under the columns. The allowable stress in bearing
in cement concrete = 4 N/mm2
Axial load in column = 235.83 kN
Area of base plate required
⎛ 235.83 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 58957.5 mm
3
⎝ 4 ⎠
Provide a siab base (A × A) 250 mm × 250 mm as shown in Fig. 7.31.
Lengths of projections, a = b = 50 mm
Thickness of base plate
bf A
a
b h b
Fig. 7.31
1/2
⎡ 3w ⎛ 2 b2 ⎞ ⎤
t = ⎢ ⎜ a − ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ σbs ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1/2
⎡3 × 4 ⎛ 2500 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ 185 ⎜⎝ 2500 − 4 ⎟⎠ ⎥ = 11.03 mm
⎣ ⎦
Provide 12 mm thick slab base. It is to note that the slab base is designed for
maximum allowable bearing pressure, instead of actual bearing pressure. In case,
the axial load in the column increases, such that the allowable bearing pressure is
reached in the cement concrete even then, the crushing of slab does not occur
Step 8. Foundation
Let the bearing capacity of soil = 200 kN/m2
Axial force in column = 235.83 kN
Let the self-weight of foundation = 70.00 kN
Additional thrust in the column due to wind = 44.72 kN
Total load in the column
= (235.83 + 70.00 + 44.72) = 350.55 kN
Area of concrete pedestal required
⎛ 350.55 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1.753 m
2
⎝ 200 ⎠
Provide 1.40 m × 1.40 m × 1.0 m concrete pedestal.
Weight of foundation
= (l.40 × 1.40 × 1.0 × 24.00) = 470.4 kN
> 70 kN. Hence, safe.
Example 7.5 Design the staging for the circular steel tank of Example 7.2. The
bottom of tank is 8.95 m above the ground level. Take intensity of wind pressure
as 1.50 kN per square metre.
Solution
Design
Step 1.
Height of the bottom of tank from ground level = 8.95 m
Depth of bottom of tank = 3.05 m
∴ Height of the junction of cylindrical shell and hemispherical bottom above
ground level, (i.e., length of the columns)
= (8.95 + 3.05) =12 m
The circular steel tank is supported over staging, consisting of six columns.
The staging is divided into three panels.
⎛ 12.00 ⎞
∴ Height of panel = ⎜ ⎟ = 4.00 m.
⎝ 3 ⎠
Step 2. Vertical load
From Example 7.2. Weight of water in the tank = 2000 kN
Weight of tank including weight of conical roof and increase of 20 percent for
rivets and overlap = 101.81 kN
Weight of circular girder = 30.646 kN
Total vertical load supported by columns = 2132.53 kN
Number of columns provided = 6
∴Weight supported by one column
⎛ 2132.53 ⎞
= ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ = 355.42 kN
6
Assume self-weight of column = 4.58 kN
∴ Total vertical load supported by one column = 360 kN.
Step 3. Wind load
Shape factor for the circular tank = 0.7
The projected area of tank consists of projected area of the conical roof the
cylindrical shell andlhe hemispherical bottom.
∴ Projected area
⎡1 6.10 1 π ⎤
= ⎢ × 6.10 + (4.88 × 6.10 ) + × × (6.10 )2 ⎥ m2
⎣2 4 2 4 ⎦
= (4.65 +29.8+14.6) = 49.05 m2
Wind load acting on the tank (Figs. 7.32, 7.33)
P1 = (l.50 × 0.7 × 49.05) = 51.50 kN
1
x 6.10 m
4
6 .10 m
P1
4 .88 m
1 .57 m
y = 4 .62 m
3 .05 m
Fig. 7.32
The wind load acts at the c.g. of the projected area of tank. The c.g. of projected
area of tank is at y from the bottom of tank as shown in Fig. 7.32.
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
1 ⎢4.65 ( 3 × 4 × 6.10 × 4.88 + 3.05) ⎥
y = ⎢ ⎥
49.05 ⎢ + 29.8(2.44 + 3.05) + 14.6 ⎛ 4 × 3.05 ⎞ ⎥
⎜ 3.05 − ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ 3π ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 4.62 m
The line of action of wind is (4.62 – 3.05) = 1.57 m above the junction of cylindrical
shell and the bottom of tank.
When the direction of wind is along the diagonals i.e., as shown in Fig. 7.33, it
gives worst case of loading.
Wind force on columns and bracing (Fig. 7.33)
⎛ ⎞
P = ⎜ 20 × 12 × 2 × 3 × 3.05 × 1.50 ⎟
⎝ 100 2 ⎠
= 19 kN
This acts at 6 m above the ground level.
Step 4. Overturning moment due to wind above base
Mw = [l9 × 6.+ 51.50(12 + 1.57)] = 812.855 kN-m
From Eq. 7.31,
Additional axial thrust in the extreme column
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 812.855 ⎞
R1 = ⎜ w ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 88.84 kN
⎝ 3 ⋅ r ⎠ ⎝ 3 × 3.05 ⎠
P1 P1
1 .57 m
P
6
4m
P
6
P
6
P 12 m 4m
P
6
P
6m 6
4m
P
θ 6
3 .05 m 3 .05 m
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.33
When the effect of wind load is taken into account the permissible stresses are
exceeded by 33 13 percent.
The additional axial thrust in the column due to the wind is less than one-third,
the vertical loads in the column. Therefore, the column is designed for vertical
load only.
Step 5. Design of Column
Total vertical load supported by one column = 360 kN
Length of one panel of column = 4 m
Effective length of column = 4 m
Assume allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
σ = 100 N/mm2
⎛ 360 × 1000 ⎞
∴ Area required = ⎜ ⎟ = 3600 mm
2
⎝ 100 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISHB 200, @ 373 N/m
Sectional area provided = 4754 mm2

Minimum radius of gyration = 45.1 mm
⎛ 4 × 1000 ⎞
Maximum slenderness ratio is ⎜ ⎟ = 88.69
⎝ 45.1 ⎠
From IS : 833–1994
Allowable stress in axial compression for seel fy = 250 N/mm2
= 91.44 N/mm2
Safe load carrying capacity of column
⎛ 4754 × 91.44 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 434.71 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
< 360 kN. Hence, safe.
Wind force in each panel
P 19
= = = 6.33 kN
3 3
The wind force in each panel is assumed to act at its two ends as shown in Fig.
7.33 (b). The maximum shear due to wind occurs in the lowermost panel. Therefore
the horizontal shear due to wind in the lowermost panel
⎛ 6.33 ⎞
P = ⎜ 51.50 + 5 × ⎟ = 67.325 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
The horizontal shear due to wind is assumed to be distributed equal in all the
columns. The horizontal shears in the diagonal truss bracings are obtained by
resolving the horizontal shears in the planes of diagonal bracings are shown in
Fig. 7.34.
The maximum horizontal shears in a diagonal truss bracing in a panel occurs
when the direction of wind is as shown in Fig. 7.34 (a).
∴ Maximum horizontal shear in a panel
⎛F⎞ ⎛ 67.325 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ = 22.44 kN
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
This bracing is provided between two columns.
∴ Transverse shear due to axial load in two columns
⎛ 2.5 ⎞
= ⎜ × 2 × 360 ⎟ = 18 kN
⎝ 100 ⎠
Total shear in the diagonal bracing
= (22.44 +18) = 40.44 kN
Step 6. Diagonal bracing
The diagonal member of bracing subjected to tension is considered as effective
⎛ 4 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.327, θ = 55°, sec θ = 1.662.
⎝ 3.05 ⎠
F
F 3 F F F
6 6 3 3 6
F
F F F 6
6 r = 3 .05 m r 3 6 3 3
F 2
6
F
6
W ind
r = 3 .05 m F r 3
F 6 F
2 6 F
6 F
3 3
F 6
F F F
F 6 3 3
6 6
3
(a ) (b )
Fig. 7.34
Force in a diagonal bracing member

= 40.44 × sec θ = 40.44 × 1.622 = 67.21 kN
Allowable stress in axial tension with wind
= 1.33 × l50 N/mm2
∴ Net area required
⎛ 67.21 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 336.89 mm
2
⎝ 1.331 × 150 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, provide ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm for the
diagonal bracing member.
Use 16 mm diameter rivets
Net area provided = A2 + kA2
1
A1 = (65 – 175 – 2 × 6) × 6 = 267 mm2
A2 = (65 – 12 × 6) × 6 = 372 mm2
⎛ 3 A1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 267 ⎞
k = ⎜ 3A + A ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.683
⎝ 1 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 × 267 + 372 ⎠
Anet = (267 + 0.683 × 372) = 521.076 mm2
> 336.89 mm2. Hence, safe.
Step 7. Horizontal bracing
Horizontal bracing is subjected to compression
Force in horizontal bracing = 40.44 kN

It is assumed that the horizontal bracing is connected by more than one rivet.
Effective length = 0.85 × 3.05 ×1000 = 2592.5 mm
The maximum slenderness ratio for a compression member in a wind bracing
should not be more than 250
∴ rmin = 2592.5 = 10.37 mm

250
From ISI Handbook No. 1, try ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 8 mm
rmin = 15.50 mm
Slenderness ratio
⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 2592.5 ⎞
⎜r ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 167.26
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 15.5 ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression with wind for steel
fy = 250 N.mm2
= 1.33 × 38.1 N/mm2
⎛ 1221 × 1.33 × 38.1 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟ = 61.86 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
The base plates and foundations for the columns may be designed in the same
way as it is done in Example 7.4.
Step 8. Connection of column to tank
Load in column = 360 kN
Provide 22 mm diameter rivets. Strength of rivet in single shear
⎡ π (23.5)2 × 100 ⎤
= ⎢ × ⎥ = 43.35 kN
⎣4 10000 ⎦
⎛ 300 ⎞
= ⎜ 6 × 23.5 × ⎟ = 42.3 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎠
Rivet value, R = 423 kN
⎛ 360 ⎞
Number of rivets = ⎜ ⎟ = 8.5
⎝ 42.3 ⎠
Provide 14 rivets.
The connection of column to tank is made in such a manner that the centre line
of the column, the centre line of balcony girder, web, and the outside of the first
tank ring are concurrent. Two ISA 90 mm × 60 mm × 10 mm are used for the
connection. The connection of column to the tank is shown in Fig. 7.35.
Tan k
2x7
2 2.0 R ive ts
W eb
2 IS A 9 0 m m H e m isph erica l
60 m m x 10 mm b ottom
IS H B 2 00
@ 3 7.3 kg /m
Fig. 7.35
Problems
7.1 Design an over head riveted steel rectangular flat bottom tank of capacity
1,20,000 litres. The staging consists of six columns. The bottom of the
tank is 10 mm above the ground level. Design the supporting beams also.
7.2 Design the staging for the rectangular steel tank of Problem 7.1. Take
intensity of wind pressure at 1.50 kN/m2.
7.3 Design an elevated steel tank, circular in shape for 2,40,000 litres capacity
with circular girder supported on eight number of columns. The shape of
bottom may be assumed suitably. The roof and staging for the tank need
not be designed.
7.4 Design the staging for the circular steel tank of Problem 7.3. The bottom
of the tank is 12.60 m above the ground level. Take misty of wind pressure
as 1.50 kN/m2.
7.5 An elevated rectangular steel water tank, open at the top, is required to
have a capacity of 2,00,000 litres with a free board of not less than 150
mm. The bottom of the tank is to be at 12 m above the ground level.
Using 1.25 m × 1.25 m standard pressed steel plates and suitable allowable
stresses design the tank its stays and supporting beams.
7.6 Design an elevated circular steel tank to hold 2,50,000 litres of water.
The staging and the circular supporting beam need not be designed.
7.7 Design an overhead rectangular steel tank with flat bottom of 1,00,000
litres capacity. The staging consists of six columns. Also design the
supporting beams. The staging and foundation need not be designed.

7.1 The allowable stresses for the design of steel tanks are adopted as :
(a) same given in IS : 800
(b) 80% reduced as given in IS: 800
(c) 50% reduced as given in IS : 800
(d) 24% percent increased as given in IS: 800.
7.2 In elevated circular steel tanks, hemispherical bottoms are preferred
because :
(a) riveted connection between the side and bottom plates are easy
(b) better appearance
(c) large capacity
(d) all the three mentioned
7.3 In elevated circular steel tanks, conical bottoms are attached when :
(a) water is acidic
(b) water is alkaline
(c) water is muddy
(d) water is oily.

7.1 (b) 7.2 (d) 73. (c)
CHAPTER
8
Design of Steel Bunkers and Silos
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The bunkers are defined as large size shallow containers to store grains, cement
and coal. The bunkers are also known as shallow bins. In the shallow bins or
bunkers, the plane of rupture intersects the free surface of the material stored,
before it strikes the opposite side of the container. The steel bunkers are commonly
used for storing coal. The steel bunkers are used in loco-running sheds and power
plants. The storage structures are generally described as bins. The shape of bunker
is decided by the position of plant and the need for natural light inside the power
station more than the capacity requirement.
In general, the shapes of bunkers are kept square and rectangular in plan.
The deep steel girders are provided in the upper portion of the bunkers in the
direction parallel to the longitudinal sides of the bunkers as shown in Fig. 8.1.
These girders are known as main or longitudinal girders. These main girders are
supported on end girders. The end girders are placed parallel to the width of the
bunkers. The sloping or inclined plates are provided in the bottom portions of the
bunkers. The stiffeners are provided with the inclined plates. The stiffeners are
connected to the longitudinal girders at the top and bottom plates at the bottom.
In order to keep the bottom of bunkers self-cleaning, the inclination of bottom
plates kept more than the angle of repose of the material. The openings for discharge
of material are provided at the bottom of the bunkers. These openings are kept
about 500 mm square in size.
In the deep bins or silos, the plane of rupture drawn from the bottom edge does
not intersect the free surface of material stored. Ordinarily, a bin may be called as
a silo, if its depth is greater than twice the breadth. Silos are generally circular in
cross-section.
The material stored in bunkers or silos exerts horizontal pressure on its sides
in addition to the vertical forces. The horizontal pressure varies during the filling
and the emptying processes. It also varies with the location of the discharge hole.
This horizontal pressure is determined by the conventional methods based on
C ro ss g ird er
L on gitud in al
(M ain) girde r H o rizon ta l
H o rizon ta l
b ea m b ea m
G un ite
lining
1 0 cm th ick
In clin ed b un ker
p la tes
B o tto m plate
L on gitud in al
g ird er
B o tto m
o pe ning
B o tto m L en gth
p la te
B o tto m
o pe ning
E n d girde r
Fig. 8.1
Janssen’s theory and Airy’s theory. In actual cases these forces increase during
filling and emptying. The increase in forces is about two to eight times that
determined by Janssen’s theory. These forces also vary with powdery or granular
nature of the material.
The planes of rupture in shallow and deep bins have been shown in Fig. 8.2.
The particular size, moisture content, method of filling, method of emptying
and the duration of storage of the material are the parameters which effect the
design of bins. The powdery or granular nature of material is decided depending
on the particle size and the angle of repose. The shape of material may change due
DESIGN OF STEEL AND BUNKERS AND SILOS 411
to moisture content and temperature. Duration of storage of material may

consolidate the material, which may effect the flow of material.
P lan e of
ru ptu re P lan e of
ru ptu re
A n gle of
re po se
(a ) S h allo w b in (B u nker) (b ) D e ep b in (S ilo)

Fig. 8.2
Funnel flow bunkers and silos may be designed in order to overcome arching
and piping effect of the stored material.
8.2 JANSSEN’S THEORY

Janssen’s theory assumes that a large portion of weight of the stored material in a
bin is supported by friction between material and the vertical wall. A small portion
of weight is only transferred to the hopper bottom. Therefore, it is not reason
h
f = μ´p h μ´p h
pv
ph ph ph
pv + dp v
Fig. 8.3
able to apply Rankine or Coulomb’s lateral pressure theory. The vertical walls of the
bin shown in Fig. 8.3 are subjected to vertical force and the horizontal pressure.
Consider an elementary layer of thickness, dh at a depth, h from the top. Let pv
and (pv + pv) be the vertical intensities of pressures acting at the top and bottom of
the layer, respectively. Let ph be the horizontal pressure and f be the stress due to
friction. Considering the equilibrium of the vertical forces.
pv . A + w . A . dh = (pv + dpv) . A + f . P . dh
or pv . A + w . A . dh = (pv + dpv) . A + (μ´ . ph) . P . dh ...(i)
where, w = Unit weight of material stored
A = Cross-sectional area of stored material
P = Interior perimeter of the bin
⎛A⎞
R = Hydraulic mean depth of the section ⎜ ⎟
⎝P⎠
μ´ = tan φ´
φ ´ = Angle of friction of the walls of the bin
φ = Angle of internal friction of stored material
From the expression (i),
Ph
w . dh = dpv+ μ´ ⋅ dh
R
⎛ P ⎞
or dpv = ⎜ w − μ´ h ⎟ dh ...(ii)
⎝ R ⎠
∴ ph = K . pv
⎛ ph ⎞
∴ dpv = ⎜ w − μ´ K ⋅ ⎟ dh ...(iii)
⎝ R⎠
dpv
or ∫⎛ pv ⎞
= ∫ dh
⎜⎝ w − μ´ K ⋅ R ⎟⎠
⎛ p ⎞
log ⎜ w − μ´K ⋅ v ⎟
⎝ R⎠
∴ = h + constant
K
–μ´
R
⎛ p ⎞ K
or log ⎜ w − μ´K ⋅ v ⎟ = μ´ ⋅h +C
⎝ R⎠ R
when h = 0, pv = 0 ∴ C = log w
⎛ K ⎞
⎜ w − μ´ pv ⋅ R ⎟ K
∴ log ⎜ ⎟ = – μ´ .h
⎝ w ⎠ R
K
μ´ K −μ´ ⋅h
1– ⋅ ⋅ pv = e R
w R
∴ pv =
w⋅R
1−e
−
( μ´K ⋅h
R ) ...(8.1)
μ´K
∴ ph = K . pv
∴ ph =
w⋅R
1−e
−
( μ´K ⋅h
R ) ...(8.2)
μ´
or ph =
w⋅R
μ´
−
1 + e Z0( h
) ...(8.3)
⎛ R ⎞
where Z0 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ μ´K ⎠
Values of (1 − e −h / Z0 ) have been given in Table 8.1.

In general, the silos are circular in cross-sections. The hoop tension on the wall
D
= ph ⋅ ...(iv)
2
where D = Diameter of the silo
In addition to the hoop tension, the vertical wall will be subjected to vertical
pressure transferred due to friction Pw.
h h ⎛ μ´K ⋅h ⎞
−
Pw = ∫ h
μ´⋅ p dh = ∫ w ⋅ R ⎜
⎜⎝
1 − e R
⎟ dh
⎟⎠
0 0
∴ pw
⎡
⎢
= w⋅R h−
Ρ −
1−e R ⎥ (
μ´K ⋅h ⎤
) ...(8.4)
⎣⎢ μ´ K ⎥⎦
Total vertical pressure

= Pw × perimeter = PW . P
⎡
⎢
= w⋅ A h−
R −
1−e R
μ´K ⋅h
( )⎤⎥
⎢ μ´ K ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= (w . A . h – Apw) ...(8.5)
Table 8.1 Values of (1 − e ) as per IS: 4995–1968 (Indian Standard) for

−h / Z0
Criteria for Design of Reinforced Concrete Bins (Silos)

h h h h h h h h h h
− − − − −
Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
Z0 1−e Z0 1−e Z0 1−e Z0 1−e Z0 1−e
0.01 0.010 0.42 0.343 0.92 0.599 1.60 0.798 2.85 0.941
0.02 0.020 0.44 0.346 0.94 0.609 1.65 0.808 2.90 0.945
0.03 0.030 0.46 0.369 0.96 0.617 1.70 0.817 2.95 0.948
0.04 0.040 0.48 0.381 0.98 0.625 1.75 0.826 3.00 0.950
0.05 0.049 0.50 0.393 1.00 0.632 1.80 0.835 3.05 0.953
0.06 0.058 0.52 0.405 1.02 0.639 1.85 0.843 3.10 0.955
0.07 0.068 0.54 0.417 1.04 0.646 1.90 0.850 3.15 0.957
0.08 0.077 0.56 0.429 1.06 0.653 1.95 0.858 3.20 0.959
0.09 0.086 0.58 0.440 1.08 0.660 2.00 0.865 3.25 0.961
0.10 0.095 0.60 0.451 1.10 0.667 2.05 0.871 3.30 0.963
0.12 0.113 0.62 0.462 1.12 0.674 2.10 0.878 3.35 0.965
0.14 0.131 0.64 0.473 1.14 0.680 2.15 0.884 3.40 0.967
0.16 0.148 0.66 0.483 1.16 0.687 2.20 0.889 3.45 0.968
0.18 0.165 0.68 0.493 1.18 0.693 2.25 0.895 3.50 0.970
0.20 0.181 0.70 0.503 1.20 0.699 2.30 0.900 3.60 0.973
0.22 0.198 0.72 0.512 1.22 0.705 2.35 0.905 3.70 0.975
0.24 0.213 0.74 0.523 1.24 0.711 2.40 0.909 3.80 0.978
0.26 0.229 0.76 0.532 1.26 0.716 2.45 0.914 3.90 0.980
0.28 0.244 0.78 0.542 1.28 0.722 2.50 0.918 4.00 0.982
0.30 0.259 0.80 0.551 1.30 0.727 2.55 0.922 5.00 0.993
0.32 0.274 0.82 0.560 1.35 0.741 2.60 0.926 6.00 0.997
0.34 0.288 0.84 0.568 1.40 0.753 2.65 0.929 8.00 0.999
0.36 0.302 0.86 0.577 1.45 0.765 2.70 0.933 — —
0.38 0.316 0.88 0.585 1.50 0.777 2.75 0.936 — —
0.40 0.330 0.90 0.593 1.55 0.788 2.80 0.939 ∞ 1.00
⎛ 1 − sin φ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + sin φ ⎞
The pressure ratio, K lies between ⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 1 + sin φ ⎠ ⎝ 1 − sin φ ⎠
Its exact value is found experimentally only. Some codes specify the values of
pressure ratio, (K = Kf) and angle of friction as given in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2
S. No. Material Pressure ratio Angle wall friction
during φ during
Filling Emptying Filling Emptying
1. Granular material 0.5 1.0 0.75 φ 0.6 φ
s > 0.2 mm
2. Powdery material 0.5 1.0 1.0 φ 1.0 φ
s < 0.6 mm
Note. s is the particle size and φ is the angle of internal friction.
8.3 AIRY’S THEORY

Airy’s theory is based on Coulomb’s wedge theory of earth pressure. It is possible
to determine the horizontal pressure per unit length of the periphery and the
position of plane of rupture by this theory.
A bunker is shown in Fig. 8.4. The plane of rupture is inclined at an angle θ
with the horizontal. It intersects the top horizontal surface at C.
Consider the wedge ABC of unit thickness. Let W be the weight of the wedge
and, R1 and R2 be reactions to BC and BA, respectively. The normal reactions due
R1 and R2 are Rn and Pk, respectively, and frictional forces are μ´ Rn and μ´Ph,
respectively. Let h be the depth and b be the width of the bunker. Then,
1
W = × AC ⋅ AB ⋅ w
2
2
⎛1 ⎞ wh
or W = ⎜ ⋅ h cot θ ⋅ h ⋅ w ⎟ = cot θ ...(i)
⎝2 ⎠ 2
Resolving the forces acting on the wedge in the vertical direction
W = μ´Ph + μ . Rn sin θ + Rn cos θ
⎛ W − μ´Ph ⎞
∴ Rn = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ μ ⋅ sin θ + cos θ ⎠
Resolving the forces acting on the wedge in the horizontal direction
Ph + μ . Rn cos θ = Rn . sin θ
⎛ Ph ⎞
∴ Rn = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ sin θ − μcos θ ⎠
From the expressions (ii) and (iii),
⎛ W − μ´Ph ⎞ ⎛ Ph ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ μsin θ + cos θ ⎠ ⎝ sin θ − μcos θ ⎠
⎡ W (sin θ − μcos θ) ⎤
∴ Ph = ⎢ (μ + μ´ ) sin θ + (1 − μμ´) cos θ ⎥ ...(iv)
⎣ ⎦
A C
W
P lan e o f
ru ptu re
μP R μR
h
Pn
R2 R1
θ
B
b
Fig. 8.4
Substituting the value of W and simplifying
wh2 ⎡ (tan θ − μ) ⎤
Ph = ×⎢ ⎥ ...(8.6)
⎢⎣ (μ + μ´ ) ⋅ tan θ + (1 − μμ´) tan θ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎛ wh2 u ⎞
or Ph = ⎜⎜ 2 ⋅ v ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
where, u = (tan θ – μ)
v = (μ + μ´) tan2 θ + (1– μμ´) tan θ
dPh
For maximum value of Ph, =0
dθ
dPh wh2 ⎛ udv − vdu ⎞

∴ = ×⎜ ⎟=0
dθ 2 ⎝ v2 ⎠
u du
∴ =
v dv
⎡ (tan θ − μ) ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ (μ + μ´ ) tan θ + (1 − μμ´) tan θ ⎦⎥
2
⎡ sec2 θ ⎤
= ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎣ 2(μ + μ) tan θ ⋅ sec θ + (1 − μμ )sec θ ⎦
After rearranging and simplifying
μ(1 − μμ )
tan2 θ– 2μ . tan θ – =0
(μ + μ)
1/ 2
⎡ μ(1 + μ2 ) ⎤
∴ tan θ = μ + ⎢ ⎥ ...(8.7)
⎣ (μ + μ) ⎦
Substituting the value of tan θ in Eq. 8.6 and simplifying the expression
2
wh2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
∴ Ph = ⎢ ⎥ ...(8.8)
2 ⎢
⎣ (1 + μ2 ) + μ (μ + μ´) ⎥⎦
Ph represents the total horizontal force per unit length of the wall at a depth, h.
The pressure per unit area
2
dph ⎡ 1 ⎤
Ph = = wh ⋅ ⎢ ⎥
dh ⎢⎣ (1 + μ ) (
2 + μ μ + μ´
) ⎥⎦
...(8.9)
Substituting μ = tan φ, and μ´ = tan φ, then Eq. 8.9 may be written as follows :
2
⎡ cos φ ⎤
Ph = w ⋅ h ⋅ ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 + sin φ sec φ sin( φ + φ´) ⎦
...(8.10)
Vertical load carried by wall is Pw. Then
Pw = μ´ . Ph
Pw = μ´ . p
Total load carried by the wall will be perimeter times Pw. The maximum depth
upto which the shallow bin acts as a bunker may be found as follows:
hmax μ(1 + μ 2 )
= tan θ = μ +
b (μ + μ´)
⎡ μ(1 + μ 2 ) ⎤
or hmax = b ⎢μ + ⎥ ...(8.11)
⎢⎣ ( μ + μ´) ⎥⎦
It is to note that Eq. 8.9 is applicable for maximum depth h = hmax as given by
Eq. 8.11. When the depth of bin, h is greater than hmax then the bin becomes a
deep bin (silo).
A silo is shown in Fig. 8.5. In case of silo, the plane of rupture intersects opposite
wall at C.
CD = (h – b tan θ) ...(v)
1
∴ W = w .bh – 2 .w .b .b tan θ
A D
W
C
μP n
R μR
Pn
R2
R1
B θ
b
Fig. 8.5
1
or W = wb . [h – 2 b tan θ] ...(vi)
As determined for the shallow bin, from the expression (vi),
⎡ W (sin θ − μ cos θ) ⎤
Ph = ⎢ μ + μ sin θ + (1 − μμ ) cos θ) ⎥ ...(vii)
⎣ ⎦
Substituting the value of W and simplifying
⎡ b tan θ ⎤
wb ⋅ ⎢h − (tan θ − μ)
Ph = ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(μ + μ´) tan θ + (1 – μμ´)
⎡⎛ bμ ⎞ b ⎤
wb ⋅ ⎢⎜ h + ⎟ tan θ − tan2 θ − hμ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎦
∴ Ph =
(μ + μ´) tan θ + (1 − μμ´)
⎛ dP ⎞
For maximum value of Ph, ⎜ h ⎟ = 0.
⎝ dθ ⎠
⎡⎛ bμ ⎞ b ⎤ ⎛ bμ ⎞ 2 2
2
⎢⎜⎝ h + 2 ⎟⎠ tan θ − 2 tan θ − hμ ⎥ ⎜⎝ h + ⎟⎠ sec θ − b tan θ sec θ
⎣ ⎦ = 2
or
(μ + μ´) tan θ + (1 − μμ´) (μ + μ´) sec2 θ
After simplifying and rearranging the terms

2(1 − μμ´) 2h(1 + μ 2 ) + bμ(1 − μμ´)
tan2 θ + tan θ − =0
( μ + μ´) b( μ + μ´)
1 ⎡ 2h ⎤
∴ tan θ = × ⎢ −(1 − μμ´) + (1 − μμ´)(1 + μ 2 ) + (1 + μ 2 )(μ + μ´) ⎥
(μ + μ´) ⎣ b ⎦
...(8.12)
Substituting the value of tan θ and simplifying
wb2 ⎡ 2h ⎤
Ph = 2 ⎢ (μ + μ´) + (1 − (μμ´) − 1 + μ ⎥ ...(8.13)
2(μ + μ´) ⎣ b ⎦
The pressure, Ph is given by dPh

d
⎡ 1 + μ2 ⎤
W ⋅ b2 ⎢1 − ⎥
∴ Ph = ⎢ 2h ⎥ ...(8.14)
2( μ + μ )´ ⎢ ( μ + μ´) + (1 − ( μμ´) ⎥
⎣ b ⎦
In case of rectangular silos, b may be adopted as length of the side adjacent to
the wall on which pressure to be determined. The vertical load taken by wall is Pw
= μ´ . Ph´ . The total vertical load is perimeter × Pw.
The values of μ and μ´ for some common materials have been given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3
S.No. Material μ μ´
1 Wheat 0.466 0.443
2 Maize 0.521 0.432
3 Cement 0.316 0.554
4 Bituminous coal 0.700 0.700
8.4 DESIGN PARAMETERS

Unit weight of materials, the angle of internal friction, the angle of wall friction
and the pressure ratios are the design parameters to be adopted for the design of
bins. Unit weight of some of the common types of grains and their angle of friction,
have been given in Table 8.4 as per IS : 4995–1968.
Table 8.4
Material Unit weight Angle of internal
kN/m 3 friction, φ
Wheat 8.50 28°
Paddy 5.75 36°
Contd.
Table 8.4 Contd.

Material Unit weight Angle of internal
kN/m 3 friction, φ
Rice 9.00 33°
Maize 8.00 30°
Barley 6.00 27°
Com 8.00 27°
Pressure ratio and angle of wall friction during filling and emptying of bins for
angular and powdery materials may be adopted as given in Table 8.2.
8.5 DESIGN CRITERIA

Following design criteria are kept for the design of bins.
(i) Pressure on walls of shallow bins
The horizontal pressure on a vertical wall of a shallow bin is calculated from
Eq. 8.15 below :
wh ⋅ cos2 φ
ph = ...(8.15)
⎡ sin φ + φ´)sin φ ⎤
⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ cos φ´ ⎦
(ii) Maximum pressure
In deep bins, the maximum values of the horizontal pressure on the wall (ph)
the vertical pressure on the horizontal section of stored material (pv), and the
vertical load transferred to the wall per unit area due to friction may be adopted as
given in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5
Type of pressure Maximum values of pressures during
Filling Emptying
R w⋅R
Pv w⋅
K f ⋅ μ´ f K eμé
w⋅R w⋅R
Ph μ´ f μé
Pw w.R w.R
where,
w = Unit weight of material stored
R = Area/perimeter ratio
Kf = Pressure ratio during filling (= 0.5)
Ke = Pressure ratio during emptying (= 1.0)
μf´ = Coefficient of wall friction during filling
μe´ = Coefficient of wall friction emptying.
The approximate value of R for the square bins may be adopted as follows:
R = 0.283 a
where, a = sides of the square bin.
The approximate value R for the rectangular bins may be taken as below :
(i) For obtaining pressure on the short side
R = 0.283 a
(ii) For obtaining pressure on the long side
0.283 (2ab − a 2 )
R =
b
ph
b p h d uring
e m p tyin g
p h d uring
h fillin g
1 .2 b o r
0 .75 H
(a ) h (b )
Fig. 8.6 Variation of pressure with depth
where, a and b are the short and long sides of the rectangular bin.
(iii) Variation of pressures along the depth
The variation of pv, ph and pwwith depth for deep bins is shown in Fig. 8.6. It is
obtained from Eq. 8.16 as given below :
pi (h) = pi (max) . ⎡
h ⎤
− ...(8.16)
⎢⎣1 − e z0 ⎥⎦
Suffix i stands for v, h or w corresponding to the pressure to be calculated.
w⋅R
Value of z0 during filling =
K f ⋅ μ´f
Value of z0 during emptying = Ri . Ke . μe ´
(iv) Governing cases for loading Governing cases for loading are as follows :
Pressure Granular material Powdery material
ph Emptying Filling-emptying
pv Filling Filling
pw Emptying Filling-emptying
8.6 ANALYSIS OF BINS

Analysis of bins of following types is done as below :
(i) Bunkers (wall spanned horizontally)
For a rectangular bunker of length, L = and width B, the negative moment at
every corner is calculated as follows :
⎡ B 2 ph ( L2 − B 2 )I B ⋅ L ⎤
M = – ⎢ ph + ⋅ ⎥ ...(i)
⎣ 12 12 L ⋅ I B + B ⋅ I L ⎦
where,
IB = Moment of inertia of the wall along the width, and
IL = Moment of inertia of the wall along the length.
The second term in the expression (i) is due to the distribution of unbalance
moments at the ends of both the walls. On simplifying, the expression (i) reduces
as follows :
ph ⎡ L3 ⋅ I B + B 3 ⋅ I L ⎤
M = ⎢ ⎥ ...(i)
12 ⎣ L ⋅ I B ⋅ + B ⋅ I L ⎦
In case IB = IL
ph ⎡ L3 + B 3 ⎤
then M = ...(ii)
12 ⎢⎣ L + B ⎦⎥
ph 2
or M = – (B + L2 – BL) ...(iii)
12
For square bunker L = B, then
ph ⋅ L2
M = = – 0.083 ph . L2 ...(iv)
8
Positive moment at the centre of rectangular bunker
B2 ( 2 2 )
M(centre) = ph ⋅ − ph B + L − BL
8 12
ph ( B 2 + 2BL − 2L2 )
= ...(v)
24 12
For square bunker,
ph ⋅ L2
M(centre) = ...(vi)
24
(ii) Rectangular bunkers with trough-spaced bottom
(a) Symmetrical. The cross-section of bunker is symmetrical about the centre
line as shown in Fig. 8.7.
Consider the unit length of bunker. The bursting forces acting at the various
levels as shown in Fig. 8.7 are found as follows :
PH
1
W1
h1
Ph
1
PH PH W2
2 3
B W3
C .G .
h2 Ph
R1 2
R2 Ph
3
O PH C
4
b1
(i) (ii)
(a )
TB
PNB
RB
B
H2
PN
h2
P NC
RC
H4
C
W3 TC
(I) (II)
(b )
Fi.g. 8.7
Ph1
PH1 = ...(8.18 a)
3
2Ph1
PH1 = ...(8.18 b)
3
By taking the moment about, the intersection of vertical through B and
horizontally through C.
1 ⎡ W1 ⋅ b1 2b Ph ⋅ h2 Ph3 ⋅ h3 ⎤
PH 2 = ⎢ + W2 ⋅ 1 + W3 ⋅ b1 − 2 − ⎥ ...(8.18 c)
h2 ⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
By taking the moment about B
1 ⎡W1 ⋅ b1 W2 ⋅ 2b1 W3 ⋅ b1 Ph2 ⋅ h2 2Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤
PH4 = + + + + ...(8.18 d)
h2 ⎢⎣ 2 3 3 2 2
⎥
⎦
The forces acting on the sloping sides are obtained as follows. In case, PnB and
PnC are the normal pressures at B and C, then the total normal road acting on the
sloping side at the centroid of pressure diagram is given by
⎛ P + PnC ⎞
RN = ⎜ nB ⎟⎠ ⋅ h3 ⋅ cosec α ...(8.19 a)
⎝ 2
Pn = Pv cos2 α + Pb. sin2 α + Ws . cos α ...(8.19b)
Pt = (Pv– Ph) sin α . cos α + Wi . sin α ...(8.19 c)
where Ws = Self-weight of the hopper
α = Angle of inclination of the hopper to the horizontal.
The normal and tangential components of forces at B and C are needed in the
design. These components are obtained as under :
RB = R1. cos α – PH2 cos α ...(8.20 a)
TB = R1 . sin α + PH2 cos α ...(8.20 b)
RC = PH . sin α – W cos α ...(8.20 c)

4 3
TC = PH . cos α + W 3 sin α ...(8.20 d)

4
RN = RB + RC ...(8.20 e)
(b) Asymmetrical. The cross-sectional of bunker is not symmetrical about
the centre line as shown in Fig. 8.8.
A
PH
PH 8
1
W1
h1 PH
W2 1
PH PH PH PH
2 3 7 6
B
W3
R1 R2 h2 PH
P H2
3
O PH C PH
4 5
b1 2b 2 2b 2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.8
Consider the unit length of bunker. The bursting forces acting at the various
levels as shown in Fig. 8.8 are found as follows :
PH
PH = 1
...(8.21 a)
1
3
2Ph1
PH = PH7 = ...(8.21 b)
3
3
1 ⎡W1 ⋅ b1 2W2 ⋅ b1 Ph ⋅ h2 Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤

PH 2 = + + W3 ⋅ b1 − 2 + ...(8.21 c)
h2 ⎢⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
⎥
1 ⎡W1 ⋅ b1 2W2 ⋅ b1 Ph ⋅ h2 2Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤

PH 4 = ⎢ + + W3 ⋅ b1 − 2 + ⎥ ...(8.21 d)
h2 ⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
1 ⎡ W4 ⋅ b2 2W5 ⋅ b3 Ph ⋅ h2 Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤
PH5 = ⎢ + + W3 ⋅ b3 − 2 + ⎥ ...(8.21 e)
h2 ⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
1 ⎡W4 ⋅ b3 2W5 ⋅ b2 Ph ⋅ h2 Ph3 ⋅ h2 ⎤

PH 6 = + + W3 ⋅ b3 − 2 + ...(8.22)
h2 ⎢⎣ 2 3 2 3 ⎦
⎥
It is to note that PH4 and PH5 are not equal.

The normal and tangential components of forces at B and C, and at D and E are
found as determined in the case of symmetrical bunkers. The forces in the hopper
portion of the bunker are as follows :
PH + Ph + Ph3 − PH4 = 0 ...(8.23 a)
2
PH + Ph2 + Ph3 − PH6 = 0 ...(8.23 b)

6
PH + PH4 = PH6 – PH2 ...(8.23 c)

5
1
(iii) Silos. The silos are designed for hoop tension equal to 2 . ph diameter.
The longitudinal tension in the wall may be avoided by supporting the silos at the
waste. In case the silos are supported above the waste, the longitudinal tension per
unit length of the wall may be determined for the weight of material and the self-
weight below the plane under consideration.
8.7 HOPPER BOTTOM

Many types of hoppers are made. Some of these hopper, have been described below.
(i) Conical hoppers. Conical hoppers are subjected essentially to meridional
and hoop tensions. The total meridional tension at any horizontal plane passing
through the hopper is such that its vertical component is equal to the total vertical
pressure on that plane plus the weight of the hopper and contents below the plane.
Consider any horizontal plane AD at a depth h below the top surface of the material
intersecting with the conical hopper as shown in Fig. 8.2. Let Wg be the weight of
the material and W c be the self-weight of the cone below this plane.
The meridional tension N is given by
N . sin α . 2πb = pv . πb2 + Wg + Wc
⎛ 2 ⎞
N = ⎜ pv ⋅ πb + Wg + Wc ⎟ ...(8.24)
⎝ 2πb ⋅ sin α ⎠
Let pn be the normal pressure and ws be the self-weight of the cone per unit
area. Then from Fig. 8.9,
pn . EG = pv . EF cos α + ph . FG sin α + wv. EG cos α
pv = ph – cos2 α + ph . sin2 α + ws ...(8.25)
The hoop tension T at any plane
T = pn . rn = b . cosec α
O
rn
pv
b b E F
N Pv N
pn
Wg + Wc pn
G
α α α
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.9
The vertical pressure pv and horizontal pressure pb for deep bins are determined
from the expressions developed earlier. pv for shallows bins on any horizontal
section is equal to the weight of the material above the section. pn for shallow bins
is found from Eq. 8.15 by substituting values of φ and φ´.
(ii) Pyramidal hoppers. Pyramidal hoppers are subjected to bending
moment and direct tensions besides meridional tensions along the slope. The hoppers
of a rectangular bin is analyzed by considering each horizontal strip as a continuous
frame subjected to the normal pressure pn. The meridional tension shall be calculated
in the same manner as for the conical hopper.
(iii) Level bottom. The bottom of bin is kept and hopper is not provided
separately. The vertical load for the design of level bottom of a deep bins is equal to
(i) the gross weight of the material stored to the full capacity of the bin minus the
total vertical load carried by the walls due to friction during filling or (ii) the
weight of the material of the bin standing upto a height corresponding to that of a
shallow bin, whichever is more.
8.8 DESIGN OF BINS

Stiffeners running vertically and/or horizontally are attached with the skin plate
forming the wall of the bunkers. The various components of bunkers are designed
as follows:
8.8.1 Skin Plate

Skin plates span between the stiffeners. The bending of skin plate may be considered
either one way or two way with simply supported to continuous support conditions.
In addition to bending and shear, the skin plates carry longitudinal tension. The
shear is generally neglected. The stiffeners along with the portion of plate carry
the longitudinal tension. In case the width/thickness ratio is less than 40, then
the portion of plate acting with the stiffener is taken as width between centre to
centre of stiffeners. In case the width/thickness ratio is more than 40, this width
should not exceed 40 t. In no case, the centre to centre distance between the stiffeners
will exceed 80· t.
L
So long as the aspect ratio is less than or equal to 3, the skin plate may be
B
designed as a plate bending in two ways.
8.8.1.1 Trough Stiffeners

Trough stiffeners provide support to the plate carrying the load. These are designed
for moments due to uniformly varying pressure and direct tension.
8.8.1.2 Side Walls

Vertical load pu, horizontal pressure (ph), horizontal reaction and self-weight are
shared by the side walls. Therefore, the side wall may be designed as deep beams
to carry vertical and horizontal loads. Alternatively, the side walls may be provided
with plates and stiffeners in vertical and/or horizontal directions. Trough or hopper
bottom is attached with beam provided at the junction of the side wall and the
hopper.
Silos are designed in the similar way as bunkers.
Additional stresses due to difference in temperature (if any) between inside and
outside of the bins are found and accounted for in the design.
Example 8.1 Design a rectangular steel bunker of 12 m length and 6 m width
supported on eight columns (four along each long side) to store coal of bulk
density 8.00 kN/m3 and angle of internal friction 35º.
Height of vertical portion = 4 m
Height of hopper =4 m
Solution
Design Step 1.
Consider unit length of the bunker as shown in Fig. 8.10. The bunker is
symmetrical about the centre line. As such the calculations have been done for
half portion of the bunker. It is assumed that the mean size of particle is greater
than > 0.2 mm and the bunker is filled upto the level with the top. From Table 8.2,
for granular material with φ as 35°.
For filling, φf´ = 0.75,φ = 26.25°
For emptying φe´ = 0.60, φ = 21.0°
Pressure ratio
For filling, Kf = 0.5
For emptying, Kc = 1.0
Angle of friction on the wall of bunker
For filling, μf́ = tan φf´ = 0.4931
For emptying, μe´ = tan φe ´ = 0.3839
6m 4m
4m
6 mm
p late
8 mm
p late
4m
2 .5 m 2 .5 m C o lu m n s
(a ) C ro ss-section o f b un ke r (b ) S ide e le va tio n
Fig. 8.10
Step 2. Vertical forces as shown in Fig. 8.7

Weight, W 1 = 8 × 4 × 2.5 = 80 kN
Self-weight (assumed) = 2 kN
Total = 82 kN
The design of stiffeners is not affected the self-weight of trough bottom. Therefore,
W 2 is calculated without any allowance for self-weight. Reduction of friction on
vertical wall is also neglected. Therefore,
1
Weight, W 2 = 2
× 2.5 × 4 × 8 = 40 kN
Weight, W 3 = 8.0 × 0.5 × 8 = 32 kN
Step 3. Horizontal forces as shown in Fig. 8.7
A ⎛ 12 × 6 ⎞
R = = =2
P ⎜⎝ 2(12 + 6) ⎟⎠
Z 0e R ⎛ 2 ⎞
= = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.209
μé ⋅ K e ⎝ 0.3839 × 1.0 ⎠
Z0 f R ⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 8.113
μ´f ⋅ K f ⎝ 0.4931 × 0.5 ⎠
h
is more for emptying. Therefore, the pressures developed during emptying
Z 0e
the bunker are high.
h ⎛ 4 ⎞
At B, Z 0e = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.768
⎝ 5.209 ⎠
∴ (1 − e−h / z0 ) = 0.586
Horizontal pressure at B from Eq. 8.3
⎛ 8×4 ⎞
ph = ⎜ ⎟ × 0.536 = 22.34 kN/m
2
⎝ 0.3839 ⎠
h
⎛ 8×2 ⎞
At C, = ⎜ = 1.536
Z 0e ⎝ 5.209 ⎟⎠
∴ (1 − e−h / z0 ) = 0.785
Horizontal pressure at C,
8×2
hh = × 0.785 = 32.72 kN/m2
0.3839
(0 + 22.34)
Ph1 = × 4 = 44.68 kN/m
2
Ph2 = 22.34 × 4 = 89.36 kN/m
(32.72 − 22.34)
Ph3 = × 4 + 20.76 kN/m
2
Step 4. Bursting forces on the bunker
1
PH1 = × Ph1 = 14.89 kN/m
3
2
PH3 = × Ph1 = 29.78 kN/m
3
The moment about 0, Eq. 8.18 (c)
PH2 × 4 = ⎡ 82 × 2.5 + 40 × 2 × 2.5 + 32 × 2.5 − 89.36 × 2 − 20.76 × 4 ⎤

⎢⎣ 2 3 3 ⎥⎦
PH2 42.84
∴ = kN/m = 10.71 kN/m
4
Take moment about B, Eq. 8.18 (d)
PH4 × 4 = ⎡ 82 × 2.5 + 40 × 2 × 2.5 + 32 × 2.5 − 89.36 × 2 − 20.76 × 2 × 4 ⎤

⎢⎣ 2 3 3 ⎥⎦
483.25
PH4 = = 120.81 kN/m
4
PH1 + PH3 + PH4 − PH2 = 154.78 kN/m
Ph1 + Ph3 − Ph3 = – 154.8 kN/m

∴ Sum of horizontal forces is zero.
Step 5. Pressures on trough walls
wR ⎛ 8×2 ⎞
Maximum pv = ⎜ ⎟ = 64.89 kN/m
2
K f ⋅ μ f ⎝ 0.5 × 0.4931 ⎠
At B, from Eq. 8.1
pv = 64.89 × 0.536 = 34.78 kN/m2
Vertical pressure due to weight on wall
Pw = 8 × 4 = 32 kN/m2
pv is taken. It is greater than px.
Vertical presure at C due to weight of material
8 × 8 = 64 kN/m2
(i) Vertical and horizontal forces at B and C
At B, vertical pressure = 32 kN/m2
horizontal pressure = 22.34 kN/m2
At C, vertical pressure = 64.00 kN/m2
horizontal pressure = 32.72 kN/m2
Length BC = 4.717 m
(ii) Normal pressure from Eq. 8.19 (b)
⎡ 2 2⎤
At B, pnB = ⎢32 × ⎛⎜ 2.5 ⎞⎟ + 22.34 × ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟ ⎥ kN/m2
⎣ ⎝ 4.517 ⎠ ⎝ 4.717 ⎠ ⎦
= 8.99 + 16.06 = 25.05 kN/m2
2 2
⎛ 2.5 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
At C, pnC = 64 × ⎜ + 32.72 × ⎜
⎝ 4.717 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 4.717 ⎟⎠
= 17.98 + 23.52 = 41.50 kN/m2
Tangential pressure from Eq. 8.19 (c)
(32 − 22.34) × 4 × 2.5
At B, pt B = = 4.34 kN/m2
4.717 × 4.717
(64 − 32.72) × 4 × 2.5

At C, pt C = = 14.06 kN/m2
4.717 × 4.717
32 2 5.0 5
4 .34 2 5.0 5
B
2 2.3 4 B
4 1.5
4 .71 7 m 64
4 1.5
3 2.7 2 C
C
1 4.0 6
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.11
Pressure at point B and C are shown in Fig. 8.11 (a), Normal pressure diagram
is shown in Fig. 8.11 (b).
(iii) Normal load on trough wall without self-wt.
⎛ 25.05 + 41.50 ⎞
RN = ⎜ ⎟⎠ ×4.717 = 156.96 kN
⎝ 2
Assuming self-wt. of trough plate = 3.6 kN
Normal component of self-wt. = 3.05 kN
Total normal load = 160.01 kN
Tangential component = 1.90 kN
Step 6: Design of plate in trough portion
Provide stiffeners at 600 mm spacing. The plate bends in two directions.
The moment is reduced to half
Let the thickness of plate be 8 mm
⎛ 2⎞
= ⎜ 41.5 × 0.60 ⎟ = 0.6225 kN-m
⎝ 12 × 2 ⎠
⎛ 0.6225 × 106 × 6 ⎞
Bending stress = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 97.27 N/mm
2
⎝ 600 × 82
< 165 N/mm2
Step 7. Design of stiffeners in trough portions
Bending moment at the mid-point per 1 m length
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
= ⎢ 25.05 × 4.717 + (41.5 − 25.05 × 4.717 ) ⎥
⎣ 8 2×8 ⎦
= 92.55 kN-m
For 600 mm spacing of stiffeners
B.M. = 92.55 × 0.60 = 55.53 kN-m
Direct tension at the mid-point of the stiffener
⎛ 4.34 + 14.06 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ + 1.9⎟ × 4.717 × 0.6 kN
2 ⎠
= 11.1 × 4.717 × 0.6 = 31.42 kN

Try tee-section ISST 250, @ 375 N/m with 320 mm wide plate.
The properties of built-up section are as follows : [See Fig. 8.12 (a)].
A = 4775 + 2560 = 7335 mm2
Ixx = 8085.5 × 104 mm4
⎛ 8085.5 × 104 ⎞
Ixx = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 627.269 × 103 mm3
128.9
Maximum bending stress
⎛ 92.55 × 106 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 147.54 N/mm2
627.269 ⎠
< 165 N/mm2
Actual tensile stress
⎛ 31.42 × 108 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 4.284 N/mm2
7335 ⎠
In adddition to the trough stiffeners, the trough plate is also stiffened by plate
stiffeners at 600 mm spacing. The bending moment is made half for two way
bending of the plate.
⎛ 2 ⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ 1 × 41.5 × 0.6 × 0.6⎟ = 0.3735 kN-m
⎝2 12 ⎠
Section modulus required,
⎛ 6⎞
Z = ⎜ 0.3735 × 10 ⎟ = 2263.64 mm4
⎝ 165 ⎠
1/ 2
⎡ 2263.64 × 6 ⎤
Required depth, d = ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ = 36.85 mm
10
Provide 10 mm × 45 mm plate.
Step 8. Vertical wall place
Between columns at spacing of 4 m, horizontal beams are used at A and B as
shown in Fig. 8.10. The vertical wall plate is stiffened by the vertical stiffeners
and plate stiffeners. The bending moment is made half for two way bending of the
wall plate. Let the thickness of wall plate be 6 mm.
Horizontal pressure at B
= 22.34 kN/m2
⎛ 22.34 × 0.602 ⎞
Bending moment = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0.335 kN-m
2 × 12
⎛ 0.335 × 106 × 6 ⎞
Bending stress = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 93.06 N/mm
2
⎝ 600 × 62
< 165 N/mm2
Step 9. Vertical Stiffeners
Horizontal pressure at A = 0
Horizontal pressure at B = 22.34 kN/m2
Length of stiffener = 4m
⎛ 2⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ 22.34 × 4 ⎟ = 22.34 kN-m
⎝ 2×8 ⎠
Try tee-section ISST 200, @ 284 N/m with 24 mm wide plate. The properties of
built-up section are as follows. [See Fig. 8.12 (b)].
IS S T 25 0, IS S T 20 0
@ 3 75 N /m @ 2 84 N /m
4 0 t = 3 20 m m 4 0 t = 2 40 m m
Fig. 8.12
A = 3622 + 1440 = 5062 mm2

Ixx = 3273.98 ×104 mm4

3273.98 × 104
Zx x = = 330.7 × 103 mm3
99.0
⎛ 22.34 × 106 ⎞
Bending stress = ⎜ = 67.55 N/mm2
⎝ 330.7 × 103 ⎟⎠
< 165 N/mm2.
Step 10. Design of horizontal beams
(i) Horizontal beam at A
Length of beam = 4m
PH1 = 14.89 kN/m
⎛ 2⎞
Bending moment = ⎜ 14.89 × 4 ⎟ = 29.78 kN-m
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 6⎞
= ⎜ 29.78 × 10 ⎟ = 180.48 ×103 mm3
⎝ 165 ⎠
Provide ISLB 225, @ 235 N/m. The section modulus provided is 222.40 × 103 mm3.
(ii) Horizontal beam at B
Length of beam = 4m
PH2 = 10.71 kN/m
Bending moment = 59.56 kN-m
⎛ 6⎞
= ⎜ 59.56 × 10 ⎟ = 360.96 × l03 mm3
⎝ 165 ⎠
Provide ISLB 325, @ 431 kg/m. The section modulus provided is 6077.103 mm3,
which one has been kept more to take up additional moments due to downward
vertical load.
Example 8.2 Design a circular steel silo of 12 m eight and 4 m internal diameter
to store cement of bulk density 15.50 kN/m3 angle of internal friction 25°.
The dimensions of silo is shown in Fig. 8.13 (a) with stiffeners.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. The silo is designed for symmetrical discharge. It is assumed that the mean
size of particle is less than or equal to 0.06 mm. From Table 8.2 for powdery material.
For filling φf´ = 1.0 φ
For emptying φs´ = 1.0 φ
Pressure ratio
For filling, Kf = 0.5
For emptying K e = 0.7

Angle of wall friction
4m
IS A 6 5 m m x 6 5 m m x 6 m m
a t 1 .5 m sp a cing
IS A 6 5 m m x 6 5 m m
12 m x 6 mm
8 m m plate
65 m m
25 m m
IS A 6 5 m m × 6 5 m m
× 6m m
3m 8 m m plate
12 m m 1m
1 .7 1 .7
m m 25 m m
0 .3 m
(a ) (b )
Fig. 8.13
For filling μf´ = tan φf´ = 0.4663

For emptying, φe ´ = tan φe´ = 0.4663
πd 4 / 4 4
R = = = 1.0
πd 14
wR = 1.55 ×1.0 = 1.55
R ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z0e = =⎜ = 3.064
μé K s ⎝ 0.4662 × 0.7 ⎟⎠
R ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z0f = =⎜ = 4.289
μ´f K f ⎝ 0.4663 × 0.5 ⎟⎠
h
is more for emptying condition.
Z0
For vertical pressure and powdery material, severe case is during filling.
Step 2. Horizontal and vertical pressure at different depths

(i) At 3 m from top
h ⎛ 3 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.979
Z0e ⎝ 3.064 ⎟⎠
−h
z0e = 0.625
1−e
⎛ 15.5 ⎞
ph = ⎜ × 0.624⎟ = 20.74 kN/m2
⎝ 0.4663 ⎠
⎛ 20.74 ⎞
pv = ⎜ = 41.48 kN/m2
⎝ 0.5 ⎟⎠
(ii) At 6 m from top
h ⎛ 6 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.958
Z0e ⎝ 3.064 ⎟⎠
⎛ −h ⎞
⎜⎝ z0 e ⎟ = 0.859
1−e ⎠
⎛ 15.5 ⎞
ph = ⎜ × 0.859⎟ = 28.55 kN/m2
⎝ 0.4663 ⎠
⎛ 28.55 ⎞
pv= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 57.10 kN/m2
0.5 ⎠
(iii) At 9 m from top
h ⎛ 9 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2.937
Z0e 3.064 ⎠
⎛ −h ⎞
= 0.947
⎜⎝ z0 e ⎟
1−e ⎠
⎛ 15.5 × 0.947 ⎞
ph = ⎜ = 31.48 kN/m2
⎝ 0.4663 ⎟⎠
⎛ 31.48 ⎞
Pv = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 62.96 kN/m3
0.5 ⎠
At 12 m from top
h ⎛ 12 ⎞
Z0e = ⎜⎝ 3.064 ⎟⎠ = 3.916
⎛ −h ⎞
⎜ z0 e ⎟
⎝1 − e ⎠ = 0.980
⎛ 15.5 × 0.980 ⎞
ph = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 32.57 kN/m2
0.4663 ⎠
⎛ 32.57 ⎞
pv = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 65.15 kN/m2
0.5 ⎠
Horizontal pressure is maximum at 12 m from top
⎛ 32.57 × 4 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞

Hoop tension = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ N/mm
2 × 1000 × 1000
= 65.14 N/mm
Step 3: Design of wall plate
Let the thickness of wall plate be 8 mm
⎛ 65.14 ⎞
Hoop stress = ⎜ = 8.143 N/mm2
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
Total vertical load = ⎜ πd × 12 × 15.5⎟ = 2336.2 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π42 ⎞
pv = ⎜⎝ × 6.515⎟ = 818.28 kN
4 ⎠
Vertical load on side wall
= (2336.2 – 818.28) = 1517.9 kN
Weight of silo including stiffeners
= 0.80 kN/m3 (assumed)
Self-weight = 0.80 × π × 4 × 12 = 120.6 kN
Weight of lining for thickness used is assumed as 1.20 kN/m3
Self-weight of lining = (l.20 × π × 4 × 12) = 180.864 kN
Weight of top cover for thickness used is assumed 4 kN/m2
Self-weight of top cover
⎛ π × 42 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ × 4⎟ = 50.24 kN
4 ⎠
Vertical load per 1 mm of periphery
⎡ (1517.9 + 120.6 + 180.9 + 50.24 ⎤

= ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ N/mm
π × 4 × 1000
⎛ 1869.6 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜ = 148.85 N/mm
⎝ π × 4 × 1000 ⎟⎠
⎛ 148.85 ⎞
Compressive stress = ⎜ = 18.606 N/m2
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
Assuming Poisson’s ratio as 0.3
Total compressive stress
= (l8.606 + 0.3 × 8.143) = 21.049 N/mm2
Tensile stress = (8.144 + 0.3 × 18.606)
= 13.725 N/mm2
These stresses are small. Hence, it is safe. Provide ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6
mm (nominal size) horizontal stiffeners at 1.50 m spacing to avoid buckling of the
plate. Six vertical stiffeners are provided (staggered).
Step 4. Design of hopper
⎛ 2 ⎞
Vertical load = ⎜ π4 × 65.15⎟ = 818.3 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
Weight of material in hooper portion
⎛ π × 42 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ × 3 × 15.5⎟ = l94.68 kN
12 ⎠
Assuming self-weight = 40 kN
Total load = (818.3 + 194.68 + 40) kN
= 1052.98 kN
Length of sloping side = 3.448 m
Longitudinal tension
⎛ 1052.98 × 1000 × 3.448 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ π × 4 × 3 × 1000
= 96.36 N/mm
Assuming thickness of plate as 8 mm.
⎛ 96.36 ⎞
Longitudinal stress = ⎜ = 12.04 N/mm2
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
Hoop stress as before = 8.143 N/mm2
These stresses are small. Hence safe.
Step 5. Design of ring beam
A ring beam is provided at the waist on eight supports. It supports load of
material stored, weight of the silo, platform etc.
Weight of material stored
= (2336.2 + 194.68) = 2530.88 kN
Self-weight
Silo = 120.6 kN
Lining = 180.864 kN
Cover = 50.20 kN
Platform = 50.00 kN (assumed)
Total load = 2932.54 kN say = 3000 kN
⎛ 3000 ⎞
Reaction = ⎜ = 375 kN
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎛ 3000 ⎞
Shear = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 187.5 kN
16 ⎠
Bending moment at support
= 0.00827 × 3000 × 2 = 49.62 kN-m
Torsion = 0.00063 × 3000 × 2 = 3.78 kN-m
⎛ 0.5 × 3000 × 3 ⎞
Compression = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2647.l kN
⎝ 1.7
Try a built-up I-section for the ring girder as shown in Fig. 8.13 (b).
Moment of Inertia,
Ixx = 493984.37 × l04 mm4
Zx x = 9409.226 × l03 mm3
Moment of inertia,
Iyy = 11250 × l04mm3
Zy y = 750 × 103 mm3
rxx = 427.7 mm, ryy = 64.5 mm
Length between two adjacent columns
⎛ π × 4 × 1000 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 1570 mm
8
Slenderness ratio
I ⎛ 1570 × 0.8 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 19.47
ryy 64.5 ⎠
Allowable compressive stress for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
σac = 148.106 N/mm2
Allowable bending compressive stress
σac = 165 N/mm2
Actual compressive stress
σbc.cal = ⎛⎜ 300 × 1000 ⎞⎟ = 111.11 N/mm2

⎝ 27000 ⎠
Actual bending compressive stress
⎛ 6 ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ 49.62 × 10 ⎟ = 5.273 N/mm2
⎝ 9409.226 × 103 ⎠
Torsion is zero
⎛ σ ac.cal σbc.cal ⎞ ⎛ 111.11 5.273 ⎞
+ = ⎜ + = 0.782 < 1.00
⎜⎝ σ
ac σbc ⎟⎠ ⎝ 148.106 165 ⎟⎠
At the point contraflexure, bending moment is zero.

Torsion = 3.78 kN-m
Compressive stress = 111.11 N/mm2
The torsion is very small. Hence section is safe. Design of columns and foundation
is done as usual.
Problems
8.1 Design a steel bunker to store 3600 kN of coal for a locorunning shed.
The unit weight of coal is 800 kN/m3. Provide 500 mm × 500 mm hopper
opening. The angle of repose for coal is 35°.
8.2 Design a circular steel silo of 16 m height and 6 m internal diameter to
store cement of bulk density 15.50 kN/m3 and angle of internal friction
25°.
8.1 In general, the bunkers are constructed
(a) square and rectangular in plan
(b) circular and polygonal in plan
(c) elliptical in plan
(d) hexagonal in plan
8.2 The bunkers are the containers in which the plane of rupture intersects
the
(a) bottom of surface of material stored
(b) top surface of material stored
(c) opposite face (wall) near the top
(d) opposite face (wall) near the bottom
8.3 The deep bins are the container in which the plane of rupture intersects
the
(a) bottom surface of material stored
(b) top surface of material stored
(c) opposite face (wall) near the top
(d) opposite surface (wall) near the bottom
8.1 (a) 8.2. (b) 8.3 (c)
CHAPTER
9
Design of Industrial Buildings
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Any building structure used by the industry, where at least a part and usually the
most of the enclosed area is of one storey height, is known as industrial building.
The industrial buildings are designed and constructed to store the raw materials
or manufactured products of the industry or to support and house a manufacturing
process for the industry. The industrial buildings may be categorised as (i) normal
type of industrial building and (ii) special type of industrial buildings. Industrial
buildings in first category are shed type buildings. These are simple roof structures
on open frames. These structures provide some protected areas. These are used to
house the industries, workshops and warehouses etc. These buildings have one
common requirement These buildings require large and clear areas unobstructed
by the columns. The large floor areas provide sufficient flexibility and facility for
later change in the production layout without major building alterations. The
industrial buildings are constructed with adequate head room for the use of an
over head travelling crane.
The industrial buildings in second category include steel mill buildings, buildings
used for manufacture of heavy machines, etc. These industrial buildings may be
highly sophisticated type. These buildings may house manufacturing process in
spaces needing specific and precisely controlled environmental conditions and
elaborate appurtenant services. The function of the industrial building, dictates
the degree of sophistication. For the proper design of the industrial building, the
designer should have knowledge of the manufacturing process and the purpose for
which the industrial buildings are installed. Economy is always a primary factor
in the design of the industrial buildings. In a real sense, the cost of the manufactured
products will depend upon the initial cost of construction, maintenance and
operating cost of the industrial buildings. The designer should be able to provide
optimum balance between the function and the economy. From the external
architectural point of view, the industrial buildings should be properly related
aesthetically to the community and its natural environment. The internal
architecture of the industrial building should provide for the development of design
so as to satisfy the requirements of the occupants. The total area and volume
requirements are determined for proper planning and layout of the industrial
building. The exterior dimensions for the structure surrounding the manufacturing
process are then developed by the designer.
These type of buildings may require extra large spans, extra height and may
involve very heavy loads. The steel mill building is defined as a structure with a
R ise
R o of tru ss
K n ee b race
C o lu m n
S p an o f truss
(a ) S tan da rd in du stria l b uild in g (b ) In du stria l bu ild in g fra m e w ith

fram e w ith fin k type tru ss sky lig ht w ith fin e typ e tru ss
(c) In du stria l bu ilding fra m e w ith (d ) In du stria l bu ild in g fra m e w ith

P ra tt type tru ss w ith stee p P ra tt type tru ss w ith flat
ro of ro of
(e ) In du stria l bu ild in g w ith sid e (f) In du stria l b uild in g w ith n orth

spa ns ligh t trusses
Fig. 9.1
self-supporting steel frame-work. When a roof truss its attached to and supported
by columns, then, the assembly is known as a bent. Since the bents have its usual
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 443
employment in industrial buildings, its descriptive name is mill bent. The

industrial building bents are used in the industrial buildings. The industrial
building bents are also termed as transverse bents. The industrial building
bents as used in mill buildings consist of roof truss supported on two columns. The
trusses may be placed as independent units and supported directly by the columns
at the ends or by intermediate transverse trusses or roof girders. Many times,
knee braces are provided between the trusses and columns. The various types of
trusses are used in the industrial bents. The choice of truss depends upon the span
between the rows of columns, the head room or clearance required, the nature of
roofing material, and type of lighting and ventilation. The single-bay single storey
industrial building bents are shown in Fig. 9·1. The industrial buildings consist of
(a ) P ra tt type tru sse s
(b ) W a rre n typ e tru sses

S ym
(c) U m b rella type ro of
Fig. 9.2
series of transverse bents supporting the roof. The distance between two adjacent
transverse bents is known as bay length or simply bay. The bay size (i.e., unit
area-volume requirements) within the total area volume is decided by the designer.
In general, the individual bays are finalised on the basis of minimum area and
clear height, which are only the functional requirements. Whereas in some industrial
buildings, the manufacturing process dictates the span of individual bays in one
or both the directions. The minimum bay shall be of the smallest dimensions
capable of providing machinery and/or storage space. The unit cost of individual
bays depends on the bay area, volume and the ratio of length-to-width dimensions.
The square bays have been seen to be advantageous. The weight of steel increases
as one departs from the square bay. The distance between two column lines is
known as aisle. The industrial buildings are generally single-aisle structures.

However, the industrial buildings with two, three, four or five aisles are also built.
The industrial buildings may also be made with multiple-bay sheds. A simple
multiplication of the frames as shown in Fig. 9.1 may be done in this type of
construction. The Pratt type girders as shown in Fig. 9.2 (a) may be used when
the individual span exceeds 20 m. The height of the girder may be kept 0.08 to
0.12 times the individual span. The panel width may be kept 0.8 to 1.2 times
height of the girder. The Warren type girders as shown in Fig. 9.2 (b) may be
provided instead of Pratt type.
The sky-light may be taken by raising the heights of the middle panel and
providing glazing portions. In case, the panel width of the Warren type girder
exceeds the economical span of deck material, the verticals as shown by the dotted
lines may be added to the Warren type girders. An umbrella roof as shown in Fig.
9.2 (c) may be used for the multiple-bay sheds. The intermediate row of columns
may be omitted in this type of construction.
Some open structural frame works may be constructed as shown in Fig. 9.3.
The structural frame works as shown in Fig. 9·3 are suitable for hangars, car
parkings, railways platforms, roadside petrol and diesel/petrol filling stations.
The main advantage of industrial buildings is the economy of roof. The roof
trusses of industrial buildings are built at relatively low cost. The economy in
weight may be achieved by keeping large spacing for the columns and having
large spans for the trusses depending on the requirement of the industry. The
industrial buildings also have disadvantages. The industrial buildings have poor
light conditions. The industrial buildings do not have pleasing appearance.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
Fig. 9.3 Open structures
The industrial buildings are classified into two categories (namely, braced and
unbraced). The braced industrial buildings have been described in Sec. 9.12.
9·2 STRUCTURAL FRAME WORK OF INDUSTRIAL

BUILDINGS
One type of steel frame work of the industrial buildings for short-span construction
consists of a frame made of continuous or double-cantilevered girders over the
columns. Instead of continuous or double-cantilevered girders, the simple span

rolled steel sections may be used for short spans.
The second type of structural frame of industrial building consists of steel trusses
supported on columns. In this type of steel frame work, the trusses frame in the
long dimension of the bay and the purlins frame into the short dimension between
the trusses. This system is often employed where a long span i.e., in excess of 20 m
required in one dimension of the bay. In other direction, the span may be short
and it may vary from 6 m to 8 m. Figure 9.1 (a) shows a standard industrial
building frame. The knee braces are used against the longitudinal movement
parallel to the span of the trusses. The knee-braces are attached to the lower
chord of the truss and the ends of the columns. When the truss spans are relatively
small, then the use of knee braces is economical. The industrial buildings are also
built as shown in Fig. 9.1 (d). The knee-braces are not used in such type of frames.
One member of the truss is made continuous with the column.
After the completion of production layout, the clear area unobstructed by the
columns, required is known. The rows of columns are fixed to provide adequate
clearance. The economical spacing of rows of columns is determined by the height
L ow e r cho rd
b racin g
U p pe r cho rd
b racin g
Co Ro
lu m o f t r u
ns sse
s
T ra
nsv
e rs
eb )
en
t a ls
o rt
(P
n ts
l be
in a
it ud
ng
Lo
Fig. 9.4
and width of the industrial building. For wide industrial buildings, the column
rows are located at wide distances. This requires less number of columns and long
span trusses. The steel used in this type of location is less than closely spaced rows
of tall columns with short span trusses. The spacing of column in its row is decided
depending upon mechanical layout. A spacing of 6 m remains economical. However,

a spacing of 8 m or more provides more flexibility.
The trusses are supported on columns. The various types of trusses used in the
structural frame work of industrial building bents have been given in Vol. I. After
fixing the spacing of columns and location of rows of columns, the span and the
spacing of trusses are known. The selection of types of truss and its suitability
depending upon span, spacing, roofing material, and climate, have also been
discussed in Vol. I. The design of roof trusses and purlins have also been discussed
in Vol. I.
The trusses and columns form transverse bents of industrial buildings. In
addition to these, longitudinal bents or portals are also the essential structural
elements of the structural frame work of the industrial buildings. The transverse
bents and longitudinal bents make the industrial buildings resistant against
horizontal wind forces. The longitudinal bents of structural frame of the industrial
building are shown in Fig. 9.4.
Where the spans are more than 20 m in both the dimensions of a bay, the
primary trusses in one direction with secondary trusses framing between them
are used. The spacing of the secondary trusses (centre to centre) is kept such that
the purlins have economical span i.e., 6 m to 8 m.
As an alternate to this above stated system, continuous trusses in one or both
the directions may be used for long spans. The continuous trusses give economy in
steel weight and the deflections are minimized.
9.3 FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

The industrial buildings are mostly one-storey structures. The part of industrial
building used as office may consist of two or more storeys. The cement concrete
solid slabs are most frequently used. The cement concrete slabs are made with 100
mm as minimum thickness. These slabs are supported on the intermediate rolled
steel joists. The intermediate rolled steel joists are supported on columns spacing
into two or more panels.
9.4 ROOF SYSTEM

The roof trusses supported on columns provide structural roof system for the
industrial buildings. The type of roof covering, its insulating value, acoustical
properties, the appearance from inner side, the weight and the maintenance are
the various factors, which are given consideration while designing the roof system.
The asbestos corrugated and trafford cement sheets, and the galvanized-iron
corrugated sheets are used as the roof covering materials. The floor construction
described in Sec. 9.3 can also be used as roof system in case of flat roofs. The
thickness of roof should not be less than 100 mm.
9.5 WALL CONSTRUCTION

The permanent wall construction is used except where low initial cost is essential.
The type of wall construction used for the industrial buildings has adequate fire
resistance and insulating properties. The type of wall construction used for
industrial buildings should be durable, and easily maintained. The wall construction
should be pleasing in appearance. The bearing walls are made strong enough to
support, in addition to their self-weight, the loads from floors, the roof which frame
into them. The solid masonry, hollow masonry, plain cement concrete and
reinforcement concrete are used for wall construction.
The corrugated cement asbestos sheets, trafford cement-asbestos sheets,
galvanized-iron corrugated sheets are also used for wall construction. The glass
enclosures are also becoming common.
9.6 PARTITION WALLS

The partition walls used for industrial buildings should have pleasing appearance,
acoustical properties, less weight and ease in erection. The partition walls carry
their self-weight. The clay tiles, cinder block, and gypsum tiles are commonly
used for the partition walls of the industrial buildings. The hollow partitions and
light weight partitions are also becoming popular. The asbestos cement boards,
and metal, and wire glass are also used for the partition walls of industrial buildings.
9.7 STAIRCASES
The staircases provided in the industrial buildings should allow safe, easy and
comfortable passage from one floor to the other. The staircases provided should
have sufficient width. The landing should be provided between the flights of
staircases. The proportions of tread and rise should be suitable. The number of
staircases and its width are governed by the size of area to be served and the
number of persons to be accommodated.
9.8 LIGHTING
As far as possible, attempt is made to use day light most satisfactorily. The
industrial buildings are made with monitors as shown in Fig. 9.1 (b) to allow the
sky light. The monitors in the industrial buildings are provided lengthwise. The
north light roof trusses or saw tooth roof truss as shown in Fig. 9.1 (f) are also
used in the industrial buildings. The north light roof trusses provide uniform day
light throughout the day.
There are some plants and industrial buildings which depend entirely upon
artificial illumination. The ordinary filament bulbs provide yellow-white light.
The mercury-vapour tube lights and lamps provide blue light. Sometimes, the
bulbs and the mercury lights both are provided to produce a desirable colour quality.
9.9 HEATING AND VENTILATING

There are two major types of unit heaters used for heating the production plant in
the industrial buildings. The centrifugal fan (blower) heaters deliver heated air at
high velocities. These types of units are used where long horizontal throws are
necessary. The other types of heating unit is the propeller fan unit. These types of
heatings units deliver heated air at lower velocity. These types of heating units
are of low capacity. In general, in manufacturing areas overhead unit heaters are
used. In these types of heating units, there is a saving on the production floors. In
these types of heating units, the steam and return pipes are installed in the truss
spaces easily. There is one more type of heating system which is known as radiant
heating. In this type, the hot water grid system is placed in the concrete floor.
These types of heating units are suitable where the manufacturing areas are not
likely to be changed. These types of heating units are used in aircraft plants and
air port hangers. Depending upon the requirement of the plant and the climate of
the locality, the types of heating and ventilating system are selected.
9.10 CRANE GANTRY GIRDERS

The overhead travelling cranes are used in the industrial buildings to lift the
heavy materials equipments, and to carry them from one place to the other over
an entire floor area of one or more bays between any two lines of building columns.
These cranes are either hand operated or electrically operated. These cranes
include hoist trolley and a crane bridge on a roller track. The bridge as a whole
moves longitudinally on rails provided at the ends. The rails on either side of the
bridge are supported on the girders. The girders are known as crane gantry
girders or crane girders or gantry girders or runaway girders. The various
types of crane gantry girders supporting the rails are shown in Fig. 9.5.
H o ok b olt C la m p
B ra cke t
(a ) (b ) (c)
B ra cke t
Ve rtica l
stiffe ne rs
(d ) (e )
Fig. 9.5 Sections for crane gantry girders

The magnitude of vertical loads, lateral loads and longitudinal forces, spacing
between the columns (i.e., span of the gantry girder, clear height necessary above
the floor and clearance below the roof truss are the various factors, which are
given consideration for selecting a type of gantry girder. The maximum allowable
stresses, maximum allowable deflections, lateral stability and torsional rigidity
are also considered while selecting a trial section for the gantry girder.
The section of gantry girder shown in Fig. 9.5 (a) is used for light cranes and
moderate spans. In order to increase lateral stability and the torsional rigidity,
the channel section is connected at the top as shown in Fig. 9.5 (b). The channel
sections are also attached with web instead of the flange as shown in Fig. 9.5 (c).
In order to further improve the torsional rigidity, the bracket plates shown by
dotted lines are also used. The section of gantry girder shown in Fig. 9.5 (d) is the
riveted plate girder. The plate girder section is used for long span gantry girder.
The plate girder section is also used for moderate span and for heavy loads. The
plate girder section is a symmetrical section. The top flange of plate girder section
for the gantry girder is made wider than the bottom flange. The box girder section
for gantry shown in Fig. 9.5 (e) is used when the lateral loads are high, and lateral
stability and the torsional rigidity are important.
Where structural support for the crane way is not practical, gantry cranes,
which are mounted on rails in the floor, are used in the same manner as overhead
travelling bridge cranes.
Jib cranes are used to handle loads within a limited area. A jib crane consists
of a hoist mounted on a rail. The rail is pivoted at one end. It is cantilevered from
a vertical column or from one of the building column.
The various forces acting on the gantry girder and the design of crane gantry
girder have been discussed in Vol. I.
9.11 CRANE COLUMNS

Generally, three types of craneway columns are used to support the craneway
girder. In one type the crane way girders are supported on brackets as shown in
Fig. 9.6 (a) and (b). The bracket supports are used for light craneways. In second
type. craneway columns are used to support the craneway girders. The craneway
columns and the girders are also attached with the building columns. This type of
craneway columns are used to support heavy craneways. This type is quite popular.
It provides the economy of rolled steel sections and a minimum of fabrication
work. This type provides good stiffness in the combined columns both laterally
and longitudinally. In the third type, stepped columns are used to support craneway
girder as shown in Fig. 9.6 (d) and (e). This type provides a combined craneway
and building column. It offers more stiffness on the lateral axis of the craneway.
This type is desirable under certain conditions of hoist bridge travel speeds.
The crane columns are subjected to vertical loads from the roof, crane loads and
wind load. The crane columns are analysed as subjected to axial loads and bending.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
(e ) (f)
Fig. 9.6
9.12 BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

All industrial buildings are thoroughly braced to prevent the deformation of the
structures due to the action of wind, earthquake forces, and effects of moving
equipments such as cranes. In braced industrial buildings, the roof trusses rest on
columns with hinged type of connections. The function of bracing system is to
transmit the lateral and longitudinal forces efficiently to the foundations of the
buildings. The wind and earthquake forces may act in the direction parallel or
normal to the plane of transverse bents of the industrial buildings. Therefore, the
industrial buildings are thoroughly braced in the following three mutually
perpendicular planes:
(i) transverse plane (viz., horizontal plane at the level of roof truss).
(ii) longitudinal vertical plane (viz., vertical plane along the longitudinal
section of columns).
(iii) vertical planes in the end cross-sections (usually at the gable ends).
The wind loads in the braced industrial buildings are resisted efficiently. However,
the braced provide obstructions in some bays. The braces cause higher forces
(uplifts) at some places. There is no sway in the braced industrial buildings.
The bracings of industrial buildings in two separate directions have been discussed
separately in the following articles.
9.13 BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL TRANSVERSE

DIRECTION
The industrial buildings bents are braced against transverse forces independently
of the others. As a result of this, on completion of the erection, each industrial
building bent remains stable transversely. The nature of soil under the foundation,
the fixity of columns at the base, and the rigidity of connections between the steel
trusses and columns influence the structural stability in the transverse direction.
Four methods of bracing an industrial building bent are shown in Fig. 9.7.
The suitability of each method of bracing depends on the height of the industrial
building and the span of truss. The overturning moment due to lateral forces
depends upon the height of industrial building. The overturning moment at the
base of the columns and foundations, increases with the increase of height of the
columns. The method of bracing a bent as shown in Fig. 9·7 (a), i.e., by fixing the
column at the base, and providing the mechanical hinges at the top, is suitable
when the vertical column load and the size of the foundation. are large, and the
overturning moment is small. When the span of truss is large, then the vertical
loads and consequently the size of foundation are also large. When the height of
building is small, then the overturning moment is also small. Hence, the method
of fixing columns at the base is suitable for low and wide industrial building.
The overturning moment may be reduced by providing the knee braces between
trusses and the columns. The method of bracing the bent by fixing the columns at
both the ends is suitable for tall buildings. These methods of bracing the bents by
providing knee-braces as shown in Fig. 9·7 (b) and (c), are suitable when the
spans of trusses are small. In case the columns are hinged, then there is no bending
moment on the foundation. The construction of foundations becomes cheap when
the columns are hinged. The reduced moment is transferred to the column at the
junction of knee-braces with the columns. In case the columns are fixed, then the
moments are further reduced. But the foundations have to resist some moment.
The knee braces resist overturning moment. The knee braces cause additional
loads on whole of the truss. The knee braces reduce the clear height of buildings.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to have maximum head-room around the walls
of the industrial buildings. In such places, the knee braces cannot be provided.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
Fig. 9.7 Methods of bracing an industrial building bent
The method of bracing the bent without knee braces as shown in Fig. 9.7 (d) is
adopted. In this method, the column and truss connections are made rigid. The
columns are fixed at the bases, and the foundations are made large.
The rigid cable frames (solid-web or open web type) may also be designed for
industrial buildings. The ends of gable frames may be either fixed or hinged.
9.14 BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS IN

LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION
When the wind acts in the direction normal to the plane of industrial building
bents, i.e., in the longitudinal direction, then it becomes essential to brace it to
another to provide sufficient stability against wind or other longitudinal forces.
The industrial building bents are braced together in pairs. When two bents are
braced together, then they form braced bay. A braced bay acts like a space tower
under the action of wind. Such braced bents are provided at every third or fourth
bay of the industrial building. It is essential to provide at least two braced bays in
each industrial building. The bents are braced by providing trusses in the plane of
top chord and in the plane of bottom chord of the roof trusses. These trusses
maintain the rectangular shape of the building and prevents the collapse of the
structure from twisting action of the diagonal wind. The horizontal truss bracings
transmit the longitudinal forces to the columns at the sides. The columns are
braced in the longitudinal vertical planes by providing cross frames. The portal
type bracing or knee bracing may also be used to brace the columns in the
longitudinal vertical planes. These bracings transmit these loads to the foundations.
The methods of bracing bents with and without knee braces are discussed below:
9.14.1 Bents with Knee Braces

An industrial building consisting of ten bents is shown in Fig. 9.8.
It is a single panel nine bay braced building. It has
(1) ten columns on each longitudinal section
(2) three additional gable columns at each gable end
(3) ten roof trusses (two end trusses may be replaced by gable frames)
(4) five purlins on each rafter (continuous over trusses)
(5) gable may be braced to provide stability in the lateral directions
(6) three bays of longitudinal bracing on each longitudinal bracing stability
in the longitudinal directions
(7) roof truss tie bracings to transfer lateral loads of trusses to the end gable
bracings. The stability in the horizontal plane is increased
(8) rafter bracing of end bays to provide stability to trusses in the planes
(9) rails (or purlins) on the longitudinal columns (rails to support cladding)
(10) rails to support cladding at the gable ends
(11) eaves girders all round at eave level, and
(12) longitudinal ties connecting the trusses
The industrial building has three braced bays. Each braced bay has a complete
set of cross-diagonals in the plane of top chord and in the plane of bottom chord as
shown in Fig. 9.8 (b), and in the longitudinal vertical plane as shown in Fig. 9.8
(c). The columns acting with diagonal members D ; members S ; members ES,
(cave strut) and chords of truss form a system of double inter-section or cross-
diagonal trusses. The wind acting on the end of industrial building is resisted by
the siding. The siding is supported on the horizontal beams. The horizontal beams
are known as girts. The girts are shown in Fig. 9.8 (a) by dotted lines. The end
wall frame columns support the girts. The wind load acting on the end sheeting
between the rows of columns are transferred to the columns by the sheeting girts.
The end wall frame columns react against the members S, in the end bays as
shown in Fig. 9.8 (b). The members S, are struts. These struts have their reaction
on the bracing trusses. The bracing trusses have been provided in the plane of top
chord and in the plane of bottom of the roof trusses. These bracing trusses transmit
the longitudinal forces (wind and other forces) in the form of reactions to the cross-
frames. The cross-frames consist of eave struts ES, diagonals, D, and the columns.
Sometimes the eave struts also consist of small trusses.
The members marked T as shown in Fig. 9.8 (b) are sometimes made to resist
compression, and, sometimes made to resist tension. When these members resist
compression, then, the wind forces acting on the building are transferred beyond
braced bays through these members. When these members resist tension only
then the whole of the wind force is resisted by the end braced bay.
The exact analysis of stresses in the bracing members cannot be done. The
stresses in the members of bracing system are of small magnitudes. The minimum
size of members required is sufficient for these members.
G irt
E n d w all
G irt Fra m in g co lu m ns
(a ) In du stria l bu ildin g be nt
ES S S S ES
D D D D D D D D
ES S S S ES
ES T T T ES
ES T T T ES
D D D D D D D D
ES S S S ES
ES T T T ES
ES T T T ES
D D D D D D D D
ES ES
S S S
ES S S S ES
(b ) P lan o f to p ch o rd/b o tto m ch ord b ra cing

ES ES
D D D D D D
(c) E leva tio n of side w a ll colu m n bra cing

Fig. 9.8
9.14.2 Bents without Knee Braces

An industrial building consisting of thirteen bents is shown in Fig. 9.9. The bents
are without knee braces as shown in Fig. 9.9 (a). Such industrial buildings are
braced by means of cross diagonals as shown in Fig. 9.9 (b). The cross-diagonal
(a ) In du stria l bu ildin g be nt
(b ) P lan o f b ottom ch ord b racin g
(c) E leva tio n of side w a ll colu m n bra cing
Fig. 9·9
bracing is provided in the plane of bottom chord. The bracing struts form a complete
truss system. These transmit longitudinal forces at the ends of the buildings.
These forces are transmitted to the ground by cross-frames in end framing. The
cross-diagonal bracings are provided in the end bays in the plane of top chord of
the roof truss also.
An industrial building should not be overbraced. The light fabricated bracing
increases the cost and interferes with the functional use of the building, location of
wall openings and architectural appearance. A good practice to follow is that the
geometry must be such that the structure shall be stable under lateral loads. All
the lateral loads are transferred through the structure to the foundation system,
viz., the combined geometry of primary structure and the bracing system.
The single bay or multiple bays of gables are the examples of unbraced
buildings. The unbraced industrial buildings are also shown in Fig. 9.2. In
unbraced frames, the lateral load (either due to wind or earthquake) is resisted
by bending moment in the beams and columns. Even, the unbraced buildings may
require bracing in some directions to provide stability and minimize drifts.
9.15 ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING BENTS

9.15.1 Columns Hinged at the Base
An industrial building bent with knee braces is shown in Fig. 9.10 (a). The columns
of bent are hinged at A and B at the base. The columns are riveted to the truss at
the points C and D and to the knee braces at the points, E, and F. The total
horizontal load P due to wind acts at the top of column. This industrial building
bent is statically indeterminate to the first degree. The exact analysis of this
structure can be done by various methods, viz., the method of slope deflection, the
method of moment distribution, or the method of consistent deformation. However,
this bent is analysed by approximate method of analysis. Since, the bent is
indeterminate to the first degree, one assumption is made for its analysis. It is
assumed that the horizontal components of the applied loads are equally divided
between two points of supports. This assumption holds good so long as the bent is
symmetrical and the bending stiffnesses of the columns are equal.
Therefore, the horizontal reactions at the supports A and B.
P
HA = HB = ...(9.1)
2
The vertical reactions at hinged supports
⎡ P ⋅ (h1 + h2 ) ⎤
VA = VB = ⎢ ⎥⎦ ...(9.2)
⎣ L
The maximum bending moment, ME occurs at the foot of knee brace
⎛P ⎞
ME = ⎜ ⋅ h1 ⎟ ... (9.3)
⎝2 ⎠
It is necessary to consider the conditions existing in the columns, before the
determination of stresses in the members of roof truss. The horizontal load P is
carried to the points of supports by means of the columns. The horizontal load
acts perpendicular to the columns. Figure 9.10 (b) shows the industrial bending
bent under distortion. The distortion of one column is shown on enlarged scale in
Fig. 9.10 (c). The column is riveted at the top i.e., at the point C, and to the knee
brace at the point E. It is assumed that the columns remains vertical between E
and C. The column is subjected to bending moment Mx, shear Fx, and the direct
force Vx . The maximum bending moment ME occurs at the foot of knee i.e., at the
point E as given by Eq. 9·3. The bending moment varies uniformly to zero at the
h
D
P C
F E h2
h1
HB
A HA
B A B
VA VB
(a ) (b )
E ME
MX
H1
x
HB
VB
(d )
(c)
Fig. 9.10
top, and at the bottom of the column as shown in Fig. 9·10 (d). The values of shear
force and the direct force in the portion CF of the column depends upon the force in
the knee brace, which is still to be determined.
9.15.2 Columns Fixed at the Base

An industrial building bent with knee braces and the columns fixed at the base is
shown in Fig. 9·11 (a). The columns are riveted to the truss at the points C and D
and to the knee braces at the points E and F. The total horizontal load P, due to
wind acts at the top of column. The industrial building bent is statically
indeterminate to the third degree. Therefore, three assumptions are made for the
approximate analysis of the bent. It is assumed that the horizontal reactions at

the two columns are equal. The bent is symmetrical and the bending stiffnesses of
the columns are equal.
Therefore, the horizontal reactions
⎛ P⎞
HB = HA = ⎜ ⎟ ... (9.4)
⎝ 2⎠
Figure 9·11 (b) shows the bent under distortion. It is to note that the change of
curvature occurs at the point O, mid-way between E and B. This is the point of
inflection or zero bending moment. Therefore, it is assumed that the points of
h
D C
P
h2
F E
h1 1
2
O O
1 h
1
2
A HA B HB
MA L MB A B
VA VB
(a ) (b )
C
C
H2 h2
Ph 1
E E ME =
4
1 h
2 1 1 h1
P 2
2
P O
2
1
1 h
2 h1
2 1
B B
HB
MB
(d )
VB
(c)
Fig. 9.11 Moment diagram

inflection or contraflexure occur midway between E and B, and F and A. It amounts

to two assumptions. The vertical reactions on the bent are equal to the axial forces
in the columns. The vertical reaction can be determined by taking moments about
point of contraflexures. Therefore, the vertical reactions
⎡ ⎛ h1 ⎞⎤
⎢ P ⎜⎝ 2 + h2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
VA = VB = ⎢ ⎥ ... (9.5)
⎣ h ⎦
The deformed shape of one column is shown in Fig. 9.11 (c) on enlarged scale.
The maximum bending moment occurs at the point E and at the point of support B.
⎛ Ph1 ⎞
∴ ME = MB = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ... (9.6)
4 ⎠
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 9.11 (d). The bending moment
varies uniformly to zero at the top of column and at the point of contraflexure.
An industrial building bent with knee braces and columns fixed at the base has
stresses less than that with columns hinged at the base.
9.15.3 Columns Partially Fixed at the Base

Unless the columns are absolutely fixed at the base, the point of inflection cannot
be assumed as located mid-way between the base of the column and the foot of the
knee brace. Usually the span of bent i.e., the base of columns is wide in the plane
of roof truss, the bent can always be considered partially fixed at the base. Therefore,
it is better to assume that the point of contraflexure occurs somewhat below the
mid-point between the base of column and the foot of knee brace. The bending
moment carried by the column is more. The stresses in the members are also
more. Therefore, it is assumed that distance from the base of column to the point
of contraflexure is one-third of the distance from the base of the column to the
foot knee brace.
The industrial building bent with knee braces and columns partially fixed at
the base is shown in Fig. 9.12 (a). The bent under distortion is shown in Fig. 9.12
(b). The column of the bent is shown in Fig. 9.12 (c) on enlarged scale. The
corresponding bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 9.12 (d).
The horizontal reactions are
⎛ P⎞
HA = HB = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ...(9.7)
2
The vertical reactions are
⎡ ⎛2 ⎞⎤
⎢ P ⎜⎝ 3 h1 + h2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
VA = VB = ⎢ ⎥ ...(9.8)
⎣ h ⎦
The maximum bending moment ME, occurs at the foot of knee brace
⎛ P ⋅ h1 ⎞
ME = ⎜ ...(9.9)
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
The bending moment at the base of the column MB = ⎛ P ⋅ h1 ⎞ ...(9.10)

⎜⎝ ⎟
6 ⎠
The wind load acting above the points of contraflexures are taken into
consideration. The industrial buildings bent with knee braces and with columns
partially fixed at the base are most practicable and hence adopted for the use of
industrial buildings.
h
D C D C
P
h2
F E F
E
2h
3 1
O1 O
1 h1
HB
3
A HA B
MB MB A B
VA VB
(a ) C o lu m n b ases (b ) C o lu m n u nd er
p artia lly fixed d isto rsion
h2
M E = Ph1
3
2
3 h1
O O
1
h
3 1
M E = Ph1
6
(c) (d ) B e nd in g mo m en t d ia gram
Fig. 9.12
9.15.4 Analysis of Stresses in the Members of Roof Truss

The stresses in various members of the roof truss due to vertical load i.e., dead
load, live load, and snow load, if any) are determined just as though the truss is
simply supported on masonry walls. In other words it is assumed that the stresses
in the knee braces are zero, the columns carry direct loading only.
The stresses in various members of the roof truss due to wind load are found
analytically or graphically. The wind load acting above the point of contraflexures
are considered.
9.16 DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

The design of industrial building includes the designs of the following components :
1. Roof trusses 2. Crane gantry girder
3. Gable rafter 4. Side rails (girts)
5. Gable columns 6. Gable wind girder
7. Vertical side bracing 8. Rafter bracing
9. Columns and bracket connections 10. Column bases and foundation.
The design of the above components of the industrial buildings have been
discussed in the worked out examples.
Example. 9·1 The span of knee roof trusses used over an industrial building
28 m long is 18 m. The spacing of roof trusses is 4 m. The pitch of roof truss is 1
in 4. The galvanized corrugated iron sheets are used for roof covering. The basic
wind pressure is 1.50 kN/m2 and there is no snow fall. The height of eaves above
ground level is 8 m. Propose a suitable type of roof truss. Determine the loads at
the various panel points due to dead load, live load and the wind load. Determine
the reactions also.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. Span of knee-braced roof truss is 18 m.
For galvanized corrugated iron sheets, pitch of the roof truss provided 1
1
=
4
1 1
∴ Rise of roof truss = × span = × 18 = 4.50 m
4 4
Let θ be the slope of roof truss
1
tan θ = ∴ θ = 26° 34´
2
Length along the sloping roof
= [92 +(4.5)2]1/2 = 10.20 m
Length along sloping roof is divided into four equal parts
∴ Length of each panel
⎛ 10.20 ⎞
= ⎜ = 2.55 m
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Therefore, for above proportions, a French roof truss as shown in Fig. 9.13 is
used. The trusses are provided at 4 m spacing. The purlins are provided at each
panel point.
4 .5 m
A1
A
2m
B
B1
18 m
4m
8m
C
C1
2m
D
D1
P a rtially P a rtially fixe d
fixe d
Fig, 9.13
Step 2. Load
The load at each panel point is determined as under:
(i) Dead load
Weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets = 0.1331 kN/m2
Weight of purlins (assumed) = 0.150 kN/m2
Weight of bracings (assumed) = 0.015 kN/m2
1 ⎛l ⎞ 1 ⎛ 18 ⎞
Self-weight of truss w = ⎜⎝ + 5⎟⎠ = × ⎜ + 5⎟
⎝ ⎠
100 3 100 3
= 0·110 kN/m2
Total dead load = 0.4081 kN/m2
Spacing of roof truss = 4 m
Panel length = 2.55 m
Panel length in span = 2.55 × cos 26° 35´ = 2.28 m
Load at each intermediate panel due to dead load
= (0.0481 × 4 × 2.28)
= 3.722 kN (say, 4 kN)
∴ Load at end panel due to dead load = 2 kN
(ii) Live load
Access is not provided for roofing except for maintenance
Slope of roof truss = 26° 34´ = 26° 57°
10
∴ Live load =× (75 – 10 – 2 × 6.57)
100
= 0.5186 kN/m2
∴ Live load at each intermediate panel due to live load
W = (0.5186 × 4 × 2.28) = 4.73 kN (say, 4.80 kN)

1
Load at each end panel due to live load 2
W = 2.40 kN
W
W W
E F W
W
D 6 8 G
W W W W
C 5 9
2 H 2
4 7 10 I
B 2 3 11 12
A 1 13 K
4W 4W
16 m
D e ad lo ad W
L ive loa d W
Fig, 9.14
The forces in various members of the roof truss due to dead load and live load
are shown in Fig, 9.14. The vertical reaction at support is 4W, where W is as
shown in Fig, 9.14.
Note. The forces in various members of the roof truss may be found analytically
or graphically as if the roof truss is simply supported or stresses in the knee
braces are zero.
(iii) Wind load
Slope of roof truss = 26° 34´
Intensity of wind pressure, p = 1.50 kN/m2
The roof trusses are used over industrial buildings, It is assumed that the
industrial buildings has normal permeability.
From Table 8.1, Vol. 1, external wind pressure plus internal air pressure on
roof sheeting. ‘
Windward slope
For 20° slope = – 0.60 p = – 0.60 × 1.50 = – 0.90 kN/m2
For 30° slope = – 0.30 p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 kN/m2
10 ⎡ ⎛ −90 + 45 ⎞ ⎤
For 26° 34' slope = −90 − ⎜ × 6.57
⎢
1000 ⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
= 0.604 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26°34´ = 0.70 p = – 0.70 × 1.50 = –1.05 kN/m2
From Table 8.2, Vol. 1 external wind pressure plus internal air section on roof
sheeting .
Windward slope
For 20° slope = – 0.20 p = – 0.20 × 1.50 = – 0.30 kN/m2
For 30° slope = + 0.10 p = + 0.10 × 0.50 = + 0.15 kN/m2

10 ⎡ ⎛ −30 − 15 ⎞ ⎤
For 26° 34´ slope = −30 − ⎜ × 6.57
1000 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
= – 0.004 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26° 34´ = – 0.30 × p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.450 kN/m2.
External pressure plus internal air pressure on vertical side sheeting
Windward side = 0.50 p + (– 0.20p) = + 0.30 p = 0.30 × 1.50
= 0.450 kN/m2
Leeward side = 0.50p + (– 0.20p) = – 0.70p = – 0.70 ×1.50
= –1.05 kN/m2
1 WN 1 SN
2 2
WN SN
WN SN
WN SN
1 WN θ 1 SN
θ
2 θ θ 2
WHA W H A1
A A1
2m 2m
WHB W H B1
B 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m B1
4m 18 m 4m
WHC (a ) WHC1
C 4 S N . sin θ C1
4W N
4 W N . sin θ 4W N
θ = 6 3° 26 6 3° 2 6 = θ
4 W N . cos θ 4 S N . co s θ
WHA W H A1
A A1
2m 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m 2m
WHB B B1 W H B1
18 m
4m 4m
WHC RHC RHC1 WHC1

C C1
RV C EVC 1
(b )
Fig. 9.15
External wind pressure plus internal air suction on vertical side sheeting
Windward side = + 0.50p + (+0.20p) = + 0.70p = + 0.70 × 1.50
= +1.05 kN/m2
Leeward side = 0.50p + 0.20p = – 0.30p = – 0.30 × 1.50
= – 0.45 kN/m2.
Windward load at each intermediate and end panel points due to external
wind plus internal air pressure
Windward slope
Intermediate panel = – 0.604 × 4 × 2.55 = – 6.16 kN/m2
WN (say) = – 6.20 kN/m2
End panel
1
W = – 3.10 kN/m2
2 N
Leeward slope
Intermediate panel = – 1.05 × 4 × 2.55 = – 10.71 kN/m2
SN (say) = – 10.80 kN/m3
1
End panel S = – 5.40 kN/m2
2 N
Wind loadat A, WHA = 0.45 ×1 × 4 = 1.80 kN
Wind load at B, W HB = 0.45 × (2 + 1) × 4 = 5.40 kN
Wind load at C, WHC = 0.45 × (2 + 1) × 4 = 5.40 kN
Wind load at A1 WHA1 = –1.05 × 1 × 4 = – 4.20 kN
Wind load at B1, WHB = –1.05 × (2 + 1) × 4 = –12.60 kN

1
Wind load at C1, WHC1 = –1.05 × (2 + 1) × 4 = –12.60 kN

The wind loads actings on the roof truss and vertical side sheeting are shown in
Fig, 9.15 (a) and equivalent wind loads are shown in Fig. 9.15 (b).
Step 3. Reactions
It is assumed that the horizontal reactions at the point of contraflexures C and
C1 are equal.
∴ Horizontal reaction at C
=[1.80 + 4.20 + 2 × 5.40 + 2 × 12.60 + (19.30 – 11.10)] kN
RHC = 25.l0 kN
In order to determine the vertical reaction due to wind at C, take moment about
C1
∴ Vertical reaction at C
1
RVC = [(5.40 + 12.60) × 4 + (1.80 + 4.20) × 6 + (19.30 –11.10) × 6
18
+ 38.60 × 5.72 + 22.16 × (6.56 + 5.72)] = 36.10 kN.
Horizontal reactions at C1 RHC1 = 25.10 kN
Vertical reaction at C1 RVC1 = (22.16 + 38.60 – 36.12) = 24 .66 kN

Wind load at each intermediate and each panel point due to external wind plus
internal air suction
Windward slope
Intermediate panel, WN = – 0.0040 × 4 × 2.56 = – 0.0408 kN
(say, – 0.0420 kN)
1
End panel W = – 0.021 kN
2
Leeward slope
Intermediate panel SN = – 0.450 × 4 × 2.55 = – 4.59 kN
(say, – 4.60 kN)
End panel
1
S = – 2.30 kN
2 N
Wind load at A, W HA = +1.05 × 1 × 4 = +4.20 kN
Windload at B, W HB = +1.05 × (2+1) × 4 = + 12.60 kN
Wind load at C, W HC = +1.05 × (2 +1) × 4 = + 12.60 kN
Wind load at A1 WHA1 = – 0.0450 × 1 × 4 = – 1.80 kN
Wind load at B1 WHB1 = – 0.450 × (2 +1) × 4 = – 5.40 kN
Wind load at C1 WHC1 = – 0.450 × (2 + 1) × 4 = – 5.40 kN

The wind loads acting on the roof truss and vertical side sheeting are shown in
Fig. 9.16 (a) and equivalent wind load are shown in Fig. 9.16 (b).
1 WN 1 SN
2 2 SN
WN
WN SN
WN SN
1 WN θ 1 SN
θ
2 θ θ 2
WHA W H A1
A 2m A1
2m
WHB W H B1
B 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m B1
4m 18 m 4m
WHC (a ) W H C1
C C1
4 W N . sin θ 4 W N . sin θ
4W N 4W N
θ = 6 3° 26 6 3° 26 = θ
4 W N . cos θ 4 S N . co s θ
WHA W H A1
A A1
2m 5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m 2m
WHB B B1 W H B1
18 m
4m 4m
WHC RHC RHC1 W H C1

C C1
RV C RV C 1
(b )
Fig. 9.16
Horizontal reaction at C
1
RHC =[(1.80 + 4.20) + 2 × 5.40 + 2 × 12.60
2
+ (8.24 – 0.075)] = 25.08 kN
For vertical reaction at C, take moment about C1.
∴ Vertical reaction at C
1
RVC = [(12.60 + 5.40) × 4 + (4.20 + 1.80) × 6
18
+ (8.24 – 0.075) × 6 + 17.40 × 5.72 + 0.15
× (6.56 + 7.52)] = 14.37 kN
Vertical reaction at C1
RVC1 = (17.40 + 0.15 –14.38) = 3.17 kN
Horizontal reaction at C1 = 25.08 kg
Step 4. Forces in various members
The forces in the various members of the knee braced roof truss may be found
by graphical method. Since the columns are subjected to moment, shear and axial
trust, a temporary frame work or an auxiliary framework is added to the truss
system. The temporary framework is arranged such that the moment at the foot
of the knee brace causes stress in the members of the temporary framework. The
temporary framework consists of T–18, S –19, 18 –19 and M –15, N –16 and 15 –16 as
shown in Fig. 9.17. The knee braced roof truss becomes a perfect determinate frame.
1 1
2 W N J 2 SN
WN E F SN
WN D 6 8 G SN
W N 5 9 H
1 C SN 1
2 WN B 3
4 7 10 I 2 SN
1 2 11 1 2 K
A 13
WHA W H A1
T 17 14 M
18 15
WHB W H B1
19 16
S N
WHC RHC RHC1 WHC1
R Q P O
RV C RV C 1
Fig. 9.17
These members may be of any convenient lengths. The wind load acting on the
windward side are assumed to act at the joints of temporary or auxiliary framework.
The addition of temporary frameworks do not change the forces in members of the
knee braced roof truss.
Note. The forces obtained in columns by this graphical method are not correct.
The forces in columns are found after removing the temporary framework, from
loading and reactions on the columns.
For the design of various members and the joints, the maximum force in each
member may be found for the combination of loads whichever is severe. The members
and joints may be designed for maximum forces in them.
The design for crane gantary girder for the industrial building may be done as
explained in Vol. I.
Example 9.2 Design gable rafter, side rails, gable columns and gable wind
girder for the industrial building in Example 9.1.
Solution
1. Design of Gable Rafter
Step 1
The gable end of this industrial building is divided into four parts of 4.5 m each
by providing three gable columns as shown in Fig. 9.18. The gable rafter is supported
over columns. The purlins are supported by the gable rafter.
D
G ab le ra fte r
E E1
4 .5 m
B C B1 A1
A
G ab le G ab le G ab le
colum n colum n colum n 8m
4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m
16 m
Fig. 9.18
Horizontal span of gable rafter = 4.5 m

From Example 9.1
Spacing between roof trusses = 4 m
Step 2. Loads
(i) Dead load
Weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets (sec 26° 34´ = 1.118)
= 18 sec 26° 34´ × 2.0 × 0.1331= 5.36 kN
Weight of purlins assumed
= 18 sec (26° 34´) × 2.0 × 0.15 = 6.04 kN
(ii) Live load= 0.5186 × 18 × 2 = 18.67 kN

Self-weight of rafter = 3.53 kN
(iii) Total weight of gable rafter
= (5.36 + 6.04 + 18.67 + 3.53) = 33.60 kN
Weight per span of gable rafter
⎛ 33.60 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 8.40 kN
4 ⎠
Basic intensity of wind pressure, p = l.50 kN/m2
When the direction of wind is normal to gable ( i.e., parallel to ridge)
External wind pressure on both slopes = – 0.6 × p
Internal air pressure = – 0.2 p
∴ Total wind pressure
= – 0.8 × p = – 0.8 × 1.50 = – 1.20 kN/m2
Uplift pressure due to wind (sec 26° 34´ = 1.118)
= 1.20 × 2 × 4.5 × sec 26° 34´ = 12.07 kN
Since, the permissible increase of stress is 50 percent, the uplift pressure does
not govern the design. The design is governed by vertical load 8.40 kN per span.
Step 3. Maximum bending moment
⎛ 8.40 × 4.5 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 4.725 kN-m
⎝ 8
Try 2 ISA 100 mm × 65 mm × 8 mm for gable rafter.
Section modulus provided = 2 × 18.7 × 103 mm3
⎛ 4.725 × 106 ⎞
Bending stress, σb = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 126.34 N/mm
2
3
2 × 18.7 × 10 m
Hence, safe.
2. Design of Side Rails (Girts)
Step 1. The sides and ends of the industrial buildings are covered with asbestos
sheets. The siding is supported by side rails or girts composed of rolled steel sections.
The horizontal span of girts is equal to the spacing of roof trusses or columns.
∴ Horizontal span of side rails = 4 m
Let the vertical spacing of side rails = 1.60 m
Provide ISA 125 m mm × 95 mm × 10 mm with long leg horizontal
Step 2. Loads
(i) Vertical load
Weight of asbestos sheets
= (4.0 × 1.60 × 0.156) = 0.998 kN
Self-weight of side rails
= (4.0 × 0.165) = 0.66 kN
Total vertical load

= (0.998 + 0.66) = 1.658 kN
Bending moment in vertical plane
⎛ 1.658 × 4.0 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.829 kN-m
⎝ 8
Maximum compressive stress in bending (ly = 163.7 × 104 mm)
⎛ 0.829 × 106 × 23.9 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 12.10 N/mm
2
⎝ 162.7 × 104
Maximum tensile stress in bending
⎛ 0.829 × 106 × 71.1 ⎞

= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 36.23 N/mm
2
162.7 × 104
(ii) Horizontal load
Basic intensity of wind pressure p = 1.50 kN/mm2
External wind pressure = + 0.5 p
Internal air pressure = + 0.2 p
Total wind pressure = + 0.70p = 0.70 ×1.05 = 1.05 kN/m2
Wind load = (4.0 × 1.60 × 1.05) = 6.72 kN
Bending moment in horizontal plane due to wind
⎛ 6.72 × 4.0 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 3.36 kN-m
⎝ 8
Maximum compressive stress in bending (Ixx = 325.8 ×104 mm4)
⎛ 3.36 × 106 × 38.8 ⎞

σbc2 = ⎜ = 40.015 N/mm2
⎝ 325.8 × 104 ⎟⎠
Maximum tensile stresses in bending
⎛ 3.36 × 106 × 86.2 ⎞

σbc2 = ⎜ = 40.015 N/mm2
⎝ 325.8 × 104 ⎟⎠
∴ Combined stress
−12.18 ± 88.90 ⎫
⎪ N/mm2 <1.1×1.65 N/mm2
−12.18 ± 40.015⎬
or Henc, safe.
or +36.23 ± 40.015⎪⎭
Six side rails are provided for 8 m height.
3. Design of Gable Column
Consider the central gable column.
Step 1. Loads
(i) Vertical load
Reaction from adjacent gable rafter = 8.40 kN
Weight of side sheeting
= (12.5 × 4.5 × 0.156) = 8.775 kN
Weight of side rails = (0.165 × 4.5 × 6) = 4.455 kN
Self-weight of gable column = 4.37 kN (assumed)
Total vertical load = (8.40 + 8.775 × 4 .455 + 4.37)
= 26.00 kN
(ii) Horizontal load
Total wind pressure = + 0.7 p
= 0.7 × 1.50 = 1.05 kN/m2
The gable column is supported by the foundation at the base and by a member
AA running across the end of the industrial building at the eaves height as shown
in Fig, 9.18 and by the gable rafter at the roof line.
Total wind load on column
= 1.05 × 4.5 × 8 = 37.80 kN
Step 2. Maximum bending, moment
⎛ 37.80 × 8 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 37.80 kN-m
⎝ 8
It is assumed that the gable column is laterally supported by a bracing at 4 m
above the base.
∴ Effective length of gable column = 4 m
From lSI Hand Book No.1, try ISHB 225 @ 431 N/m
Cross-sectional area A = 5494 mm2
Modulus of section,
Zxx = 469.3 × 103 mm3, rxx= 98.0 mm, ryy = 49.6 mm
Slenderness ratio,
⎛ 4000 ⎞
rmin = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 80.6
49.6 ⎠
From IS : 800–84 allowable stress in axial compression for steel fy, = 250 N/mm2
σac = 100.34 N/mm2
Actual stress in axial compression
26.00 × 103
σac.cal = = 4.73 N/mm2
5494
Actual bending stress,
⎛ 37.80 × 106 ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ = 80.545 N/mm2
⎝ 469.3 × 106 ⎟⎠
Allowable stress in bending in compression (assumed)
σbc = 80 N/mm2
The gable is subjected to axial compression and bending. It is checked for
combined stress
⎛ σ ac.cal σbc.cal ⎞ ⎛ 4.73 80.545 ⎞

∴ + = ⎜⎝ + ⎟ = 1.054 < 1.10
⎜⎝ σ σbc ⎟⎠ 100.34 80 ⎠
ab
Hence, safe.
4. Design of Gable Wind Girder
Step 1. The gable wind girders are provided in both the end panels of the
industrial buildings at the eaves level as shown in Fig. 9.19 (b). The gable wind
A re a fo r w in d pressu re
a cting o ver
w in d w a rd g irde r
4 .5 m
4m
4m
4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m
R (a ) R
5 .72 m 6 .56 m 5 .72 m

2.8 6 2.8 6 6.5 6 m 2.8 6 2.8 6
ES ES
4m
4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m 4 .5 m
1 1
2 WN WN WN WN 2 WN
(b )
Fig. 9.19
girder resist the wind load acting on the gable end. The gable columns and the
lower panel points of the roof trusses are braced together. This forms gable wind
girder. The eaves struts (ES) are provided at the eaves level. The struts are also
provided at the ridge.
It is assumed that the wind pressure acting over the portion upto half of the
eaves height i.e., upto 4 m from the base is transferred to the foundation by the
gable columns. The wind pressure acting over the shaded portion of the gable end
as shown in Fig. 9.19 (a) acts over the wind girder.
Step 2. Winds pressure
Basic wind pressure p = l .50 kN/m2
Total wind pressure = + 0.70 p
= + 0.70 × 1.50 = 1.05 kN/m2
Average wind load per metre length of gable wind girder
⎛ 4.5 ⎞
= 1.05 ⎜ 4 + ⎟ = 6.5625 kN/m
⎝ 2 ⎠
Step 3. Wind load
Wind load acting on the panel point
WN = 6.5625 × 4.5 = 29.53 kN
1
Wind load acting on the end panel point 2
W N = 14.76 kN
Reaction at the end of wind girder
1
= 2
(2 ×14.76 + 3 × 29.53) = 59.055 kN
The wind loads, W N and the reactions acting on the gable girder are shown in
Fig. 9.19 (b).
The forces in the various members of the gable girder may be found by resolving
the forces about the join or by method of section, and the members and joints may
be designed.
Example 9.3 Design vertical side bracing and the rafter bracing for the
industrial building in Example 9.1 and Example 9.2. The horizontal force along
the rails over the gantry girder due to electrically operated overhead crane is
23.40 kN. The height of rails is 5 m above the base. Take maximum compressive
force in one rafter of the root truss as 86.00 kN.
Solution
1. Design of vertical side bracing
Step 1. The vertical side bracing is provided to transfer the longitudinal load of
the industrial building to the foundation. The reaction of gable wind girder acts at
the eaves level in the longitudinal direction. The horizontal force along the rails
over the gantry girder due to crane is 23.40 kN. This horizontal force acts 5 m
above the base. This force also acts in the longitudinal direction. The cross-diagonal
bracing as shown in Fig. 9.20 is provided to resist the longitudinal loads. The
diagonal member subjected to tension is considered as effective.
WH1
c f k
3m
b e h
WH2
8m
5m 9 0°
a d g
4m 4m
Fig. 9.20
Reaction from the gable wind girder, WH1 = 59.055 kN
Longitudinal force due to crane, WH2 = 23.40 kN

Force in member cf, (Eaves strut) = 59.055 kN
Force in member, be = 23.40 kN
The force in member ak tension member of the bracing is found by taking the
moment about point g.
Perpendicular distance from point g to the member
1
ak = 2
(82 + 82)1/2 = 5.656 m
Step 2. Force in member
⎛ 58.005 × 8 + 23.40 × 5 ⎞
Member, ak = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 104.22 kN
⎝ 5.656
From lSI Handbook No.1
Try ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 6 mm. Net area of the member
= (A2 + k A2) mm2
Provide 10 mm diameter rivet for the connection.
Net rea of connected leg,
1
A1 = (80 – 21. 5 – 2
× 6) = 333 mm2
Area of outstanding leg,
1
A2 = (80 – 2
× 6) × 6 = 462 mm2
⎛ 3 A1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 333 ⎞
∴ k = ⎜ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.684
⎝ 3 A1 + A2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 × 333 × 462 ⎠
Net area provided is
(A1 + kA1) = (333 + 0.684 × 462) = 649. 01 mm2
∴Stress in axial tension
⎛ 3⎞
= ⎜ 104 .22 × 10 ⎟ = 160.58 N/mm2
⎝ 649.01 ⎠
< (1.10 × 150 = 165 N/mm2)
The eaves strut, cf, may be designed for 59.055 kN
2. Design of Rafter bracing
Step 1. As per IS : 800–1984 in the case of a series of lattice beams, girder of
roof trusses which are connected together by the same system of restraint members,
the sum of the restraining forces required shall be taker as 3.5 percent of the
maximum force in the compression flange plus 1.25 percent of this force for every
member of the series other than the firs upto a maximum of 7.5 percent.
The rafter bracings are provided in the end panels for the industrial buildings as
shown in Fig, 9.21. The rafter bracing supports three roof trusses in the lateral direction,
4 .5 m
8m
Ve rtica l
bra cing
B ra cin g in plan e o f low er ch ord
1
4m
2 4m
3 4m
4m
4
5 4m
9m 9m
6
4m
4m
7
R a fte r b racin g
Fig. 9.21
Maximum force in compression in rafter = 86.00 kN

∴ Force in rafter bracing in the direction normal to the roof trusses
⎛ 2.5 + 2 × 1.25 ⎞ 5
= ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 86.00 × 100 × 86.00
100
= 4.30 kN
Length of rafter bracing
= [92 + (4.5)2 + 82]1/2 = 12.88 m
Step 2. Force in bracing in tension
⎛ 4.30 × 12.88 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 6.923 kN
⎝ 8
Provide ISA 75 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm, which one is a nominal size for a member.
ISA 75 mm × 50 mm × 6 mm is also provided for the bracing in the plane of lower
chord of the roof trusses.
Example 9.4 Design the columns supporting the roof trusses for the industrial
building in Example 9.1.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. For the design of columns it is necessary to determine the forces in the
knee braces of the roof trusses.
Step 2. Forces in knee braces due to wind and internal air pressure
(i) Left side knee brace
Forces acting on the roof truss and columns due to wind and internal air pressure
are shown in Fig. 9.15. The forces in the knee braces may be found by taking
moments about the top of respective columns.
(ii) Left side knee brace (Fig, 9.22, Case I)
Let the inclination of knee brace with the vertical be θ, and force in it be F1.
2.86 2.86
sin θ = = 0.817, tan θ = 0.572
2 2
2.86 + 2 2.862 + 22
Take moment at the top of left side columns
∴ F1 sin θ × 2 = (25.10 – 5.40) × 6 – 5.40 × 2 kN
∴ F1 = 65.73 kN (Tension)
Horizontal component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.22) at B
F1 sin θ = 65.73 × 0.817 = 53.70 kN
Vertical component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.22) at B
F1 cos θ = 65.73 × 0.572 = 37.60 kN
(iii) Right side knee brace (Fig. 9.22, Case I)
Let the force in knee brace be F 2. Take the moment about the top of right side
column
3 9.4 0 kN 1 .50 kN
1 .80 kN 3 7.6 0 kN
A 1 9.7 0 x 4
2m (– ) = 78 .8 0 kN -m
1 9.7 0
5 .40 kN BM D
B 5 3.7 0 kN
4m
+ Ten sio n
C
5 .40 kN
2m 2 5.1 0 kN SFD
D +1 .8 0 kN
1 .80 kN
2 5.1 0 x 2 2 5.1 0 kN 3 6.1 0 kN 5 0.2 0 kN -m
kN -m
3 6.1 0 kN C a se I
2 5.0 2 kN 3 .07 kN
4 .20 kN
A 1 1 7.4 3 kN 1 2.4 8 x 4
2m (– ) = 49 .9 2 kN -m
1 2.4 8
1 2.6 0 kN
2 4.9 0 kN
B1
4m
+ Te nsio n
C1
1 2.6 0 kN
2m 2 5.0 8 kN SFD
D 1 + 4.20 kN
4 .20 kN
2 5.0 8 x 2 2 5.0 8 kN 1 4.3 6 kN 5 0.1 6 kN
kN -m
1 4.3 6 kN C a se II
Fig. 9.22
∴ F sin θ × 2 = (25.13 – 12.60) × 6 – 12.60 × 2

F2 = 30.48 kN (Compression)
Horizontal component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.22) at B1
F2 sin θ = 30.48 × 0.817 = 24.90 kN
Vertical component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.22) at B1
= 30.48 × 0.572 = 11.43 kN
(iv) Forces in knee braces due to wind and internal air suction
Forces acting on the roof truss and columns due to wind and internal air suction
are shown in Fig. 9.16. The forces in the knee braces may be found by taking
moments about the top of respective columns.
(v) Left side knee brace (Fig. 9.22, Case I)
Let the force in knee brace be F1.Take the moment at the top of left side column.
F1´ sin θ × 2 = (25.08 –12.60) × 6 × 1260 × 2 kN
F1´ = 30.40 kN (Tension)
Horizontal component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.23) at B

F1´ sin θ = 30.40 × 0.817 = 24.80 kN
Vertical component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.23) at B
F1´ cos θ = 30.40 × 0.572 = 11.39 kN
(vi) Right side knee brace (Fig. 9.23, Case II)
Let the force in knee brace be F2´. Take the moment about the top of right side
column
F1´ sin θ × 2 = (25.08 – 5.40) × 6 – 5.40 × 2 kN
F2´ = 65.65 kN (Compression)
Horizontal component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.23) at B1
F2´ sin θ = 65.65 × 0.817 = 53.64 kN
Vertical component of force in knee-brace, (Fig. 9.23) at Bl
= 65.65 × 0.57 = 3.755 kN
Step 3. Left side column (Fig. 9.22, Case I)
(i) Shear force
At D, FD = (25.10 + 1.80 – 1.80) = 25.10 kN
At C, FC = (25.10 – 5.40) = 19.70 kN
At B, FB = (19.70 – 5.40 – 53.70) = – 39.40 kN
At A, FA = –39.40 kN
(ii) Axial force
At D, PD = 36.10 kN (Tensile)
At C, PC = 36.10 kN (Tensile)
At B, PB = (36.10 – 37.60) = –1.50 kN (Compression)
At A, PA = –1.50 kN (Compression).
(iii) Bending moment
At D, MD = 25.10 × 2 = 50.20 kN-m
At C, MC = 0.00 kN-m
At B, MB = 19.70 × 4 = 78.80 kN-m
At A, MA = 0.00
Step 4. Left side column (Fig. 9.22, Case II)
(i) Shear force
At D1, FD1 = (25.08 + 4.20 – 4.20) = 25.08 kN
At C1, FC1 = (25.08 –12.60) = 12.48 kN
At B1, FB1 = (12.48 –12.60 – 24.90) = –25.02 kN
At A1, FA1 = – 25.02 kN

(ii) Axial force
At D1, PD1 = 14.38 kN (Tensile)
At C1, PC1 = 14.38 kN (Tensile)
At B1, PB1 = (14.38 –17.48) = – 3.07 kN (Compression)
At A1, PA1 = – 3.07 kN

At D1, M D1 = 25.08 × 42 = 50.16 kN-m
At C1, M C1 = 0.00 kN-m
At B1, M B1 = 12.48 × 4 = 49.92 kN-m
At A1, M A1 = 0.00
Step 5. Forces
The forces acting on the left side column for two cases of wind are shown in Fig.
9.22. The shear force axial force, (tension or compression) and bending moment
diagrams for the loadings, have been drawn.
4 .20 kN 2 4.9 4 kN 4 2.0 6 kN

A 1 2.5 0 x 4
1 7.3 9 kN + = 50 .0 0 kN -m
2m SFD Ten sion
B 1 2.5 0 kN
2 4.8 4 kN 1 2.6 0 kN BM D
4m
C
1 2.6 0 kN
2m
(9 5.1 0 kN +4.20 kN ) 4 .20 kN
D 2 5.1 0 x 2 2 5.1 0 kN 2 4.6 6 kN 5 0.2 0 kN -m
kN -m
2 4.6 6 kN C a se I
3 9.3 6 kN 4 0.6 7 kN
A 1 1 .80 kN
3 7.5 0 kN 1 9.6 8 x 4
+ = 78 .7 2 kN -m
Ten sion
B1 5 .40 kN 1 9.6 8 kN
5 3.6 0 kN BM D
5 .40 kN
C1
(2 5.0 6 kN +1 .8 0 kN ) SFD
D1 2 5.0 8 x 2 2 5.0 8 kN 3 .17 kN 5 0.1 6 kN -m

kN -m
3 .17 kN C a se II
Fig. 9.23
Forces acting on the right side column for two cases of wind are shown in Fig.
9.23. The shear force, axial force, (tension or compression) and bending moment
diagrams for the loadings have been drawn.
The columns are subjected to moment, shear and axial thrust. Load on the
column due to dead load
= (4W = 4 × 4.00) = 16.00 kN
Step 6. Right side column (Fig, 9.23, Case I)
(i) Shear force
At D, FD = (25.10 + 4.20 – 4.20) = 25.10 kN
At C, FC = (25.10 – 12.60) = 12.50 kN
At B, FB = (l2.50 – 24.84 –12.60) = – 24.94 kN
At A, FA = –24.94 kN
(ii) Axial force
At D, PD = 24.66 kN (Tension)
At C, PC = 24.66 kN (Tension)
At B, PB = (24.66 + 11.40) = 42.06 kN
At A, PA = 42.06 kN
At D, MD = 25.10 × 2 = 50.20 kN-m
At C, MC = 0.00 kN-m
At B, MB = 12.50 × 4 = 50.00 kN-m
At A, MA = 0.00 kN-m
Step 7. Right side column (Fig, 9.23, Case II)
(i) Shear force
At D1, FD1 = (25.08 + 1.80 – 1.80) = 25.08 kN
At C1, FC1 = (25.08 –5.40) = 19.68 kN
At B1, FB1 = (19.68 – 53.64 – 5.40) = –39.36 kN
At A1, FA1 = – 39.36 kN

(ii) Axial force
At D1, PD1 = 3’17 kN (Tension)
At C1, PC1 = 3.17 kN (Tension)
At B1, PB1 = (3.27 + 37.50) = 40.67 kN
At A1, PA1 = 40.67 kN

At D1, M D1 = 25.02 × 2 = 50.6 kN-m
At C1, M C1 = 0.00 kN/m

At B1, M B1 = 19.68 × 4 = 78.72 kN-m
At A1, M A1 = 0.00
Self-weight of the column (assumed) = 2.80 kN
Load on column due to live load
= 4 × W = 4 × 4.80 = 19.20 kN
Total load due to dead load, self-weight and live load
= (16.00 + 2.80 + 19.20) = 38.00 kN
Step 8. Design conditions of loads
The column should be designed for the following conditions of loadings:
(a) Maximum compression = 38.00 kN
(b) Bending moment = 78.80 kN-m
Tension (36.10 –16.00 – 2.80) = 17.30 kN
(c) Bending moment = 49.92 kN-m
Compression (16.00 + 2.80 – 14.38) = 4.42 kN
(d) Bending moment = 50.00 kN-m
Tension (24.66 – 16.00 – 2.80) = 5.86 kN
(e) Bending moment = 78.72 kN-m
Compression (16.00 + 2.80 – 3.17) = 15.63 kN
The column is designed for condition (a). Then, the column is checked for
conditions (b) and (d). It is necessary to consider the conditions (c) and (e)
Length of the column for the base upto knee brace is 6 m.
The column is partially fixed at the base,
∴ Effective length of column
= 1.5 × 6000 = 9000 mm
Let the side rails are provided at 1.60 m, distance centre to centre,
∴ Effective length of column normal to its length = 1600 mm
From lSI Handbook No.1, try ISLB 300,@ 377 N/m
A = 4808 mm2, rxx. = 123.5 mm, ryy = 28.0 mm
Zx x = 488.9 × 103, Zyy = 50.2 × 103 mm3
Slenderness ratio parallel to length of column
⎛ 9000 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 72.87
123.5 ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2, σac = 108.84 N/mm2
Slenderness ratio normal to length of column
⎛ 1600 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 57.14
28.0 ⎠
Allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2, σac = 124.86 N/mm2
Actual stress in compression
⎛ 3⎞
σac.cal = ⎜ 38.00 × 10 ⎟ = 7.9 N/mm2. Hence, safe
⎝ 4808 ⎠
Step 9. Check for condition (b)
Actual stress in tension
⎛ 3⎞
σac.cal = ⎜ 17.30 × 10 ⎟ = 3.6 N/mm6
⎝ 4808 ⎠
Actual bending stress
⎛ 78.80 × 103 ⎞
σac.cal = ⎜ = 161.2 N/mm2
⎝ 488.9 × 103 ⎟⎠
⎛ σ at.cal σbt.cal ⎞ ⎛ 3.6 161.2 ⎞

+ = ⎜ + = 1.00 < 1.1. Hence, safe.
⎜⎝ σ
at σbc ⎟⎠ ⎝ 150 165 ⎟⎠
The axial tension and bending moment in condition (d) are less than those in
condition (b). Hence, safe.
It is to note that, the base plate, and foundation for the column subjected to
axial force and bending moment may be designed as discussed in Vol. I.
Example 9.5 Design the column section for the industrial building in which
the pitch of roof truss is 1 in 4. The spacing of roof trusses is 4 m. The span of roof
truss is 18 m. Adopt the following values of various load coming to the column
from the other components of the industrial building.
Reaction from the roof trusses including weight of purlins, roof covering
material etc. = 16.00 kN.
Reaction from side rails and sheeting = 8.98 kN.
Reaction from crane gantry girder and rails = 5.61 kN and it acts at a distance
250 mm from the face of column
Reaction due to live load = 19.20 kN
Basic wind pressure = 1.50 kN/m2
Height of column upto eaves level = 8 m
The crane level is 5 m above the base.
Crane capacity = 300 kN
Weight of the crane excluding trolley = 190 kN
Weight of trolley = 100 kN
Minimum approach of the crane hook = 1.2 m
Distance between centre of crane wheels = 3.5 m
Distance between centres of gantry girder = 17 m.
Solution
Design:
Step 1. Loads
(i) Dead load
Reaction from the roof truss including the weight of purlins, roof covering
material, etc., = 16.00 kN.
Reaction from side rails and sheeting = 8.98 kN

Reaction from crane gantry girder and rail = 5.61 kN
Self weight of column (assumed) = 14.41 kN
Total dead load = (16.00 + 8.98 + 5.61 + 14.41) = 45.00 kN.
(ii) Live load
Reaction due to live load = 19.20 kN
Let the depth of column section be 600 mm. The reaction from crane gantry
girder acts at a distance 250 mm from the face of the column.
∴ Eccentricity of reaction from centre line of column
= (300 + 250) = 550 mm
Moment due to crane gantry girder
⎛ 5.61 × 550 ⎞
M = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 3.08 kN-m
1000 ⎠
Height of eaves level above the base, h = 8 m
Height of crane level above the base = 5 m
Height of top of column above the crane level, a = 3 m
Horizontal reaction at the top of column for column of uniform section
⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 3⎞
3 M ⎜1 − ⎟ 3 × 3.08 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ h2 ⎠ ⎝ 8 × 8 ⎠ = 0.497 kN
=
2⋅h 2×8
Moment at the base level of the column (Fig. 9.24)
= (0.497 × 8 – 3.08) = 0.896 kN-m
The bending moment diagrams is shown in Fig. 9.24.
2 6° 34 ' 2 6° 34 '
0 .00 0 .00
3m
1 .59 kN -m
1 .49 kN -m 1 .49 kN -m
5m
0 .89 6 kN -m 0 .89 6 kN -m
Fig. 9.24
It is to note that the reaction due to the weight of side rails and sheeting does
not cause any moment in the column. The side rails and sheeting are attached to
the columns. The reaction due to weight of side rails and sheeting acts eccentrically.
But there is no side sway due to dead load because of symmetry of the loading and
the frame.
(iii) Wind load
Pitch of roof truss = 1 in 4
∴ Slope of roof truss = 26° 34´
The roof trusses are used over industrial buildings. It is assumed that the
industrial building has normal permeability.
From Table 8.2, Vol, I, external wind pressure plus internal air pressure on
roof sheeting [Fig, 9.25, a (i)),
Windward slope
For 20°, slope = –0.60 p = – 0.60 × 1.50 = – 0.90 kN/m2
For 30°, slope = – 0.30 p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 kN/m2
⎛ −0.9 + 0.45 ⎞
For 20° 34', slope = – 0.90 – ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 6.57
10
= –0.624 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26º 34´ = –0.70p = – 0.70 – 1.50 = – 1.05 kN/m2
From Table 8.2, Vol. I, external wind pressure plus internal air suction on roof
sheeting [Fig, 9.25, b (i)],
Windward slope
For 20°, slope = = –0.20p = – 0.20 × 1.50 = – 0.30 kN/m2
For 30°, slope = + 0.10p = + 0.10 × 1.50 = – 0.150 kN/m2
⎛ −0.30 + 0.15 ⎞
For 26° 34', slope = –30 – ⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 6.57
10
= – 0.004 kN/m2
Leeward slope
For 26° 34´ = –0.30p = – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 kN/m2
External wind pressure plus internal air pressure on vertical side sheeting
[Fig. 9·25, a (i)].
Windward side = 0.50p +(– 0.20p) = + 0.30p
= + 0.30 × 1.50 = + 0.45 kN/m2
Leeward side = – 0.50p + (+ 0.20p) = – 0.70p
= – 0.70 × 1.50 = –1.05 kN/m2.
External wind pressure plus internal air suction on vertical side sheeting [Fig.
9·25 b (i)].
Windward side = + 0.50p + 0.20p = 0.70p
= 0.70 × 1.50 = 1.05 kN/m2

Leeward side = – 0.50p + 0.20p = – 0·30p
= – 0.30 × 1.50 = – 0.45 N/m2.
0 .60 4 kN /m 2 1 .05 kN /m 2
0 .00 4 kN /m 2 0 .45 kN /m 2
-0.3 0p =0 .4 50 kN /m 2
-0.7 0 p =0 .4 50 kN /m 2
-0 .3 0 p =0 .4 5 kN /m 2
-0.7 0 p =1 .5 0 kN /m 2
E xte rna l w in d E xte rna l w in d
in te rna l air in te rna l air
p ressure suction
(i)
2 7.9 0 kN 3 2.8 8 kN 5 .64 kN 11 .91 kN
4 .10 kN 4 .10 kN 4 .08 kN 4 .08 kN
4 .2 0 kN /m
4 .2 0 kN /m
1 .80 kN /m
(ii)
3 .60 kN 3 .60 kN 3 .80 kN 3 .60 kN
2 0 kN -m 2 0.4 0 kN -m
(iii)
(a ) C a se I (a ) C a se II
Fig. 9.25
Figure 9.25 [a (i)] shows the external wind pressure plus the internal air pressure
acting on the roof and vertical side sheeting, Fig. 9.25 [b (i)] shows the external
wind pressure plus the internal air suction acting on the footing and vertical side
sheeting. The load diagrams and bending moment diagrams for the columns have
also been shown with them.
Spacing of columns = 4 m
Case 1 [Fig. 9.25 a (ii)]
Load acting on windward column = 4 × 0.45 = 1.80 kN/m
Load acting on leeward column = 4 × 1.50 = 4.20 kN/m
Case II [Fig. 9.25 b (ii)]
Load acting on windward column = 4 × 1.05 = 4.20 kN/m
Load acting on leeward column = 4 × 4.05 = 1.80 kN/m
Case I [Fig. 9.25 a (ii)]
It is assumed that horizontal reactions at the top of columns are equal
⎡ (1.05 − 0.604) × 4 × 10.20 × cos63°26´ ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥⎦ = 4.07 kN
⎣ 2
Ω 4.10 kN
Vertical reaction [Fig. 9.25 a (ii)]
Windward column = 27.90 kN
Leeward column = 32.86 kN
Case II [Fig. 9.25 (ii)]
Horizontal reaction at the top of columne 4.08 kN/m
Vertical reaction [Fig. 9.25 b (ii)]
Windward column = 5.64 kN
Leeward column = 11.91 kN
Case I [Fig. 2.25 a (iii)]
Horizontal reaction at the top of windward column without side away
3
= × 1.80 × 2 = 5.40 kN (towards left)
8
Horizontal reaction at the top of leeward column without sway
3
= × 4.20 × 8 = 12.60 kN (towards left)
8
∴Total shear at the top of both the columns
= (5.40 + 12.60) = 18.00 kN
It is assumed that the deflection at the top of columns are equal. Therefore,
total shear 18.00 kN is distributed equal in both the columns. As such the resultant
shear in both the columns are equal.
Resultant horizontal shear at the top of windward column
18.00
= − 5.40 = 3.60 (towards right)
2
Resultant horizontal shear at the top of leeward column
18.00
= 12.60 − = 3.60 (towards left)
2
Case II [Fig. 9.25 c (iii)]

Horizontal reaction at the top of windward column without side sway
3
= × 4.20 × 8 = 12.60 kN (towards left)
8
Horizontal reaction at the top of leeward column without side sway
3
= × 1.80 × 8 = 5.40 kN (towards left)
8
Total shear at the top of both the columns
= (12.60 + 5.40) = 18.00 kN
∴ Resultant horizontal shear at the top of windward column
18.00
= 12.60 − = 3.60 kN (towards left)
2
Resultant horizontal shear at the top of leeward column
18.00
= –12.60 = –3.60 kN (towards right)
2
Bending moments in Case I [Fig. 9.25 a (iii)]
Windward column at the crane level
⎡ 1.80 × 32 ⎤
= ⎢(3.60 + 4.10) × 3 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 31.20 kN-m
Windward column at the base
⎡ 1.80 × 82 ⎤
=⎢(3.50 + 4.10) × 8 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 119.20 kN-m
Leeward column at the crane level
⎡ 4.20 × 32 ⎤
= ⎢(4.10 − 3.60) × 3 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 20.40 kN-m
Leeward column at the base
⎡ 4.20 × 82 ⎤
= ⎢(4.10 − 3.60) × 8 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 134.40 kN-m
Bending moment in Case II [Fig. 9.25 b (iii)]
Windward column at the crane level
⎡ 4.20 × 32 ⎤
= ⎢(3.60 + 4.08) × 3 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 41.94 kN-m
Windward column at the base
⎡ 4.20 × 82 ⎤
⎢(3.60 + 4.08) × 8 +
= ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 195.84 kN-m
Leeward column at the crane level
⎡ 1.80 × 32 ⎤
= ⎢(4.08 − 3.60) × 3 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 9.54 kN-m
Leeward column at the base
⎡ 1.80 × 82 ⎤
= ⎢(4.08 − 3.60) × 8 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
= 61.44 kN-m
(iv) Crane load
(a) Vertical load
Weight of trolley + lifted load is (300 + 100) = 400 kN
When the trolley is at nearest distance to gantry girder as shown in Fig, 9.26,
then, the vertical loads on the crane wheels are maximum.
Take moment about B, then, reaction at A
1 ⎡ 17 ⎤
RA = 400 × 15.8 + 190 × ⎥ = 466.76 kN
17 ⎢⎣ 2⎦
∴ RB = (400 + 190 – 466.7) = 123.24 kN
Maximum vertical load on each left side wheel of the crane
1
=
× 466.76 = 233.38 kN
2
Maximum vertical load on the right side wheel of the crane
1
= × 123.24 = 61.62 kN
2
4 00 kN
1 90 kN w e ig ht of cra n e
1 .2 m
17 m
Fig. 9.26
Distance between centre of crane wheels = 3.5 m

Distance between centre to centre of column = 4 m
Maximum force on the left side bracket supporting the gantry girder occurs of
the opposition of wheels as shown in Fig. 9.27.
2 33 .38 kN 2 33 .38 kN
3 .5 m 0 .5
4m
C o lu m n C o lu m n
Fig. 9.27
∴ Maximum reaction
⎛ 0.5 ⎞
= ⎜ 233.38 + 233.38 × ⎟ = 262.55 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
Allow for 25% impact = 1.25 × 262.55 = 328.19 kN
Maximum reaction on right side bracket
⎛ RB ⎞ ⎛ 0.5 ⎞
⎜⎝ = 61.62 kN ⎟ + 1.25 × ⎜ 61.62 + 61.62 × ⎟ = 86.65 kN
2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
11 3.68 kN -m
3 28 .1 kN 8 6.6 5 kN 1 6.7 1 kN 1 6.7 1 kN 1 2 .9 0 kN -m
4 3.3 2 kN -m 4 3.3 2 kN -m
1 64 .1 kN -m
0 .5 m 0 .5 m 3 0.4 2 kN -m
(a ) (b ) (c) 9 0.3 6 kN -m
3 0.4 2 kN -m
Fig, 9.28
Distance between centre to centre of column = 18 m

Distance between centre to centre of gantry girder = 17 m
∴ Eccentricity for bracket is as shown in Fig. 9.28 (a)
1
= × 1 × 1000 = 500 mm
2
Step 2. Moments
Maximum moment on the left side column as shown in Fig. 9.28 (b)
M1 = 328.19 × 0.8 = 164.1 kN-m
Maximum moment on right side column as shown in Fig. 9.28 (b)
M2 = 86.65 × 0.5 = 43.325 kN-m
Horizontal reaction on the top of left side column for no sway, for column of
uniform section
⎡ ⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 3 × 3⎞ ⎤
⎢ 3 M1 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ ⎥ =
⎝ ⎢ 3 × 164.1 ⎜⎝1 − 8 × 8 ⎟⎠ ⎥
= ⎢ h ⎠⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2×8 ⎦
= 26.44 kN
The structure has tendency to sway towards right. Therefore, this horizontal
reaction acts towards left.
Horizontal reaction at top of right side column
⎡ ⎛ 3×3 ⎞⎤
⎢ 3 × 43.325 ⎜⎝1 − 8 × 8 ⎟⎠ ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥ = 6.98 kN
⎣ 2×8 ⎦
Unbalanced shear at the top of columns
= (26.44 – 6.98) = 19.96 kN (towards left)
19.96
In order to account for the sway, apply = 9.73 kN towards right at the top
2
of each column.
∴ Force acting at the top of left side column
= (26.44 – 9.73) = 16.71 kN (towards right)
Force acting at the top of right side column
= (6.98 + 9.73) = 16.71 kN (towards left)
Moment acting at the base of left side column [Fig. 9.28 (c)]
= (16.71 × 8 – 164.1) = – 30.42 kN-m
Moment acting at the base of right side column [Fig. 9.28 (c)]
= (16.71 × 8 – 43.325) = 90.36 kN-m
The bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 9.28 (c).
Lateral load
Horizontal force (lateral load)
= 10 % of wt. of trolley + lifted load
1
= (300 + 100) = 40 kN
10
This load is transferred to the crane gantry girder through four wheels of crane
∴ Load on one wheel = 10 kN
∴ Lateral load on the column
⎛ 10 × 0.5 ⎞
= ⎜⎝10 + ⎟ = 11.25 kN
4 ⎠
The bending moment at the base of each column is as shown in Fig. 9.29.
M3 = 11.25 × 5 = 56.25 kN-m
Table 9.1
Left side column Right side column
Load Base Crane level Base Crane level
Thrust Moment Thrust Moment Thrust Moment Thrust Moment
kN kN-m kN kN-m kN kN-m kN kN-m
Dead load 45.00 + 0.896 45.00 +1.59 45.00 – 0.896 45.00 –1.59
Live load 19.20 — 19.20 — 19.20 — 19.20 —
Wind
Case I – 27.90 ± 119.20 –27.90 ± 31.20 –32.86 ± 134.90 –32.86 ± 20.40
Case II –5.64 ± 195.84 –5.64 –41.94 –11.91 ± 61.44 –11.91 ± 9.54
Crane load
(a) Vertical load 328.19 –30.42 328.19 164.2 86.65 –90.36 86.65 1.50
(b) Lateral load — ± 56.25 — — — ±56.25 — —
DL. + L.L. 329.39 – 86.67 392.39 165.69 150.85 147.506 150.85 –0.09
+ Crane loadl
D.L. + W.L. 364.49 282.51 364.49 207.63 117.99 –281.906 138.94 20.31
DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Note. The moment in clockwise direction is considered as positive.

491
∴ The bending moments and thrust on the left side and right side columns are
tabulated in Table 9.1.
The column section designed would be checked for following two conditions :
(a) Bending moment = 282.51 kN-m
Thrust = 392.39 kN
(b) Bending moment = 281.906 kN-m
Thrust = 117.99 kN
11 .25 kN 11 .25 kN
5 6.2 5 kN -m 5 6.2 5 kN -m
Fig. 9.29
From lSI Handbook No.1, try ISWB 600@ 1337 N/m

A = 16038 mm2, rxx = 249.7 m/mm
ryy = 52.5 mm, Zxx = 3540 × 103 mm3
Effective length, l = 5m
l ⎛ 5000 ⎞
Slenderness ratio =⎜ ⎟ = 95.24
rmin ⎝ 5.25 ⎠
From IS : 800–1984 allowable stress in axial compression for steel
fy = 250 N/mm2
σac = 84.76 N/mm2
Allowable stress in bending compression
σbc = 165 N/mm2
Check/or condition (a)
Actual axial stress in compression
392.39 × 100 ⎞
σac.cal = ⎛⎜ ⎟⎠ = 24.52 N/mm
2
⎝ 16038
Actual bending stress
⎛ 282.52 × 106 ⎞
σbc.cal = ⎜ = 79.80 N/mm2
⎝ 3540 × 103 ⎟⎠
⎛ σ ac.cal σbc.cal ⎞ ⎛ 24.52 79.80 ⎞

+ = ⎜ + = 0.773 < 1.00
⎜⎝ σ
ac σbc ⎟⎠ ⎝ 84.76 165 ⎟⎠
Hence, safe.
Step 3. Check for condition (b)
The bending moment and axial thrust, both are less than those in condition (a).
Hence, safe.
Note. The column base and foundation may be designed as discussed in Vol. I.
9.17 UNBRACED INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS (GABLE

FRAMES)
In unbraced industrial buildings (gable frames), the joints are welded and designed
to resist the moments. A single storey industrial building gable type is shown in
Fig. 9.30.
R id g e
P u rlins R o of sh ee ts
G utte r
G utte r H e ig ht of ga ble
Fra m e rafter Fra m e rafter
C ra ne
C ra ne b racket
b racket
C la dd in g
C la dd in g
Fra m e Fra m e
R a ils
colum n colum n
R a ils
(S p acing / 2 ) (S p acing / 2 )
Fig. 9.30 Unbraced industrial frame (gable grame)
The structural system consists of following elements :

(1) purlins to support roof covering sheets
(2) frames to carry purlins and cladding rails
(3) cladding rails (also called runners)
(4) gable end rails (beams and columns)
(5) roof rafter bracing to resist erection forces

(6) longitudinal bracings to transfer wind load to the ground
(7) base plates, pedestals, footings
(8) crane girders, gantry girders gantry columns (or brackets)
Mostly the gable frames are statically indeterminate. The bending moments
remain maximum at the critical sections (i.e., at the joints of the frames or at the
concentrated loads).
Problems
9·1 The span of knee braced roof trusses over an industrial building 36 m
long is 16 m. The spacing of roof trusses is 3 m. The pitch of roof is 1 in
4. The asbestos cement corrugated sheets are used for roof covering. The
basic wind pressure is 1.50 kN/m2 and there is no snow fall. The height
of eaves above ground level is 8.60 m. Propose a suitable type of roof
truss. Determine the load at the various panel points due to dead load,
live load, and the wind load. Determine the reactions also.
9.2 Design gable rafter, side rails, gable columns and gable wind girder for
the industrial building in Problem 9.1.
9.3 Design vertical side bracing and the rafter bracing for the industrial
building in Problem 9’1 and Problem 9.2. The horizontal force along the
rails over the gantry girder due to electrically operated overhead crane is
24 kN. The height of rail is 3.80 m above the base. Take maximum
compressive force in one rafter of roof truss is 90 kN.
9.4 Design the columns supporting the roof trusses for the industrial building
as in Problem 9.1.
9.5 An industrial shed has a width of 18 m and has to be provided with
trusses supported on columns spaced 4 metres apart from centre to centre.
The clearance from the factory floor to the tie of the roof truss is 5.5 m
are loaded as in IS 875. Sketch the final design. The roof slopes are 30° to
the horizontal.
9.1 The traverse bents of industrial buildings are analysed with columns
(a) fixed at the base
(b) hinged at the base
(c) partially fixed at the base
(d) hinged at the top
9.2 The industrial building needs bracing
(a) only in transverse direction
(b) only in longitudinal directions
(c) in transverse and longitudinal directions, both
(d) bracing is not required
9.3 The conventional analysis of industrial buildings is done as

(a) three-dimensional structures
(b) two-dimensional structures
(c) partly three dimensional and partly two-dimensional
(d) neither as three-dimensional nor as two-dimensional

9.1 (c) 9.2 (c) 9.3 (b)
CHAPTER
10
Design of Multistorey Buildings
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The multistorey buildings are also known as beam and column buildings and
high tier buildings. In multi-storey buildings, the beam to the column systems
are superimposed on top of each other storey by storey or tier by tier. In heavily
populated cities, the available land for buildings is becoming scarcer and scarcer,
and the cost of land is becoming higher and higher. The multi-storey building
requires a small size of the costly land and provides required floor area. The
multi-storey buildings are built for office buildings, hotels, hospitals, schools
apartment houses and other residential buildings. The present trend is to build
large number of tall buildings. A tall building is defined as one in which the
structural system is modified to make it sufficiently economical to resist lateral
forces due to wind or earthquakes within the prescribed criteria for strength,
drift and the comfort of the occupants. There are several factors which limit the
heights of tall buildings. In certain cities, the building codes and municipal bye-
laws prescribe the maximum height upto which the buildings may be constructed.
At certain places, the foundation conditions may not be satisfactory to support
the buildings of several storeys. The cost of elevators, plumbing, heating and
air conditioning, glazing interior walls increase with the increase of height of
tall buildings. Many storeys above a certain height may not be rentable. The
overall approach for the design of multi-storey buildings should cover structural
safety (specially against wind and earthquake forces) and protection
arrangements.
The construction of multi-storey buildings is of skeleton type. The loads are
transmitted to the foundation by a frame work of steel beams and columns. The
columns for multistorey buildings can be fabricated for one, two, or more storeys.
The size of columns can be changed theoretically at each floor level. However,
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 497
the cost of splices is usually more than the savings in column weights. The
erection of columns of three or more storeys in height is difficult. Therefore, the
columns are generally made continuous over two-storey heights. The columns
are arranged where these are least disturbing to architecture, but at spacings
close enough to allow a minimum depth of floor. It is desirable to establish a
regular column grid in both single and multi-tenant office buildings. It will
result in repetitive bays in one or both the directions. The regularity of bays is
important, since repetition leads to economy. The exterior column spacings and
bay sizes are controlled to a great extent by architecture and aesthetics. The
bay sizes ordinarily should be selected to produce a minimum storey height. At
the same time, columns cannot be spaced so closely as to detract from the
usefulness of the spaces they pass through. A compromise has to be done between
these two considerations for the selection of bay sizes. The columns are spaced
6 m to 10 m centre to centre. The beams and girders are connected to the columns.
Sometimes, it becomes necessary to provide large open areas between columns
for dining-rooms, ball rooms, etc., on some of the floors. In such cases, large
beams or plate girders are provided to support column loads for many floors
above it. In order to achieve optimum utilization of column properties, the
columns are arranged with flanges parallel to the long axis of the structure,
since the transverse wind condition is the most severe. The plates may be
connected to the flanges of rolled-steel sections to take heavier loads. It will
increase the bending properties of the columns for wind moments as well. The
plates attached with the flanges of rolled steel sections may also remain
inadequate in the modern high-rise buildings. In such cases special built-up
columns are to be designed to suit the various loads and geometric requirements.
In proportioning the columns for heavy loads, in addition to large cross sectional
area needed, the scheme for wind bracing should be properly thought. In a long
and a narrow multi-storey building, the wind is a major problem in one direction
only. However, when the plan is that of approximately square shape, all the
faces of columns need moment resisting connections. In addition to the strength,
the stiffness must be achieved so that the residents are not conscious of sway in
slender buildings.
For multi-storey buildings, the usual footings may not be sufficient to support
the loads. In case, the bearing strength of soil is high, the steel grillage footings
may be provided for the foundations. In case, the bearing capacity of soil is poor,
it may be necessary to provide pile or pier foundations. The exterior and interior
walls may be built in masonry or concrete. These walls are often surfaced with
decorative finished. These exterior walls in modern multi-storey buildings are
made of glass. These reduce the weight of walls and have a pleasing appearance.
These provide problems in the transmission of lateral forces and in thermal
insulation. The partition walls are made of hollow masonry or various panels
using metal, wood, gypsum, or plaster. The floors of multi-storey buildings are
made of concrete slabs. Many materials such as metal decks, foam concrete, or
light weight concrete are also used economically in the floors. In the multi-
storey buildings, the steel frame members are made fire-resistant by encasing
them in concrete or gypsum or other proofing materials.
10.2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS

The multi-storey buildings are structures of high degree indeterminacy. The
structural behaviour of multi-storey buildings subjected to lateral forces is
complex. The dynamic nature of wind loads, earthquake forces or blast are quite
unpredictable. It is difficult to determine the response of many multi-storey
buildings for the dynamic loads. There are certain analytical methods developed
to determine the elastic behaviour of idealized structure. But these methods
are subjected to limitations (e.g., deformation and damping characteristics of
various types of construction). In addition to this, the exact analysis of such
structures cannot be done because of several factors. The time necessary for
statically indeterminate analysis may be so great that the exact solution has to
be modified. Sometimes, it is economical to carry out the analysis by approximate
methods. It may be less expensive to use more material, as a result of basing the
design on approximate stresses and on a higher apparent factor of safety with
respect to the calculated stresses, than to have the material by basing the design
on exact stresses and a lower apparent factor of safety. Further at the beginning
of the design of statically indeterminate structures, the areas and moments of
inertia of the members of the structures, are not known. Therefore, it becomes
necessary to design the structure by approximate methods. The judgement,
experience, and good sense of proportion play an important role in the
approximate methods of design. The analysis of multi-storey buildings for vertical
loads and wind load has been done by the approximate methods of analysis
based on certain assumptions. The wind bents made up of more than one aisle
or portal of equal or unequal widths are generally analysed as statically
determinate frame works based on simplifying assumptions with respect to points
of contraflexure storey shear distribution etc.
The suitability of any approximate method of analysis needs careful
considerations. It is to note that the approximate methods of analysis are
applicable only to wind bents with all rigid-frame portals. In case, one of the
portals is a truss knee-braced portal or a shear wall, and others are rigid frames,
approximate method used for the rigid portal without proper consideration of
relative portal stiffinesses could lead to serious error.
10.3 NUMBER OF ASSUMPTIONS REQUIRED

The analysis of a structure, based on the equation of statics, only, is possible
when the number of independent equations of statics available is equal to the
number of independent component of forcess in the structure. In case, there are
3n more independent component of force than the number of independent
equations of statics, then, the degree of indeterminacy of the structure is of
3nth degree. The number of independent assumptions required for the
approximate analysis based on the statics only are also 3n. Each independent
assumption gives an independent relation or equation.
10.4 BRACING OF MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS

The ability of multi-storey buildings to resist wind and other lateral forces depends
upon the rigidity of the connections between the beams and the columns. When
the connections of beams and columns are fully rigid, that is, the angles between
them do not change, then, the structure as a whole is capable of resisting the
lateral forces acting on the structure. When the connections of beams and the
columns are flexible or simple, the multi-storey buildings would have little
resistance to the lateral forces. A multi-storey building with the flexible connections
and without bracing is shown in Fig. 10.1 (a). The flexible joints act as frictionless
hinges. The structure deflects laterally as shown in Fig. 10.1 (b). The lateral
deflection of structure is resisted by providing full diagonal bracing as shown in
Fig. 10.1 (c). This type of diagonal bracing is most simple, direct, efficient and
economical. This type of diagonal bracings is provided at isolated joints such as
the walls of elevator shafts, stair walls and in other permanent partition wall at
the points where there are no doors or windows or other openings.
The diagonal bracing as shown in Fig. 10.1 (c) is seldom practicable in the
multi-storey buildings. The diagonal bracing would often be in the way of doors,
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 10.1
windows, and other wall openings. In many multi-storey buildings, the interior
partition walls are movable. The presence of diagonal bracing greatly reduces
the flexibility. In the multi-storey buildings the complete diagonal bracing cannot
be provided through its elevator shaft. In general, the multi-storey buildings
should depend on the rigidity of connections to resist the lateral forces. At the
same time, it is not known that to what extent, the diagonal bracings resist the
lateral forces. The moment resistant connections are most commonly used to
Fig. 10.2
provide the resistance against the lateral forces in the multi-storey building.
The design of moment resistant connections has been discussed in Vol. I. The
multi-storey building with moment resistant connections is shown in Fig. 10.2.
The various other types of lateral bracings are shown in Fig. 10.3. Figure
10.3 (a) shows lateral bracings with knee braces. This type of bracing is suitable
for exterior walls unless the glass area is extremely large. This type of bracing
is also suitable for interior walls. This type of bracing docs not interfere with
the normal bracings. Figure 10.3 (b) shows portal bracings in each storey of the
multistorey buildings. Figure10.3 (c) shows K-bracing. This type of bracing is
suitable in the multistorey buildings which have small openings. In case, the
building is square, or nearly square, then, this type of bracings is provided in
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 10.3
both the directions of building, since the intensity of lateral forces are usually
assumed to be equal against all the sides of the building. In case, the length of a
multistorey building is several times the width, then, the bracing is not provided
along the long directions. The wind forces spread over many columns. The
building provides sufficient resistance without bracing.
The various more types of lateral bracings are shown in Fig. 10.4.
The bracings shown in Fig. 10.4 (g) are the most satisfactory. These types of
bracings form fully trussed systems. These type of bracings may be made highly
resistant to stress and the lateral deflections. The K-type bracings shown in
Fig. 10.4 (d) and (e) are of additional advantage. The elastic shortening of columns
under the vertical loads does not introduce heavy stresses into the diagonals.
The bracing shown in Fig. 10.4 (h) to (l) allow large door and window openings.
These types of partial bracing provide wind moments in the columns or in the
beams or in the both.
(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
(e ) (f) (g ) (h )
(i) (j) (k) (l)
Fig. 10.4
10.5 ANALYSIS OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS WITH

MOMENT RESISTANT JOINTS FOR LATERAL
LOADS
A three-storey, three column building braced with moment resistant joints and
acted upon by lateral forces is shown in Fig. 10.5 (a). All the beams and columns
can carry bending moment, shear force, and axial thrust. Such a building is
known as a rigid frame or a building bent or simply a bent. The building frame
is highly indeterminate because of rigid construction. The degree of
indeterminacy may be found by providing a cut near mid-span as shown in

Fig. 10.5 (b) with the existing moment, shear force, and axial thrust. Each column
with its cut beams acts as a cantilever, which is a statically determinate structure.
In order to reach this condition, it is necessary to remove the bending moment,
shear force, and axial thrust in each beam, where the cut is provided. Therefore
it is evident that if n is the number of beams in the building bent with the columns
fixed at the bases, it is necessary to remove 3n redundent forces to make the bent
statically determinate. Hence, the degree of indeterminacy of the bent is equal to
three times the number of beams (viz., 3n) in the bent. The number of beams in
the bent shown in Fig. 10.5 (a) is six. The degree of indeterminacy is therefore
Fig. 10.5
equal to 18. A building bent with 100 storeys and 10 stacks of columns would
have 900 beams. The degree of indeterminacy of such a building bent is 2700.
Even a 20 storey building bent with 5 stacks of columns would have 80 beams.
The degree of indeterminacy of such a bent is 240.
Nowadays, with the availability of the digital computer facilities, it is possible
to have exact analysis in appreciably short time. But, without the aid of computer
facility, the exact analysis of such a high degree of indeterminate structure is
not feasible. Therefore, the analysis of multistorey building is done by the
approximate methods. The following approximate methods are very popular for
the analysis of multistorey buildings acted upon by lateral forces.
1. Portal method. 2. Cantilever method. 3. Factor method.
In the exact methods of analysis, the elastic properties of at least some of the
members of the building frame (e.g., moments of inertias of columns and girders)
are needed. The accurate member size determination is seldom possible in the
early design stage, because of architectural and mechanical requirement. It is

not practical to attempt a final analysis immediately. The approximate methods
are also useful to estimate the elastic properties for exact analysis. The
approximate methods are also useful as a guide for the final design.
As a procedure of analysis of wind bents in any multistorey buildings of any
height-width ratio, a reasonable first approximation of member sizes should be
done. Subsequently refinement is done and then final analysis is carried out.
The corrections (if necessary) are then applied. It may be shown by comparison
with exact methods that the differences among various simplified methods of
analysis are usually not of major significance, provided the following conditions
are satisfied.
1. The storey shear may be accurately determined. The irregularity of plan
and elevation need careful treatment.
2. All the wind bents have the equal base width dimensions and these are
symmetrically located.
3. The stiffnesses of the wind bents are proportional to the assumed
distribution of storey shears.
10.6 PORTAL METHOD

A two-storey, four column building braced with moment resistant connection
and acted upon by lateral forces is shown in Fig. 10.6 (a). The degree of
indeterminancy of this building is equal to the three times the number of beams.
P1
P2
Fig. 10.6 Building bent subjected to lateral loads
There are six beams in this building. The building is statically indeterminate to
the eighteenth degree. For the approximate analysis, based on statics, only the
number of assumptions essential are equal to the degree of indeterminacy of
the building, viz., eighteen assumptions are necessary for the analysis. The
distortion of building under the action of lateral loads is shown in Fig. 10.6 (b),
on an enlarged scale. It is to note that the point of contraflxures occur at the

centre of each beam and each column. The bending moment diagram is also
shown by dotted lines in Fig. 10.7 (a).
Thus, the following assumptions are made in the portal methods :
1. A point of contraflexure occurs at the centre of each beam.
2. A point of contraflexure occurs at the centre of each column.
3. The total horizontal shear at each storey is distributed between the
columns of that storey in such a manner that each interior column carries twice
as much shear as each exterior column.
The above two assumptions as discussed above are reasonable. For the third
assumption consider first a single-storey building with four stacks of columns
acted upon by lateral force P, as shown in Fig. 10.7 (a). This building may be
considered to be made up of three portals as shown in Fig. 10.7 (b). Similarly,
Fig. 10.7
each storey of a multi-storey building can also be considered to be made up of

series of portals.The exterior column in Fig. 10.7 (b) corresponds to a single leg
of a portal. The interior column corresponds to two adjacent legs of two adjacent
portals. The portal method of analysis is based on the assumption that the lateral
force P, in a storey is distributed equally among the respective number of
individual portals. The horizontal shears are found by the principle of simple
super-position of the forces acting on the individual portals. Thus, the interior
columns of a multibay building bent carry twice the shear of the exterior columns.
The third assumptions made in the portal method is also reasonable. In case
there are m number of columns, the third assumption of this method is equivalent
to make (m–1) assumptions for each storey.
The application of portal method is made for the building bent shown in Fig.
10.6. The number of assumptions made in the portal method are as follows:
Point of contraflexures in columns =4×2=8
Points of contraflexures in beams =3×2=6
Distribution of horizontal shear in columns = 3 × 2 = 6
Total 20
There are two storeys in the building bent, and there are four columns and
three beams in each storey of the bent. The number of assumptions necessary
for the analysis as discussed in the first paragraph above is eighteen. There are
twenty assumptions made in the portal method. The two additional assumptions
are consistent with the necessary assumptions. The portal method does not
result in any inconsistency of forces as found by the statics.
After determining the shears in the columns of each storey, the moments at
the top and at the bottom of each column in a storey are found by multiplying
the shear, and half the length of that column. The moment at the end of beam
joining to an outside column is equal to the sum of the column moment at the
joint, which is also clear from Fig. 10.8 (a). Next there is a point of contraflexure
at the centre of each beam. Therefore the end moments on the beam are
numerically equal. Thus, the end moment at the interior end of the beam is also
N
E F
K I M
L
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 10.8
known. This is clear from Fig. 10.8 (b). Next at any interior joint, the sum of
column moments is equal to the sum of beam moments. This is clear from Fig.
10.8 (c). From this condition, the end moments of the interior beams are
determined. The shear in any beam is determined by dividing the sum of the
moments of the beam by the span. The axial force in any column of any storey is
equal to the sum of the shears on all the beams joining to it above that storey.
The portal method is easy in its application. For 25 storey high buildings
with moderate height-width ratio, the portal method is considered to be generally
satisfactory. The outstanding weakness of the method appears when it is used
for building over 100 m height.
10.7 CANTILEVER METHOD

The following assumptions are made in the cantilever method of analysis of the
multi-storey building braced with moment resistant connections acted upon by
lateral forces :
1. A point of contraflexure occurs at the centre of each beam.
2. A point of contraflexure occurs at the centre of each column.
3. The axial stress in each column of a storey is proportional to the
horizontal distance of the column from the centre of gravity of all the columns
of the storey under consideration.
The above two assumptions are reasonable as discussed in the portal method.
As regards third assumption, it is assumed that the building frame or bent acts
as a cantilever beam. Just in the fundamental assumption in the theory of simple

bending of beams, the bending stresses are proportional to the distance from
the neutral axis, it is also assumed that the axial stresses developed in the
columns in resisting the bending moments under the action of the lateral forces,
are distributed linearly about a neutral axis. This assumption is as regards the
axial stresses. The axial forces in the columns cannot be found so long as the
relative cross-sectional areas of columns are known. Therefore, along with the
above third assumption, it is further assumed that the cross-sectional areas of
columns in a storey are equal.
In case there are m number of columns, the third assumption of this method
is equivalent to make (m–l) assumptions for the storey. Similar to the portal
method, the cantilever method also makes more assumption than which are
necessary. The additional assumptions are consistent with the necessary
assumptions. The distortion of the building frame under the cantilever theory
assumption is shown in Fig. 10.9.
W ind
Fig. 10.9
The thrust is caused due to later force P on the columns which are on the
leeward side from the line of rotation. The forces f1and f2 act upward to resist
the thrust due to lateral force P. The force F3 and F4 act downward to resist the
uplift due to the lateral forces, as these columns are on the windward side from
the line rotation.
In order to obtain the axial stresses in the columns the moments are taken
above an assumed plane of contraflexure through the mid-depth of the columns
on each level.
A lateral force P acting at the top storey of a building frame is shown in Fig. 10.
10. The axial forces in the columns are represented by F1,F2, F3 and F4. The
distances of these columns are marked in Fig. 10.10. By taking the moments
about the plane of contraflexure (i.e., about the c.g. of columns of the storey).
(P × h – F1 x1 –F2x2+ F3x3 + F4 x4) = 0
The axial force in one column may be assumed as F. The axial forces in the
remaining columns may be expressed in terms of F. The axial forces in the
various columns may be found from Eq. 10.1.
The shears at the ends of beams are determined from the axial stresses in
the columns. The end moments in the beams are found by multiplying the beam
shears by half lengths of the beams. The moments in the columns are found
from the moments in the beams. The shears in the columns are found by dividing
the moments in the columns by half the height of columns.
The cantilever method is suitable for building of moderate height-width ratio
not more than 25 to 35 storeys high. The cantilever method is not as popular as
the portal method. The cantilever method is superior to the portal method for
high and narrow buildings.
L in e o f C .G . o f co lu m n s of
P ro tatio n top sto rey
h
P lan e of
con tra fle xure
F4 F3 X3 X2 F2 F1
X4 X1
(a )
(b )
U p lift o n w in dw a rd side Th ru st on lee w ard sid e
Fig. 10.10 (1)
10.8 FACTOR METHOD

The analysis of a building frame of a braced bent by the moment resistance
connections and acted upon by the lateral forces by the factor method is more
accurate than either the portal method or the cantilever method. Both the portal
method and the cantilever method depend on certain stress force assumptions.
From the stress assumptions, it becomes possible to make the analysis based on
the equations of statics only. The factor method is based on certain assumptions
regarding the elastic action of the structure. As a result of this, it becomes possible
to carry out the analysis by approximate slope-deflection method. For the

application of factor method, the relative stiffness (K = I/L), for each beam and
each column should be known. The relative stiffness for the various members
should be in correct ratio to each other. The procedure for the application of the
factor method consists in carrying out the following six steps:
Step 1. The girder factor g, is determined for each joint from the following
expression :
Let θEF and θFE be the rotations at the two ends of a beam EF of a frame with
the rigid joints, Fig. 10.8 (b). The bending moment at the end E of beam (girder)
EF shall be as under:
I
MEF = 2E × (2θEF + θ FE ) ...(i)
L
MEF = KEF . (4E θEF + 2E θFE) ...(ii)
where KEF is the relative stiffness of the beam (girder) EF at the and E and it is
I
equal to .
L
Let, 4EθEF ∝ gEF ...(iii)
Since (θEF = – θFE) ...(iv)
Then, from the expression (iii),
1
2E θEF ∝ 2 gEF) ...(v)
where, gEF is the girder factor for the beam (girder) EF at the end E. Therefore,
MEF ∝ KEF (gEF + 12 gEF) ...(vi)
From the expression (ii),
MEF = KEF . (4E . θEF + 2E .θFE)
∴ MEF = KEF . (4E θ EF + 2E . θFE)
MEF = KEF . (2EQEF)
MEF ∝ (KEF. gEF) ...(vii)
Now consider a joint, I as shown in Fig. 10.8 (c). At joint I, IK and IM are
beam (girder) members. And IN and IL are the column members of the upper
and lower storeys of the frame. Let M be the moment at any joint I of the rigid
frame. The total moment M at any joint, I is distributed in the members meeting
at this joint in proportion to the distribution factors. The distribution factor for
any member meeting at the joint is defined as below:
⎛ K ⎞
D.F = ⎜ ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
Therefore, the bending moments in the members meeting at the joint, I shall
be as under:
⎛ K IK ⎞
MIK = DFIK . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅ M ...(a)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
⎛ K IL ⎞
MIL = DFIL . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅ M ...(b)
⎝∑K ⎠
⎛ K IM ⎞
MIM = DFIM . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅M ...(c)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
⎛ K IN ⎞
MIN = DF . M = ⎜ ⎟⋅M ...(d)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
The sum of the bending moments in the beam meeting at a joint shall be
equal to the sum of the bending moments in the columns meeting at the joint,
since the joint is in equilibrium. Therefore,
(MIK + MIM) = (MIL + MIN) ...(viii)
⎛ K IL K IN ⎞
(MIK + MIM) = ⎜ + ⎟⋅ M ...(e)
⎝ ∑K ∑K ⎠
⎛ ∑ Kc ⎞
(MIK + MIM) = ⎜ ⎟⋅ M ...(f)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
∑Mbeams = g.M ...(g)
where,
g = girder factor
⎛ ∑K c ⎞
g = ⎜ ⎟ ...(10.2)
⎝ ∑K ⎠
where, ∑Kc= Sum of relative stiffnesses of the column members meeting at
the joint
∑K = Sum of the relative stiffnesses of all the members meeting at
the joint
Each value of girder factor g, is written at the near end of each girder meeting
at the joint.
Step 2. The column factor, c is found for each joint from the following
expression:
Let c be the column factor. Then
∑ Mcolumns = c.M ...(ix)
∑ Mcolumns + Mbeams = M ...(x)
c.M + g.M = M ...(xi)
Therefore,
(c + g) = 1 ...(xii)
Then,
c = (1 – g) ...(10.3)
Each value of column factor c is written at the near end of each column meeting
at the joint. The column factor for the column fixed at the base is adopted as
1.00.
Step 3. The girder factors g, are written at each end of the each girder as
per step 1. The column factors c, are written at each end of each column.
Therefore, at each end of each member, there are numbers. In these numbers,
half the values of the numbers at the other end of the same member are added.
Step 4. The sum obtained as per step 3 is multiplied by the relative stiffness
K of the respective members. This product is termed as column moment factor
C, for the columns, and girder moment factor G, for the girders.
Step 5. The column moment factors C, give the approximate relative values
of moments at the ends of the columns for the storey in which the columns
occur. It would be seen by statics that the sum of column end moments is equal
to the horizontal shear on that storey multiplied by the storey height. Therefore,
the column moment factors, C may be converted into end moments for the
columns by direct proportion for each storey.
Step 6. The girder moment factors G, give the approximate relative values
of the moments at the ends of girders for each joint. It would be seen from the
statics that the sum of the girder end moments at each joint is equal to the sum
of the end moments in the columns at the joints. Therefore, the girder moment
factors G, may be converted into end moments for the girders by direct proportion
for each storey.
Step 7. The moments at the ends of columns are determined as below :
A single storey three bays portal frame with rigid joints is shown in Fig.
10.10 (2). The horizontal shear in each column multiplied by its height gives the
sum of moments at its two ends. Therefore,
HAE × h1 = (MAE + MEA) ...(i)
HBF × h1 = (MBF + MFB) ...(ii)
HCG × h1 = (MCG + MGC) ...(iii)
HDH × h1 = (MDH+ MHD) ...(iv)
Let H1 be the sum of horizontal shears in all the columns of one storey under
consideration.
Then, H1 shall be equal to PH1 (lateral force) for the storey. It is known.
Therefore,
H1 . h1 = ∑(MAE + MEA) ...(v)
= sum of moments at the two ends of all the
columns
Let MAE ∝ CAE, ...(vi)
and MEA ∝ CEA ...(vii)
where, CAE, CEA ... etc. are the column moment factors. Therefore
H1 . h1 ∝ ∑ (CAE+ CEA) ...(viii)
∴ H1 . h1 = A1 ∑ (CAE + CEA) ...(ix)
⎡ H 2 ⋅ h1 ⎤
∴ A1 = ⎢∑ C + C ⎥ ...(10.4)
⎣ ( AE )
EA ⎦
In case, the portal frame would have been two storey frame, then, for second
storey
⎡ H 2 ⋅ h1 ⎤
A2 = ⎢∑ C + C ⎥ ...(10.5)
⎣ ( IK KI ) ⎦
P H E F G H
1
h1
H AE HBE HCE H DE
A B C D
Fig. 10.10 (2)
where, A1, A2... etc. are the storey constants. These storey constants are used
to find the moments at the ends of columns. For the portal frame as shown in
Fig. 10.10 (2).
MAE = A1 . CAE ...(x)
MEA = A1 . CEA ...(xi)
Step 8. The moments at the ends of beams are found as under. The equilibrium
of each joint of the frame is considered.
(i) For the joint E, Fig. 10.10 (2),
MEA (column) = MEF (beam) ...(xii)
(as far as their magnitudes are concerned)
Let MEE ∝ GEF ...(xiii)
Then MEF = BE . GEF ...(xiv)
where,
GEF... etc. = girder constants, and
BE.... etc. = constants of the joints
Therefore,
⎛ M EF ⎞
BF = ⎜ G ⎟ ...(10.6)
⎝ EF ⎠
(ii) For the joint F, Fig. 10.20 (2)
The joint F is in equilibrium. The sum of moments at the column ends shall
be equal to sum of the moments at the ends of the beam meeting at the joint.
Therefore,
MFB (column) = (MFE + MFG) beams

MFE ∝ GFE ...(xv)
MFG ∝ GFG ...(xvi)
Then,
MFB ∝ (GFE + GFG) ...(xvii)
MFB = BF . (GFE + GFG) ...(xviii)
⎛ M FB ⎞
BF = ⎜ G + G ⎟ ...(xvix)
⎝ FE FG ⎠
In general, the joint constant for beams meeting at the joint
⎛ Sum of column moments ⎞

BI = ⎜⎝ Sum of girder factors ⎟⎠ ...(10.8)
where, BE, BF, ... BI are the joint constants for the beams meeting at a joint.
The factor method of analysing the building frame has been illustrated by
working out an example.
10.9 ANALYSIS OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS WITH

MOMENT-RESISTANT JOINTS FOR GRAVITY
LOADS (VERTICAL LOADS)
10.9.1 Uniformly Distributed Loads
A multistorey building with four stacks of columns is shown in Fig. 10.11 (a).
When the building frame is braced with moment resistant connections, then
L1 L2 L3
10 10 10
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
(a ) (b )
Fig. 10.11
the building frame acts as a rigid frame. When the beams are carrying uniformly
distributed load w kN permetre over whole span, as shown in Fig. 10.12 (a),
then both the ends of beam rotate as shown in Fig. 10.12 (b). The joints act as
partially restrained against the rotation. In case the joints are assumed to be
completely fixed against the rotation as shown in Fig. 10.12 (c), then the rotation
at both the ends are zero. The bending moment diagram for the uniformly
distributed loading is also shown in Fig. 10.12 (c). The points of contraflexures
occur at 0.24 L from the supports. In case the ends are assumed as simply
supported or hinged as shown in Fig. 10.12 (d), then the complete or free rotations
of the ends take place. The bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 10.12
kN /m etre
L L L
10 10
L
(a) (b )
L L
BM D BM D
0 .21 4 L 0.21 4L
(c) (d )
Fig. 10 12
(d). The bending moment is zero at supports. Therefore, when the ends of joints
are partially fixed, then the points of contraflexures may be assumed at a
distance somewhere in between 0.00 L to 0.214 L from the supports. The points
of contraflexures are assumed at a distance L/10 from the supports. The axial
thrust in the beams, under the action of vertical or gravity loads is small and
hence neglected.
Therefore, the following assumptions are made for the approximate analysis
of the multi-storey building frames under vertical loads:
1. The axial thrust in the beam is zero.
2. A point of contraflexure occurs at a distance L/10 from left hand support
in beam.
3. A point of contraflexure occurs at a distance L/10 from right hand
support in the beam.
As per these assumptions, the building frame as shown in Fig. 10.11 (a) may
be assumed as equivalent to the determinate frame as shown in Fig. 10.11 (b).

These beams may be analysed by statics only.
The maximum shear force occurs at the end of the span. The vertical loads
acting on the columns are equal to the shear forces at the ends of the beams.
The vertical loads are obtained by summing up the beam shear forces from the
top of column down to the column under consideration.
The columns are subjected to maximum vertical loads when the adjacent
bays are loaded. For the interior columns of the building frame, the adjacent
beams provide moments acting in the opposite direction. Total moments in the
columns are small, and hence neglected. For the exterior columns of the building
frame, the beam provides moment from only one side. These moments are taken
into consideration, while designing the exterior columns. The first assumption
does not hold good while determining the column moments. The beam moments
are divided between the columns in proportion to their stiffnesses.
From a strict theoretical consideration, there are different live loading
conditions which are to be considered to obtain maximum shear forces and the
bending moments at the various points in a building frame which acts as a
continuous structure. A three-storey building frame with four stacks of columns
is shown in Fig. 10.13 (a). It is desired to place live loads to cause maximum
sagging moment at the centre of span AB. A qualitative influence line diagram
for sagging moment at the centre of span AB is shown in Fig 10.13 (a). It is seen
(a ) (b )
Fig. 10.13
that the live-loads should be placed in the alternative spans as shown in Fig.
10.13 (b) to give the maximum sagging moments at the centre of span AB. This
type of lading is know as checker board loading. The columns bend in single
curvature, the columns carry vertical load from one span and moments.
The columns are designed for either adjacent spans loaded or alternate spans
loaded as shown in Fig. 10.13 (b); whichever gives worst condition. The worst
condition of loading occurs usually, when the checker board loading is there,
over the beams.
Example 10.1 Determine the shear forces and end moments in the columns
and the beams of the building frame with moment-resistant joints as shown in
Fig. 10.14 by the portal method. Also determine axial forces in the columns.
1 1 1
K= K= K=
4 2 .5 2
1 00 kN
I J K L
P2 2P2 2P 2 P2
3m
1 2 1 1
P2 K = K= K= K= P2
7 .5 7 .5 3 5
1 1 1
K = K= K=
4 2 .5 2
1 00 kN
E F G H
P1 2P1 2P1 P1
X1 X1 4 m
P1 1 1 1 3
K= 2P1 K = 2P1 K= K= P1
10 5 4 20
A B C D
4m 5m 6m
Fig. 10.14
Solution
Step 1: The columns of building frame are fixed at the supports. There are
six beams in the frame.
∴ Degree of redundancy of the frame
= 3n = 3 × 6 = 18
The following assumptions are made in the portal method.
Points of contraflexures occur in the centre of beams
= 2×3=6
Points of contraflexures occur in the centre of columns
= 2×4=8
Column shear relations (m = number of columns in one storey)
= (m – 1) × 2 = (4 – 1) × 2 = 6
Total number of assumptions
= (6 + 8 + 6) = 20
Step 2: Shear in each storey

Let P be shear in each exterior column of one storey.
Then, 2P shall be the shear in each exterior column of the same storey.
(i) For the ground storey, total horizontal shear resisted by the columns is
equal to total horizontal forces acting above the section X1X1 (section X1X1 passes
through the middle height of the ground storey).
∴ P1 + 2P1 + 2P1+P1 = 100 + 100
3 6P1 = 200
∴ P1 = 33.33 kN, 2P1 = 66.67 kN
(ii) For the top storey
P2 + 2P2 + 2P2 + P2 = 100
6 P2 = 100
P2 = 16.67 kN, 2P2 = 33.33 kN
Step 3: Moments at the ends of columns
There is a point of contraflexure at the centre of each column.
The moments at the ends of columns may be found by considering the freebody
diagrams of the column members as shown in Fig. 10.15. The moments at the
ends of column members (being internal forces) shall be opposite in the directions
to those due to the product of horizontal shears and the respective distances.
Therefore, the moments at the ends of the column members of the ground storey
and the top storey are as follows :
(i) Ground storey
MAE = MDH = 33.33 × 2 = 66.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MEA = MHD = 33.33 × 2 = 66.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MBF = MCG = 66.67 × 2 = 133.34 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MFB = MCG = 66.67 × 2 = 133.34 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
(ii) Top storey
MEI = MHL = 16.67 × 1.5 = 25.00 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MIE = MLH = 16.67 × 1.5 = 25.00 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MFJ = MGK= 33.33 × 1.5 = 50.00 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MJF = MKG = 33.33 × 1.5 = 50.00 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
Step 4: Moments at the ends of beams
The moments at the ends of beams may be determined by considering the
free-body diagrams of the joints of frame (viz., the junction where the columns
and beams meet) as well as the freebody diagrams of the beam members as
shown in Fig. 10.15. The moments in the column portions of the joints shall be
opposite in the directions to those at the ends of column members (free-body
diagrams). The moments at the ends of column portions of the joint, the moment
at the ends of beam portions of the joint and thereby, the moments at the ends
of beam members are calculated by considering the respective joints and the
beam members as below :
(i) Joint E
MEA + MFI = (66.66 + 25.00) kN-m (clockwise)
MEF = (MEA + MEI ) = (66.66 + 25.00)
518
2 5 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 2 5 kN -m
25 J 25 25 J K 25 25 K L 25
I J J K
2 5 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m 25
I 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m K 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m
E 2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m H
2 5 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 5 0 kN -m 2 5 kN -m
E 9 1.6 6 9 1.6 6 kN -m F 9 1.6 6 F F 9 1.6 6 kN -m G 9 1.6 6 G 9 1.6 6 9 1.6 6 kN -m H H
E G
9 1.6 6 kN -m
6 6.6 6 kN -m 9 1.6 6 kN -m 1 33 .34 kN -m 9 1.6 6 kN -m 1 33 .34 kN -m 9 1.6 6 kN -m
6 6.6 6 kN -m
E 6 6.6 6 kN -m F 1 33 .34 kN -m G 1 33 .34 kN -m 6 6.6 6 kN -m H
A 6 6.6 6 kN -m B 1 33 .34 kN -m C 1 33 .34 kN -m 6 6.6 6 kN -m D
6 6.6 6 kN -m 1 33 .34 kN -m 1 33 .34 kN -m 6 6.6 6 kN -m
A B C D
Fig. 10.15 Bending moment at the ends of columns and beams

= 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)

The moment at the end E of the beam member EF
MEF = 91.66 kN-m (clockwise)
Since, a point of contraflexure occurs in the centre of beam FE
The moment at the end E of the beam member EF
∴ MFE = MEF = 91.66 kN-m (clockwise)
(ii) Joint F
(MFJ + MFB) = (50 + 133.34) kN-m (clockwise)
The moment in the portion of beam EF at joint F
MFE = 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
(MEF + MFG) = (MFJ + MFB)
or 91.66 + MFG = 50.00 + 133.34
MFG = 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
The moment at the end F of the beam member EG at joint F
MFG = 91.66 kN-m (clockwise)
Since, a point of contraflexure occurs in the centre of beam FG
The moment at the end G of the beam member FG
∴ MGF = MFG = 91.66 kN-m (clockwise)
(iii) Joint G
The moment in the portions of column members
(MGC + MGK) = (133.34 + 50) kN-m (clockwise)
The moment in the portion of beam member
MGC = 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
(MGF + MGH) = (MGC + MGK)
or 91.66 + MGH = 133.34 + 50
MGH = 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
The moment at the end G of the beam member GH
MGH = 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
Since a point of contraflexure occurs in the centre of beam GH
The moment at the end H of the beam member GH
MHG = MGH = 91.66 kN-m (clockwise)
(iv) Joint H
The equilibrium of joint H may be used as a check. The moment in the portion
of beam
MHG = 91.66 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
The sum of moments in the portions of columns
(MHD + MHL) = (66.66 + 25) kN-m (clockwise)
Thus, the equilibrium of joint H is satisfied.
(v) Joint I
The moment in the portion of column
MIJ = MIE
= 25.00 kN-m (clockwise)

The moment in the portion of beam
MIJ = 25 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
The moment at the I of the beam member IJ
MIJ = 25 kN-m (clockwise)
Since a point of contraflexure occurs in the centre of bem IJ
The moment at the end I of the beam IJ
∴ MJI = MIJ = 25.00 kN-m (clockwise)
(vi) Joint J
MJI = 25 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
The moment in the portion beam
MJF = 25 kN-m (clockwise)
(MJI+ MJK) = MJF
or 25.00 + MJK = 50.0
∴ MJK = 25.00 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
The moment at the end I of beam member JK
MJK = 25 kN-m (clockwise)
Since a point of contraflexure occurs in the centre of beam JK
The moment at the K of the beam member JK
∴ MKJ = MJK = 25.00 kN-m (clockwise)
(vii) Joint K
MKJ = 25 kN-m (clockwise)
MKG = 50 kN-m (clockwise)
(MKL + M KL) = MKG
or 25.0 + MKL = 50.00
∴ MKL = 25.00 kN-m (clockwise)
The moment at the end K of the beam member KL
MKL = 25 kN-m (clockwise)
Since a point of contraflexure occurs in the centre of beam KL
The moment at the end L of the beam member KL
∴ MLK = 25.00 kN-m (clockwise)
(viii) Joint L
The equilibrium of joint L may be used as a check.
MLK = 25 kN-m (anti-clockwise)
MLM = 25 kN-m (clockwise)
It satisfies the equilibrium of joint L.
Step 5: Shears in the beams
The beams are subjected to end moments. There are no transverse loads on
the beams. Therefore, shear in the beam, in general is given by
⎛ M + M2 ) ⎞
F = ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
where, (M1+ M2) = Algebraic sum of moments acting at the ends of a beam
L = Length of the beam
The shears in beams may be calculated by considering the free-body diagrams
of the beam members as shown in Fig. 10.16. For the beam IJ, the moments MIJ
and MJI and equal and also act in the same direction. Therefore,
⎛ M + M JI ⎞
F = ⎜ IJ ⎟ (Since MIJ+ MJI)
⎝ LIJ ⎠
⎛ M +2⎞
F = ⎜ IJ ⎟
⎝ LIJ ⎠
The moments at both the two ends of beam IJ act in the clockwise directions.
Since, the beam is in equilibrium, the shear forces at the two ends provide a
moment acting in the anti-clockwise direction. The shear force at the left end
acts downward and that at the right end acts upward,
2
FIJ = FJI = 25 × = 12.50 kN-m
4
2
FJK = FKJ = 25 × = 10.00 kN-m
5
2
FKL = FLK = 25 × = 8.33 kN-m
6
2
FEF = FFE = 91.66 × = 45.83 kN-m
4
2
FFG = FGF = 91.66 × = 36.66 kN-m
5
2
FGH = FHG = 91.66 × = 30.55 kN-m
6
Step 6 : Axial forces in the columns
The axial forces in the colums are found by considering the free-body diagrams
of the joints and free-body diagrams of the beam and column members meeting
at the respective joints as shown in Fig. 10.16.
The shear force at the end I of beam IJ acts downward. The shear force in the
portion of beam at the joint I acts upward. The joint I is in equilibrium. The
force in the portion of column acts downward. As such, the axial force in the
column IE at the end I acts upward and that at the bottom end acts downward.
The axial forces in the columns are determined and these are as follows :
Column IE = 12.50 kN (Tensile)
Column JF = 2.50 kN (Compressive)
Column KG = 1.67 kN (Compressive)
Column LH = 8.33 kN
Column EA = 58.33 kN (Tensile)
522
1 2.5 kN 1 2.5 kN 1 2.5 kN 1 0 kN 1 0 kN 1 0 kN 8 .33 kN 8 .33 kN 8 .33 kN

I I J J J K K K L L
1 2.5 0 kN 1 2.5 kN 1 2.5 kN 1 0 kN 1 .67 kN 8 .33 kN 8 .33 kN

I J K L L
1 2.5 0 kN 1 2.5 kN 1 .67 kN 8 .33 kN
E F G H H
1 2.5 0 kN 1 2.5 kN 1 .67 kN 1 .67 kN 8 .33 kN
1 2.5 kN 1 .67 kN 8 .33 kN
1 2.5 0 kN 4 5.8 3 kN 3 6.6 6 kN 3 0.5 5 kN 3 0.5 5 kN 3 0.5 5 kN
4 5.8 3 kN
E E F F G G H H
5 8.3 3 kN 4 5.8 3 kN 4 5.8 3 kN 3 6.6 6 kN 3 6.6 6 kN 3 0.5 5 kN 3 0.5 5 kN

11 .67 kN 7 .78 kN 3 8.8 8 kN
E F G H
5 8.3 3 kN
11 .67 kN 7 .78 kN 3 8.8 8 kN
5 8.3 3 kN 11 .67 kN 7 .78 kN 3 8.8 8 kN

A B C D
5 8.3 3 kN 11 .67 kN 7 .78 kN 3 8.8 8 kN
D
A B C
Fig. 10.16 Shear forces in the beams and axial forces in the columns
Column FB = 11.67 kN (Compressive)

Column GC = 7.78 kN (Compressive)
Column HD = 38. 88 kN (Compressive)
These values are self illustrative in Fig. 10.16.
Thus, the shears and end moments in the columns and beams of the building
frame have been found as above. The axial forces in the columns have also been
calculated.
Example 10.2 Determine the end moments in the columns and the beams of
the building frame with moment resistant joints, as shown in Fig. 10.14 by the
cantilever method. Also determine the axial forces in the columns and the end
shear forces in the beams.
Solution
Step 1: The columns of building frame are fixed at the supports. There are
six beams in the frame.
∴ Degree of redundancy of the frame shown in Fig. 10.17
= 3 × 6 = 18
The following assumptions are made in the cantilever method
Points of contraflexures in the centre of beams
= 2×3=6
Points of contraflexures in the centre of columns
= 2×4=8
Column axial stress relations (m = number of columns of one storey)
= (m – 1) × 2 = (4 –1) × 2 = 6
Total number assumptions = 20
Step 2: Location of line of rotation
It is assumed that the cross-sectional areas of all the columns of one storey
are equal. Let the area of each column be A. Let x be the distance to the c.g. of
the columns form column AEI. It is found by taking moment of areas of all the
columns and diving by sum of the areas of columns. Take moment about column
AEI.
∴ x = [(0.A + 4A + 9A + 15A)/4A] = 7 m
For the ground storey, consider Fig. 10.17.
Step 3: Shears in each storey
Let PAE be the axial force in the column AE. In the cantilever method, it is
assumed that the axial forces in the columns are proportional to the horizontal
distances form the centre of gravity of the columns in the storey. Therefore
axial forces in other columns are as follows
3
PBF = PAE
7
2
PCG = − PAE
7
8
PDH = − PAE
7
∴ Let X1 be the point of contraflexure of column DH. Consider a horizontal
plane passing through X1. Take the moment of all the forces acting on the frame
above this plane above X1.
100 × (3 + 2) + 100 × 2 – PAE × 15 – PBF × 11 + PCG × 6 + PDH × 0 = 0
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜100 × 5 + 100 × 2 – PAE × 15 – PAE × 11 + PAE × 6 ⎟ = 0
⎝ 7 7 ⎠
4m 5m 6m
1 00 kN
1 .3 m
X2
3m
1 00 kN
E F G H
7m 8m 2m
3m 2m
X1
PAE 3 P 2 8 P
7 AE P
7 AE 7 AE
Ve rtica l lin e th rou gh C .G . of colum ns
(a )
2 8 PAB
PAE
7 7
PAE 3 P
7 AE
(b )
Fig. 10.17
∴ PAE = + 38.9 kN
∴ PBE = + 16.7 kN
∴ PCG = – 11.1 kN
∴ PDH = – 44.4 kN
For the top storey, let X2 be the point of contraflexure of column HL. Consider
a horizontal plane passing through X2. The forces in the columns are in the
same proportion as those in the columns of the ground storey. Take moment of
all the forces acting above this horizontal plane above X3
(100 × 1.5 – PEI × 15 –PFJ × 11 + PGK × 6 + PHL × 0) = 0

⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜100 × 1.5 + PEI × 15 – PEI × 11 + PEI × 6 ⎟ = 0
⎝ 7 7 ⎠
∴ PEI = + 8.33 kN
∴ PJF = + 3.58 kN
∴ PGK = –2.38 kN
PHL = –9.53 kN
Step 4: Shear forces at the ends of beams
The shear forces at the ends of beams are found from the axial forces in the
columns at various joints.
The free-body diagrams for the column members, joints and the beam members
are drawn as shown in Fig. 10.18. The forces acting on the portions of column
members of a joint are marked. Since, each joint is in equilibrium, the force
acting on the portion of beam member of that joint, which one is necessary for
the equilibrium, is thus determined. The shear at one end of the beam meeting
at that joint shall be equal and opposite to this force. Consider the various joints
individually.
(i) Joint E
The axial force in the column EA is tensile. It acts in the upward direction at
the upper end of the column EA. Therefore the force in the portion of column EI
of the joint E acts downward.
The axial force in the column EI is also tensile. It acts in the downward
direction at the lower end of the column EI. Therefore, the force in the portion
of column EI of the joint E acts upward.
For the equilibrium, the force in the portion of beam EF of the joint E
EEF = 1.5 (+ 8.33 – 38. 90) = 30.57 kN (upward)
The shear at the end E of beam EF
FEF = 30.57 kN (downward)
There is no lateral load acting on the beam EF. For the equilibrium, the
shear at the end FF
FFE = 30.57 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam EF at the joint F
FFE = 30.57 kN (downward)
The shears at the two ends of each beam are thus found.
(ii) Joint F
FFE = 30.57 kN (downward)
PFB = 16.70 kN (downward)
PFJ = 3.58 kN (downward)
PFG = –1(–30.57 –16.70 + 3.58) kN
= 43.69 kN (upward)
The shear at the end F of the beam FG
FFG = 43.69 kN (downward)
526
8 .33 kN 8 .33 kN 11 .91 kN 11 .91 kN 9 .53 kN 9 .53 kN 9 .53 kN

8 .33 11 .91
I I J J J K K K L L
8 .33 kN 8 .33 kN 11 .91 kN 9 .53 kN

3 .58 kN 2 .38 kN 9 .53 kN
I
J K L
8 .33 kN 3 .58 kN 2 .38 kN 9 .53 kN
8 .33 kN 3 .58 kN 2 .38 kN 9 .53 kN
E F G
9 .53 kN H
3 .58 2 .38
8 .33 kN 3 0.5 7 kN 3 0.5 7 kN 4 3.6 9 kN 4 3.6 9 kN 3 4.9 7 kN 3 4.9 7 kN
E E F F F G G G H H
The shear at end G of the beam FG
3 8.9 0 kN 3 0.5 7 kN 3 0.5 7 4 3.6 9 kN 4 3.6 9 3 4.9 7 kN 3 4.9 7

1 6.7 kN 11 .10 kN 4 4.4 0 kN
E F G H
3 8.9 0 kN 1 6.7 kN 11 .10 kN 4 4.4 0 kN
The force in the portion of beam FG at the joint G
3 8.9 0 kN 1 6.7 kN 11 .10 kN 4 4.4 0 kN

A B
C D
FFG = 43.69 kN (upward)
3 8.9 0 kN 1 6.7 kN 11 .10 kN 4 4.4 0 kN

FGF = 43.69 kN (downward)
A B C D
A xia l force s in colu m ns a nd she a r fo rces in b ea m s

Fig. 10.18
Note. Above internal forces are in the directions opposite to reactions due to external forces
(ii) Joint G
FGF = 43.69 kN (downward)
PGC = 11.10 kN (upward)
PGK = 2.38 kN (downward)
FGK = –l(–43.69 +11.10 – 2.38) kN
= 34.97 kN (downward)
The shear at end G of the beam GH
FGK = 34.97 kN (downward)
The shear at end H of the beam GH
FHG = 34.97 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam GH at the joint H
FHG = 34.97 kN (downward)
(iv) Joint H
FHG = 34.97 kN (downward)
PHD = 44.40 kN (upward)
FHL = 34.97 kN (downward)
The joint H satisfies the check for the equilibrium of vertical forces.
(v) Joint I
PIE = 8.33 kN (upward)
∴ FIJ = 8.33 kN (downward)
The shear at end I of the beam IJ
FIJ = 8.33 kN (upward)
The shear at end J of the beam IJ
FJI = 8.33 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam IJ at the joint J
FJI = 8.33 kN (downward)
(vi) Joint J
FJI = 8.33 kN (downward)
PJF = 3.58 kN (downward)
FJK = – (– 8.33 – 3.58) =11.91 kN (upward)
The shears at the ends J and K of the beam JK
FJK = 11.91 kN (downward)
FKJ = 11.91 kN (upward)
The force in the portion of beam JK at the joint K
FKJ = 11.91 kN (downward)
(vii) Jont K
FKJ = 11.91 kN (downward)
PKG = 2.38 kN (upward)
FKL = –1(–11.91 + 2.38) = 9.53 kN (upward)
The shears at the ends K and L of the beam KL
FKL = 9.53 kN (downward)

PLH = 9.53 kN (upward)
(viii) Jont L
The force in the portion of beam KL
FLK = 9.53 kN (downward)
PLH = 9.53 kN (upward)
The joint L satisfies the check for equilibrium for the vertical forces.
Step 5: Moment at the ends of beams
There is a point of contraflexure at the centre in each beam and not lateral
load along the length of the beam. The shears at the two ends of each beam are
equal and parallel and form a couple (moment) acting in the anti-clockwise
direction. This couple resists the moments acting at the two ends of a beam,
which are also equal. Thus, the moments at the ends act in clockwise direction.
Therefore,
2M = F × L
or M = F×L
MFE = 30.57 × 2 = 61.14 kN-m
MEF = 30.57 × 2 = 61.14 kN-m
MFG = 43.69 × 2.5 = 109.2 kN-m
MGF = 43.69 × 2.5 = 109.2 kN-m
MGH = 34.97 × 3 = 105 kN-m
MHG = 37.97 × 3 = 105 kN-m
MIJ = 8.33 × 2 = 16.66 kN-m
MJI = 8.33 × 2 =16.66 kN-m
MJK = 1.191× 2.5 = 29.76 kN-m
MKJ = 1.191 × 2.5 = 29.76 kN-m
MKL = 0.953 × 3 = 28.60 kN-m
MLK = 0.953 × 3 = 28.60 kN-m
Step 6: Moments at the ends of columns
The moments at the ends of the columns are found by considering the free-
body diagrams of the beam members joints and column members as shown in Fig.
10. 18. The procedure bendings from the top of the columns and proceeds towards
the base.
(i) Joint I
The moment at the end I of the beam IJ
MIJ = 16.66 kN-m (clockwise)
The moment in the portion of beam at the joint I
MIJ = 16.66 kN-m (anticlockwise)
For the equilibrium of joint I, the moment in the portion of the column
MIE = 16.66 kN-m (clockwise)
The moment at the top and bottom ends of column IE
MIE = 16.66 kN-m (anticlockwise)

Since, there is a point of contraflexure at the centre of column
MEI = 16.66 kN-m (anticlockwise)
(ii) Joint J
The moment at the end J of beam IJ
MIJ = 16.66 kN-m (clockwise)
Therefore, the moment in the portion of this beam at the joint J
MIJ = 16.66 kN-m (anticlockwise)
The moment at the end J of beam JK
MJK = 29.76 kN-m (clockwise)
The moment in the portion of beam JK at the joint J
MJK = 29.76 kN-m (anticlockwise)
The moment in the portion of the column JF at the joint J
MJF = (16.76+ 29.76) kN-m
The moments at the top and bottom ends of column JF
MJF = 46.42 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MFJ = 46.42 kN-m (anticlockwise)
(iv) Joint K
For the beam XL
MKL = 28.60 kN-m (clockwise)
For the beam JK
MKJ = 29.76 kN-m (clockwise)
For the portions of these beams, at the joint K
MKJ = 29.76 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MKL = 28.60 kN-m (clockwise)
∴ For the portion of column at the joint K
MKG = (29.76+ 28.60) kN-m
The moments at the top and bottom ends of column KG
MKG = 58.36 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MGK = 58.36 kN-m (anticlockwise)
(v) Joint L
For the beam KL
MLK = 28.60 kN-m (clockwise)
For the portion of beam KL at the joint L
MLK = 28.60 kN-m (anticlockwise)
For the portion of column LH
MLH = 28.60 kN-m (clockwise)
The moments at the top and bottom ends of column LH
MLH = 28.60 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MHL = 28.60 kN-m (anticlockwise)

(vi) Joint E
Column IE
MEI = 16.66 kN-m (clockwise)
Portion of column IE at the joint E
MEI = 16.66 kN-m (clockwise)
Beam EF
MEF = 61.14 kN-m (clockwise)
Portions of beam EF and column EA at the joint E
MEF = 16.66 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MAI + MEI = MEF
∴ MEA = (61.14 – 16.66) kN-m
Therefore, the moments at the top and bottom ends of column EA
MEA = 44.48 kN-m (anticlockwise)
∴ MAE = 44.48 kN-m (anticlockwise)
(vii) Joint F
The moments at the end F of beam EF, end F of the beam FG and end F of the
column JF
MFE = 61.14 kN-m (clockwise)
MFG = 10.92 kN-m (clockwise)
MFJ = 46.42 kN-m (anticlockwise)
The moments in the portions of these beams and column at this joint F
MFE = 61.14 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MFG = 109.2 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MFJ = 46.42 kN-m (clockwise)
MFB = (61.14 + 109.2 – 46.42) kN-m
The moments at the top and bottom ends of column FB
MFB = 123.22 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MBF = 123.22 kN-m (anticlockwise)
The moments at the end G of beam FG, end G of the beam GH and end G of
the column KG
MGF = 109.2 kN-m (clockwise)
MGH = 105.0kN-m (clockwise)
MGK = 58.36kN-m (anticlockwise)
The moments in the portions of these beams and column at this joint G
MGF = 109.2kN-m (anticlockwise)
MGH = 105.0 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MGK = 58.36 kN-m (clockwise)
MGC = (109.2 + 105.0 – 58.36) kN-m
The moment at the top and bottom ends of column GC
MGC = 155.84 kN-m (anticlockwise)
1 6.6 6 1 6.6 6 kN -m 1 6.6 6 2 9.7 6 2 9.7 6 kN -m 2 9.7 6 2 8.6 0 2 8.6 kN -m 2 8.6 0 kN -m
I J J J J K K K L
I
(viii) Joint H
L
1 6.6 6 kN -m 1 6.6 6 kN -m 2 9.7 6 kN -m 5 8.3 6 kN -m 2 8.6 0 kN -m
4 6.4 2 kN -m
2 8.6 0 kN -m
J 4 6.4 2 kN -m 5 8.3 6 kN -m
J K 2 8.6 0 kN -m L
1 6.6 6 kN -m
1 6.6 6 kN -m 5 8.3 6
E F 4 6.4 2 kN -m G 2 8.6 0 kN -m H
4 6.4 2 kN -m 5 8.3 6 1 05 .0 kN -m 2 8.6 0 kN -m
6 1.1 4 6 1.1 4 kN -m 6 1.1 4 1 09 .2 1 09 .2 kN -m 1 05 .0 kN -m
F G G H 1 05 .0
E F G H
4 4.4 8 kN -m 4 4.4 8 kN -m 1 23 .92 kN -m 1 09 .2 kN -m 1 55 .84 1 05 .0 kN -m

F 1 23 .92 kN -m 1 55 .84 kN -m 7 6.4 0 kN -m
E G H
7 6.4 0 kN -m
4 4.4 8 kN -m
DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS
A B C 1 55 .84 kN -m 7 6.4 0 kN -m D
4 4.4 8 kN -m 1 23 .92 kN -m
MHG = 105.0 kN-m (clockwise)
4 4.4 8 kN -m 1 23 .92 kN -m 1 55 .84 kN -m 7 6.4 0 kN -m

A B C
MCG = 155.84 kN-m (anticlockwise)
D
The moment at the end H of beam GH and end H of the column LH
Fig. 10.19 Bending moment at the ends of beams and columns

531
MHL = 2860 kN-m (anticlockwise)

The moments in the portions in the portions of the beam and column at this
joint H
MHG = 10.50 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MHL = 28.60 kN-m (clockwise)
MHD = (105.0 – 28.60) kN-m
The moments at the top and bottom ends of column HD
MHD = 76.40 kN-m (anticlockwise)
MDH = 76.40 kN-m (anticlockwise)
Thus, the axial forces in the columns, the end shears in the beams, and
moments at the ends of beams and columns are as above.
Example 10.3 Determine the moments at the ends of columns and beams in
the building frame shown in Fig. 10.14, in Example 10.1, by the factor method.
Solution
Step 1: Girder factors : The girder factors at various joints are found as
follows:
⎛ K EI + K EA ⎞
(i) Joint E, gE = ⎜⎝ K + K + K ⎟⎠
EI EA EF
⎡ (1 / 7.5) + (1 /10) ⎤
(i) Joint E, gE = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.482
⎣ (1 / 7.5) + (1 /10) + (1 / 4) ⎦
⎡ (2 / 7.5) + (1 / 5) ⎤
(ii) Joint F, gF = ⎢ (2 / 7.5) + (1 / 5) + (1 / 4) + (1 / 2.5) ⎥ = 0.418
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (1 / 3) + (1 / 4) ⎤
(iii) Joint G, gG = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.393
⎣ (1 / 3) + (1 / 4) + (1 / 2.5) + (1 / 2) ⎦
⎡ (1 / 5) + (3 / 20) ⎤
(iv) Joint H, gH = ⎢ (1 / 5) + (3 / 20) + (1/ 2) ⎥ = 0.411
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (1 / 7.5) ⎤
(v) Joint I, gI = ⎢ (1 / 7.5) + (1 / 4) ⎥ = 0.347
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (2 / 7.5) ⎤
(vi) Joint J, gJ = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.291
⎣ (2 / 7.5) + (1/ 4) + (1/ 2.5) ⎦
⎡ (1 / 3) ⎤
(vii) Joint K, gK = ⎢ (1 / 3) + (1/ 2.5) + (1/ 2) ⎥ = 0.270
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (1 / 5) ⎤
(viii) Joint L gL = ⎢ ⎥ = 0.286
⎣ (1 / 5) + (1 / 2) ⎦
The values of grider factors are written at the ends of the beams meeting at
the joint as shown in Table 10.1.
Step 2. Column factors. The column factors at various joints are found
as follows :
(i) Joint E, CE = (1 – gE ) = (1 – 0.482) = 0.518
(ii) Joint F, CF = (1 – 0.418) = 0.582
(iii) Joint G, CG = 1 – 0393 = 0.607
(iv) Joint H, CH = 1 – 0.411 = 0.589
(v) Joint I, CI = 1 – 0.347 = 0.653
(vi) Joint J, C J = 1 – 0.291 = 0.709
(vii) Joint K, CK = 1 – 0.270 = 0.730
(viii) Joint L, CL = 1 – 0.286 = 0.714
(ix) Joint A, CA = 1 = 1.000
(x) Joint B, CB = 1 = 1.000
(xi) Joint C, CC = 1 = 1.000
(xii) Joint D, CD = 1 = 1.000
The values of column factors are written at the ends of the columns meeting
at joints as shown in Table 10.1.
Step 3: Half values of girder and column factors. The half values of
girder factors are added to those of opposite ends. Similarly, the half values of
column factors as shown in Table 10.1, Col. 4 added to those of opposite ends as
shown in Col. 5.
Step 4: Relative stiffnesses of members. The relative stiffnesses of the
members are written in Col. 6. The girder/column moment factors are obtained
as the product of Col. 5 and Col. 6, and these are written in Col. 7.
Step 5: Storey constant for ground storey. The moments at the ends of
columns are found as follows :
Let A1 be the storey constant for the determination of moments at the ends of
columns of the ground storey. Then
⎛ H1h2 ⎞
A1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Sum of the column end moment factors of the storey ⎠
H1 ⋅ h1
A2 =
∑C
where, H1 = Total horizontal shear of the ground storey
= 100 + 100 = 200 kN
h1 = Height of the ground storey = 4 m
⎡ 200 × 4 ⎤
∴ A1 = (0.26 + 0.102) + (0.258 + 0.216) ⎥ = 482
⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ +(0.326 + 0.276) + 0.194 + 0.163 ⎦⎥
Table 10.1
Joints Members Girder/ Half values (3) + (4) Relative Girder/
columns of factors stiffness column
factors of opposite = I/L moment
= (5) × (6)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E EA 0.518 0.500 1.018 1/10 0.102
EI 0.518 0.327 0.845 1/7.5 0.112
EF 0.482 0.209 0.691 1/4 0.173
F FB 0.582 0.500 1.082 1/5 0.216
FJ 0.582 0.355 0.937 2/7.5 0.250
FG 0.418 0.197 0.615 1/2.5 0.246
EF 0.418 0.241 0.659 1/4 0.165
G GC 0.607 0.500 1.107 1/4 0.276
GK 0.607 0.365 0.972 1/3 0.323
G GF 0.393 0.209 0.602 1/2.5 0.241
GH 0.393 0.206 0.599 1/2 0.300
H HD 0.589 0.500 1.089 3/20 0.163
HL 0.589 0.357 0.946 1/5 0.189
HG 0.411 0.197 0.608 1/2 0.304
I EI 0.653 0.256 0.912 1/7.5 0.121
IJ 0.347 0.146 0.493 1/4 0.123
J JI 0.291 0.174 0.465 1/4 1.116
JF 0.709 0.291 1.000 1/7.5 0.267
JK 0.291 0.135 0.426 1/2.5 0.170
K KJ 0.270 0.146 0.416 1/2.5 0.166
KG 0.730 0.304 1.034 1/3 0.344
KL 0.270 0.143 0.413 1/2 0.206
L LK 0.286 0.135 0.421 1/2 0.210
LH 0.714 0.295 1.009 1/5 0.202
A AE 1.000 0.259 1.259 1/10 0.126
B BF 1.000 0.291 1.291 1/5 0.258
C CG 1.000 0.304 1.304 1/4 0.326
D DH 1.000 0.295 1.295 3.20 0.194
Step 6: Moments at the ends of columns of ground storey

MAE = 0.126 × 482 = 60.6 kN-m
MEA = 0.102 × 482 = 49.6 kN-m
MBF = 0.258 × 482 = 124.2 kN-m
MFB = 0.216 × 482 =104.0 kN-m
MCG = 0.326 × 482 = 157.0 kN-m
MGC = 0.276 × 482 = 133.0 kN-m
MDH = 0.194 × 482 = 93.4 kN-m
MHD = 0.163 × 482 = 78.4 kN-m
Step 7: Storey constant for top storey :
⎛ H 2 ⋅ h2 ⎞
A2 = ⎜ Sum of the column end moment factors of the storey ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where, H2 = Horizontal shear of the top storey = 100 kN
h2 = Height of the top storey = 3 m
⎡ 100 × 3 ⎤
∴ A2 = ⎢ (0.112 + 0.121) + (0.250 + 0.267) ⎥ = 166
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ +(0.323 + 0.344) + (0.182 + 0.202 ⎥⎦
Step 8: Moments at the ends of columns of top storey

MEI = 0.112 × 166 = 18.3 kN-m
MIE = 0.121 × l66 = 20.2 kN-m
MFJ = 0.750 × 166 = 41.6 kN-m
MJF = 0.267 × 166 = 44.4 kN-m
MGK = 0.323 × 166 = 53.6 kN-m
MKG = 0.344 × 166 = 57.0 kN-m
MHL = 0.189 × 166 = 31.6 kN-m
MLH = 0.202 × 166 = 33.6 kN-m
Step 9. Joint constants for the ground storey. The moments at the ends
of the beams are found as follows:
Let BE, BF , BG, and BH are the constants for the determination of the moments
at the ends of the beams of the ground storey.
Then,
⎛ Sum of column moments at the joint E ⎞ ⎛ ∑ M C ⎞

BE = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Sum of girder moment factors at the joint E ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∑ GE ⎠
⎛ M + M EI ⎞
BE = ⎜ EA ⎟
⎝ GE ⎠
⎛ 49.0 + 18.3 ⎞ ⎛ 104.0 + 41.6 ⎞

BE = ⎜ ⎟ = 546, BF = ⎜ ⎟ = 353.0
⎝ 0.123 ⎠ ⎝ 0.165 + 0.246 ⎠
⎛ 133.0 + 53.6 ⎞ ⎛ 78.4 + 31.6 ⎞

BG = ⎜ ⎟ = 344.0, BH = ⎜ ⎟ = 361.0
⎝ 0.241 + 0.300 ⎠ ⎝ 0.304 ⎠
Setp 10 : Joint constants for the top storey : Let BI, BJ, BH, and BL be the
constants for the determination the moments at the ends of the beam of the top
storey. Then
⎛ 20.2 ⎞ ⎛ 44.4 ⎞
BI = ⎜ ⎟ = 16.40, BJ = ⎜ ⎟ = 155.0
⎝ 0.123 ⎠ ⎝ 1.116 + 1.170 ⎠
⎛ 57.0 ⎞ ⎛ 33.6 ⎞
BK = ⎜ ⎟ = 153.2, BL = ⎜ ⎟ = 159.8
⎝ 0.166 + 0.206 ⎠ ⎝ 0.210 ⎠
Setp 11: Moments at the ends of beams
The moments at the ends of beams are as follows :
MEF = Girder moment factor × BE
= 0.123 × 546 = 67.5 kN-m
MFE = 0.165 × 353.0 = 58.2 kN-m
MFG = 0.246 × 353.0 = 86.8 kN-m
MGF = 0.241 × 344.0 = 83.0 kN-m
MGH = 0.300 × 344.0 = 103.2 kN-m
MHG = 0.304 × 361.0 = 109.8 kN-m
MIJ = 0.123 × l64.0 = 20.2 kN-m
MJI = 0.116 × 155.0 = 18.0 kN-m
MJK = 0.170 × 155.0 = 26.4 kN-m
MKJ = 0.166 × 153.0 = 25.6 kN-m
MKL = 0.206 × l53-0 = 31.518 kN-m
MLK = 0.210 × 159.8 = 33.6 kN-m
It is to note that the axial forces in the columns and the beams, if required,
may be found as determined in Example 10.2.
10.10 HIGH-RISE TUBULAR FRAMES

In 1960s, Dr. Fazlur R. Khan introduced a new thing as a novelty (viz., the
concept of tubular structures for the tall buildings). During 1960s and 1970s,
Dr. Khan became the most prominent innovator in the area or high-rise
buildings, both in concrete and steel. In this time, an intense urbanization was
going on. In 1964, Khan, F.R. and sbarounis, J.A. published a paper ‘Interaction
of Shear Walls and Frames’, Proceedings, ASCE, Volume 90, ST-3, June 1964,
(pp 285–335). This paper was proved to be a milestone in the development of
economical high-rise buildings in both concrete and steel. The stiffness of frame
building could be increased upto several times with the methodology developed
in the above said paper, without an increase in the cost.
In the same period, Dr. Khan also introduced the Tubular Design Concept.
This concept was applied in the construction of a 43-storey reinforced concrete
Chestnut-Dewitt apartment building in Chicago in 1963.
A still further economically feasible height of multistorey building proved to
be next innovation. It was the application of shear wallframe interaction
principles to tubular structures, creating the tube-in-tube concept (a new
phrased coined by Khan). This concept was first applied to the Brunswick
Building in Chicago. This concept was soon applied to many other structures. A
52-storey shell Oil Plaza in Houston was also designed with this concept. This
building was the tallest reinforced concrete building.
A 100-storey John Hancock Building in Chicago in 1960s was designed and
constructed as Khan’s first steel version of the tubular structure. This building
was a diagonally braced structure. It became another milestone, particularly
due to the strong expression of its dominant structural features in the
architectural exterior front of the building.
The design and construction of the Sears Tower a 110-storey building with
441.96 m height proved to be a further innovation. In this building, the nine
tubes were bundled into a single structural system. It is the world’s tallest
building. Like the John Hancock building, half of the steel needed for a
conventional design was used.
Dr. Khan’s more innovations include the composite buildings, combining the
advantages of the rigidity of a concrete tubular structure and the speed of erection
of steel slab systems and interior columns. Since 1965, the numerous ultra
high-rise composite structures upto 66 storeys in height have been built.
The exterior tubular configurations used to be made highly efficient to carry
the lateral loads imposed on the multi-storey buildings. The interior frames
carry lateral loads less efficiently. Khan’s innovations improved the rigidity of
tall buildings (which resulted in their superior performance) and achieved
substantial economy over the cost of buildings designed using traditional
schemes.
Professor Khan, F.R. published two papers (in Proceedings, Symposium on
Tall Buildings, University of Southhampton England, April 1966) titled as
‘Current Trend’s in concrete high Rise Buildings’ and ‘On some Special Problems
of Analysis and Design of Shear Wall Structures’, Professor Khan, F.R. published
a paper co-authored with Fintel, Mark titled as ‘Effects of column Exposure in
Tall structures, Analysis for Length changes of Exposed columns’, in ACI Journal
Proceedings, volume 63 (8), August, 1966. A special publication SP-36 ACI,
Detroit, 1973 was published by Professor Khan, F.R. and Amin, N.R. Most of
the ultra highrise buildings today have been constructed on the principles
introduced by Khan. These buildings represent an economic answer to the needs
of the day, utilizing advanced technology and the art of engineering. Professor
Khan believed that there is beauty and simplicity in the structural form of a
building that is natural. Instead of going for a preconceived architectural
expression. In Professor Khan’s view, the natural structural form should be

taken as the architectural expression of the building.
The diagonally braced tube to concrete for the 50-storey 780 3rd Avenue
Building in New York and the bundled tube concept adapted to concrete for the
58-storey one Magnificient Mile, Chicago were Dr. Khan’s last accomplishments.
The construction on both of these above said projects has been completed
since Dr. Khan’s untimely death in March, 1982 at the age of 52 years.
The multistorey buildings are three dimensional structures (viz. space
structures). The analysis of multi-storey buildings above sixty stories by matrix
methods involves a large size structure stiffness matrix as compared to that for
plane frames and large memory computers were required. The simplified
methods were developed for the analysis of large size structures subjected to
wind loads on small size computers. New structural concepts were recently
developed for the efficient and economic use of materials. The concept of tubular
frames, tube within a tube and combination were also developed for the purpose
of analysing high rise multistorey three dimensional buildings as two-
dimensional plane frames. The columns located on the outer periphery and those
situated on inner periphery and inner to inner periphery were conceptionally
considered as tubular frames and tube within the tube for the purpose of study
analysis. It is worthwhile to note that the structural members are not made
from tubular sections. All exterior or interior columns and girders in both
longitudinal and transverse directions from tubular frames and create a vertical
tubular cantilever beams to resist wind effects from both the directions. The
most efficient may be utilised to keep bending to a minimum. This system is
more efficient than the conventional systems consisting of two dimensional wind
frames or shear walls in the transverse and longitudinal directions to resist
wind from either directions.
The frame tube system is a new system that utilizes the perimeter
configuration of tall buildings rather than to rely on the core configuration alone.
This system in its simplest form consists of closely spaced exterior columns tied
at each floor level with relatively deep spandrel beams. This system creates the
effect of a hollow concrete tube perforated by openings for the windows. This
system simulates to a hollow tube using perimeter closely spaced frame elements.
As such, it is referred as Framed tube system (Fig. 10.20). For taller buildings,
this system provides a distinct economic advantage. The additional advantage
of this closed spaced column system is that this system is the window wall system.
The vertical mullions for the support of the glass windows are replaced.
Generally, the spacing between the centre of one column to the centre of the
other adjacent column in the same line of the exterior columns in the framed
tube structural system is from 1.22 m to a maximum of about 3.05 m. Depending
upon the overall proportions and the height of the building this spacing of the
peripheral columns may probably be increased to 4.57 m.
The closely spaced columns are interconnected with the spandrel beams which
vary from 0.61 m in depth to about 1.22 m in depth with widths from 0.254 m to
0.914 m. In the design of framed tube structural system, a proper balance of
stiffness between the spandrels and the columns is kept so that both of these
elements are efficiently utilized to provide stiffness of the structure against
lateral sway and the overall strength of the tube system to resist the lateral
forces is assumed. In most recent structures, stiffness for limiting lateral sway
controlled the proportions more often than the strength requirement.
Virendeel system as shown in Fig. 10.20 (a) and the cross braced systems
shown in Fig. 10.20 (b) are two types of exterior tubular framing systems.
Virendeel systems consist of closely spaced building columns and spandrel
girders. The cross-braced systems consist of multistorey diagonals, columns and
spandrel girders.
Tube-within-a-tube framing systems are primarily multiple tube
frameworks. When the interior columns and girders are also engaged to create
vertical tubular cantilever beams, then various systems are possible.
(a ) Tub ular fra m ing (b ) Tub ular fra m ing

(V ie re nd ee l) system (C ross-braced syste m )
Fig. 10.20
10.11 BEHAVIOUR OF TUBULAR FRAMES

The appearance of structure is like a tube. However, the behavior is very complex
because of the numerous component parts, which are statically indeterminate.
The nature of complete problem is three-dimensional.The pattern of the stresses
which are to be found as shown in Fig. 10.21.
A ctu al colum n stress w ith

she ar la g
A xia l co lu m n A xia l co lu m n
stre ss a s stre ss
tru e ca ntilever (w ind on ly)
Ten sile stre sse s
d ire ction o f w ind
A B
(W ith ou t) A xia l co lu m n
she ar la g) stre ss a s tru e
can tileve r
w itho ut she ar
L ine o f p otation la g
D C
A ctu al
A ctu al colum n stress as true colum n stress
can tileve r w itho ut she ar la g (w ith sh ea r lag )
A ctu al colum n stress w ith sh ea r lag
C o m p re ssive stresses
stre sses in co lu m ns d ue to w ind lo ad
Fig 10.21
The framed tube system combines the behavior of a true cantilever, such as a
shear wall, with that of a beam-column frame. The tubular cantilever beam
action resists the overturning under lateral load and tends to produce tensile
stresses in the columns in the windward face and compressive stresses in the
columns in the leeward face. The shear from the lateral load is resisted by bending
in the columns and beams primarily in the two sides of building parallel to the
direction of lateral load. In case, the lateral loads are acting parallel to faces AD
and BC, the frames on these faces undergo usual shearing acting combined
with an independent rigid frame.
Therefore, for all practical purposes, the bending moments in these columns
may be found by judicious choice of the point of contraflexure in each storey. It
is true that in the lower few storeys, as well as in the upper few storeys, the
point of contraflexure does not remain in the middle of storey height. The
intermediate storeys constitute the major portion of the building. Generally
these intermediate storeys have the point of contraflexure at mid-height of each
storey. It is therefore, possible to calculate the bending moments in these columns
with reasonable accuracy for any unknown lateral shear at each storey. One
may, of course, make simple iterative, Maney-Goldberg type, slope deflection

solution or a modified moment distribution solution to find more accurate
moments in these columns. In fact, such an iterative solution will also give a
good approximation of that portion of the lateral deflection which is caused by
the frame action only. To this the additional overturning deflection caused by
tension or compression in the column must be added to calculate the total lateral
deflection.
When the overturning of the complete building due to lateral load is
considered, the cantilever tube type behaviour becomes significant. For analysis
of the complete framed tube, the exterior column system may be considered as
part of a rigidly diphragmed hollow tube. However, the webs of the hollow tube,
that is, two sides parallel to the direction of wind (lateral force), are not truly
solid webs, but are in fact, grid frames. Therefore, the effect of loss of efficiency
due to the flexibility of this frame causes what is called as shear lag as shown
in Fig. 10.21. The primary action is further complicated due to the fact that the
flexibility of spandrel beams produces a shear lag effect. As a result of which,
the stresses in the corner columns are increased. The stresses in the inner
columns decrease. The warping of the floor slabs takes place due to increase
and decrease of stresses in the columns. Therefore, the interior partitions and
the secondary structures also deform.
For a very preliminary estimate of the overall resistance, as well as the
deflection of the building, the effective configuration of the tube may be reduced
to two equivalent channels (as shown in Fig. 10.22) resisting the total overturning
moments. From the experience, it is seen that for preliminary designs the
W ind fo rce
Flec Flec
Flec Flec
Flec = Flan ge o f e qu iva len t ch an ne l

fra m ed tube (P la n)
Fig. 10.22
channels flanges normally should not be more than half the depth of the web
(walls parallel to lateral load) or more than about 10 percent given conservative
values of shear and moment as compared to the actual forces in the exterior
columns obtained by the exact analysis carried subsequently by a generalized
computer programme.
10.12 INITIAL PRELIMINARY DESIGN APPROACH

Let the overturning moment resisted by the two equivalent channels for a framed
tube as shown in Fig. 10.22 be M. This moment produces axial forces, Pw in the
closed columns of these channels. This moment also produces shear forces, Vs in
the connecting spandrels. The preliminary estimate of Pw and Vs may be based
on the classical beam theory. These may be expressed as under:
⎛ M .C. Ac ⎞
Pw = ⎜ Ie ⎟ ...(10.9)
⎝ ⎠
⎛ vw .Q.h ⎞
and Vs = ⎜ I ⎟ ...(10.10)
⎝ e ⎠
where
Ac = cross-sectional area of column
C = distance of any column from the neutral axis
h = storey height
Ie = effective moment of inertia
Q = sum of first moment of column areas about the neutral axis
Vw = total wind shear
From the structural point of view, the framed tube has many large openings
as compared to the solid tube. Therefore, its behaviour is of a hybrid nature
showing characteristics of the pure frame as well as of the pure tube. Even
though, one may expect the behaviour of the framed tube to be more like a tube
resisting the lateral forces through axial forces in the columns, the significant
moments develop in the columns in the two walls parallel to the direction of
wind.
The preliminary design method (for a framed tube-type structure) will
generally indicate a reasonably uniform shear force in the spandrel beams along
the two exterior walls parallel to the direction of wind. The preliminary moments
in the spandrel beams are consequently found from these shears. The preliminary
design of the closed spaced columns should be based on the known dead and live
loads added to the axial forces due to overturning; the moments caused due by
storey shears should also be considered.
Problems
10.1 Determine the shears and end moments in the columns and the beams
of the beams of the building frame with moment resistant joints as
shown in Fig 10.23 by the portal method. Also determine the exial
forces in the coulmns.
100 kN
3m
100 kN
4m
8m 6m 4m
Fig. P.10.1
10.2 Determine the end moments in the columns and the beams of the
building frame with moment-resistant joints as shown in Fig. P.10.1
by the cantilever method. Also determine the axial forces in the columns
and the end shears in the beams.
10.3 A six storey frame is as shown in Fig. P. 10.3. Design the frame by the
cantilever method. State all the assumptions made. The wind and
gravity loads are as shown in Fig. P. 10.3.
1 2 kN /m
7 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN 6x5m
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
2 0 kN /m
1 4 kN
8m 8m
Fig. P. 10.3

10.1 The multistorey buildings are constructed in general when
(a) the large size plot of land is available at cheap cost.
(b) the small size plot of land is available at high cost.
(c) the availability of land is no criterion.
(d) the cost of land is no criterion.
10.2 The approximate methods of analysing the multistorey buildings are
still adopted even when the large size and high speed computers are
available because the approximate methods
(a) are easy and quick methods.
(b) give the guidelines to select the initial size of members.
(c) give fairly correct results.
(d) give quite rough results.

10.1 (b) 10.2 (b)
CHAPTER
11
Design of Light Gauge Steel
Members
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The light gauge steel members are defined as structural members cold formed
to shapes in rolls or press brakes from carbon or low-alloy steel sheets or strips
or flats, generally not thicker than 12.5 mm. The steel sheets or strips used for
light gauge steel members conform to IS : 1079–1968. The minimum guaranteed
yield strength for the steel conforming to IS: 1079–1973 is 232 N/mm2 and the
ultimate strength is 390 N/mm2. The use of hot-rolled steel sections becomes
uneconomical for the steel structures subjected to light and moderate loads,
and for the structural members of short span lengths (e.g., joints, purlins, girts,
roof trusses, complete framing for one and two-storey residential, commercial
and industrial structures). The stresses produced even in the smallest available
hot-rolled steel sections are very small. The light gauge steel members are widely
used for such steel roof, floor, decks, wall panels, etc. where the load carrying
members also provide useful surface. The light gauge steel members are also
used in many industries (e.g., automotive truck and trailer bodies, railway cars
etc.). The light gauge steel members are specially used in aircrafts. The light
gauge steel members are also used for various types of buildings from large
hangers to small quonset huts. The light gauge steel members are manufactured
by cold rolling process for mass production of standardized structural elements.
For repetitive mass production, these are formed economically by cold-rolling.
In case the light gauge steel members of special shapes and in small quantities
are to be manufactured, then these are manufactured by press-brakes.
The mechanical properties of sheet and strip steel may be significantly altered
by the cold work that is exerted on it in forming it into structural sections. The
strength of a cold formed structural members is increased due to the forming
process. The strengthening effect of forming operations varies widely, depending
on the composition and prior treatment of the material, the extent to which it is
cold worked in forming, the nature of forming operations and the proportions of
section. A compact section that is formed from a narrow strip in roll forming
machines experiences a considerable increase in strength relative to the strength

of the unformed material. A relative wide, thin section experiences such an
increase only at the corners, and since in such a section, the corners constitute
a small percentage of the total area and the net effect is slight.
11.2 TYPES OF CROSS-SECTION

The light gauge steel members are formed in various shapes because of ease in
their manufacture. The various shapes of cross-sections are designed to use the
(a ) (b ) (c) (d )
(e ) (f) (g ) (h )
(i) (j) (k) (l)
(m ) (n ) (o ) (p )
(q ) (r)
Fig. 11.1 Types of cross-sections of light gauge members

DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 547
material effectively and to simplify and speed up construction operations. The

cross-section of the light gauge steel members varies with its application. The
various cross-sections of light gauge steel members are shown in Fig. 11.1.
The types of cross-sections shown in Fig. 11.1, (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, r and s) are
the individual cold formed structural sections. The types of cross-sections shown
in Fig. 11.1 (i, j, k, l, m, n, o and q) are formed by riveting or spot welding the
individual cross-sections. The types of cross-section shown in Fig. 11.1 (r) can
be drawn or folded and welded. Figure 11.1 (s) shows the tubular section. The
longitudinal stiffeners formed of light gauge steel members may be attached
inside the tubular cross-section. The channel section, angle section, hat section,
tubular section and Z-section, are the usual shapes. The geometrical properties
of angle section, channel section with and without lips, that section and box
section are given in IS : 811–1961. (Specification for cold formed light gauge
structural steel sections).
(a ) (b )
(c)
(d )
(e ) (f)
(g ) (h )
Fig. 11.2
Figure 11.2 shows types of cross-sections of light gauge steel members used
for roof, floor decks, siding and walls. The light gauge steel members of several
other shapes or cross-section can also be manufactured.
11.3 DEFINITIONS
11.3.1 Stiffened Elements
When any flat compression element (i.e., a plane compression flange of a flexural
member or plane web or flange of a compression member) is stiffened on both
edges parallel to the direction of stress by connected stiffeners or by formed
lips, or flanges offering a specified resistance to lateral deflection, then the
element is considered as stiffened. The vertical webs of light gauge steel member
shown in Fig. 11.1 (i) are stiffened by flanges. The horizontal flanges of the
members shown in Fig. 11.1 (j,k and o) are stiffened along one edge by the
stiffening lips and along the other edge, by the vertical webs. All the elements
of light gauge steel members shown in Fig. 11.1 (r) are stiffened. The light gauge
steel member of tubular section shown in Fig. 11.1 (s) is stiffened in case
longitudinal stiffeners shown by dotted lines are provided. When the gradually
increasing loads are applied on the stiffened elements, then the buckling waves
develop gradually. The effective section of the stiffened elements are reduced
by the buckling waves, and redistribution of stress takes place. In the stiffened
elements, the sudden buckling of the elements does not occur.
11.3.2 Multiple-Stiffened Elements

When an element is stiffened web, or between a web and an edge, by providing
intermediate stiffeners parallel to the direction of stress, then the element is
considered multiple-stiffened elements.
A portion of the element between adjacent stiffeners, or between edge and
stiffeners or between web and stiffener is known as a sub-element.
The efficiency of stiffened compression elements of large w/t ratio may be
greatly increased by providing additional intermediate stiffeners between the
edges.
11.3.3 Unstiffened Elements

When an element is having one or both edges parallel to the direction of stress
free from lateral restraint then the element is considered as unstiffened. The
horizontal flanges of a light gauge steel member shown in Fig. 11.1 (i) are
unstiffened. In an unstiffened element, the sudden local buckling occurs at a
definite critical load.
The unstiffened compression elements develop buckling waves at considerably
lower stress than the stiffened elements of the same w/t ratio. The distortions in
unstiffened elements may be some-what pronounced as there is a lack of restraint
along one of the longitudinal edge.
11.3.4 Flat-width Ratio

The flat-width ratio, (w/t), of a single flat element is the ratio of the flat width,
w exclusive of edge fillets to the thickness t of such elements.
In case of section such as I, T, channel and Z-shaped sections, the flat width
is the width of flat projection of flange from web exclusive of the fillets and of
any stiffening lip that may be at the outer ege of the flange. In case of multiple
web sections, such as hat, U, or box-shaped sections, the flat with, w is the flat
width of flange between adjacent webs exclusive of fillets.
11.3.5 Effective Design Width

When the flat width, w of an element is reduced for design purposes, the reduced
design width be is termed as the effective design width or simply effective
width.
After the commencement of buckling, the longitudinal compressive stresses
in a stiffened compression element are non-uniformly distributed across the
width as shown in Fig. 11.3. When the load is increased on the member, the
σ 2 .m a x
σ1 .m a x
b2 b2
2 2
Fig. 11.3 Effective width of stiffened compression element and distribution of longitudinal
compressive stress
compressive stress at the edges increases and non-uniformity of distribution

becomes more perdominant. The actual width, w of the stiffened compression
element is replaced by a reduced effective width, be in order to account for this
non-uniform stress distribution. The reduced effective width is determined in
such a manner that the total area under the actual stress-distribution curve is
equal to the combined area of the two rectangular stress distributions, whose
combined width is be .
The effective width depends on the flat width ratio w/t and on the maximum
edge stress. The failure of element occurs when the edge stress reaches the
yield stress. At design loads, the edge stress is smaller, the effective width is,
therefore, larger than at failure. For this reason, it is essential to distinguish
betwen effective width to be used for the determining allowable load i.e., on one
side, the failure loads, divided by the factor of safety, and on the outer side,
those for finding deflections at design loads.
11.4 LOCAL BUCKLING OF THIN ELEMENTS

The light gauge steel members are cold formed from this steel sheets or strips.
The ratio of width to thickness of plate element is large. The failure of plate
elements occur by buckling. The buckling occurs at low stresses resulting due to
compression, or bending or shear or bearing. The critical buckling of thin
elements is usually of a local nature. The local buckling of this elements occurs
before the general buckling.
A rectangular plate with dimensions of a × b is shown in Fig. 11.4. The material
of plate is (free of residual stresses) homogeneous and isotropic. The plate is
C o m p re ssio n alon g the e dg es
a a
b
b
(a ) E dg es-sim ply su p po rte d (b ) E d ge s-fixe d

Fig. 11.4
perfectly plane and it is subjected to uniform compressive load along the opposite
edges. When the compressive load is gradully increased, the plate will be
compressed uniformly until the buckling stress is reached. When the buckling
stress is reached, the plate buckles in a single wave or a series of waves (as
shown in Fig. 11.5) depending on the boundary (edge) conditions and length to
a b
b
b
b
b
σcr
σcr
Fig. 11.5 Buckling of a long rectangular strip

width (a/b) ratio. As a result of this, redistribution of the compressive stress

occurs. When the load is further increased, the entire plate buckles.
The critical elastic buckling stress is given by
⎡ kc π2 E ⎤
σcr = ⎢ 2⎥ ...(11.1)
⎢12 2 ⎛b⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ (1 − μ ) ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where,
E =
Young’s modulus of elasticity
t =
Thickness of plate
b =
Width of plate
μ =
Poisson’s ratio
kc =
Buckling coefficient. The value of k c depends upon the aspect
ratio a/b, and m
a = Length of plate
m = Number of half waves into which the plate buckles
When the critical stress in the plate exceeds the proportional limit, the inelastic
buckling of the plate occurs. The critical inelastic buckling stress is given by
⎡ kc ⋅ π 2 ⋅ E ⋅ λ ⎤
σcr = ⎢ 2⎥ ...(11.2)
⎢12 2 ⎛ b⎞ ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 1 − μ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
k c is a non-dimensional coefficient. It depends upon the edge supports and the

aspect ratio a/b. It is given by
2
⎛ b a n2 ⎞
k = ⎜m + ...(i)
⎝ a b m ⎟⎠
a
When the edges parallel to the compressive stress are simply supported, =m
b
and n = 1, the value of k is 4. Terms m and n appear in the expression (i) due to
series solution to develop the plate equation. Factor λ is used so that the tangent
modulus is obtained as Et = λ.E. When λ is unity, Et = E. In general
⎛ σ y − σ cr .σ cr ⎞
λ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ σ y − σ pl .σ pl ⎠
where, σpl is the stress at limit of proportionality.
The critical buckling stress for shear may be derived in a similar manner as
that for compression. The buckling coefficient kc is replaced by k s. The critical
buckling stress for shear is given by
⎡ ks π 2 λ ⋅ E ⎤
⎢ 2⎥
σcrs = ...(iii)
⎢12 2 ⎛ b⎞ ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 1 − μ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
The four edges of the plate are assumed simply supported in shear. The critical
buckling stress in shear is given by σy 3 . The permissible shear stress is found
by using a factor of safety, F.S.
⎛ σcrs ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞
σs = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ F .S × 3 ⎠ ⎝ 1.67 × 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2.89 ⎠
11.5 POST BUCKLING OF THIN ELEMENTS

It is seen from the experimental evidence that the thin plate elements do not
fail immediately after the commencement of buckling. The central (middle) strips
of thin plate elements get buckled. The adjacent edge strips restrain the buckling
in the middle strips only. These adjacenet edge strips carry less effective load as
compared to the middle strip. These adjacent edge strips have considerable
reserve strength. In case the load across the width of plate b is further increased,
the additional load is shared by two adjacent edge strips (each of width, c) as
shown in Fig. 11.6. The buckling of these adjacent edge strips begins. The
L en gth
Fig. 11.6
buckling of two adjacent edge strips after buckling of middle strip of a thin
plate is known as post-buckling. It is assumed that the distribution of load is
unifrom across these strips. The middle strip of the thin plate is disregarded.
These two strips are considered as long simply supported rectangular plates.
The concept of effective width, be is applied as the sun of two strips, widths on
each side of the buckled zone. When the load is increased, the effective stress on
these two edge strips (stress on width of 2c = be ) reaches the value of critical
stress equal to the yield stress (as shown in Fig. 11.7) is given by
⎡ π2 E ⎤
σcr = ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.3)
⎢12 (1 − μ2 ) ⎛ t ⎞ ⎥
2
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
c ⎦
a σy
a
b c
2
σy b
be = 2c , 2 c =
b σ
Fig. 11.7 Effective width for post-buckling of plate
After the yield, the deformation of the plate continues at constant load. It is
considered that the ultimate load or full load carrying capacity of the plate has
been reached. The difference between this ultimate load and initial buckling
load is known as post-buckling strength of thin plate elements.
In airplane construction, the question of economy in weight of the structure
is of primary importance. In such cases, the additional (reserve) strength of
plate after buckling (i.e., post-buckling strength) is commonly ultilized.
⎡ πt E ⎤
∴ c = ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.4)
(
⎢⎣ 12 1 − μ 2 ) σy ⎥
⎦
⎡ E ⎤
2c = ⎢1.90t ⋅ ⎥ (for μ = 0.3) ...(11.5)
⎢⎣ σ y ⎥⎦
Therefore, ultimate load

Pult = (2c) . t . σy
⎡ πt2 E σ y ⎤
Pult = ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.6)
⎢ 12 (1 − μ 2 ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
It is to note that the ultimate load or ultimate strength of buckled thin
elements of plate is independent of the width of the sheet. The ultimate strength
is proportional to the square of its thickness. The ultimate load or ultimate

strength and critical load for the thin plate elements being known, the post-
bucklirtg strength of the thin plate elements is also known.
The unstiffened elements do not have any post-buckling strengths.
11.6 LIGHT GAUGE STEEL COLUMNS AND

COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The light gauge columns and compression members may be made of any of the
cross-sections as shown in Fig. 11.1. The light gauge columns and compression
members may also be made of several other shapes. The classification of column
sections in done according to whether the column sections are composeed entirely
of stiffened elements, entirely of unstiffened elements, or of combination of both
types of elements. The strength of column of thin plates is defined as load carrying
capacity of the member governed by one or combination of following types of
failure :
1. Crushing.
2. Local buckling of thin plate elements of the section over short length of
column.
3. Over-all or primary column buckling by bending in lateral direction over
the unsupported length of the column.
4. Torsional buckling or twisting of the section about a longitudinal axis.
11.6.1 Crushing Failure of Columns

The crushing failure of columns may occur only in very short columns, in which
their slenderness ratio is less than 20. The thickness of plate elements is such
that the local buckling does not take place. The crushing of column starts when
the compressive stress becomes equal to the yield stress of the material. Generally
the crushing failure of light gauge columns and compression members does not
occur.
11.6.2 Local Buckling Failure of Columns

The pure local buckling failure of columns may occur only in very short columns
for which the slenderness ratio is more than 20. The initial local buckling may
occur for columns of intermediate length for which the slenderness ratio varies
approximately from 20 to 120, at loads less than ultimate load. The final failure
of column would occur due to combined effects of local buckling and overall
primary column buckling.
∴ (Pult < Aeff . σy)
11.6.3 Primary Column Buckling of Columns

IS : 801–1968 recommends Euler’s formula for critical stress less than or equal
σy
to
2
π2 E
σcr = 2
...(11.7 a)
⎛l⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝r⎠
σy
then σcr =
2
1
⎛l⎞
2 ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ ⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(11.7 b)
⎝r⎠ ⎝ σy ⎠ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ σy ⎠
IS : 801–1968 recommends the following parabolic formula for critical stress
σy
more than
2
⎡ σ2y ⎛ l ⎞2 ⎤
σcr = ⎢σ y − 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.8)
⎣ 4π E ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
The allowable stress in axial compression fa, may be found by dividing the
critical stress by a factor or safety m.
1
⎛l⎞ ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ 2
For ⎜ ⎟ < ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝r⎠ ⎝ σy ⎠
1 ⎡ σ2y ⎛ l ⎞2 ⎤
fa = ⎢σ − ⎥ ...(11.9)
m ⎣ y 4 π2E ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎦
1
l ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞ 2
For > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
r ⎝ σy ⎠
⎡ 1 π2 E ⎤
fa = ⎢ × 2⎥ ...(11.10)
⎢m ⎛ l ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥
r ⎦
1/ 2
l ⎛ 2π2 E ⎞
When the slenderness ratio is greater than ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , then the light gauge
r ⎝ σy ⎠
steel column fails in elastic buckling. This slenderness ratio as in Eq. 11.7 (b) is
known as limiting slenderness ratio.
The form factor Q, defined in Sec. 11.7 is introduced in Eq. 11.9 and Eq. 11.
10 to account for the effect of local buckling.
1/2
l ⎛ 2 π2 E ⎞
∴ For < ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(as in Eq. 11.7 (b))
r ⎝ σy ⎠
⎡ σy (Qσ y )2 ⎛ l ⎞2 ⎤
fa = ⎢Q ⋅ − 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.11)
⎣ m 2π E ⋅ m ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
1/2
l ⎛ 2 π2 E ⎞
and for > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(as in Eq. 11.7(b))
r ⎝ σy ⎠
⎡ 1 π2 E ⎤
fa = ⎢ ⋅ 2⎥ ...(11.12)
⎢m ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝r⎠ ⎦
For steel sheets and strips conforming to IS : 1079–1973
m = 2.16, σy = 232N/mm2
E = 2.08 × 105 N/mm2.
11.7 FORM FACTOR FOR COLUMNS AND COMPRESSION

MEMBERS
The form factor, Q is also known as column factor or shape factor.
The form factor Q, is introduced for columns and compression members of
b
light gauge steel sections to account for the effect of local buckling. When the
t
ratio of the cross-section of an element of compression members exceeds certain
limits, the local buckling may combine with overall buckling and it results in a
lower load carrying capacity. The shape factor, Q is the ratio of the load at
which a short length of members fails by local buckling to the load at which it
would fail in simple yielding if local buckling is prevented. The form factor reduces
the strengths of the cross-section. The value of form factor is less than unity.
The form factors for different members are defined as follows as per IS: 811–
1961.
11.7.1 Members Composed Entirely of Stiffened Elements

The form factor Q, is defined as the ratio between the effective design area as
determined from effective design widths of such elements and gross area of the
cross-section.
⎛ Aeff ⎞ ⎛ Effective design area ⎞

∴ Q =⎜ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.13)
⎝ Agross ⎟⎠ ⎝ Total area ⎠
11.7.2 Members Composed Entirely of Unstiffened

Elements
The form factor Q, is defined as the ratio between allowable compressive stress
ft, for the weakest element of the cross-section (the element having the largest
flat width ratio) and the basic design stress, fb.
⎛ fc ⎞ ⎛ Allowable stress ⎞
Q= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.14)
⎝ fb ⎠ ⎝ Basic design stress ⎠
11.7.3 Members Composed of Both Stiffened and

Unstiffened Elements
The form factor Q is the product of stress factor Qs, computed as per Eq. 11.14
and an area factor Qa, computed as per Eq. 11.3, except the effective area is
computed. Qa shall include the effective area of all stiffened elements and the
full area of all unstiffened elements.
⎛ fc ⎞ ⎛ Aeff ⎞
Q = Qs . Qa = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ...(11.15)
⎝ fb ⎠ ⎝ Agross ⎟⎠
11.8 STIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS

When the stiffened compression elements are subjected to loads, these elements
behave quite differently from the unstiffened compression elements. When the
compressive stress is small, the complete area and the width of the stiffened
⎛w⎞
element are effective. When the flat-width ratio ⎜ ⎟ is high and the compressive
⎝t ⎠
stress increase (e.g., the portion in the centre of elements most remote from the
stiffened edges), slight buckling waves tend to develop and such portions become
relatively less effective in resisting the compressive stresses, than the portions
adjacent to the stiffeners. The portions of element adjacent to its stiffened edges
are considered structurally effective.
The properties of stiffened compression elements having a flat width ratio
⎛w ⎞
larger than ⎜ ⎟ is considered as being reduced for the design purpose to an
⎝ t ⎠lim
effective width b or bs. The portion of the total width considered as removed to
arrive at the effective design width is located symmetrically about the centre
line of the element as shown in Fig. 11.8.
The stiffened compressive elements have reduced cross-sectional area.
w
When the width to thickness ratio, is small, then the stiffened compression
t
elements fail by yielding without buckling. The gross area of section of the
member remains effective for stress upto yield stress σy, when the width to
w ⎛w ⎞
thickness ratio, is greater than some limiting value ⎜ ⎟ then, the stiffened
t ⎝ t ⎠lim
elements buckle at loads less than the yield load. The load carrying capacity of
member does not diminish due to this buckling. The failure of stiffened
compression elements occur at loads approximately greater than the initial
buckling load. The ultimate load for the stiffened compression elements can be
found satisfactorily by substituting effective width, be , for the actual width
subjected to uniform compressive stress, equal to maximum edge stress.
Pult, = (σmax . Aeff) = (σmax .be . t) ...(11.16)
In case the edge stiffeners provide adequate rigidity, then the value of fmax
may be taken equal to yield stress σy.The effective width, be may be found from
an empirical expression.
⎡ k2 E ⎤ 1/2
be = k1 ⎢
1= ⎥ ⋅t ⋅ ⎛ E ⎞
⎢ ⎛ w⎞ σ max ⎥ ⎜ σ
⎝ max ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎢⎣ t ⎥⎦
E ) ⎢1 − (k2 E )
⎡ ⎤
be
=
(k1 ⎥ ...(11.17)
⎛w⎞
t σmax ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ σmax ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎥⎦
where, k1 and k 2 are the constants.

The value of E for steel conforming to IS : 1079–1973 (2.074 × 106 kg/cm2 or
2.074 × 105 N/mm2) may be substituted in Eq. 11.17.
The values of effective width for the purposes of calculating safe load and
deflections are found from the different expressions. The effective width varies
inversely with the stress. Therefore, the determination of safe load carrying
capacity is based upon the width which is effective at a theoretical stress 1.85
(the factor of safety) times the stress actually caused by the load. The expression
⎛b⎞
for ⎜ ⎟ ratios are for unit stresses 1.85 times those shown. Whereas, for accuracy,
⎝t⎠
the calculations of deflections are based upon the width which is effective under
the stress caused by the actual applied load. Therefore, the expressions for
effective width ratios for determining the deflection are for the actual stresses.
⎛b⎞
IS : 801–1975 recommends the following expressions for ⎜ ⎟ ratios (in M.K.S.
⎝t⎠
system of units) for stiffened compression elements. The respective expression
⎛b⎞
⎜ ⎟ ratios converted in S.I. units have been given simultaneously.
⎝t⎠
Elements without Intermediate Stiffeners

(A) For determination of load
1. (A) (M.K.S. units)
⎛w ⎞ 1435
1. The flanges are considered only effective (be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For the flanges with ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 465 ⎤
2110 ⎢1 − ⎥
= w ...(11.18 a)
t σ ⎢ σ⎥
⎣ t ⎦
⎛w ⎞
where, ⎜ ⎟ = flat width ratio
⎝t ⎠
c = effective design width in cm and
a = actual stress in the compression elements calculated on the basis
of the effective design width in kg/cm2.
k1 E = 2120, k2 E = 465 for E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2
k1 = 1.472 and k2 = 0.3228855
1. (B) (S.I.Units)
⎛w ⎞
The flanges are fully effective (be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ⎠lim
453.787
=
σ
⎛w⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For the flanges with ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
670.412 ⎢1 −
t
= ⎛w⎞ σ ⎥ ...(11.18 b)
σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝t ⎠ ⎥⎦
where, be is the effective design width in mm and a is the actual stress in
N/mm2.
2. (A) (M.K.S. Units)
2. The flanges of considered square and rectangular tubes are exceptions
for Eqs. 11.18 (a) and (b). The flanges are treated fully effective (be = w) upto
⎛w ⎞ 1540 ⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = . For the flanges with ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ⎠lim σ ⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 420 ⎤
2120 ⎢1 − ⎥
= ⎛ w⎞ ...(11.19 a)
t σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ σ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥
k1 E = 2120, k1 E = 420 for E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2

k 1 = 1.4721 and k 2 = 0.2016385
2. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w ⎞ 486.99
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ larger than ⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 132.816 ⎤
670.412 ⎢1 − ⎥
t = ⎛ w⎞ ...(11.19 b)
σ ⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ σ ⎥
⎣ t ⎦
When the members are subjected to stresses produced by wind or earthquake
forces, the effective design width bt is found for 0.75 times the stress caused by
wind or earthquake loads alone, or 0.75 times the stress caused by wind or
earthquake plus gravity loads, when the use is made of the increased allowable
stress.
(B) For determination of deflection
1. The flanges are considered fully effective
⎛w ⎞
(bt = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ = 1850 σ
⎝ t ⎠lim
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 600 ⎤
= 2710 ⎢1 − ⎥ ...(11.20 a)
t ⎛w ⎞
σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ σ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥
k1 E = 2710, k2 E = 600. For E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2
k1 = 1.881763 and k 2 = 0.4166264.
1. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w ⎞ 585.02
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be ⎡ 189.736 ⎤
856.977 ⎢1 −
t
= ⎛ w ⎞ σ ⎥⎥ ...(11.20 b)
σ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝t ⎠ ⎦⎥
2. For the flanges of closed square and rectangular tube as exception
⎛w ⎞ 1990
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
be 2710 ⎛ 545 ⎞
t
= ⎜1 − ⎛ w ⎞ ⎟ ...(11.21 a)
σ ⎜
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ σ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝t ⎠ ⎠
k1 E = 2710, k2 E = 545
∴ k 1 = 1.881763, k 2 = 0.378436, for E = 2.074 × 106 kg/cm2
2. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w ⎞ 486.99
(be = w) upto ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ t ⎠lim σ
⎛w ⎞ ⎛w ⎞
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠lim
be 856.977 ⎡ 172.340 ⎤
t
= ⎢1 − ⎛ w ⎞ ⎥ ...(11.21 b)
σ ⎢
⎜ ⎟ σ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝t ⎠ ⎦⎥
The light gauge steel members are stiffened by providing stiffeners (a web,
flange or lip) along the longitudinal edge (parallel to the direction of stress of
the light gauge steel section. The stiffeners should provide sufficient rigidity.
The rigidity of stiffening element is defined as minimum of moment of inertia,
Imin of the stiffener about its centroidal axis parallel to the stiffening element.
The moment of inertia of stiffening means, the provided stiffeners should
have minimum of moment of inertia
1/2
⎡ ⎛w⎞ 28120 ⎤
2
Imin = 1.83 × t4 ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎥ × 104 mm4 ...(11.22)
⎢⎣⎝ t ⎠ σv ⎥⎦
but not less than 9.2 × 104 × t 4, mm4

where, Imin = minimum allowable moment of inertia of stiffener (of any shape)
about its own centroidal axis parallel to the stiffened element in
mm4, and
⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = flat-width ratio of the stiffened element.
⎝t ⎠
The light gauge steel sections are also stiffened by providing simple lip bents
at right angles to the stiffened element. The required overall depth, dmin of such
lip bent is found as below.
1/ 6
⎡ 28120 ⎤
dmin = 28 × t ⎢1 − mm ...(11.23)
⎣ σ y ⎥⎦
or = 48 t.
A simple lip bent shall not be used as an edge stiffener for any element having
a flat-width ratio grater than 60.
11.9 MULTIPLE STIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS

When the width thickness ratio of stiffened compression elements is large, then
the element is stiffened between the webs, or between a web and a stiffened edge
by means of intermediate stiffeners parallel to the direction of stress as shown in
Fig. 11.8.
bs bs
Fig. 11.8
The intermediate stiffeners increase the effectiveness of the stiffened panels.

The effective width is reduced. The moment of inertia of intermediate stiffener
should not be less than
1/2
⎡⎛ bs ⎞ 28120 ⎤
−
Imin = 2 × 1.83 × t4 ⎢⎝⎜ t ⎠⎟ σv ⎦⎥ × 104 mm4
⎣
...(11.25)
where, bs = width of sub-element (= w)
bs
In case the width-thickness ratio , of the sub element of a multiple stiffened
t
compression element is less than 60, then the effective width can be found from
b
(Eqns, 11.17 to 11.21) as the case may be. When the width-thickness ratio, s is
t
more than 60, then the effective width of sub-elements is found as follows:
be bs ⎡b ⎤
= − 0.10 ⎢ s − 60 ⎥ ...(11.25)
t t ⎣t ⎦
where, bs = the effective design of an edge stiffened sub-element defined by
Eqns. (11.17 to 11.21)
be = effective design width of sub-element or element to be used in
design calculations.
For calculating the effective structural properties of a member having
compression sub-elements or element subject to the above reduction in effective
width, the area of stiffeners (edge stiffeners or intermediate stiffeners) shall be
considered reduced to an effective area as under.
⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ between 60 and 90:
⎝t ⎠
Aeff = a . Ast
⎡ ⎛ be ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ be ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ w ⎞
where, α = ⎢3 − 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ ...(11.26)
⎣ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ t ⎠
⎛w ⎞
For ⎜ ⎟ greater than 90 :
⎝t ⎠
⎛b ⎞
Aeff = ⎜ e ⎟ . Ast ...(11.27)
⎝w⎠
where, Aeff and Ast are the areas of the stiffener sections, exclusive of any portion
of adjacent elements.
The centroid of the stiffener is to be considered located at the centroid of the
full area of the stiffener, and the moment of inertia of the stiffener about its
own centroidal axial shall be that of the full section of the stiffener.
The above specifications hold good subject to the following limitations :
(i) In case, the spacing of stiffeners between two webs is such that the
⎛ w⎞
flat-width ratio of the sub-element between stiffeners is larger than ⎜ ⎟ as
⎝ t ⎠ lim
in Sec. 11.8, only two intermediate stiffeners (those nearest to each web) shall
be considered effective.
(ii) In case, the spacing of stiffeners between a web and an edge stiffener is
such that the flat-width ratio of the sub-element between stiffeners is larger
⎛w ⎞
than ⎜ ⎟ is Sec. 11.8, only one intermediate stiffener shall be considered
⎝ t ⎠lim
effective.
(iii) In case the intermediate stiffeners are spaced so closely that the flat-
⎛w ⎞
width ratio between stiffeners does not exceed ⎜ ⎟ as in Sec. 11.10, all the
⎝ t ⎠lim
stiffeners may be considered effective. Only for the purpose of calculating the
flat-width ratio of the entire multiple stiffened element, such element shall be
considered as replaced by an element without intermediate stiffeners whose
width, ws is the whole width between webs or form web to edge stiffener and
whose equivalent thickness, t s is found as under
1/ 2
⎡12 × ls ⎤
ts = 10 × ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.28)
⎣ (ws ) ⎦
where, Is is the moment of inertia of the full area of the multiple stiffened element,
including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own centroidal axial.
11.10 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OVERALL FLAT-WIDTH

RATIO
⎛w ⎞
The maximum allowable over-all flat-with ratio ⎜ ⎟ disregarding intermediate
⎝t ⎠
stiffeners and taking t as the actual thickness of the element, shall be as below
as recommended in IS : 801–1975.
(i) Stiffened compression element having one longitudinal edge connected
to a web or flange element, the other edge stiffened by
Simple bent lip ... 60
Any other kind of stiffener ... 90
(ii) Stiffened compression element with longitudinal
edges connected to other stiffened elements ... 500
(iii) Unstiffened compression element ... 60
It is to note that the elements that have flat-width ratios exceeding
approximately 30 and stiffened compression elements that have flat-width ratios
exceeding approximately 250 are likely to develop noticeable deformation at
the full allowable working stresses, without affecting the ability of the member
to carry design loads.
The stiffened elements having flat-width ratio larger than 500 may be used
with safety to support loads, but substantial deformations of such elements
under the load may occur and the design formulae given in IS : 801–1975 may
become inapplicable.
11.11 UNSTIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS
⎛w ⎞
When the flat-width ratio, ⎜ ⎟ is approximately less than 12, (as per IS : 801–
⎝t ⎠
1958), then the unstiffened elements fail by yielding without buckling. When
⎛w ⎞
the flat-width ratio, ⎜ ⎟ is more than 12, the unstiffened element fails by
⎝t ⎠
buckling at predictable unit stresses, which may be less than the yield strength
of the element.
11.12 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL

COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The effective length of light gauge steel compression members and columns for
different end conditions are same as those for hot rolled steel sections given in
Vol. I, except for columns fixed at both ends. For the light gauge columns and
compression members, fixed at both ends the effective length is taken as 0.75
times the actual length.
For the continuous compression chords of trusses with the rigid welded
connections at the panel points, the value of the effective length to be used
⎛l⎞
calculating the ⎜ ⎟ in the plane of the truss is 0.75 of the distance between the
⎝r⎠
panel points.
For the compression chords of trusses with the bolted connections, the effective
length shall be taken as the distance between the panel points.
11.13 BASIC DESIGN STRESS

The basic design stress on the net section of tension members and tension and
compression on the extreme fibres of the flexure members as per IS 801–1975
shall not exceed the value specified as under
σb = 0.60 σy ...(11.29)
where, σy is the specified minimum, yield stress of the mild steel.
The values of the basic allowable design σb as defined above for some of the
grades of steel given in IS : 1079–1979 (specification for hot rolled carbon steel
sheet and strip) are adopted as given in Table 11.1 as per IS : 801–1975.
Table 11.1 Basic allowable design stress, σb
S.No. Minimum yield Basic allowable design
strength σy(N/mm2) stress σb (N/mm2)
1 210 125
2 240 145
3 300 180
4 360 216
Note. The values given in M.K.S. units have been converted in S.I. units.
The allowable stresses are usually based upon the specified properties of the
unformed steel. The increase in strength may be utilised in case the methods
and limitations prescribed in IS : 801–1975 are observed and satisfied.
11.14 ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESS

The maximum allowable stresses in compression σc for flat unstiffened and
stiffened elements are adopted as per IS : 801–1975 from the following

expressions.
1. Unstiffened elements in compression
⎛w⎞ 530
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio not greater than
⎝t ⎠ σy
σc = 0.60 σy kg/cm2 ...(11.29 a)
⎛w⎞ 530 1210

(ii) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio greater than but not greater than
⎝t ⎠ σy σy
⎡ ⎛ 3.15 ⎞ ⎛ w ⎞ ⎤
σc = σ y ⎢0.767 − ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ σ y ⎥ kg/cm2
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦
...(11.30 a)
⎛w⎞ 1210
(ii) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio greater than but not greater than 25
⎝t ⎠ σy
562000
σc = 2
kg/cm2 ...(11.31 a)
⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
⎛w⎞
(iv) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio from 25 to 60.
⎝t ⎠
For angle strut
562000
σc = 2 kg/cm2 ...(11.32 a)
⎛w ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
For all other sections
⎛w ⎞
σc = 1390 – 20 ⎜ ⎟ kg/cm2 ...(11.33 a)
⎝t ⎠
⎛ w⎞
where, for ⎜ ⎟ is the flat-width ratio and σy = 2320 kg/cm2.
⎝t⎠
1. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛w⎞ 167.6
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio not greater than
⎝t ⎠ σy
σc = 0.60 σv N/mm2 ...(11.29 b)
⎛w⎞ 167.6 382.64

(ii) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio greater than but not greater than
⎝t ⎠ σy σy
⎡ ⎛ 9.96 ⎞ w ⎤
σc = σy ⎢0.767 − ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ σ y ⎥ N/mm2
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦
...(11.30 b)
⎛w⎞ 382.64
(iii) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio greater than but not greater than 25
⎝t ⎠ σy
56200
σc = 2 N/mm2 ...(11.31 b)
⎛w⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
⎛w ⎞
(iv) For ⎜ ⎟ ratio from 25 to 60
⎝t ⎠
For angle strut
26200
σc = 2 N/mm2 ...(11.32 b)
⎛w⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t ⎠
For all other sections,
⎛w ⎞
σd = 1390 – 20 ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(11.33 b)
⎝t ⎠
⎛w ⎞
where, for ⎜ ⎟ is the flat-width ratio and σv = 2320 kg/cm2.
⎝t ⎠
2. Stiffened elements in compression
P
The average axial stress σac = in compression (having doubly-symmetric
A
shapes, closed cross-sectional shapes or cylindrical sections and any other
sections in which the torsional-flexural buckling will not occur) and for the
members braced against twisting, will not exceed the permissible stresses. The
permissible stresses are found form the following expressions as recommended
in IS : 801–1975.
⎛ K ⋅L⎞ CC
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ less than Q
⎝ r ⎠
3 (Q ⋅ σ y ) ⎛ K ⋅ L ⎞
2 2
12
σ∝1 = Q ⋅ σy − ⎜ ⎟
23 23 π2 ⋅ E ⎝ r ⎠
...(11.34 a)
2 2
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎛ K ⋅L⎞
σ∝1 = 0.522 Qy σy – ⎢ ⎥ (Q . σy)2 × ⎜ ⎟ kg/cm2 ...(11.35 a)
⎣12500 ⎦ ⎝ r ⎠
⎛ K ⋅L⎞ CC
(ii) For ⎜ ⎟ equal to or greater than
⎝ r ⎠ Q
12 π 2 E
σ∝1 = kg/cm2 ...(11.36)
23 ⎛ KL ⎞ 2
⎜⎝ ⎟
r ⎠
10.68 × 106
σ∝1 = 2
kg/cm2 ...(11.37 a)
⎛ KL ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
2. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛ K ⋅L⎞ Cc
(i) For ⎜ ⎟ less than
⎝ r ⎠ Q
2
⎡ 1 ⎤ 2 ⎛ K ⋅L ⎞
σ∝1 = 0.522Q . σc – ⎢ × Q . σ × ⎜ ⎟ N/mm2 ...(11.35b)
⎣ 3952.847 ⎥⎦
ψ
⎝ r ⎠
K ⋅L⎞ Cc
(ii) For ⎛⎜ ⎟ equal to or greater than
⎝ r ⎠ Q
10.68 × 105
σ∝1 = 2 = N/mm2 ...(11.37 b)
⎛ K ⋅L⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
1/2
⎡ 2π2 E ⎤
where Cc = ⎢ ⎥ (limiting slenderness ratio)
⎣⎢ sy ⎦⎥
P = total load
A = complete (unreduced) cross-sectional area of the member
σ∝1 = allowable average compressive stress under concentric loading
E = modulus of elasticity (2.074 × 105) N/mm2
K = effective length factor
L = unbraced length of the member
r = radius of gyration
Q = form factor
σy = yield stress of the steel
When the value of form-factor Q is equal to unity, the thickness of the element
⎛ K ⋅L⎞
is 2.29 mm or more and ⎜ ⎟ is less than Cc.
⎝ r ⎠
(A) (M.K.S. and SI Units)
⎡ ⎛ K ⋅L⎞ ⎤
2
1 ⎢ 1⎜ ⎥
σ∝1 = ⎢ 1− r ⎟ ⎥ ⋅ σy ...(11.38)
m ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ Cc ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where, m = factor of safety
⎡5 3 ⎛ K ⋅ L ⎞ 1 ⎛ K ⋅ L ⎞ 2 ⎤
m = ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ...(11.39)
⎢⎣ 3 8 ⎝ r / Cc ⎠ 8 ⎝ r / Cc ⎠ ⎥⎦
P
The average axial stress, σac = in the compression members (having singly
A
symmetric or non-symmetric shapes of open cross-sections or intermittently
fastened singly symmetrical components of built-up shapes having form-factor,
Q equal to unity and which may be subjected to torsional buckling) and the
members which are not braced against twisting, will not exceed σcc given above
1
or σcc2 as specified in IS : 801–1975. (M.K.S. and SI units)
(i) For σTFO > 0.5 σy
⎛ σ2y ⎞
σcc = ⎜ 0.522σ y − ⎟ ...(11.40)
1 ⎜ 7.67σTFO ⎟⎠
⎝
(i) For σTFO > 0.5 σy
σcc2 = 0.522 σTFO ...(11.41)
where, σcc = allowable average compressive stress under concentric loading
2
σTFO = elastic torsional-flexural buckling stress under concentric
loading which one is calculated as under
(i) For the compression members having one axis of symmetry in its cross-
section, σTFO is less than both σex and σt and is given by
1
σTFO = ⎡( σ + σ ) − {( σ + σ ) − 4βσ ⋅ σ }1 / 2 ⎤ ...(11.42)
2β ⎣ ex t ex t ex t ⎦
where
π2 E
σex = 2
⎛ K ⋅L ⎞
⎜ r ⎟
⎝ x ⎠
1 ⎡ π2 ⋅ E ⋅ Cw ⎤
σex = ⎢G.J + ⎥
Ar02 ⎢⎣ ( K ⋅ L )2 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛x ⎞ ⎤
β = ⎢1 − ⎜ 0 ⎟ 2⎥
⎣ ⎝ r0 ⎠ ⎦
A = cross sectional area
( )
1/2
r0 = ⎡ rx2 + ry2 + x 02 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
= polar radius of gyration of the cross-section about the shear
centre
rx , ry = radii of gyration of the cross-section about the centroidal
principal axes
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (2.074 × 105 N/mm2)
G = shear modulus (0.795 ×105) N/mm2
K = effective length factor
L = unbraced length of the compression member
x0 = distance from the shear centre to the centroid along the principal
x-axis
J = Saint-Venant torsional constant of the cross-section in mm4.
For the thin-walled section composed of n segments of uniform thickness
⎛1 ⎞
J = ⎜ ⎟ ⎡⎣l1 ⋅ t1 + l2 ⋅ t2 + ... + liti + ... + lntn ⎤⎦
3 3 3 3
⎝3⎠
ti = thickness of segment i
li = length of the middle line of segment i, and
cw = warping constant of torsion of the cross-section.
When the compression members do not have any symmetry, either about an
axis or about a point, the stress σTFO is calculated by the rational analysis.
P
The average axial stress σac1 = in the compression members composed of
A
singly symmetric or non-symmetric shapes or intermittently fastened singly
symmetrical components of built-up shapes having the form-factor, Q less than
unity and which are subjected to torsional-flexural buckling, and which are not
braced against twisting may be conservatively proportioned by replacing σy
by Q . σy in Eqs. 11.40 and 11.41.
On the cross-section of axially loaded braced and secondary members. When
L
the ratio exceeds 120 (K is taken as unity) the allowable compressive stress
r
under concentric loading is found as under
σcc
σcr = ...(11.43)
⎛ 1 L⎞
⎜ 1.3 − ⋅ ⎟
⎝ 490 r ⎠
The maximum stress σcc is obtained by Eqs. 11.35 and 11.36 or Eqs. 11.40
and 11.41, whichever is applicable.
KL
The maximum slenderness ratio or compression members shall be not
r
KL
more than 200, except during construction, shall be not more than 300.
r
11.15 LIGHT GAUGE STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

The design procedure for light gauge steel tension members is same as that for
hot rolled steel sections. The tension members are designed for net area. The
allowable stress for axial tension is adopted equal to basic design stress σb.
The basic design stress on the net section of the tension member is found as
below
σb = 0.60 σy ...(11.44)
When the increase in strength of steel due to cold forming is utilised, the
basic design is calculated as under
σb = 0.60 σya ...(11.45)
where, σya is the average yield stress of the full section.
For a member loaded in static axial tension, two important strength
considerations are of interest to the designer: First the load at which the member
X1 X2
1 5
2 g
b
P P
6 g
3
4 7
p (P itch)
X1 X2
Three Possibilities of Failures

(1) ALONG 1 2 3 4 AT SECTION X1 X1
(2) ALONG 5 6 7 AT SECTION X2 X2
(3) ALONG 1 2 6 3 4 ZIG-ZAG SECTION
(GIVES LEAST NET WIDTH)
⎛ p2 ⎞
bnet = (b – nd + n´, ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4g ⎠
n = NUMBER OF RIVET n´ = NUMBER OF GAUGE SPACING
d = DIAMETER OF RIVET
Fig. 11.9
begins to yield or take appreciable permanent set, and second, the load at which
the fracture occurs. Appreciable yielding may be expected when the average
stress on the minimum net section reaches the tensile yield strength of the
material. Fracture may be expected when the stress on the minimum net section
is equal to the tensile strength of the material.
In establishing the minimum net section, the following comments may be
helpful. The net section of a riveted tension member is the sum of the net sections
of its components parts. The net section of a part is the product of the thickness
of the part multiplied by its least net width. The net width for a single line of
holes extending across the part may be obtained by deducting from the gross
width the sum of all the holes in the line. Where the holes are stagged in two or
more lines across the members, the net width for a broken line of holes may be
obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of diameters of all the holes
⎛ p2 ⎞
in the broken line and adding ⎜ ⎟ for each gauge space in the chain line, where
⎝ 4g ⎠
p = spacing (pitch) parallel to the direction of load of any two
successive holes in the as shown in Fig. 11.9, and
g = spacing (gauge) perpendicular to the direction of load of the same
holes as shown in Fig. 11.9.
The minimum or controlling net section of a part is obtained from that
chain of holes which gives the least net width.
It is well-known fact that the holes and other discontinuities produce localized
concentration of stress. For the wrought aluminium alloys, however, such stress
concentration can ordinarily be ignored in calculating the static strength of
tension members. All the wrought materials considered herein have sufficient
ductility to permit adequate allevation of stress concentrations by local yielding
before static fracture occurs. The stress concentration is important, however,
when a load is applied repeatedly for a large number of cycles so that the fatigue
failure is a possibility.
11.16 LIGHT GAUGE STEEL BEAMS

The smallest value of shear or bending moment, which produces yielding,
buckling or excessive distortion of the elements of light gauge steel beams, limits
their strength. The shear or moment limitation gives the value of strength more
than the useful strength of the beam. The function of beam depends on its
deflection.
The symmetry of cross-sectional shapes of light gauge steel beams govern
the distribution of stress at failure. Figure 11.10 shows a channel section. The
web of the section is kept vertical. The bending of section occurs about the axis
of symmetry. The extreme fibres in tension flange and in compression flange
attain yield stress approximately simultaneously. The yield stress in thin
compression flanges (with width thickness ratio about 10 for unstiffened
elements, and 20 for stiffened elements), develops without buckling. The

deformation of thin compression flange beyond initial yield strain is not very
much. Therefore, almost linear distribution of stress occurs at failure.
A xis o f sym m e try S tress

d istrib utio n
in b en ding
Fig. 11.10
Figure 11.11 shows the channel section. The web portion of the section is
kept horizontal. The bending of section occurs about the neutral axis but out of
plane of symmetry. The bending stress in the extreme fibre of compression flange
C o m p re ssio n fla ng e
Ten sion flan ge
Fig. 11.11
is less than that in the tension flange. Therefore, the extreme fibres in tension
yield. In case the load is increased beyond the initial yield of tension flange,
then the neutral axis shifts upward towards the compression flange. The
redistribution of stress takes place. The tension area and the effective
compression area are stressed upto yield.
Figure 11.12 shows the channel section. The web portion of the section is
kept horizontal, opposite to that shown in Fig. 11.11. The bending stress in the
extreme fibre of compression flange is more than that in the tension flange. The
buckling or yielding of the compression flange takes place first. Beyond the
initial strain, very little strain may occur upto failure. Almost the linear
distribution of stress occurs.
The maximum ratio of depth of web, h and the thickness of web, t of the
⎛h⎞
flexural member ⎜ ⎟ has been recommended in IS :801 – 1975 in order to
⎝ t ⎠max
limit the maximum allowable depth of the web.
⎛h⎞
(i) For the beams with unstiffened webs ⎜ ⎟ shall not exceed 150.
⎝ t ⎠max
(ii) For the beams which are provided with adequate means of transmitting
concentrated loads or reactions or both into the web
⎛h⎞
⎜ ⎟ shall not exceed 200
⎝ t ⎠max
where h = clear distance between the flanges measured along the plane of
web,
t = thickness of web
and
⎛h⎞
where, the web of beam consists of two or more sheets, the ⎜ ⎟ ratio shall be
⎝t⎠
calculated for the individual sheets.
The beams supporting concentrated loads may have unusual short spans.
When the span of beam is less than 30 wf and it carries one concentrated load or
several concentrated loads spaced farther apart than 2 wf, the effective design
width of any flange, whether in tension or compression shall be limited as in
Table 11.2 given in IS : 801–1975.
where, L is the full span for simple spans ; or the distance between inflection
points for continuous beams ; or twice the length of cantilever beams in mm and
wf is the width of flange projection beyond the web for I-beam and similar
sections of half the distance between the webs of box or U-type sections in mm.
Table 11.2 Maximum allowable ratio of effective design width to actual width
⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
⎜w ⎟ Ratio ⎜w ⎟ Ratio
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ f ⎠
30 1.00 14 0.82
25 0.96 12 0.78
20 0.91 10 0.73
18 0.89 8 0.67
16 0.86 6 0.55
For the flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips at the outer
edges, wf shall be taken as the sum of the flange projection beyond the web
plus the depth of lip.
When the flange of a beam is unusually wide and it is desired to limit the
maximum amount of curling or movement of the flange towards the neutral

axis, the width flange projecting beyond the web, wf (or half of the distance
between the webs for box or U-type beams) is found form the following expression
for compression and tension flanges either stiffened or unstiffened
1/2 1/4
⎡12650 tf d ⎤ ⎡100 cf ⎤
wf = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ...(11.46)
⎣ σav ⎦ ⎣ d ⎦
where, tf = thickness of flange
d = depth of the beam
cf = amount of curling
σav = average stress in the full, unreduced flange width in N/mm2
(where the members are designed by the effective width design
procedure, the average stress equals the maximum stress
multiplied by the ratio of the effective design width to the actual
width).
11.17 LATERALLY SUPPORTED LIGHT GAUGE STEEL

BEAMS
The bending stress in laterally supported light gauge steel beams is found by
the simple theory of bending, (i.e., σb = (M/I) . y). The allowable stress in bending
tension is equal to basic design stress σb. The bending stress in unstiffened
compression elements should not be more than σc, obtained from Eq. 11.29. The
bending stress in stiffened compression elements should not be more than basic
design stress.
11.18 LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED LIGHT GAUGE STEEL

BEAMS
(i) When the bending stress in the compression becomes equal to the critical
stress, then the lateral buckling of beams takes place. For I-section, the
expression for critical stress is as follows :
lý h Kl3
Cs = 10.1 ×105 × 1 + 0.162 N/mm2
Z x l2 lý h2
The second term under the radical sign may be neglected, since the value of
torsional constant K, for the open light gauge steel sections is very small.
⎛ l´ h ⎞
∴ Cs = ⎜10.1 × 106 × y ⎟ N/mm2
⎜ Z x ⋅ l2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
lx
∴ Zx = l , A ⋅ ry2 , I x = Arx2
h y
2
Substituting these in expression (i),

⎛ h⎞
⎜ ( Ary2 ) ⋅ h ⎟
Cs = ⎜10.1 × 105 × 2 N/mm2
⎟
⎜
⎝ ( Arx )
2 ⋅ l2 ⎟
⎠
⎛ 10.1 × 105 × ry2 × h2 ⎞ ⎡ 5.05 × 105 ⎛ h ⎞2 ⎤
= ⎜⎜ ⎟= ⎢ × ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ N/mm2 ...(ii)
2rx2 ⋅ l 2 ⎟ ⎢⎣ (l / r )2 ⎝ rx ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠
The allowable stress in bending in compression is obtained by dividing the
expression (ii), by factor of safety 1.85
2
⎛ 2.729 × 105 ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞ 2
∴ σc′ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ N/mm
⎝ ( l / r ) ⎠ ⎝ rx ⎠
The allowable stress in bending in compression for I-section and channel
section as per IS : 801–1958 is as follows :
2
⎛ 2.8 × 105 ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞
σć = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ rx ⎟ N/mm
2 ⎟
2 ...(iii)
⎝ ( l / r ) ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For Z-section
⎛ 1.40 × 105 ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞2
σć
= ⎜ ⎟×
⎜ (l / r )2 ⎟ ⎜⎝ rx ⎟⎠
N/mm2 ...(iv)
⎝ y ⎠
where, l = unbraced length of the beam
ry = radius of gyration about yy-axis
rx = radius of gyration about xx-axis
h = depth of the beam, channel or Z-section.
11.19 WEB CRIPPLING OF BEAMS

The failure of web in direct crushing under the concentrated load is known as
web crippling. In web crippling, local buckling of web occurs immediately adjacent
to a concentration of stress. The crippling of reinforced webs of the beams having
⎛h⎞
a flat-width ratio ⎜ ⎟ equal to or less than 150 may be avoided in case the
⎝t⎠
Concentrated loads and reactions shall not exceed the values of Pmax specified
⎛h⎞
in IS : 801–1975 as under. The webs of beams for which the ratio ⎜ ⎟ is greater
⎝t⎠
than 150 shall be provided with sufficient means of transmitting concentrated
loads and reactions directly into the web.
(1) Beams having single unreinforced webs
(i) For end reactions and concentrated load on outer ends of the cantilevers
with inside corner radius equal to the thickness of sheet.
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [98 + 4.20 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.22 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.11 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σy ⎞
⎛ σ ⎞
× [1.33 – 0.33 × ⎜⎜ σ y ⎟⎟ × ⎜ y ⎟ ...(11.46 a)
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2320 ⎠
⎝ 2320 ⎠
1. (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [98 + 4.20 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.22 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.11) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σ y ⎞ ⎛ σ y ⎞⎤
× [1.33 – 0.33 × ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟⎥ ...(11.46 b)
⎝ 232 ⎠ ⎝ 2320 ⎠ ⎦
For other corner radii upto four times the thickness (4.t), the value of Pmax
⎛ R⎞
given by the above formula shall be multiplied by ⎜1.15 − 0.15 ⎟ viz.,
⎝ t ⎠
⎛ R⎞
Pmax = Pmax × ⎜1.15 − 0.15 ⎟ ...(11.47)
⎝ t ⎠
(ii) for reactions of interior supports or for concentrated loads located
anywhere on the span with inside corner radius equal to or less than the thickness
of sheet.
1. (C) (M.K.S. Units)
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [305 + 2.30 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.009 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.5) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σ ⎞⎛ σ ⎞
× [1.22 – 0.22 × ⎜ y ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟ ...(11.48 a)
⎝ 232 ⎠ ⎝ 232 ⎠
1. (D) (S.I. Units)
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛h⎞ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
Pmax = 70t 2 [305 + 2.30 ⎜ ⎟ – 0.009 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ – 0.5) ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝t⎠ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
⎛ σ y ⎞⎛ σ y ⎞
× [1.22 – 0.22 × ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ...(11.48 b)
⎝ 232 ⎠⎝ 232 ⎠
For other corner radii upto four times the thickness of sheet (4t), the value of
⎛R⎞
Pmax given by the above formula is to be multiplied by (1.06 – 0.06 ⎜ ⎟ , viz.,
⎝t ⎠
R
Pmax = Pmax (1.06 – 0.06 ) ...(11.49)
t
(2) For I-beams made of two channels connected back to back or for similar
sections, which provide a high degree of restraint against the rotation of the
web, such as I-section, made by welding two angles to a channel.
(M.K.S. Units) and (S.I. Units)
(i) For end reactions or for concentrated loads on the outer ends of cantilever
N
Pmax = t 2 . (4.44 + 0.558 ) σy ...(11.50)
t
(b) For reactions of interior supports or concentrated loads located anywhere
on the span
⎛ N⎞
P´max = t 2 ⋅ ⎜ 4.44 + 0.558 ⎟ σy ...(11.51)
⎝ t ⎠
In all the above expressions, Pmax represents the load or reactions for one
solid web sheet connecting top and bottom flanges. For webs consisting of two
more such sheets, Pmax shall be calculated for each individual sheet and the
results are added to find the allowable load or reaction for the composite web.
For the loads located close to the ends of beams. Eq. (11.48) and Eq. (11.51)
shall apply, provided that for the cantilevers, the distance from the free end to
the nearest edge of bearing, and for a load close to an end support, the clear
distance form edge of end bearing to the nearest edge of load bearing is larger
than 1.5h. Otherwise Eq. 11.46 and Eq. 11.50 shall apply,
where,
Pmax = allowable concentrated load or reactions
t = web thickness
N = actual length of bearing, except that N shall not be greater than
h.
h = clear distance between flanges measured along the plane of the
web
σy = yield stress
R = inside bend radius.
11.20 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
1
The maximum deflection should not be more than of the span. This limit
325
may be exceeded in a case, where the greater deflection would not impair the
strength or efficiency of the structure or lead to damage the finishings.
11.21 ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESSES IN BEAMS

1. Shear stresses in webs
The maximum average shear stress τav on the gross area of a flat web shall
not exceed the permissible stress in shear as specified in IS : 801– 1975 as
under:
1 (A) (M.K.S. Units)
⎛h⎞ 4590
(a) For ⎜ ⎟ not greater than
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡1275 τ y ⎤
τv = ⎢ ⎥ kg/cm2 ...(11.52 a)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
(with t max = 0.40 t y).
⎛h⎞ 4590
(b) For ⎜ ⎟ greater than
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡ 5.85 × 106 ⎤
τv = ⎢ 2 ⎥ kg/cm2 ...(11.53 a)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
1 (B) (S.I. Units)
⎛h⎞
(a) For ⎜ ⎟ not greater than 1451.485
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡ 403.19 t y ⎤
τv = ⎢ ⎥ N/mm2 ...(11.52 b)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥⎦
t
⎝ ⎠
(with τv max = 0.40 τy)
⎛h⎞ 1451.48
(b) For ⎜ ⎟ greater than
⎝t⎠ σy
⎡ 5.85 × 105 ⎤
τv = ⎢ 2 ⎥ N/mm2 ...(11.53 b)
⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where, t = web thickness
h = clear distance between flanges measure along the plane of web,
and
σy = yield stress in N/mm2 (232 N/mm2)
where, the web consists of two or more sheets these shall be treated as separate
members carrying their share of the shear.
2. Bending Stress in Webs

The compressive stress in the flat web of a beam due to bending in its plane
shall not exceed the permissible stresses specified in IS : 801–1975 as under:
2 (A) (M.K.S. Units)
36.56 × 106
τbw = 2 kg/cm2 ...(11.54 a)
⎛h⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t⎠
2 (B) (S.I. Units)
36.56 × 105
τbw = 2 kg/cm2 ...(11.54 b)
⎛h⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝t⎠
3. Combined bending and shear stresses in webs
When the webs of beams are subjected to both bending and shear stresses,
the beams shall be so proportioned that such stresses do not exceed the allowable
stress found by Eqs. 11.52, 11.53 and 11.54 and the following interaction
expression is satisfied.
1/ 2
⎡⎛ τ ´ ⎞2 ⎛ τ ⎞2 ⎤
⎢⎜ bw ⎟ + ⎜ v ⎟ ⎥ > 1.00
| ...(11.55)
⎣⎢⎝ τbw ⎠ ⎝ τv ⎠ ⎦⎥
where, σbw´ = actual compression stress at the junction of flange and web
σbw = allowable compression stress
σy´ = actual average shear stress, that is, the shear force per web
divided by web area
σc = allowable shear stress as specified in Eqs. 1.52 and 11.53 except
that limit of 0.4 σv shall not apply.
11.22 BEAMS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED AXIAL AND

BENDINGS STRESSES
When the beams are subjected to both axial compression and bending, the doubly
symmetric shapes or shape which are not subjected to torsional or torsional
flexural buckling shall be so proportional that
⎡ σ∝ Cm⋅ y⋅σbx ´ Cm⋅ y⋅σby ´ ⎤

⎢ + + ⎥ < 1.0 ...(11.56)
⎢ σ∝ ⎛1 − σ∝ ⎞ σ ⎛ σ∝ ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ F ´ ⎟ bx ⎜1 − F ´ ⎟ σby ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ex ⎠ ⎝ ey ⎠ ⎦
⎛ σ∝ σ σb⋅ y ⎞
⎜⎜ + bx + ⎟⎟ < 1.0 ...(11.57)
⎝ σ∝ σb⋅1⋅x σb⋅1⋅ y ⎠
⎛σ ⎞
When ⎜ ac ≤ 0.15 ⎟ , the following expression may be used in lieu of the above
σ
⎝ cc ⎠
two expressions
⎛ σ∝ σbx ′ σby′ ⎞
⎜⎜ + + ⎟⎟ < 1.00 ...(11.58)
⎝ σ∝ σbx σby ⎠
where, σbc = axial stress (axial load divided by complete cross-sectional area
of the member, P/A)
σac = allowable compressive stress under concentric loading for
buckling in the plane of symmetry
σb´ = maximum bending stress (bending moment divided by
M
appropriate section modulus of the member, noting that for
Z
the members having stiffened compression elements, the section
modulus shall be based upon the effective design widths of such
elements
σb1 = maximum permissible bending stress in compression where the
bending stress only exists and the possibility of lateral buckling
is excluded
σb = maximum permissible bending stress in compression where the
bending stress only exist
(12π2 E )
Fe´ =
⎡ 23( K ⋅ Lb ⎤
⎢ rb2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
K = effective length factor in the plane of bending
Lb = actual unbraced length in the plane of bending
rb = radius of gyration about axis of bending.
The subscripts x and y in the above expressions indicate the axis of bending
about a particular stress or design property applies x-and y-axes are the
centroidal axes, x-axis is the axis of symmetry. The positive directions of x-axis
is pointed away from the shear centre.
Cm is a coefficient. The value of Cm is adopted as under :
(i) For the compression members in the frames subjected to joint translation
(sideway) the value of Cm is adopted as 0.85.
(ii) For the restrained compression members in the framed braced against
joint translation and not subjected to transverse load between their supports in
the plane of bending, the value of Cm is found from the following expression Cm
⎛M ⎞ ⎛M ⎞
= 0.6 – 0.4 ⎜ 1 ⎟ but not less than 0.4, ⎜ 1 ⎟ is the ratio of smaller to larger
M
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ M2 ⎠
moments at the ends of the portion of the members, unbraced in the plane of
⎛M ⎞
bending under consideration, ⎜ 1 ⎟ as positive when the member bent in
⎝ M2 ⎠
reverse curvature and negative when it is bent single curvature.
(iii) For the compression members in frames braced against joint translation
in the plane of loading and subjected to transverse loading between their support,
the value of Cm may be obtained by rational analysis. However in lieu of such
analysis, the following values may be used :
(a) For members whose ends are restrained, Cm = 0.85, and
(b) For members, whose ends are not restrained, Cm = 1.00
When the cross-sections of beam members have only one axis of symmetry or
intermittently fastened singly symmetric components of built up shapes having
Q equal to unity and which may be subjected torsional flexural buckling are
subjected to both axial compression and bending applied in the plane of symmetry
are proportioned to meet the following four requirements as applicable.
⎡ σ∝ σb1 Ćm ⎤
(1) ⎢σ + σ ⎥
< 1.00 ...(11.59)
⎢ ∝ σb⋅1 ⎛⎜1 − ∝ ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ Fe ´ ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛ σa σb1 ⎞
⎜σ + σ ⎟ < 1.00 ...(11.60)
⎝ ac b1 ⎠
⎛ σa ⎞
when ⎜ σ ⎟ < 0.15, the following expression may be used in lieu of the above
⎝ ac ⎠
two expressions
⎛ σa σb1 ⎞
⎜ σ + σ ⎟ < 1.00 ...(11.61)
⎝ ac b1 ⎠
where, σCD = allowable compressive stress under concentric loading for L = 0,

and other notations have been defined along with Eqs. 11.56,
11.57 and 11.58.
(2) If the point of application of the eccentric load is located on the side of
the centroid opposite from that of the shear centre, that is, if it is positive, then,
the average compressive stress σac shall also not exceed σc given below :
For σTF > 0.5 σy
⎛ σ2y ⎞
σc ⎜
= ⎜ 0.522σ y − ⎟⎟ ...(11.62 a)
⎝ 7.67σTF ⎠
For σTF < 0.5 σy

σc = 0.522 σTF ...(11.63)
2 (A) (S.I. Units)
σc = 0.522 σy ...(12.62 b)
where, σTF is found from the following expression :
⎛ σTF C σ ⎞
⎜σ + TF⋅ b1 ⎟
⎜ SFO ⎛⎜1 − σTF ⎞⎟ ⎟ = 1.00 ...(11.64)
⎜ σc ⎠ ⎠⎟
⎝ ⎝
σc = maximum average compressive stress
σb1 = maximum compressive bending stress in the section caused by
σTF.
σ TF ⋅ x0 ⋅ c
σb2 =
ry2
⎡ ( π2 E ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σc = ⎢ ⎛ K ⋅ Lb ⎞2 ⎥
⎢⎜ r ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ b ⎠ ⎦
σTF = average elastic torsional flexural buckling stress, that is, axial
load at which torsional flexural buckling occurs divided by the
complete cross-sectional area of the member.
⎛ Mc ⋅ C ⎞
σb.c = ⎜ ⎟ = maximum compressing bending stress caused by
⎝ Iy ⎠
Mc.
For I-sections with unequal flanges, σbc may be approximated
by
⎡ ( π2 ⋅ E ⋅ d ⋅ I x ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎣ (
L 2
⋅ Z yc) ⎥
⎦
σb.T = (MT. C/Iy) = maximum compressive bending stress caused by
MT.
For I-sections with unequal flanges, σbT may be approximated
by
(
⎡ π 2 ⋅ E ⋅ d ⋅ I xc
⎢
) ⎤⎥
⎢
⎣ (
L2 ⋅ Z yc ) ⎥
⎦
Zyc = compression section medulus of the entire section about axis
⎛ Iy ⎞
normal to the axis of symmetry, ⎜ ⎟
⎝ yc. max ⎠
xy = x-co-ordinate of the shear centre, negative

c = distance from the centroidal axis to the fibre with maximum
compressive stress, negative when the fibre on the shear-centre
side of the controid
d = depth of the section
e = eccentricity of the axial load with respect to the centroidal axis,
negative when on the shear centre side of the centroid
Ixc = moment of inertia of the compression portion of a section about
its axis of symmetry
Iy = moment of inertia of the section about the y-axis
⎡ ⎧ ⎛ σ
1/2 ⎤
⎞⎫
Mc = – Aσex ⎢ j2 + ⎨ j2 + r02 + ⎜ t ⎟⎬ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎝ σex ⎠⎭ ⎥⎦
= elastic critical moment causing compression on the shear centre
side of the centroid
⎡ ⎧ ⎛ σ ⎞⎫ ⎤
1/2
MT = – Aσcx ⎢ j − ⎨ j2 + r02 + ⎜ t ⎟ ⎬ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎝ ex ⎠ ⎭ ⎥⎦
= elastic critical moment causing tension on the shear centre side
of the centroid
I ⎡ 3
x ⋅ dA + ∫ x ⋅ y3 ⋅ dA ⎤ − x0
2 ⋅ I y ⎢⎣ A∫
b=
A
⎥⎦
where x-axis is the axis of symmetry and y-axis is orthogonal to x-axis.
(c) Except for T or unsymmetric I-sections, if the point of application of
the eccentric load is between the shear centre and the controid, that is if e is
negative, and if σcc is larger than σ2CC. then the average compresive stress σac
shall also not exceed σc given below
e
σc = σc.2 + ( σcE − σc.2 ) ...(11.65)
x0
(d) For T and unsymmetric I-sections with negative eccentricities :
(1) If the point of application of the load is between the shear centre and the
centroid and if σcc is larger than σc.2, then, the average compressive stress σac
shall also not exceed σc given below
e
σc = σc.2 + (σcI − σc.2 ) ...(11.66)
x0
where, σCE = average allowable compressive stress found by requirements of
(a) if the point of application of the eccentric load is at the shear
centre, that is the calculated value of σac for e = x0
σC1 = average allowable compressive stress found by both the
requirements of (a) if the point of application of the eccentric
load is at the shear centre, that is, the calculated values of σac
and σc for e = x0
σC2 = allowable compressive stress under concentric loading.
(2) And if the point of application of the eccentric load is located on the
side of shear centre opposite form that of the centroid, then the average
compressive stress σac shall also not exceed σC given below
σTF > 0.5 σy
σ2y
σc = 0.522 σy– ...(11.67)
7.67σTF
σTF < 0.5 σy
σc = 0.522 σTF ...(11.68)
where, CTF shall be found according to the expression
σTF CTF ⎡ σb1 ⎤
+ − σb2 ⎥ = 1.00 ...(11.69)
σex σbc ⎢ ⎛ σ ⎞
⎢ ⎜1 − TF ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ σi ⎠ ⎥⎦
σTF is a coefficient. Its value is adopted as under:
(a) for compression members in frames subjected to joint translation (side
away) CTF is taken as 0.85.
(b) For restrained compression members in frames braced against joint
translation and not subjected to transverse loading between their supports in
the plane of bending, the value of CTF is found from the expression
⎛M ⎞
CTF = 0.6 – 0.4 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ M2 ⎠
⎛M ⎞
The ratio of ⎜ 1 ⎟ bas been defined with the coefficient, Cm above.
⎝ M2 ⎠
11.23 CONNECTIONS
The bolted, welded, and screw connections are most commonly used in the light
gauge steel members. The riveted connections and other special devices for
connecting the light gauge structural members are used only occasionally.
11.23.1 Bolted Connection

The unfinished bolts are most commonly used in the bolted connections. The
high strength friction grip, bolts are also used for the bolted connection.
The clear distance between bolts which are arranged in rows parallel to the
direction of force, also the distance from the centre of any bolt to that end or
boundary of the connecting member towards which the pressure of the bolt is
P
directed shall not be less than 8.5 d nor less than
( σ yt )
0.6
where, d = diameter of bolt

p = force transmitted by bolt
t = thickness of thinnest connected sheet, and
σy = yield stress
The tensile stress on the net section of a bolted connection shall not exceed
0.6 σynot shall it exceed
⎛ 1.0 – 0.9r + 3 ⋅ r ⋅ d ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⋅ 0.6 σ y
σ
where, r = the ratio of force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section
considered, to the tensile force in the member at the section. If r
is less than 0.2, it may be taken equal to zero
s = spacing of bolts perpendicular to the line of stress. In case of a
single bolt, s is equal to the width of sheet; and d and σy as
defined above.
The bearing stress on the area (d × t) in the bolted connections shall not
exceed 2.1 σy.
The shear stress on the gross cross-sectional area of bolt, under dead and live
load shall not exceed the following values.
Precision and semi-precision bolts 97 N/mm2
Black bolts 82 N/mm2.
11.23.2 Welded Connection

A single channel section is used as a beam. The beam is laterally unsupported.
In case the line of action of applied load does not pass through the shear centre
of the section, as shown in Fig. 11.13 (a), the twisting of the section takes place.
Torque acting unit length
T = (m.q) ...(i)
where, q = Load per unit length in N/mm for the beam
m = Eccentricity of load in mm.
q q
S h ea r cen tre
1 mq 1 mq
2 2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 11.13
Figure 11.13 (b) shows two channel sections connected back to back to form
an I-section for use as a beam (flexural member). The torque acting per unit
length
⎛1 ⎞
T1 = ⎜ m ⋅ q ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝2 ⎠
The two channel sections must be connected such that it provides an equal
internal resisting moment. Let the channel sections be connected by weld at a
vertical distance between the two rows of connections near or at top and bottom
flanges, g in mm. Then, the tension in weld per unit length
⎛1 m⋅q ⎞
Ft = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2 g ⎠
If the longitudinal spacing between the welds is s, in mm, then the tensile
force in weld is given by
Ts = Ft.s
⎛ mqs ⎞ ⎛ 2 g ⋅ Ts ⎞
Ts = ⎜ 2 g ⎟ or s = ⎜ mq ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The maximum permissible longitudinal spacing of welds, Smax joining two
L
channels to form as I-section to be used as a beam (flexural member) is ,
6
where, L is the span of beam. The maximum spacing Smax should not exceed
⎛ 2 g ⋅ Ts ⎞ as in expression (iv).
⎜ m⋅q ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The intensity of load q is obtained by dividing the magnitude concentrated
loads or reactions by the length of bearing. If the length of bearing of a
concentrated load or reaction is smaller than the weld spacing, s, the required
strength of the welds or connections closest to the load or reaction, P is
⎛ P ⋅m ⎞
Ts = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 2g ⎠
For the compression members, the maximum permissible longitudinal spacing
of welds, Smax, joining two channels to form as I-section is given by
⎛ Lrc⋅ y ⎞
Smax = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅ r1 ⎠
where, L = unbraced length of the compression member
rey = radius of gyration of one channel about its centroidal axis parallel
to web, and
r1 = radius of gyration of I-section about the axis perpendicular to
the direction in which the buckling would occur for the given
conditions of end support, and intermediate bracing, if any.
In case the beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load, then the value of
q, load, per unit length is adopted as three times the uniformly distributed load
per unit length. This is done to account for effect of uneven loading of the
channels, which may be caused because of allowable errors of fabrication and
misalignment of the flanges. For the light gauge channel sections without bent
lips
⎛ 3 ⎞
m = ⎜ 3b ⎟
⎝ 6b + h ⎠
where,
m = Distance of shear centre of channel from the mid-plane of the
web
h = Depth of channel section
b = Width of channel section
For the light gauge C-shaped channels with the stiffening lips at the outer
edges
b⋅h⋅d ⎡ ⎛ 4d 2 ⎞ ⎤
m = ⎢b ⋅ h ⋅ +2d1 ⎜ h − 1 ⎟ ⎥
4Ix ⎣ ⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎦
where, b = projection of flanges from inside face of web (for channels with
flanges of unequal width, b shall be taken as the width of the
wider flange)
d1 = over all depth of lip
h = depth of channel or beam
Ix = moment of inertia of one channel about its centroidal axis normal
to the web.
IS : 801–1975 recommends the following spacing for connections in
compression elements.
The spacing of connections should not exceed :
(1) That length which is required to transmit the shear between the
connected parts on the basis of the design strength per connection.
In M.K.S. Units
⎛ 1680 t ⎞
(2) s = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i a)
⎝ σ ⎠
where, s = spacing in cm
σ = Design stress in cover plates
t = Thickness of plate in cm
In S.I. Units
⎛ 531.26t ⎞
s = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i b)
⎝ σ ⎠
where, s and t are in mm and σ is N/mm2.
(3) Three times the total flat width b, of the narrowest unstiffened
compression element in that portion of the cover plate or sheet which is tributary
1590 t ⎛ 502.80 t ⎞
to the connections, but need not be less than in M.K.S. units ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟
(σ y ) ⎝ (σ y )
1/2
⎠
in S.I. units) if the value of σc permitted in the unstiffened element is greater
1910 t ⎛ 603.995 t ⎞
than 0.54 σy in M.K.S. units ⎜ 1 / 2 ⎟ in S.I (units) if the value of σc
(σ y )1 / 2 ⎝ (σ y ) ⎠
permitted in the unstiffened element is less than or equal to 0.54 σy, unless
closer spacing is required under (1) or (2) above.
In case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the direction of stress the spacing
shall be taken as the clear distance between the welds plus 13 mm. In all other
cases, the spacing shall be taken as centre to centre distance between the
connections.
The fusion welds are proportioned so that the stresses therein do not exceed
the permissible stresses. The permissible stress in shear, σc on throat for fillet
of plug welds depend on the specified minimum yield point, σy of the lowest
strength, steel being joined. IS : 801–1975 recommends the following values of
the permissible stresses.
Table 11.3
σy (N/mm2) σe (N/mm2)
<250 95.5
> 250, but < 350 110
>350 125
In some of the light gauge steel sections, the cover plates are also connected.
Figure 11.1 (m) shows the cover plates connected to the channels. These cover
plates are joined by the welds. The welds are subjected to longitudinal shear
and transverse shear due to tendency of each channel to twist when the load is
applied in the plane of web. The spacing of weld is found such that the resultant
of transverse and longitudinal shears per weld is not more than the permissible
shear per spot weld. The value of lever arm C is adopted as the depth of channel
for determining the transverse load per weld. The buckling of cover plate in the
direction parallel to line of connection should not occur.
The spot welds are commonly used for the light gauge members. IS : 819–
1957, Resistance spot welding for light assemblies in mild steel may be preferred
for the design of spot welding.
Example 11.1 A light gauge steel rectangular box section 200 mm × 100 mm
× 2.0 mm is used for a column. The effective length of column is 3.60 m. Determine
the safe load carrying capacity of the section. Take basic design stress, σb = 125
N/mm2.
Solution
Step 1: The box-section is shown in Fig. 11.14. All the four elements of section
are stiffened. From IS : 811–1961.
Area, A = 1173.7 mm2
Ixx = 452.477 × 104 mm4
Iyy = 126.863 × l04 mm4
rxx = 62.1 mm, ryy = 32.9 mm
Step 2 : Slenderness ratio
⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 3.60 × 1000 ⎞
⎜r ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 109.42
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 32.9 ⎠
Basic design stress = 125 N/mm2
Flat width ratio of smaller sides
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 100 − 2 × 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 46
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
1 00 m m
y
0 .4 cm
9 .62 cm
2
2 00 m m
x x x x
2 mm
9 .62 cm
2
0 .4 cm
y
x 7 .85 cm
(a ) 0 .4 cm (b ) 0 .4 cm
Fig. 11.14
Step 3 : Effective design width for load determination

(i) For smaller side
⎛w ⎞ 453.78
⎜ ⎟ = = 40.587
⎝ t ⎠lim 125
⎛w⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 46 > 40.587
⎝t ⎠
⎡ 147.046 ⎤
⎛ be ⎞ 670.412 ⎢1 −
⎜ ⎟ = ⎛ w ⎞ 1/2 ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ (σ )1 / 2 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ (σ ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ t ⎠ ⎦⎥
670.412 ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
be = 1− × 2 mm
1/ 2 ⎢ 1/ 2 ⎥
(125 ) ⎣ 46 (125 ) ⎦
= 85.64 mm
(ii) For larger side
⎛w⎞ 200 − 2 × 4
⎜ ⎟ = = 96 > 40.587
⎝t ⎠ 2
⎛ be ⎞ 670.412 ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = 1−
⎝ t ⎠ 1/ 2 ⎢ 1/ 2 ⎥
(125) ⎣ 96 (125) ⎦
be = 51.74 × 2 = 103.48 mm
Area of four round corners form IS: 811–1961
= (4 × 9.4248) = 37.6992 mm2
∴ Effective area = [2 × 85.64 × 2 + 2 × 103.48 × 2 + 37.6992] mm2
= 794.18 mm2
Gross-area = 11737.7 mm2
794.18
Form factor Q = = 0.6766
1173.3
1/2
⎛ 2π2 E ⎞
Cc = ⎜ ⎟ = 132.84
⎝ 1173.3 ⎠
Cc 132.84
1/ 2 = = 161.496
(Q ) 0.6766
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ Cc ⎞
= ⎜ = 109.42 ⎟ is less than ⎜⎜ = 161.496 ⎟
1/2 ⎟
⎝r ⎠ ⎝ (Q ) ⎠
Step 4 : Allowable stress
Allowable stress in axial compression in stiffened element form Eq. 11.35 (b)
⎡ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢ ⎜ Q ⋅ σ ⎥
r ⎟ ⎥ N/mm2
y
σc = ⎢0.522 Q ⋅ σ y − ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ 3952.847 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ 2⎤
= ⎢0.522 × 0.6766 × 232 − ⎛⎜ 0.6766 × 232 × 109.42 ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 3952.847 ⎠ ⎦
= 63.059 N/mm2
Step 5 : Safe load carrying capacity
Safe load carrying capacity
Example 11.2 Two channel sections with bent lips 200 mm × 80 mm are
connected with webs to act as column. The thickness of channel is 3.2 mm. The
depth of lips is 25 mm. The effective length of column is 5.40 m. Determine the
safe load carrying capacity of the section.
Solution
Step 1 : The column section is shown in Fig. 11.15. From IS: 811–1961
80 m m 80 m m
25 m m
2 00 m m
1 9.7 2
x x
2 mm
25 m m
Fig. 11.15
Area of section, A = 2 × 1244.7 = 2489.4 mm2

Moment of inertia about xx-axis
Ixx = 2 × 766.743 × 104 = 1533486 × 104 mm4
Moment of inertia about yy-axis
Iyy = 2 × 107.910 × 104 = 215.820 × 104 mm4
rxx = 785 mm, ryy = 29.4 mm
∴ rmin = 29.4 mm
Step 2 : Slenderness ratio
⎛ l ⎞ 6.50 × 1000
⎜r ⎟ = = 183.67
⎝ min ⎠ 29.4
The column section has stiffened and unstiffened plate elements.

Basic design stress = 0.6 σy = 0.6 × 232 = 1392 N/mm2
Step 3: Effective design width for load determination
The effective design width of flanges and web (stiffened elements and bent
lips (unstiffened elements) are found as under:
The limiting flat width ratio when the full element is effective
453.78 453.78
= = 38.46
(σ ) 139.2
(i) Actual flat width thickness ratio of flanges (stiffened elements)
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 80 − 2 × 2 × 3.2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 21 < 38.46
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
∴ The flanges are fully effective (be = w)
∴ be = 80 mm
(ii) Actual flat width thickness ratio of web (stiffened elements)
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 200 − 2 × 2 × 3.2 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 58.5 > 38.46
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
Effective design width of the web, Eq. 11.18 (b)
⎡ 147.046 ⎤
⎛ be ⎞ 670.412 ⎢1 − ⎥
⎜ ⎟ = ⎛w ⎞
⎝ t ⎠ (σ ) ⎢⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ( σ ) ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎝t ⎠ ⎦
670.412 ⎡ 147.046 ⎤
= ⎢1 − ⎥
(139.2) ⎣ 58.5 (139.2) ⎦
be = 44.715 × 3.2 = 143.087 mm

Actual flat width thickness ratio of bent-lips (unstiffened elements)
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 25 − 2 × 3.2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 5.81 < 12
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
Area of one corner = 24.1275 mm2
∴ Effective area
= [4 × 3.2 × (80.4 × 3.2) + 2 × 143.087 × 3.2
+ 4 × 2 × 24.1275] = 1968.94 mm2
Step 4 : Column factor
Q = Qs × Qa
⎛ σc A ⎞
= ⎜ × eff = ⎛⎜ 139.2 × 1968.94 ⎞⎟
σ
⎝ b A ⎟ ⎝ 139.2 2489.40 ⎠
gross ⎠
= 0.791
Step 5 : Permissible stress
1/2
⎛ 2π2tE ⎞
For Cc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ σy ⎠
1/2
⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ 2π × 2.074 × 105 ⎟
⎝ 232 ⎠
Cc 132.14
(Q ) = 0.791
= 149.36
⎛ K ⋅L ⎞ ⎛ Cc ⎞
⎜ = 183.67 ⎟ is greater than ⎜⎜ = 149.36 ⎟
⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ (Q ) ⎠
Permissible stress, from Eq. 11. 37 (b)
10.68 × 105 10.68 × 105

σac1 = 2
=
⎛ K ⋅L ⎞ (183.67 )2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
= 31.66 N/mm2
31.66 × 1968.94
= = 62.34 kN
1000
Example 11.3 Two channel sections without bent lips 200 mm × 50 mm are
connected with webs to act as a beam. The thickness of channel is 2.5 mm. The
effective span of simply supported beam is 4.00 m. Determine the maximum
uniformly distributed load inclusive of self weight which can be supported by
the beam. The beam is laterally supported throughout is length.
Solution
Step 1: The bearri is laterally supported throughout the span.
The light gauge steel section shown in Fig. 11.16 is symmetrical aboul yy-
axis. The beam bends about xx-axis. The neutral axis is at the centre of the
section-. Flat width ratio for flange
⎛w⎞ ⎛ 50 − 2 × 2.5 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 18
⎝t ⎠ ⎝ 2.5 ⎠
w
∴ 12 < < 30
t
50 m m 50 m m
2 00 m m
x x
2 .5 m m
5 mm 5 mm
Fig. 11.16
∴ For unstiffened compression flange
⎛ 167.6 ⎞ ⎛ 167.6 ⎞
⎜ σ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.0035
⎝ ( y )⎠ ⎝ (232 ) ⎠
⎛ 382.64 ⎞ ⎛ 382.64 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 25.12
⎜ (σ y ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ (232 ) ⎠
⎛w ⎞
11.0035 < ⎜ = 18 ⎟ < 25. 12
⎝t ⎠
Step 2: Permissible stress. σc from Eq. 11.30 (b)
⎡ 0.767 − 9.96 ⎛ w ⎞
σc = σy ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ (σ y ) ⎤⎥
⎣ 104 ⎝t ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 9.96 ⎞ ⎤
= 232 ⎢0.767 − ⎜ 4 ⎟ (18 ) (232 ) ⎥ N/mm2
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎦
= 232 × 0.4939 = 114.58 N/mm2
Step 3: Moment of inertia about xx-axis form IS : 811–1961
Ixx = 2 × 390.307 × 104 mm4, y = 100 mm
Zxx = 2 × 39.3 × 103 mm3
Step 4: Moment of resistance of beam
⎛ 114.58 × 2 × 39.03 × 103 ⎞

σccZxx = ⎜ ⎟ = 8.944 kN-m
⎝ (1000 × 1000) ⎠
Step 5: Maximum bending moment due to uniformly distributed load
⎛ Wl ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 8.994
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 8.994 × 8 ⎞
W = ⎜ ⎟ = 17.888 kN
⎝ 4 ⎠
Step 6: Check for shear
Maximum shear F, occurs at the support
1
∴ F = × 17.888 = 8.994 kN
2
Average shear stress
⎡ 8.944 × 1000 ⎤
=
⎢2 × ( ⎥
⎣ 200 − 2 × 2.5 − 2 × 2.5 ) × 2.5 ⎦
= 9.415 N/mm2
Maximum allowable shear stress in web from Eq. 11.32
⎛h⎞ ⎛ 200 − 2 × 2.5 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 78
⎝t⎠ ⎝ 2.5 ⎠
1451.485 1451.485
= = 95.29
(σ y ) (232 )
⎛b ⎞
⎜ = 78 ⎟ is less than 95.29
⎝t ⎠
Permissible shear stress in the web from Eq. 11.52 (b)
⎡ 403.19 (σ y ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
τy = ⎢ ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝t⎠ ⎦
⎡ 403.19 (232 ) ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ = 78.733 N/mm2
⎣ 78 ⎦
> 9.415 N/mm2
0.40 σy = 0.40 × 232 × 92.8 N/mm2
> 9.415 N/mm2. Hence safe.
Step 7: Check for deflection
Maximum deflection due to uniformly distributed load occurs at the centre.
5 ⎛ WL3 ⎞
ymax = ×⎜ ⎟
384 ⎝ E ⋅ I xx ⎠
5 ⎛ 17.888 × 1000 × 43 × (1000 )3 ⎞

ymax = ×⎜ ⎟
384 ⎝ 2.074 × 105 × 2 × 390.307 × 104 ⎠
= 9.21 mm
Allowable deflection
1
= × 4000 = 12.31 mm. Hence safe.
325
Example 11.4 If the beam in Example 11.3 is laterally supported at 1.20 m
interval, then, determine the safe uniformly distributed load inclusive of self-
weight which can be supported by the beam.
Solution
Step 1: The beam is laterally supported at l.20 m interval. Then, allowable
stress in compression flange
∴ l = 3.20 m
2
2.8 × 105 ⎛ h ⎞
σć = ⋅⎜ ⎟
⎝ rx ⎠
2
⎛ l ⎞
⎜r ⎟
⎝ y⎠
From IS: 811–1961
rxx = 73.1 mm, ryy = 14.1 mm
2
2.8 × 105 ⎛ 200 ⎞
Gc´ = ⋅
2 ⎜ ⎟ = 292 N/mm2
⎛ 1200 ⎞ ⎝ 73.1 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1.41 ⎠
Allowable stress in compression from Example 11.3
σc = 114.58 N/mm2
∴Uniformly distributed load including self-weight
W = 17.888 kN
Problems
11.1 A right gauge steel rectangular box-section 180 mm × 90 mm × 2 mm is
used for a column. The effective length of column is 2.80 m. Determine
the safe load-carrying capacity of the section. Adopt the properties of
the box-section from IS: 811–1961.
11.2 Two channel sections with bent lips 180 mm × 80 mm are connected
with webs to act as a column. The thickness of channel section is 25 mm.
The depth of lips is 25 mm. The effective length of column is 4.40 m.
Determine the safe load carrying capacity of the section. Adopt

properties of the channel section form IS : 811–1961.
11.3 Two channel sections without bent lips 180 mm × 50 mm are connected
with the webs to act as a beam. The thickness of channel section is 2
mm. The effective span of a simply supported beam is 3.80 m. Determine
the maximum uniformly distributed load including self-weight, which
may be supported by the beam. The beam is laterally supported
throughout its length. Adopt the properties of the channel section from
IS : 811–1961.
11.4 If the beam in Problem 11.3 is laterally supported at 110 m interval,
then determine the safe uniformly distributed load including the self-
weight which may be supported by the beam.

11.1 The light gauge steel members are
(a) hot-rolled steel members (b) cold-formed steel members
(c) formed form thick plates (d) made from thick sheets
11.2 The basic design stress adopted for the design of light gauge steel
members is
(a) the permissible stress
(b) the yield stress
(c) the stress at limit of proportionality
(d) the yield stress multiplied by 0.6.
11.3 The shape or form factor is introduced in the design of compression
members to represent the effect of
(a) diagonal buckling (b) post-buckling
(c) local buckling (d) vertical buckling

11.1 (b) 11.2 (d) 11.3 (c)
CHAPTER
12
Plastic Analysis and Design of Steel
Structures
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The method of elastic design of a structure is defined as a method which limits
the structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto a certain load, at
which the maximum stress in extreme fibres reaches the yield stress of the
material in bending. The rest of cross-section remains under-stressed. It is a
conventional method of design based on the elastic properties of steel. This
method is also known as working stress method of design. The stresses due
to working loads do not exceed the specified allowable stresses. The working
loads are the maximum loads, which are likely to arise in normal use throughout
the life-time of the structure. The values of allowable stresses are determined
by applying adequate factor of safety to the guaranteed minimum yield stress
of steel. The factor of safety accounts for unpredictable over load, defective
workmanship, defective material etc. The elastic design does not take into
account the strength of the material beyond the yield stress.
The method of plastic design of a structure is defined as a method which
limits the structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto ultimate
load. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate load is
found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is also known
as method of load factor design or load and resistance-factor design or
ultimate load design. In this method, the selection of members is done such
that under various combinations of the service loads, each multiplied by a load
factor, the member forces shall not exceed the specified ultimate strengths. It is
an advantageous replacement over the usual method of elastic design. The
method has its main application in the analysis and design of statically
indeterminate framed structures. The strength of steel beyond the yield stress
is fully utilized in this method. This method is rapid and simple and provides
rational approach for the analysis of the structure. The sections designed by the
method of plastic analysis and design are smaller in size than designed by
the method of elastic design. Thus, this method provides striking economy as
regards the weight of the steel. This method also provides a margin of safety,
which one is not less than that provided by the method of elastic design.
The plastic analysis and design means a better use of the material and the
intellectual resources.
Theoretically, the failure of a structure may occur due to number of reasons.
It may fail (that is, reach its limits of usefulness) due to instability, fatigue, or
excessive deflections. In case, the structure does not fail due to these reasons,
then the structure will continue to carry load beyond the elastic limit, until, the
load attains its value equal to the ultimate load. The most indeterminate
structural steel building frames collapses due to plastic deformation. The plastic
analysis and design is based on the ultimate load the structure may support
just before it plastic collapse.
12.2 DUCTILITY OF STEEL

The mild steel is a ductile material. The ductility of steel is a unique property in
this material. This properly does not exist in any other structural material in
the same manner, as it exists in the steel. The concept of ductility of structural
steel forms the basis for the plastic theory. The structural steel is capable to
withstand large deformations beyond the elastic limit without fracture. The
ductility property of the structural steel is evident from the stress-strain diagram
shown in Fig. 12.1.
Figure 12.1 shows the portion of the stress-strain diagram upto strain
hardening on the enlarged scale.
45
D -u ltim ate
40
35
30
2 5 U p pe r yie ld
20
A
S tress (kN /m m 2 )
15
10
B c
5 S train h arde ning
0
L ow e r yie ld
5 5 10 15 20 25
S train (P erce nt)
Fig. 12.1
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 601
It is seen that the stress-strain curve is linear within the elastic range. Point
A shown in Fig. 12.1 and also in Fig. 12.2 represents stress upto the level of
upper-yield point. From upper yield point, the stress in the material drops down
U p pe r Y ield
A
S tress kN /m m 2
25 B C
L ow e r yie ld S train h arde ning
0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
S train (p e rcent)
Fig. 12.2
without elongation to lower yield point B. This is followed by sudden stretching

of the material at constant stress from lower yield point upto the strain hardening
C. It is seen that the yield stress is reached at a strain of about 0.11 per cent. At
the constant stress, the material elongates upto a strain of about 1.5 per cent.
The portion of stress-strain curve from B to C represents plastic range. The
1 1
elastic strain is about to of the strain at the beginning of the strain
12 15
hardening. Beyond the strain hardening, the stress increases with the increase
of strain. However, the strain increases more rapidly. The portion of curve beyond
strain hardening represents the strain hardening range. The elastic strain as
1
about of the maximum strain.
200
Some of the structural steel do not show the upper yield point in the stress-
strain curve. However, even when an upper yield point exists, it can be avoided
by cold working. In the simple plastic theory of bending, the upper yield point
and the strain hardening range are neglected. This simplifies the calculations.
The simple plastic theory of bending leaves a major part of the ductility of the
steel. This adds in the margin of safety. This idealised stress strain curve
shown in Fig. 12.3 is followed as the basis of plastic theory.
40
35
30 dσ
= E st
dt
25
σy = Yield stress
20
15
S tress (kN /m m 2 )
10
5
dσ
=E
dt
0 .5 1 .00 1 .5 2 .00
S train (p e rce nt)
Fig. 12.3
12.3 APPLICABILITY OF SIMPLE PLASTIC THEORY OF

BENDING FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS
12.3.1 Aluminium Alloys

The aluminium alloy is also a ductile material. The stress-strain curve for the
aluminium alloy has been shown in Fig. 14.1. It is seen from the curve that
there does not exist a horizontal plato as it exists for the mild steel. The value of
Young’s modules of elasticity for aluminum is about one-third that of steel. As
such, the aluminium structures undergo large deflections as compared to those
of the steel structures. It is likely that the buckling failure of the aluminum
structure may occur, prior to the attainment of collapse load. The simple plastic
theory of bending may also be applied (with some modification) to the aluminum
structure with careful considerations for its buckling failure.
12.3.2 High Tensile Steel

The structural steels (mild steel) normally contains 0.2 to 0.5 percent carbon.
When the carbon contents increase beyond 0.5 percent upto 1.7 per cent, the
ductility of the steel decreases and the tensile strength increases. The steel
with high tensile strength is known as high tensile steel. This steel does not
possess a well defined yield point. A horizontal plato does not exist in the stress-
strain diagram. As such the theory of plastic analysis not applicable to this
material.
12.3.3 Reinforced Cement Concrete

The stress-strain curve for the reinforced cement concrete is shown in Fig. 12.4.
The stress-strain diagram is not similar to that for the mild steel. The ultimate
strain in concrete is only 0.4 to 0.5 percent. The simple plastic theory of bending
as applicable to steel cannot be applied to the concrete. However, there are
S tre ss (kN /m m )
0 .2 e u = 0 .4 to 0.5
S train (p e rce nt)
Fig. 12.4
several ultimate load theories which are applicable to the structures built-up of
the reinforce cement concrete. The various ultimate load theories are due to
Mensch, Dyson, Whitney, Jensin, Dr. O.P. Jain, etc. Because of the simplicity,
Whitney’s theory is more popular.
12.3.4 Brass
The brass is brittle material. It fails as soon as the stress reaches to the yield stress.
The simple plastic theory is not applicable to the structures built up of brass.
12.4 PERFECTLY PLASTIC MATERIALS

The stress-strain curve for perfectly plastic material upto strain hardening is
shown in Fig. 12.5. The test on the material have been conducted both in tension
and compression.
S tress
σy Ten sion
O S train
C o m p re ssio n
σy
Fig. 12.5
Perfectly plastic materials follows Hooke’s law upto the limit of

proportionately. The slopes of stress-strain diagrams i.e., the values of Young’s
Modulus of Elasticity of the material in compression and tension are also equal.
The values of yield stresses in compression and tension are also equal. The
strains upto the strain hardening in compression and tension are also equal.
The stress strain curves show horizontal plato both in tension and compression.
Such materials are known as perfectly plastic materials.
12.5 ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF

MEMBERS CARRYING AXIAL TENSION
12.5.1 Single Member Carrying Axial Tension

The ultimate load carrying capacity of the member may be found quickly.
Consider a single member subjected to axial tension, P. Let the cross-sectional
area of the member be A. Then, the stress in the member is
⎛P⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝A⎠
The elongation of bar takes place elastically. The elongation bar is given by
⎛ P ⋅L ⎞
Δ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ A⋅E ⎠
The load verses deflection is as shown in Fig. 12.6.
P u lt
L oa d
Δ 1 .5 pe rcen t
y D e fle ction
Fig. 12.6
The deflection Δ increases linearly with the increase of load, till the yield
point is reached. When the value of load reaches the yield load, the stress in the
material reaches yield stress
⎛ Py ⎞
σy = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ A⎠
The deflection in the bar becomes
⎛ Py L ⎞
Δy = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ A⋅E ⎠
The stress in the member is uniform. The load versus deflection relationship
becomes plastic. The deflection in the bar increases unobstructed upto the
deflection at which strain hardening occurs. The value of load Py remains
constant. This load is considered as ultimate load for the bar
∴ (Pult = Py) ...(12.1)
The deflection in the bar is about 1.5 percent of the length of the bar. The bar
does not remain structurally useful.
12.5.2 More than one Member Carrying Axial Tension

Consider three bars subjected to axial tension as shown in Fig. 12.7. The bars
are placed symmetrical. The bars are parallel to each other. The bars carry a
T1 T1
L1 = L
L =1 L T2
2 2
A
P
(a ) (b )
( P u lt )
A A A
L oa d
Δy Δu
(P u lt ) D e fle ctio n
(c) (d )
Fig. 12.7
rigid block. A load P is applied at the centre. The bars are equal in cross-sectional
area. The load is gradually increased. Let the tension in the outer bars be T1
and inner bar be T2. When the bars are in elastic state, then from equilibrium,
(2Tl + T2 = P) ...(i)
and from continuity, (since the total deflection in each bar is equal),
Δ1L1 = Δ2L2
⎛ T1 L1 ⎞ ⎛ T2 L2 ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝ AE ⎠
1
∴ (L2 = L)
2 1
⎛ T2 ⎞
∴ T1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛P ⎞
∴ T2 = 2T1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝2⎠
From expression (iv) it is seen that the force in inner bar, which one is smaller
than others carries more load. The bar carrying more load would yield first.
Therefore, the first yield load may be found by substituting in expression (i).
The maximum value of load, which T2 can attain, is σyA. Therefore, yield load
Py = 2T2 = 2 × (σyA)
The deflection at the yield load
⎛ L⎞
⎛T L ⎞ ⎜ σy ⋅ A ⋅ ⎟ ⎛ σyL ⎞
Δy = ∈yL2 = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ = 2 =⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ 2 AE ⎠
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝
Now, three bars have become partially plastic. The structure acts as a two
bar structure only, but the inner bar takes a constant force of σyA acting upward
as shown in Fig. 12.7 (b). Now, the value of load is further increased. The inner
bar (smaller bar) yields at constant load. The outer (bigger) bars, take more
load. The outer bars are still in elastic state. As such the unobstructed flow does
not occur. The deflection of rods continues to increase till the load in each bar
reaches yield load. Then, the deflection increases unobstructed upto strain
hardening suddenly. The system of bars does not remain structurally useful.
Therefore, the load corresponds to ultimate load,
(Pult = 3 σyA) ...(12.2)
It is to note that the ultimate load may be found easily from Eq. 12.2. In this,
the continuity conditions or the redundancy due to continuity need not be
considered while the ultimate load is found in the plastic range. The deflection,
when the ultimate load has arrived, may be found from
⎛ σyL ⎞
(Δult) = (∈yL1) = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠
In this plastic analysis, all the elements of the structure (i.e., each bar) attains
the plastic yield condition. It also satisfies the equilibrium condition. At the
ultimate load, the deflection increases unobstructed. This is shown in
Fig. 12.7 (d).
12.6 PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF A SIMPLE TRUSS

STRUCTURE
Consider the system of three bars, AO, BO, and CO as shown in Fig. 12.8. The
outer bars are equally inclined with the central bar. These bars are pin-jointed
C B A
T2
L = L2
T1 L1 L1 T1
q q
D1 D1
D = D2 D2
Fig. 12.8
at A, B and C. These bars meet at one common point O. The cross-sectional

areas of these bars are equal. A vertical load P is applied at the common point
O. Let the tension in the outer bars be T1 and the tension in the central be T2.
The deflected positions of the three bars are shown by the dotted lines.
For equilibrium,
(2T1 cos φ + T2 = P ) ...(i)
The statics provide only one equation. There are two unknowns. Therefore,
the structure is statically indeterminate. The degree of indeterminacy of this
structure is one. The structure can be analysed by the elastic method by using
the continuity condition. The elongation of central bar Δ2 is equal to Δ, the
deflection of point O. The elongations of bars CO and AO, are Δ1
(Δ1 = Δ2 cos φ) (3Δ is small)
⎛ T1 ⋅ L1 ⎞ ⎛ T2 ⋅ L2 ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ cos φ
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝ AE ⎠
⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛L ⎞
⎜T ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅ cos φ ...(ii)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ L1 ⎠
where,
L1 = Lengths of members CO and AO
L1 = L = Length of member BO
⎛ L2 ⎞
⎜ L ⎟ = cos φ
⎝ 1⎠
∴ Expression (ii) becomes
⎛ T1 ⎞
⎜ T ⎟ = cos2 φ
⎝ 2⎠
or T1 = T2 cos2 φ ...(iii)
Substituting in expression (i)
⎛ P ⎞
T2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 1 + 2cos φ ⎠
⎛ P cos2 φ ⎞
T1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 1 + 2cos φ ⎠
The value of cos φ is always less than one. It is seen that the force T2 is more
than T1. When the bar BO reaches the yield load, the whole system of bars does
not remain structurally useful as per elastic design, and the system fails.
(T2 = A . σy)
(T1 = A . σy . cos2 φ )
∴ From expression (i), the maximum load
P = (2A σy cos2 φ + A σy ) = Aσy (1 + 2 cos2 φ) ...(12.3)
The deflection corresponding to yield load
⎛ σ y ⋅ L2 ⎞ ⎛ σ y ⋅ L ⋅ ⎞
Δy = ⎜⎝ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ...(12.4)
E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
The load versus deflection diagram is shown in Fig. 12.9 (a).
If the analysis of bar is done by the plastic analysis, then the bar, EO carrying
maximum load, reached yield load first.
∴ T2 = σyA ...(vi)
The system continues to take further load. The load P is gradually increased.
The force in bar BO remains constant, then the forces in bars CO and AO also
becomes equal to yield load, then,
(T1 = σyA) ...(vii)
All the three bars yield. The deflection of bars increases unobstructed and
suddenly. The system does not remain structurally useful i.e., the system fails.
The load corresponding to this is known as ultimate load.
σ A B C
y
T2
σ A co s 2 φ
y
L oa d
T1
E lastic U n restricted p la stic

d efo rm atio n C o nta in ed flow
p la stic flow
(a ) E lastic an alysis
P u lt
Py
L oa d
σ L /E σ
O y y L co s 2 φ/E
D e fle ction
(b ) P lastic an alysis
Fig. 12.9
Pult = (2σy A cos φ + σy A)

= σy A (1 + 2 cos φ ) ...(12.5)
⎛ σ L ⎞ ⎛ σyL ⎞
Δ1 = ⎜ y 1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E cos φ ⎠
⎛ σyL ⎞
∴ (Δ1 = Δ2 cos φ), and ∴ Δ2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ E cos φ ⎠
∴ Δ2 = Δ, (Vertical deflection of the joint)
⎛σ L⎞ 2
∴ Δ = ⎜ y ⎟ sec φ ...(12.6)
⎝ E ⎠
By comparing Eq. 12.4 and Eq. 12.6, it is seen that the vertical deflection in
plastic design is sec2 φ times that in elastic design. The load versus deflection
has been shown in Fig. 12.9 (b).
12.7 PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS

Consider any beam section as shown in Fig. 12.10 (a), having at least one axis of
the symmetry. The beam is subjected to pure bending by applying couples or
moments M, at the ends of the beam. The bending of beam occurs in the plane
containing the axis of symmetry. The couples M, are increased gradually.
The distribution of bending stress remains within the elastic range so long as
the values of moments M, are small. The neutral axis of the section N.A. (the
line about which the moments of the areas in compression and tension are equal)
passes through the centroid of the section as shown in Fig. 12.10 (a) and (b).
When the moment is increased, then, the bending stress in the extreme fibre
from the neutral axis reaches the yield stress σy. The region of proportionality
of stress is terminated on the initiation of yielding. The bottom fibres are at
A xis o f sym m e try

σ< σy σ σy σy σy σy
– – – – –
N e utral
a xis
G
E q ua l
a rea
a xis
+
+ + + +
σ σy σy σy σy σy
(a ) (b ) (c) (d ) (e ) (f)
Fig. 12.10
extreme distance from the neutral axis in this case. The stress at the top fibre
remains less than the yield stress as shown in Fig. 12.10 (c). The neutral axis
still passes through the centroid of the section. The moment at which the first
yield has occurred is termed as the yield moment
⎛ I ⎞
M = My = σy ⎜ ⎟ = σy Z ...(12.7)
⎝ y1 ⎠
where, I = Moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis

y1 = Distance to the extreme fibre from the neutral axis
Z = Elastic modulus of the section.
⎛M⎞
When the moment is further increased, the curvature ⎜ ⎟ also increases,
⎝ EI ⎠
and the yielding of fibres spreads inside at the bottom, and the bending stress
at the top fibre reaches yield stress as shown in Fig. 12.10 (d). The neutral axis
shifts downward. The neutral axis may be located by equating total compressive
force to total tensile force over the cross-section of the beam, since the beam is
in equilibrium.
When the moment is still increased, the yield further spreads from the bottom
and also from the top towards the neutral axis as shown in Fig. 12.10 (e). The
neutral axis further shifts downward. Finally, a stage is arrived, when the yield
spreads upto an axis from bottom and top both and the section is fully plasticised.
The distribution of bending stress is shown in Fig. 12.10 (f). This axis is known
as equal area axis. The moment corresponding to this stage is termed is fully
plastic moment or the ultimate plastic moment of the section or simply plastic
moment. The fully plastic moment of a section is denoted by Mp or Mult,. The
term plastic moment MP is the ultimate moment which the section can maintain
under the assumption of an ideal elastic-plastic stress strain law.
In case the section of a beam is symmetrical about both the axes, then the
neutral axis does not shift.
12.8 FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT OF A SECTION

The fully plastic moment MP, of a section is defined as the maximum moment of
resistance of a fully plasticised or yielded cross-section. The following simplified
assumptions similar to those made in the simple elastic theory of bending, are
made in order to evaluate the fully plastic moment of a section. (J.F. Baker, The
Steel Skeleton, 1956).
1. The material obeys Hooke’s law until the stress reaches the upper yield
value; on further straining, the stress deops to the lower yield value and
thereafter remains constant.
2. The upper and lower yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have
the same value in compression as in tension.
3. The material is homogeneous and isotorpic in both the elastic and plastic
states.
4. The plane transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the beam) remain plain and normal to the longitudinal axis
after bending, the effect of shear being neglected.
5. There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
6. The cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis through its
centroid parallel to plane of bending.
7. Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally

and laterally under the stress as if separated from the other layers.
σy
(A 1) G 1 C = σy A 1
Y1
Y2
(A 2) G 2
T = σy A 1
σy
Fig. 12.11
Consider any beam section as shown in Fig. 12.11 (a). Let the moment at the
section be equal to the fully plastic moment of the section. The beam section is
fully yielded or plasticised. The bending stress in each fibre of the section is
equal to the yield stress. The distribution of bending stress is rectangular as
shown in Fig. 12.11 (b). Let the nature of the moment be sagging. The fibres
above the neutral axis are in compression. The fibres below the neutral axis are
in tension.
Total force in compression over the section
C = σy A1 ...(i)
Total force in section over the section
T = σy A2 ...(ii)
The tension in equilibrium. The resultant force over the section is zero.
Therefore C = T
(σy A1 = σy A2)
⎛A⎞
∴ A1 = A2 = ⎜ ⎟ (3A = A1 + A2 )
⎝2⎠
where, A1 = Area of the section above the neutral axis
A2 = Area of the section below the neutral axis
A = Area of the complete cross-section of the beam.
The area above the neutral axis is equal to the area below the neutral axis.
Therefore, the neutral axis of the completely plasticised section is known as
equal area axis. The equal area axis divides the cross-section in two equal areas.
These two equal and opposite forces form a couple to resist the plastic moment.
∴ MP = (σ y ⋅ A1 y1 + σ y ⋅ A2 y2 ) = σ y ( A1 y1 + A2 y2 )
A A
= σy ⋅ ( y1 + y2 ) = y ⋅ Z P (3A1 = A2 = )
2 2
...(12.8)
A
ZP =
2
( y1 + y2 )
= Plastic modulus of the section ...(12.9)
where, y1 = Distance of c.g. of the area A1, from the equal area axis
y2 = Distance of c.g. of the area A2, from the equal area axis.
The plastic modulus of the completely yielded section ZP is defined as the
combined statical moment of the cross-sectional areas above and below the
neutral axis or equal area axis. It is resisting modulus of completely plasticised
section.
12.9 ELASTIC-PLASTIC BENDING OF RECTANGULAR

BEAM
Consider a simply supported rectangular beam. The beam is subjected to
gradually increasing couples M, applied at the ends. When the value of couples
M increases, the bending stress in the extreme fibres of the section increase.
When the values of couples or moments M, become equal to yield moment, the
bending stresses in the extreme fibres reach yield stress, σy. When the values of
moments M, further increase, then the yield spreads in the inner side of the
b σy
N e utral
c a xis
h
σy
Fig. 12.12
section. From the value of yield moments MY, upto the stage of fully plastic
moment of the section MP, some of the middle fibres are elastic while the outer
fibres are plastic. The section is in the elastic-plastic range. The rectangular
section of the beam is partially yielded or plasticised as shown in Fig. 12.12.
In the elastic-plastic range, a middle layer of depth e, remains elastic and it
is known as elastic core. The bending stress in the outer fibres is equal to yield
stress. The bending moment resisted by the elastic core,
⎛ b ⋅ e2 ⎞
M1 = σy . ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 6 ⎠
The bending moment resisted by the fibres in plastic region
⎛ 2 2 ⎞
M2 = σy ⎜ b ⋅ h − b ⋅ e ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 4 4 ⎠
The total moment of resistance of the partially plasticised section or the section
in the elastic-plastic region is
⎛ be2 ⎞ + σ ⎛ be2 be2 ⎞
M =M1 + M2 = ⎜ σ y ⋅ ⎟ y⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
bh2 ⎡ 2 2⎤ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞
M = σy + σ y ⎢ be − be ⎥ = σ y ⎜ bh − be ⎟ ...(iii)
4 ⎣ 6 4 ⎦ ⎝ 4 12 ⎠
bh2 ⎡ e2 ⎤
∴ M = σ y 4 ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ ...(12.10)
⎣ 3h ⎦
The fully plastic moment of the section of the beam
⎛ bh2 ⎞
MP = σ y ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎡ e2 ⎤
∴ M = MP ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ ...(12.11)
⎣ 3h ⎦
The moment of resistance of partially plasticised rectangular section or the
section in elastic-plastic range may be worked out from Eq. 12.10 and also from
Eq. 12. 11, in case depth of elastic core, e, is known. If the value or applied
moment M, is known, then, the depth of elastic core e, can also be worked out.
12.10 PLASTIC HINGE

When the fully plastic moment is developed at any section of a structure,
subjected to a system of load, then the section is completely yielded or plasticised.
The curvature at the section becomes infinitely large, and the section continues
to rotate at constant moment. The fibres on one side of the equal area axis of the
section are in compression, and the fibres on the other side of the equal area
axis of the section are in tension. The fibres carrying bending compressive stress
equal to yield stress, tend to contract. The fibres carrying bending tensile stress
equal to yield stress, tend to expand. The section acts like a hinge. The hinge is
known as plastic hinge. At the plastic hinge, an infinite rotation can occur,
under a constant moment equal to plastic moment of the section. The plastic
hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to bending in a structural member, at
which the infinite rotation can take place at a constant plastic moment MP, of
the section. In contradiction to mechanical hinge, at which the value of moment
is zero, the plastic hinge allows free rotation at constant plastic moment. A
mechanical hinge is represented by a hollow small circle, and a plastic hinge is
represented by a solid black dot.
Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at discrete (separate)

points at which the plastic rotations occur. Thus, the length of a plastic hinge is
considered as zero.
w
L L
2 2
L L L l
3 3 3
(a )
L x x x L x
2 2 2 2 2 2
My My
(b )
Fig. 12.13
The values of moment, at the adjacent section of the yield zone are more than
the yield moment upto a certain length ΔL, of the structural member. This
length ΔL, is known as the hinged length. The hinged length depends upon
type of loading and the geometry of the cross-section of the structural member.
The region of hinged length is known as region of yield or plasticity. The
lengths of region of plasticity or yield i.e., hinged lengths have been worked out
for a simply supported rectangular beam carrying a concentrated load at the
centre, and uniformly distributed load over the entire length.
Firstly, consider the simply supported rectangular beam subjected to a
concentrated load at the centre as shown in Fig. 12.10 (a). The variation of
bending moment as shown in Fig. 12.13 (b). The maximum bending moment
occurs at the centre (i.e. under the concentrated load). The concentrated load W
increases gradually. The value of bending moment reaches to fully plastic
moment MP, of the section and a plastic hinge is formed at the centre.
⎛ WL ⎞
MP =
⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 4 ⎠
Let the width of rectangular beam be b and depth be h.
The yield stress, σy is first reached at the yield moment, My
MY = σy . Z
MY = σy . ⎛⎜ 1 ⋅ b ⋅ h2 ⎞⎟ = σ y . ⎛⎜ 1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ bh ⎞⎟
2
⎝6 ⎠ ⎝6 4 ⎠
⎛ bh2 ⎞
⎜⎝∴ Z P = ⎟
4 ⎠
⎛2 ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞
= ⎜ σ y ⋅ ZP ⎟ = ⎜ M P ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
Let the length of plasticity zone be x.
From the bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 12.13 (b)
L
MP 2
=
MY ⎛L x⎞
⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
or (L – x) MP = MY . L ...(iii)
Substitute the value of My from (ii)
2
∴ (L – x) MP = M .L
3 P
⎛2 ⎞
(L – x) = ⎜ ⋅L⎟
⎝3 ⎠
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎛L⎞ ...(12.12)
⎝3⎠
The hinged length of length of plasticity zone is equal to one-third of the
span.
Now consider a section X1X1 in the region of plasticity at a distance x1 from
the centre. The bending moment at the section X1X1, when fully plastic moment
exists at the centre
⎛L ⎞
⎜ 2 − x1 ⎟
M = MP . ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
L ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Let the depth of elastic core at this section be e. Then, from Eq. 12.11
⎛ e2 ⎞
M = MP . ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 3h ⎠
By Eqs. (iv) and (v),
⎡L ⎤
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎢ 2 − x1 ⎥
⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎢ L ⎥
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎛ 2x 2 ⎞
⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 6h2̂ ⎞
e2 = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ x1
⎝ L ⎠
This shows that the depth of elastic core varies parabolically with x1. The
region of the plasticity and variation of elastic core have been shown in Fig.
12.13 (a). The regions of plasticity are wedge-shaped. It is to note that the section
is fully yielded or plasticised only at the central section. The regions of plasticity
along the span have only a point contact, which acts like a hinge.
Secondly, consider the simply supported rectangular beam subjected to
uniformly distributed load, W as shown in Fig. 12.14. The maximum bending
moment occurs at the centre. The maximum bending moment M, reaches fully
plastic moment MP.
⎛ WL ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8 ⎠
Consider a section at a distance x1 from the centre, with the region of plasticity.
The moment at this section
W 8M P
M = (L2 – 4x2) = (L2 – 4x 12)
8L 8L
⎛ 4x 2 ⎞
= MP ⎜1 − 1 ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ L2 ⎠
Let the depth of elastic core be e. Then from Eq. 12.11,
⎛ e2 ⎞
M = MP ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 3h ⎠
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 x12 ⎞
∴ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ x2 ⎞
e2 = 12h2 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ L2 ⎠
⎛h⎞
e = 2 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (x ) ...(12.14)
⎝L⎠
It shows that the variation of depth of elastic core is linear. The regions of
plasticity are triangular in shape.
When the depth of elastic core, e = h, then from Eq. 12.14
h = 2 2 ⎛⎜ h ⎞⎟ ( x )
⎝L⎠
⎛ L ⎞
x = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2 3 ⎠
R e gion of
p lasticity
h
L ( 3 0 − 1) L L L ( 3 0 − 1) b
W 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 W
2 2
L
Fig. 12.14
L
The hinged length or length of region of plasticity is equal to .
3
Similarly, it can be worked out that the length of region of plasticity of an I-
section simply supported beam subjected to concentrated load at the centre is
about one-eighth of the span.
12.11 SHAPE FACTOR

The shape factor S, is defined as the ratio of fully plastic moment of section to
the yield moment of the section. Therefore,
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ σyZ p ⎞ ⎛Z ⎞
S = ⎜ P ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ P ⎟ ...(12.15)
⎝ MY ⎠ ⎝ σ y Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
It is seen from Eq. 12.15 that the shape factor is also defined as the ratio of
the plastic modulus of the section to the elastic modulus of the section. The
shape factor is a geometrical property of a section. It depends wholly on the
shape of the cross-section. The values of shape factor for the various cross-sections
may be evaluated as follows :
1. Rectangular Section
A rectangular section is shown in Fig. 12.15 (a). The elastic modulus of section
⎛ 2⎞
Z = ⎜ bh ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 6 ⎠
The plastic modulus of the section
A
ZP = ( y1 + y2 )
2
b ⋅ h ⎛ h h ⎞ bh2
ZP = ⎜ + ⎟=
2 ⎝4 4⎠ 4
⎛ bh2 ⎞
ZP ⎜ 4 ⎟
∴ S = =⎜ 2 ⎟ = 1.5 ...(12.16)
Z ⎜ bh ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
2. Diamond section
A diamond section is shown in Fig. 12.16 (b).The moment of inertia of section
about xx-axis
2
1 ⎛h⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
Ixx = 2 × × b × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ bh ⎟ ...(i)
12 ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 48 ⎠
Therefore, the elastic modulus of the section
I xx ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
Z = = ⎜ bh × 2 ⎟ = ⎜ bh ⎟ ...(ii)
⎛ h ⎞ ⎝ 48 h ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The xx-axis is also the equal area axis of the section. The plastic modulus of
section,
A 1 bh 1 h 1 h
ZP = ( y1 + y2 ) = × ⎛⎜ × + × ⎞⎟
2 2 2 ⎝3 2 3 2⎠
⎛ bh 2h ⎞ ⎛ bh2 ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 4 4 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ bh2 ⎞
Z P ⎜ 12 ⎟
∴ S = =⎜ 2 ⎟=2 ...(12.17)
Z ⎜ bh ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 24 ⎠
3. Triangular section
The triangular section is shown in Fig. 12.15 (c). The moment of inertia of the
section about xx-axis
1
Ixx = b ⋅ h3 ...(i)
36
The elastic neutral axis passes through the c.g. of the section. The distance of
2
extreme fibre from the neutral axis is 3
h. The elastic modulus of the section
⎛ 1 bh3 ⎞
I xx ⎟ = 1 b ⋅ h2
Z = = ⎜ 36 × 2 ...(ii)
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ 24
⎜ h⎟ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎝3 ⎠
y1 = h h y1 = h h
4 6
y2 = h y2 = h
4 6
b
(a ) (b )
h1
4r
3x
X' X' h x
b 4r
X X 3x d
(c) (d )
Fig. 12.15
The plastic modulus of the section is found by locating the equal area axis
X´X´. Let the equal area axis be at a distance h1 from the vertex, and the width
of the section at this axis be b1.
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 bh ⎞
∴ ⎜ b1h1 ⎟ = ⎜ × ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠
⎛ h1 ⎞ ⎛b ⎞
and also ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ 1⎟ ...(iv)
⎝h⎠ ⎝b⎠
⎛ b ⋅ h1 ⎞
b1 = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ h ⎠
Substituting the value of b1 in compression (iii)
1 ⎛ bh1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 bh ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (h1 ) = ⎜ ⋅ ⎟
2⎝ h ⎠ ⎝2 h ⎠
h b
∴ h1 = and b1 =
2 2
1 1 h
y = h1 = × = 0.235h ...(vi)
3 3 2
1 ⎛ b + 2b ⎞
y = (h − h1 ) × ⎜ 1 + ⎟
3 ⎝ b1 b ⎠
⎛ b ⎞
+ 2b ⎟
1⎛ h ⎞ ⎜ 2
=
3 ⎜⎝
h− ⎟×⎜ ⎟
2 ⎠ ⎜ b +b ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1 + 2 2 ⎞
= h ⎜1 − ⎟×⎜ ⎟ = 0.155h ...(vii)
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1+ 2 ⎠
1 1 bh
∴ ZP = A ( y1 + y2 ) = ⋅ (0.235h + 0.155h) = 0.0986 bh2
2 2 2
The shape factor
⎛ 0.0968bh2 ⎞
ZP ⎜ ⎟ = 2.34
S = =⎜ bh2 ⎟ ...(12.17 a)
Z ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 24 ⎠
4. Circular section
A circular section is shown in Fig. 12.15 (d). Let d be the diameter of the
section and r be radius of the section. The elastic modulus of section
π
Z = ⋅ d3 ...(i)
32
The plastic modulus of section
A A ⎛ 4r 4r ⎞ 1 2 8r
ZP = × ( y1 + y2 ) = ×⎜ + ⎟ = πr ⋅
2 2 ⎝ 3 π 3π ⎠ 2 3π
2
8 3 8 ⎛d⎞ d3
= r = ×⎜ ⎟ = ...(ii)
6 6 ⎝2⎠ 6
The shape factor
⎛ Z P d3 ⎞
⎜ = ⎟ 16
S = ⎜ Z 6 ⎟= = 1.70 ...(12.18)
⎜ π ⎟ 3π
⎜ d3 ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
The shape factors for the hollow sections may be evaluated as follows :
1. A hollow circular section
A hollow circular section is shown in Fig. 12.16 (a). Let the radius of outer
circle be r1 and that of inner circle be r2. The moment of inertia of the section
about xx-axis
π 4
Ixx = (r − r24 )
4 1
...(i)
The elastic modulus of the section
I xx π (r14 − r24 )
Z = = ...(ii)
r1 4 r1
The xx-axis is also the equal area axis of the section. The distance of c.g. of
area above equal area axis
⎛ 1 2 4 r1 1 2 4 r 2 ⎞
⎜ πr1 × 3 × π − 2 πr2 × 3 π ⎟
y = ⎜2 ⎟
π 2
⎜
⎝ 2 1
r − r2
2
( ⎟
⎠ )
4 (r1 − r2 )
3 3
= ...(iii)
3π (r12 − r22 )
⎡ 4 (r1 − r2 ) ⎤
3 3
1 1
Zp = A ( y1 − y2 ) = × π (r12 − r22 ) ⎢2 × ⎥
2 2 3π (r12 − r22 ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦
4 3
= (r − r23 )
3 1
...(iv)
The shape factor,
⎡4 3
(
r − r23
ZP ⎢ 3 1
) ⎤⎥
=⎢ ⎥
S =
Z
4
(
⎢ π r1 − r2
4
)⎥
⎢4 r1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
16r1 (r1 − r2 )
3 3
= ...(12.19)
3π (r14 − r24 )
r2
If r1 = k
⎛ r3 ⎞
16r1 × r12 ⋅ ⎜⎜1 − 23 ⎟⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠ (1 − k3 )
Thus S= = 1.70 ...(12.20)
⎛ r ⎞
4 (1 − k4 )
3πr14 ⎜1 − 24 ⎟
⎜ r1 ⎟⎠
⎝
d
In case the outer diameter of the hollow tube is d, than rx = and r2 =
2
d − 2t
. Substituting these in Eq. 12.20, the shape factor for the hollow circular
2
section is given by
⎡ ⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢1 − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎥
16 ⎢ ⎝ d⎠ ⎥
S = ...(12.20 a)
3π ⎢ ⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎥
4
⎢1 − ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎦
r2
h
x x x x
r1
b
(a )
(b )
Fig. 12.16
In case the thickness t, of the hollow circle is very small as compared to the
radius r of the circle, then the moment of inertia about x–x
Ixx = πr3 . t ...(i)
The elastic modulus of the section
⎛I ⎞
Z = ⎜ xx ⎟ = πr 2t ...(iii)
⎝ r ⎠
ZP = 4r2. t
⎛ Zp ⎞ ⎛ 4r 2t ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
The shape factor, S = ⎜ ⎟=⎜ 2 ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...(12.21)
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ πr t ⎠ ⎝ π ⎠
When the thickness of hollow circular section is very small as compared to its
diameter, then the approximate value of shape factor, S is 1.27.
2. A thin rectangular section
A thin rectangular section is shown in Fig. 12.16 (b). The thickness t is very
small as compared to the width of the section b, and the depth of section h.
The elastic modulus of the section about xx-axis
1⎡1 1 ⎤
Z = bh3 − (b − 2t )(h − 2t )3 ⎥
h ⎢⎣12 12 ⎦
2
1 ⎡1 3 1 3⎛ 2t ⎞⎛ 2t ⎞ ⎤
2
or Z = ⎢ bh − bh ⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥
h ⎢⎣12 12 ⎝ b ⎠⎝ h ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞⎤
⎢ h2t ⎜ b + ⎟ ⎥
1 1 1 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎥
or Z = ⎢ bh3 − bh3 +
h ⎢12 12 2 ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ⎥
⎦
(Approx.)
⎛ h⎞
∴ Z = h.t ⎜ b + ⎟ (approx.) ...(i)
⎝ 3⎠
The plastic modulus of the section about the equal area axis
1 3 1
bh − (b − 2t )(h − 2t )
2
ZP =
4 4
2
1 2 1 2⎛ 2t ⎞⎛ 2t ⎞
or ZP = bh − bh ⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟
4 4 ⎝ b ⎠⎝ h⎠
1 3 1 2 ⎛ h⎞
or ZP = bh − bh + h ⋅ t ⎜ b + ⎟ (approx.)
4 4 ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ h⎞
∴ ZP = h.t ⎜ b + ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 2⎠
Therefore, the shape factor
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
ZP ⎢ ht ⎜ b + 2 h ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ b + h ⎟
⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥=⎜ 2 ⎟
S= = ...(12.22)
Z ⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎢ ht ⎜⎝ b + 3 h ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎜⎝ b + 3 h ⎟⎠
⎣ ⎦
When the thickness of thin rectangular hollow section is very small, then the
approximate value of shape factor is 1.12.
The approximate value of shape factor, S for an I-section for bending about
strong axis is 1.12 and that about weak axis is 1.55.
12.12 MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP

Consider a simply supported beam. The beam is subjected to gradually increasing
couples M applied at the ends. From theory of simple bending
⎛M⎞ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ E⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
I ⎝ y⎠ ⎝ R⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛M⎞
or ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ EI ⎟⎠ ...(ii)
R
where, R = Radius of curvature of the beam
⎛I⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = Curvature of the beam (= φ).
R
When, the value of moment M increases, the curvature of beam also increases.
The curvature of beam is directly proportional to the moment M, upto the limit
of proportionality. The curvature of beam increases with the increase of the
moment, M. When the value of moment M, reaches yield moment My, then
⎛ MY ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ...(iii)
I ⎠ ⎝ y⎠ R
If the depth of section is h, then
⎛ σy ⎞
⎛ h⎞ ⎛ E⎞ ⎛ 2σ y ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
y = ⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ h ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ , and ⎜⎝ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ R⎠ h ⎠ ⎝ R⎠
⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎛ I ⎞ ⎛ 2σ y ⎞
or = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(12.23)
R R E ⋅ h⎠
When the value of moment M, further increases, the section becomes elastic-
plastic. The section is partially plasticised. Let the depth of elastic core be e.
The curvature of beam is still governed by the elastic core. The curvature of
beam becomes
I ⎛ 2σ ⎞
= ⎜ y⎟ ...(12.24)
R ⎝ E ⋅ e⎠
The linear relation between curvature and the moment does not hold good.
When the value of moment M, reaches the fully plastic moment, MP, the section
is fully plasticised. The depth of elastic core is zero. As such the curvature of the
beam increases infinitely. The moment curvature relationship is shown in Fig.
12.17.
B C
A
M o m en t
Z
O
C u rva tu re 1 = φ
R
Fig. 12.17
When the fully plastic moment Mp, is reached, then finite change of slope can
take place over an infinitely small length of the structural member, at this section.
The section behaves like a hinge which shows the significance of the plastic
hinge developed at a section.
In case the curve follows A, B and C, the dotted portion instead of A to C
directly, then such a curve represents an idealized moment curvature
relationship.
From expression (i),
⎛1⎞ ⎛M⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = φ = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iv)
R EI ⎠
From expression (iii),
⎛1⎞ ⎛M ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ y = φy= ⎜ Y ⎟ ...(v)
R ⎝ EI ⎠
By dividing (iv) by (v),
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
Y ⎝ φy ⎠
Thus, the moment curvature relationship may be plotted in non-dimensional

quantities. When the value of moment M, reaches the fully plastic moment of
the section, then,
⎛ MP ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞
⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = ⎜ P⎟ ...(vii)
Y ⎝ φY ⎠
The expression (ii) shows that the shape of the curve also depends upon the
⎛ MP ⎞
shape factor ⎜⎝3 S M ⎟⎠ . The moment curvature relationship in the non-
Y
dimensional form has been shown in Fig. 12.18.
S=2 D ia m on d
2 .00 section
S = 1.70 C ircu la r
section
1 .50 S = 1.50 R e ctan gu la r
section
S = 1.11
I - S e ctio n
1 .00
(M )
My
O ( θ/ θ1 )
Fig. 12.18
For a rectangular section of a simply supported beam, when the section is in

the elastic-plastic range, the moment M is given by Eq. 12.11.
⎡ e2 ⎤
M = MP ⎢1 – ⎥
⎣ 3h2 ⎦
M ⎛ e2 ⎞
or = ⎜1 – ⎟
MP ⎝ 3h2 ⎠
The value of e may be substituted from Eq. 12.24
2 2
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 2σ ⎞ 1 1 ⎛ 2σ ⎞ 1
⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = 1– ⎜ y .R⎟ =1– ⎜ y⎟ .
P ⎝ E ⎠ 3h 2 3 ⎝ E ⎠ ⎛ h ⎞2
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
R
At the first yield, from Eq. 12.23
⎛1⎞ ⎛ 2σ ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜ y⎟
R y ⎝ E .h ⎠
⎡ ⎛h⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜R⎟ ⎥
∴
M
= ⎢1 − 1 ⎝ ⎠ y ⎥ ... (12.25)
MP ⎢ 2 ⎛h⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ R⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
12.13 LOAD FACTOR

The load factor, Q, as used in the plastic design is defined as the ratio of the
collapse load W C , to the working load, W W.
Therefore,
⎛ Wc ⎞
Q = ⎜ ...(12.26)
⎝ Ww ⎟⎠
The load factor depends upon the nature of loading, the support conditions
and the geometrical shape of the structural member. The bending moment at
any section is directly proportional to the applied load. Therefore
M ∝ W
or M = k.W ...(i)
The fully plastic, Mp is also directly proportional to the collapse load, W W .
∴ Mp = k.Wc ...(ii)
In case, the maximum banding momement M1 crossponds to the maximum
working load, then M1 = k.Ww ...(iii)
By dividing (ii) expression by (iii) expression

⎛ MP ⎞ ⎛ Wc ⎞
⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = ⎜ =Q ...(iv)
1 ⎝ WW ⎟⎠
Since, M1 = f . Z,the elastic section modulus, may be expressed as
⎛M ⎞
Z = ⎜ 1⎟ ...(v)
⎝ f ⎠
where, f = Maximum allowable bending stess in the extreme fibre.
Since, MP = σ y . Zp, the plastic section modulus, may be expressed as
⎛ Mp ⎞
ZP = ⎜ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ σy ⎠
Mp ⎛Z ⎞ ⎛ σy ⎞
Then M1
= ⎜ p⎟ .⎜ ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ f1 ⎠
Q = S.(F.S) ...(12.27)
where, F.S. = Factor of safety, as used in elastice design.
Thus, the load factor is also defined as the product of shape factor and the
factor of safety as used in the elastic design.
The shape factor for rolled steel I-beam is about 1.12. The factor of safety as
used in elastic design as per IS: 800–1962 is 1.65. Therefore, the, the value of
load factor
Q = 1.12 ×1.65 = 1.85
The values of shape factors for rolled steel channel and I-beam sections vary.
The value of load factor Q, also varies. In general, for the gravity loads, the
value of load factor Q is adopted as 1.85.
When the wind load is considered the permissible stress is increased by 331/3
percent. Therefore,
(f1 = 1.33 × f)
where f1 = Permissible stress when the wind load is considered
f = Permissible stress, when only the gravity loads are considered.
The value of load-factor for wind
⎛ σy ⎞ σy
Qwind = ⎜ S ⎟ =S×
⎝ f1 ⎠ (1.33 f )
3 ⎛ σy ⎞ 3
= × (S ) ⎜ ⎟ = × S × F ⋅ S
4 ⎝ f1 ⎠ 4
3 ⎛3 ⎞
= × (Qgr.load) = ⎜ × 1.85⎟ = 1.4.
4 ⎝4 ⎠
12.14 MARGING OF SAFETY

In the plastic design, the structural member is designed on the basis of ultimate
or collapse load. The collapse or ultimate load is found by multiplying the working
load W W, by the load factor, 1.85 in case of normal loading. Thus the load factor
Q, accounts for the margin of safely in the plastic design. The collapse or ultimate
load is
WC = 1.85 × WW ...(i)
In the elastic design, the margin of safety is provided as 1.65. In the mild
steel, there is about 12 percent (of yield load) additional reserve strength against
failure due to the ductility property of the steel. Thus, there is also margin of
safety of about 1.85. In the elastic design, when the structure is subjected to
occasional loads (e.g., wind or seismic loads), then the maximum allowable
stresses are exceed by 33 1/3 percent. This effect is considered in the plastic
design by adopting a reduced load factor. 1.85/1.333 = 1.40. The ultimate load
thus found is
WC1 = 1.85 × WW ...(ii)
Thus it is seen that the margin of safety provided in the plastic design is in no
way less than that provided in the elastic design.
12.15 FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR PLASTIC

ANALYSIS
In the elastic analysis, the equilibrium condition, continuity or compatibility
condition (viz., conditions of geometry at the joints of the structure) and limiting
stress condition are satisfied. According to first condition, the structure subjected
to any system of loading should be in equilibrium. According to the second
condition the distortion or deformation of the various fibres should be compatible
with those of adjacent fibres. According to third condition, the maximum stress
at any section, in any fibre should be less than the yield stresses i.e., the bending
moment should be less than the yield moment.
Similarly, in the plastic analysis, the following fundamental conditions should
be satisfied:
12.15.1 Mechanism Condition

The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is formed. The
number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a mechanism.
In the plastic analysis and design, the plastic theory of bending is used. It is
important to learn that the redistribution of moments occurs for the frame
structure, which one is the basis of the mechanism condition.
12.15.2 Equilibrium Condition

The algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting over a structure should be zero.
The algebraic sum of all horizontal forces acting over a structure should be
zero. The moment of all the forces acting over a structure about any point should
be zero.
12.15.3 Plastic Moment Condition

The bending moment at any section of the structure should not be more than
the fully plastic moment of the section.
12.16 MECHANISM
When any elastic body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes
place, and the resistance is set up against the deformation, then the elastic
body is known as structure. In contradiction to this, if no resistance is set up in
the body against the deformation, then it is known as a mechanical
mechanism.
When a statically indeterminate structure is subjected to loads and the
bending moment diagram is drawn, it is seen that there are two or more points
of peak moments. As the loads are gradually increased, the cross-section having
the maximum of these peak moments will reach yield. A plastic hinge is formed
at such a cross-section and the value of bending moment becomes MP at that
section. As further load is added, this value of bending moment, MP remains
constant and this cross-section having the plastic hinge rotates, and other
sections having the bending moments smaller than MP maintain the equilibrium
with the increased load by a proportionate increase in moment. These sections
having peak point in the bending moment diagram reach yielding and the plastic
hinges are formed in succession. The values of bending moments at these peak
points become Mp in succession. The process of moment transfer known as the
redistribution of moment due to successive formation of plastic hinges continues.
After the formation of sufficient number of plastic hinges, the structure reduces
to a plastic mechanism, and the failure or collapse of the structure occurs.
If the degree of indeterminacy of the structure is r, then the indeterminate
structure becomes a determinate structure on the formation of r number of the
plastic hinges. If one additional hinge is formed, after the structure has become
a determinate one, then a mechanism is formed. Thus, the (r + 1) number of
plastic hinges are necessary to convert a structure into a mechanism (plastic). A
simply supported beam is determinate structure. If one plastic hinge is formed,
then this structure reduces to a mechanism. The structure fails or collapse as
soon as a mechanism is formed. The load corresponding to the formation of first
plastic hinge is known as yield load, W y. The load corresponding to the formation
of a mechanism is known as collapse load, W C.
The formation of plastic hinges results in modest increase of load. The
redistribution of moment further increases the reserve strength (load carrying
capacity) of indeterminate structures loaded beyond the elastic limit. This
redistribution of moments is the basis of mechanism condition.
Types of independent mechanism
Following are the various types of independent mechanisms:
12.16.1 Beam Mechanism

Figure 12.19 shows the beam mechanism for the various types of beams.
Figure 12.19 (a) shows a beam mechanism for a simply supported beam or a
beam hinged at both ends. The simply supported beam is a determinate structure.
Therefore, only one plastic hinge is necessary to convert the structure into a
mechanism. Figure12.19 (b) shows a beam mechanism for a beam fixed at one
end and propped or hinged at the other end. Such a beam is statically
indiscriminate to single degree. Therefore two plastic hinges are essential to
reduce this into a mechanism. Figure 12.19 (c) shows a beam mechanism
corresponding to a beam fixed at both ends. The fixed beam is statically
indeterminate to second degree.
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 12.19 Beam mechanism

Therefore, it requires three plastic hinges to convert the structure into a

mechanism.
12.16.2 Panel or Sway Mechanism

Figure 12.20 (a) shows a panel or sway mechanism for a portal frame fixed at
both the supports.
12.16.3 Gable Mechanism

Figure 12.20 (b) shows a gable mechanism corresponding to a gable structure
fixed at both the supports.
(a ) P a ne l m e cha nism (b ) G ab le m a ch an ism (c) Joint m e cha nism
Fig. 12.20
12.16.4 Joint Mechanism

Figure 12.20 (c) shows a joint mechanism. The joint mechanism occurs at a joint
where more than two structural members meet. In a joint mechanism, the plastic
hinges are formed in all the members meeting at the joint. It is worth noting
that a joint mechanism does not form as independent mechanism.
12.17 STATIC THEOREM OR LOWER BOUND THEOREM

The static theorem or lower bound theorem is one of the basic theorems of the
plastic analysis. The static theorem is based on the principles of statics. The
static theorem or lower bound theorem states that for a given frame and loading,
if there exists any distribution of bending moments, throughout the frame, which
is both safe and statically admissible with a set of loads, W, the value of W must
be less than or equal to the collapse load, WC (i.e., W ≤ W C).
When a structure is subjected to loads, then there occurs the distribution of
bending moments over the structures. The statically admissible distribution of
bending moments satisfies all the conditions of equilibrium. The safe distribution
of bending moment satisfies the plastic moment condition, viz., the bending
moment at any section is not more than the plastic moment of the section.
The method of plastic analysis based on the static theorem or lower bound
theorem is known as static method.
In the static method of analysis, the collapse load found from an equilibrium
distribution of bending moment M (in which the moment at any section is not
greater than MP) is less than or at the most equal to the collapse load. The
procedure for application of the static method for the plastic analysis based
upon an assumed equilibrium moment diagram is as follow :
1. Choose the redundant forces.
2. Draw free (statically determinate) bending moment diagram for the
structure.
3. Draw redundant bending moment diagram for the structure loaded by
the redundant forces.
4. Draw a combined bending moment diagram and determine the peak
moments. Set the peak moments equal to MP. Check the number of plastic
hinges so that a mechanism is formed.
5. Determine the value of collapse load by working out the equilibrium
equation (i.e., by statics).
A check is applied to ensure that the bending moment at any section is not
> MP).
more than the fully plastic moment of the section (i.e., M |
For the analysis of a determinate structure, the bending moment diagram is
drawn. The value of maximum bending moment is equated to the fully plastic
moment of the section. The collapse load is found by solving the equilibrium
equation.
12.18 KINEMATIC THEOREM OR UPPER BOUND

THEOREM
The kinematic theorem or upper bound theorem states that for a given frame
subjected to a set of loads, W, the value of W, which is found to correspond to any
assumed mechanism, must be either greater than or equal to the collapse load
(i.e., W > WC).
When the actual collapse mechanism is known for the given frame and loading,
the actual value of collapse load my be determined by equating the work done
by the external loads during a small motion of the collapse mechanism to the
work absorbed by the plastic hinges. When the actual collapse mechanism is
known it would be seen that the values of collapse load obtained by the static
theorem and also by the kinematic theorem are equal. However, the actual
collapse mechanism is not known. Therefore, then possible collapse mechanisms
are assumed. Then, the values of collapse loads are found for the assumed
mechanisms. The value of collapse load would be the least value out of these
values.
The method of plastic analysis based on kinematic theorem or upper bound
theorem is known as kinematic method, or Mechanism method of analysis.
The procedure for the application of the kinematic method or mechanism
method of plastic analysis based upon assumed mechanism is as follows.
1. Locate the points of possible plastic hinges. The plastic hinges are formed
at the points under concentrated loads, points of supports points of connections
or joints, points of zero shear force, i.e. points of maximum bending moments.
2. Determine the number of possible independent mechanisms and the
combined mechanisms.
If r is the redundancy of the structure and N is the number of possible plastic

hinges, then the number of independent mechanisms
n = (N – r) ...(12.28)
3. Solve the equation of equilibrium by the principle of virtual work, and
determine the collapse load.
A check is applied to ensure that the bending moment at any section is not
more than the fully plastic moment of the section by drawing a bending moment
diagram corresponding to the collapse mechanism.
12.18.1 Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work states that if deformable elastic body is in
equilibrium under a system of external loads and remains in equilibrium while
it is subjected to a small virtual deformation, the external virtual work done by
the external forces acting on the body is equal to the internal virtual work of
deformation done by the internal stresses. The principle of the virtual work has
been used for the determination of the collapse load. According to the principles
of virtual work, the work done by the external forces during small movement of
the collapse mechanism is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic hinges. It is
to note that the mechanical hinges do not absorb any work since the value of
moment at the mechanical hinge is zero.
12.19 UNIQUENESS THEOREM OR COMBINED

THEOREM
The uniqueness theorem has been stated by combining the static theorem and
the kinematic theorem. The uniqueness theorem slates that if for a given frame
and loading at least one safe and statically admissible bending moment
distribution can be found and in this distribution, the bending moment is equal
to the fully plastic moment at sufficient cross-sections to cause failure of the
frame as a mechanism due to rotations of the plastic hinges at these sections, the
corresponding load would be the collapse load (i.e., W = W C ).
The static theorem, the kinematic theorem and the uniqueness theorem may
be represented by the diagram as shown in Fig. 12.21.
K ine m atic
th eo re m
w 1 ≥ wc
U n iq ue ne ss
(w = w c) th eo re m
C o lla pse lo ad
(w 1 < w c)
S tatic
th eo re m
O C u rva tu re
Fig. 12.21
12.20 PLASTIC COLLAPSE OF A STRUCTURE

When a structure is subjected to a system of loads, and sufficient plastic hinges
are formed to form a mechanism, then the plastic collapse of a structure would
take place. At the state of plastic collapse, the deflections of the structure continue
to increase and the external loads remain constant. The distribution of bending
moment remains unchanged as the deflection increases. The elastic strain energy
stored in the beam also remains unchanged. The work done by the external
loads during small motion of the collapse is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges. Further, the curvature of the structural member at any cross-
section other than those at which the plastic hinges rotate, also remains constant.
Therefore, no internal work is done by the bending moment at those sections
other than the plastic hinges. The plastic collapse of a structure may be a partial
collapse or a complete collapse or a over complete collapse.
12.20.1 Partial Collapse

In the partial plastic collapse for a structure, a part of the structure may fail,
which makes the structure as a whole useless. The number of plastic hinges is
less than (r + 1), where r is the degree of redundancy of the structure. The
number of plastic hinges formed does not convert the statically indeterminate
structure to determinate structure at collapse.
12.20.2 Complete Collapse

When the number of plastic hinges formed is (r + 1), then the complete plastic
collapse of the structure takes place. The complete collapse of a structure enables
to determine all the redundancies of the structure together with the collapse
load. The value of collapse load corresponds to one mechanism.
12.20.3 Over Complete Collapse

When the number of plastic hinges formed at collapse in a structure is more
than (r + 1), then the over complete collapse of the structure takes place. The
value of collapse load corresponds to two or more number of mechanisms. The
over complete collapse occurs in a symmetrically loaded and symmetric
structures and in which the plastic hinges do not lie on the axis of symmetry.
12.21 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR STANDARD CASES OF

BEAMS
12.21.1 Simply Supported Beam Subjected to

Concentrated Load at the Centre
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated load at the centre
as shown in Fig. 12.22 (a). The collapse load for this has been found by both the
static method and the kinematic method. Let the fully plastic moment of the
beam be MP.
12.21.1.1 Static Method

The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre. When the collapse load is
reached, a plastic hinge is formed at the centre. The value of maximum bending
moment at the centre becomes equal to fully plastic moment. Figure12.22 (b)
shows the bending moment diagram.
The maximum bending moment at collapse
⎛ WcL ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = MP
4 ⎠
⎛ 4MP ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
L ⎠
where, Wc = Collapse load.
12.21.1.2 Kinematic Method

When the plastic hinge is formed at the centre, then a beam mechanism is
formed as shown in Fig. 12.22 (c). Let θ be the inclination of the beam at the
ends, and Δ be the deflection at the centre, under the load
⎛L ⎞
Δ = ⎜ θ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝2 ⎠
W
L L
2 2
A C B
L
(a )
W cL
4 = Mp
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia gram
L L
2 2
θ θ
Δ
θ Mp θ
2θ
(c) C o llap se m ech an ism diag ra m
Fig. 12.22
⎛L ⎞
The work done by the external load = W C · ⎜ θ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝2 ⎠
The work absorbed by the plastic hinge = MP · 2θ
The work done by the external load is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinge. Therefore
⎛L ⎞
Wc ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ θ⎟ = MP· 2θ
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 4MP ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜ ...(v)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
The values of collapse load obtained by static method and that by the plastic
method are equal. It shows that the mechanism corresponds to the actual collapse
mechanism. The value of collapse load corresponds to actual collapse.
12.21.2 Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Eccentric

Load
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to an eccentric load at a distance a
from the left hand support and b from the right hand support as shown in
Fig. 12.23 (a).

The maximum bending moment occurs under the load. When the collapse load
is reached, a plastic hinge is formed under the load. The value of bending moment
reaches to the fully plastic moment of the section. The maximum bending moment
at collapse.
⎛ Wc.a.b ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = Mp
L ⎠
⎛ M L⎞
∴ WC = ⎜ p. ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ a ⋅b ⎠

When the plastic hinge is formed under the load, then a beam mechanism is
formed as shown in Fig. 12.23 (c). Let the rotation at the left hand support be θ
and Δ be the deflection under the load.
Therefore, Δ = (a . θ) = (b . θ1)
⎛ a ⋅ θ⎞
∴ θ1 = ⎜⎝ ⎟
b ⎠
where,
θ1 = Rotation at right hand support
a b
L
(a )
W cq b = M
F
L
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia gra m
a b
θ θ
θ M p θ1
( θ + θ1 )
(c) C o llap se m ech an ism diag ram
Fig. 12.23
The work done by external load

= W (aθ) ...(i)
The work absorbed by the plastic hinge
= Mp (θ + θ1) = MP ⎛ a θ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ a + b⎞ L
= Mp . θ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = M P ⋅ θ ...(ii)
b b
The work done by external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic
hinges at collapse
⎛ L⎞
∴ (W C .aθ) = ⎜ M p ⋅ θ ⎟
⎝ b⎠
⎛ M ⋅L ⎞
Wc = ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ a ⋅b ⎠
The bending moment, M is not greater than MP at any section.
The values of collapse load found in the static method and in the kinematic
method are equal. It shows that the mechanism corresponds to the actual collapse
mechanism. The value of collapse load corresponds to actual collapse load.
12.21.3 Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Uniformly

Distributed Load
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load W
over the entire span as shown in Fig. 12.24 (a).
W
A C B
L L
2 2
L
(a )
W cL
8 = Mp
(b ) B e nd in g Mo m en t d ia gra m
1 1
2 2
θ θ
Δ
θ θ
Mp
2θ
(c) C o llap se m ech an ism diag ram
Fig. 12.24

The maximum bending moment occurs at the centre. When the collapse load is
reached, the value of bending moment reaches the fully plastic moment of section,
MP . A plastic hinge is formed at the centre. The maximum bending moment at
collapse.
⎛ WC ⋅ L ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = MP
8 ⎠
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
L ⎠

When the plastic hinge is formed at the centre, then a beam mechanism is
formed as shown in Fig. 12.24 (c). The rotations at ends are θ. The deflection at
the centre is Δ. Then
⎛L ⎞
Δ = ⎜ θ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
1
Average movement of the load = Δ
2
The work done by the external load
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ WC Lθ
= Wc θ = ...(i)
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 4
The work absorbed by the plastic hinge
= MP . (2θ) ...(ii)
plastic hinge. Therefore
⎛ WC ⋅ Lθ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = MP . 2θ
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 8M P ⎞
WC = ⎜ ...(iii)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
It is to note that the work done by the uniformly distributed load may also be
found as
= Intensity of load × Area of collapse
mechanism diagram under the load
WC ⎛ 1 L ⎞ ⎛ W L ⋅ θ⎞
= × ⎜ × L × θ⎟ = ⎜ C ⎟ ...(iv)
L ⎝2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Thus, the work done works out the same. The value of bending moment M, is
not greater than MPat any section. The values of the collapse load obtained by
the static method and the kinematic method are equal. It shows that the
mechanism corresponds to actual mechanism. The collapse load corresponds to
the actual collapse load.
12.21.4 Propped Cantilever Beam Subjected to an

Eccentric Concentrated Load
A propped cantilever beam subjected to an eccentric concentrated load is shown
in Fig. 12.25 (a). The propped cantilever beam is statically indeterminate to
single degree.
The reaction at support B may be found by equating the deflections at point
B, due to external load acting over the cantilever structure at C, and due to
reaction RB acting upward at the free end B. Therefore
⎛ 1 Wa3 1 Wa 2 ⎞ 1⎛ L3 ⎞
⎜⎝ + ⋅ b⎟ = ⎜ RB ⋅ ⎟
3 EI 2 EI ⎠ 3⎝ EI ⎠
⎡ a2 + (3 / 2)a2b ⎤
∴ RB = ⎢ ⎥W ...(i)
⎣ L3 ⎦
The bending moment at support A

⎡ a2 + (3 / 2)a2b ⎤
MA = ⎢ ⎥W ⋅ a ...(ii)
⎣ L3 ⎦
The bending moment at point C
⎡ a2 + (3 / 2)a2b ⎤
Mc = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅W ⋅ b ...(iii)
⎣ L3 ⎦
W
a b
L
(a )
W ca ·b
4 = Mp
(b ) B e nd in g m o m ent d ia gram
a b
θ θ1
θ Mp θ1
(θ + θ1)
(c) C o llap se m ech anism diag ra m
Fig. 12.25
The value of bending moment at support A is greater than at the point C.

When the load W increases, gradually then the plastic hinge is formed first at
the point A. The moment, MA reaches plastic moment MP. Then, the structure
acts like a simply supported beam. It takes more load. Finally, when the moment
at C, MC also reached the fully plastic moment of the section, then the plastic
hinge is also formed at C. Then, the beam mechanism is formed and the structure
would collapse. At collapse, the values of moment at A and C are each equal to
MP.

The bending moment diagram for redundant force RB is first drawn. The free
bending moment diagram due to given system of loading is then superimposed
over this as shown in Fig.12.25 (b), such that a mechanism is formed. The total
ordinate of the bending moment in terms of collapse load is equal to that in
terms of the plastic moment of the section. Therefore, for the equilibrium
⎛ WC ⋅ ab ⎞ b
⎜⎝ ⎟ = MP + MP .
L ⎠ L
⎛ L + b⎞
∴ Wc = ⎜ . MP ...(iv)
⎝ ab ⎟⎠
The value of moment at any section is not greater than MP. The expression
(iv) gives the value of collapse load.

Figure 12.25 (c) shows the collapse mechanism diagram. In the collapse
mechanism, there are plastic hinges at support A and at point C. Let the rotation
at left hand support be θ. Then, the rotation at right support, θ1 may be found.
⎛ a ⎞
∴ (a.θ = b.θ1) ⎜⎝∴ θ1 = ⋅ θ⎟⎠
b
= (Wc . aθ) ...(v)
The work absorbed by the plastic hinges
⎡ ⎛ a ⎞⎤
∴ ⎢ M p ⋅ θ + M p ⎜ θ + b θ ⎟⎥
= ...(vi)
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
plastic hinges.
∴ W C . aθ = MP θ + MP ⎛⎜ θ + a θ⎞⎟ ⎡ b + (a + b) ⎤ ⋅ M P ⋅ θ
⎝ b ⎠ ⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦
⎛ L + b⎞
∴ Wc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ · Mp ...(vii)
a.b ⎠
The values obtained for the collapse load by the static method and by kinematic
method are equal. Therefore, it shows that the mechanism corresponds to a
correct mechanism. The collapse load corresponds to actual collapse load.
If the propped cantilever beam is subjected to concentrated load W at the
centre, then,
L
a = b= .
2
From expression (i),
⎡ ⎛ L ⎞3 ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞ 2 ⎛ L ⎞ ⎤
⎢W ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ W ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥ 5
RB = ⎢ = W ...(viii)
⎣⎢ L3
⎦⎥ 16
⎛ 5 WL ⎞ 3
MA = ⎜⎝ – WL + ⎟⎠ = + WL ...(ix)
16 2 16
⎛ 5 L⎞ 5
MC = ⎜⎝ – W × ⎟⎠ = – WL ...(x)
16 2 32
The bending moment at support is greater than that at the centre. The plastic
hinge is first formed at the support, and then it is formed at the centre.
Then, a beam mechanism is formed. Therefore at collapse,
L
WC ⋅ ⋅θ = MPθ +MP(θ + θ)
2
⎛ 6M P ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(xi)
L ⎠
12.21.5 Propped Cantilever Beam Subjected to Uniformly

Distributed Load
The propped cantilever beam subjected to the uniformly distributed load is shown
in Fig. 12.26 (a). The propped cantilever is statically indeterminate to first degree.
The bending moment diagram at collapse is shown in Fig. 12.26 (b). At collapse,
there are two plastic hinges. One plastic hinge is at support A and the other at
point E. Let the distance to the point E from right hand support be x. The ordinate
of free bending moment diagram at E.
⎛ W 2⎞
ME = ⎜ – C ⋅ x + WC ⋅ x ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 2 L 2⎠
The total ordinate of the plastic bending moment diagram at collapse
⎛ x⎞
= ⎜⎝ M P + M P . ⎟⎠ ...(ii)
L
From the equation of equilibrium
x ⎛ 2⎞
MP + MP . = ⎜ – WC ⋅ x + WC ⋅ x ⎟
L ⎝ 2 L 2⎠
⎛ L + x⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
MP ⎜ = ⎜ – WC ⋅ x + WC ⋅ x ⎟
⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 L 2⎠
1
MP . (L + x ) = ⋅ WC ⋅ x (L – x )
2
1 ⎡ x (L – x ) ⎤
∴ MP = ⋅ WC ⋅⎢ ⎥ ...(iii)
2 ⎣ (L + x ) ⎦
For MP to be maximum
⎛ dM P ⎞ 1 ⎡ ( L + x )( L – 2x ) – 1. ( x )( L – x ) ⎤
⎜⎝ ⎟ = – ⋅ WC ⋅⎢ ⎥=0
dx ⎠ 2 ⎣ ( L + x )2 ⎦
∴ (L + x )( L – 2x ) – x (L – x ) = 0
or x2 + 2xL – L2 = 0
∴ x = ( )
2 −1 L
= 0.414 L ...(iii)
ω kN /m
A B
x = 0 .41 4 L
L
(a )
Mp
Mp
(b ) B e nd in g m o m en t d ia g ram
θ θ1
θ θ1
M p (θ + θ1)
(c) C o llapse
Fig. 12.26

From the equation of equilibrium, and expression (iii)
1 ⎡ x(L – x ) ⎤
MP = · WC · ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ (L + x ) ⎦
By substituting the value of x from (iv),
1 ⎡ L( 2 – 1) ( L – 2 + L ) ⎤
MP = W .⎢ ⎥
2 C ⎢⎣ L (1 + 2 – 1) ⎥⎦
1
= W C . ( 2 – 1) (2 – 2 ) L
2 2
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ MP
WC = ⎢ ⎥· L
⎢⎣ ( 2 – 1) (2 – 2 ) ⎥⎦
⎛M ⎞
WC = 11.656 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(v)
⎝ L ⎠
12.21.6 Fixed Beam Aubject to a Concentrated Load at the

Centre
A fixed beam subjected to a concented load at the centre is shown in Fig. 12.27 (a).
Figure 12.27 shows elastic bending moment diagram. The bending moment at
supports
⎛ WL ⎞
MA = MB = ⎜⎝ − ⎟ ...(i)
8 ⎠
The bending moment at the centre of beam
⎛ WL ⎞
MC = + ⎜ ... (ii)
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
The value of bending moment at support and at the centre are equal. When
the value of load increases gradually, the values of moments at A, B and C also
increase simultaneously.
L W L
2 2
A C B
L
(a )
WL WL
8 4 WL
8
(b ) B .M .D
Mp
W cL
4 = 2M 1
Mp Mp
(c) B .M .D a t colla pse

L L
2 2
θ θ
θ θ
Mp
2θ
(d ) C o lla pse m echa n ism diag ram
Fig. 12.27
The values of moment reach to the fully plastic moment of the section
simultanecously at A, B and C. The plastic hinges are also formed at A, B and C
at the centre, beam mechanism is formed and the collapse occurs. The collapse
load is found as follows :

From the equation of equilibrium,
⎛ L⎞
⎜⎝ WC ⋅ ⎟⎠ = 2MP
2
⎛ 8M P ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iii)
L ⎠

Figure 12.27 (c) shows the mechanism diagram. The rotation of the hinge at
each support is θ. The rotation of plastic hinge at the centre is 2θ. The work
done by the external load
⎛ L ⎞
= ⎜⎝ WC ⋅ θ⎟⎠ ...(iv)
2
= (MP .θ + MP .θ + MP . 2θ)
Now,
L
Wc = θ = (MP .θ + MP .θ + MP . 2θ)
2
⎛ 8WC ⎞
Wc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(V)
L ⎠
The value of collapse load obtained by the static method is equal to the value
of collapse load obtained by kinematic method. It shows that the mechanism
corresponds to the exact mechanism. The value of load corresponds to the actual
collapse load.
12.21.7 Fixed Beam Subjected to an Eccentric Load

(A) fixed beam subjected to an eccentric load is shown in Fig. 12.28 (a).
The elastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.28 (b). In case a is
less than b, then the bending moment at support A; MA is greater than the
bending moment at B. When the value of load increases gradually, then the
moment at support A first reaches the plastic moment. Therefore a plastic hinge
is formed first at A. The fixed beam now acts as a propped cantilever beam.
When the load increases further, second plastic is formed at the other support,
i.e., at B. The beam now acts as a simply supported beam. On further increase
of load, the plastic hinge is formed at the point C lastly. It forms a beam
mechanism. The collapse of beam occurs.
The value of collapse load is found as following :

The values of bending moment at collapse are shown in bending moment diagram
in Fig. 12.28 (c). From the equation of equilibrium.
WC (a ⋅ b )
= 2MP
L
⎛ MP ⎞
∴ WC = 2L . ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
a.b ⎠

The collapse mechanism is shown in Fig.12.28 (d). The work done by the external
load is Wc.aθ ... (ii)
W
a b
A C B
L
(a )
W b 2a W ab
L L W a2b
L
(b ) B .M .D .
Mp
W c(a –b )
2M p
Mp L
Mp
(c) B .M .D . a t co lla p se
a b
θ θ1
θ Mp θ1
(θ + θ)
(d ) C o lla p se m ech an ism diag ra m
Fig. 12.28
where, θ is rotation at the plastic hinges at A

Let θ1 be the rotation at the plastic hinge at support B, then
⎛ a ⎞
⎜⎝ θ1 = θ⎟⎠ ...(iii)
b
= [ M P θ + M P ⋅ θ1 + M P (θ + θ1 )]
⎡ a ⎛ a ⎞⎤
= ⎢ M P θ + M P . b θ + M P ⎜⎝ θ + b θ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ a ⎞ (a + b )
= ⎜⎝ 2 M P .θ + 2 M P θ⎟⎠ = 2 M P θ. ...(iv)
b b
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges.
(a + b )
∴ W C.aθ = MP.θ
a.b
(a + b )
WC = 2MP. ...(v)
a.b
⎛ 2L ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟M ...(vi)
a.b ⎠ P
12.21.8 Fixed Beam Subjected to Uniformly Distributed

Load
A fixed beam subjected to uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. 12.29 (a).
The fixed beam is statically indeterminate to second degree.
Upto the elastic stage, by an elastic analysis, the value of bending moment at
WL WL
supports, A and B are equal to and that at the centre is equal to . The
12 24
values of bending moments at supports are more than at the centre. When the
values of the moments at supports reach the fully plastic moment MP, the plastic
hinges are formed at both the supports simultaneously. This reduces the beam
to statically determinate structure. The beam acts like a simply supported beam.
The load corresponding to this stage is known as yield load. At the supports A
and B, the moment capacity of the member has reached. At the centre, the
MP
value of BM, M is and additional moment capacity is still available.
2
When the load is further increased, the values of moments at both supports
remain constant, and the value of moment at C also reaches fully plastic moment,
MP . A plastic hinge is also formed at C. Then a beam mechanism is formed. The

collapse occurs. The value of collapse load may be found as follows :

Let the value of load be W Y . Then,
⎛ WY .L ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = MP
12 ⎠
⎛M ⎞
∴ WY = ⎜ P ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L ⎠
The value of bending moment at this stage at C
⎛ WL ⎞ ⎛ M P ⎞
Mc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
24 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
If Δw is an additional load taken upto collapse, then
⎛1 ⎞ MP ⎛ M ⎞
⎜⎝ Δw ⋅ L⎟⎠ = ⋅ Δw = ⎜ 4 P ⎟ ...(ii)
8 2 ⎝ L ⎠
Collapse load
⎛ M M ⎞ ⎛M ⎞
WC = (WY + Δw) = ⎜12 P + 4 P ⎟ = 16 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ L L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
w
C B
A L L
2 2
L
(a )
WL WL WL
12 8 12
(b ) B .M .D.
Mp
Mp Mp
(c) B .M .D . a t co lla p se
L L
2 2
θ θ
Δ
θ θ
Mp
2θ
(d ) C o lla pse m ech an ism diagra m
Fig. 12.29
At collapse, the value of collapse load may also be found by equation of

equilibrium, and Fig. 12.29 (c)
⎛ WC .L ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = 2MP
8 ⎠
⎛M ⎞
WC = 16 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ L ⎠

Let the rotations at supports be θ. The work done by the external force
WC ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ W ⋅ Lθ
= × ⎜ × L × θ⎟ = C
L ⎝2 2 ⎠ 4
= (MP.θ + MPθ + MP(θ+ θ) = 4MPθ)
The collapse mechanism diagram is shown in Fig. 12.29 (d). The work done
by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic hinges.
⎛ WC Lθ ⎞
∴ ⎜ 4 ⎟ = 4MPθ
⎝ ⎠
⎛M ⎞
∴ WC = 16 ⎜ P ⎟ ... (v)
⎝ L ⎠
It is to note that the values of collapse load obtained by the static method and
the kinematic method are equal. The collapse mechanism corresponds to actual
collapse mechanism. The collapse load corresponds to actual collapse load.
12.22 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

The intermediate supports of a continuous beam act as fixed supports except
that the rotations at the joints take place. The outer supports, if these are simply
supported, act as hinged supports. Then outer spans act as propped cantilever
beams. The intermediate spans acts as fixed beams. When any one span fails,
then the whole of the structure becomes useless. It is known as the collapse of
the continuous beam. In case of a continuous beam of a uniform section, the
span which is heavily loaded fails first as compared to the other spans.
12.22.1 Continuous Beam Subjected to Concentrated

Loads
A two span continuous beam with concentrated loads acting at the centre of
each span is shown in Fig. 12.30 (a). This continues beam is statically
indeterminate to single degree.
The value of moment at support B, may be found by any method. This value
works out to be
3
MB =
WL ...(i)
16
The value of moment under concentrated load works out to be
⎛ 5⎞
MD = ME = ⎜ ⎟ WL ...(ii)
⎝ 32 ⎠
It is seen that the value of moment at intermediate support B, is greater
than those at D and E. Therefore, the moment MB, would reach Ihe fully plastic
moment. MP first. A plastic hinge is formed at B first as compared to the other
section. Then, in each individual span, a plastic hinge would form at D in span
AB, and at E in span BC. When the beam mechanism is formed in the span, the
span would collapse. The collapse load may be lound as follows :

The moment at support B is considered as a redundant force, and a redundant
bending moment diagram is drawn as shown in Fig. 12.30 (c). In each span, a
free bending moment diagram is then drawn, and combined with the redundant
bending diagram, such that a mechanism is formed.
w w
A L D L B L E L C
2 2 2 2
L L
(a )
MD ME
MD
(b ) B .M .D
Mp Mp
Mp
(c) B .M .D a t colla pse
θ θ
θ M θ (d )
p
( θ + θ)
θ θ
(e ) θ M θ
p
( θ + θ)
Fig. 12.30
Consider span AB. A collapse mechanism diagram is shown in Fig. 12.30 (d).
There are two plastic hinges in the span AB. From the equation of equilibrium at
point D
⎛ WC L ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ MP + P ⎟
4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 6 MP ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L ⎠
Similarly, for spans BC, a collapse mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.30 (e). The
collapse load also works out as
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = 6 ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎠
The values of collapse load for both the spans are equal, since the spans are
equal and are subjected to equal loads applied at the centre. In this case, both
the spans collapse simultaneously. In case spans are unequal, and if WC1 , WC2
etc., are the collapse loads, for different spans, then the collapse load is that
which is maximum (in case the collapse load is found by Static method, see Fig.
12.21).

Consider span AB. The collapse mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.30 (d). Let θ
be the rotations at the supports A and B. The work done by the external force is
equal to work absorbed by the plastic hinges. Therefore,
⎡ L ⎤
⎢⎣WC ⋅ 2 θ = M P θ + M P (θ + θ)⎥⎦
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = 6 ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iii)
L ⎠
Similarly, for the span BC, the collapse mechanism is shown in Fig.12.30 (e),
and collapse load
⎛ MP ⎞
WC = 6 ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(iv)
L ⎠
The values of collapse load for both the spans are equal, since the spans are
equal and the loads are also equal and applied at the centre. If WC1 , WC2 and WC3
etc., are the values of collapse loads found for different spans by kinematic
method, the collapse load is that which is least (see Fig. 12.21).
12.22.2 Continuous Beam Subjected to Uniformly

Distributed Load
A three-span continuous beam subjected to uniformly distributed load is shown
in Fig. 12.31 (a). The outer spans AB and CD act as propped cantilever beams.
W W W
A E B C F D
0 .41 4 L 0 .41 4 L
L L L
(a )
Mp Mp Mp
Mp Mp
(b ) B .M .D at collap se
Fig. 12.31
The intermediate span, BC acts as fixed beam. The bending moment at

intermediate support at B (and C) is WL/10. When the collapse load is reached
for span AB or CD, then
(Wc = 11.656 W P /L)
and the plastic hinges are formed at points E and F at a distance 0.414 L from
outer supports, and at the intermediate support B (or C) for intermediate span,
the beam acts like a fixed-beam. The collapse load may be found for the span BC
by either static method or by kinematic method. The bending moment diagram
at collapse is then drawn as shown in Fig. 12.31 (b). It should be seen that the
value of moment M at any section is not greater than MP .
12.23 COMBINED MECHANISM

When the collapse load is found for an indeterminate structure, all the possible
collapse mechanism should be considered. In addition to the number of
independent mechanisms discussed in Sec. 12.16, a number of combined
mechanisms may be investigated. A combined mechanism is a mechanism,
which is formed due to combination of two or more number of independent
mechanisms. A combined mechanism is also known as composite mechanism.
When a structure is statically indeterminate to high degree, then it is not
possible to investigate all the possible mechanisms. Then the following method
of combining the mechanisms is followed, which furnishes the value of collapse
load rapidly.
The number of independent mechanisms for a given structure is found, and
each type of independent mechanism is identified. The value of collapse load for
each independent mechanism is found. It is easy to find the collapse load by the
kinematic method. In the kinematic method, the values of least collapse load
(or maximum values of MP), corresponds to the actual mechanism. Certain
independent mechanisms with largest values of MP, are examined. It is seen
that whether these independent mechanisms could be combined, which provide
an even larger value of MP . In this manner, the most possible combinations are
examined, until it is seen, that the actual mechanism (or more close to it) has
been obtained. The plastic bending moment diagram is then drawn corresponding
to this combined mechanism. In case, the distribution of bending moment is
admissible, i.e., the value of moment at any section is not more than MP, then it
gives the value of collapse load.
The location of some plastic hinges may be adjusted such that, the distribution
of bending moment becomes admissible. While combining the mechanisms, it
may be seen that, the maximum number of loads do work and, the number of
plastic hinges are also reduced. The method of combining the mechanisms has
been further explained in Sec. 12.24, while determining the collapse load for
the portal frames.
The number of plastic hinges essential for the plastic analysis or to convert
the structure into a mechanism is (r + 1), where r is the degree of redundancy of
the structure. The degree of redundancy of a structure may be found by cut
method. When one cut is made on any structure, then three forces (viz., the
bending moment, the shear force and axial thrust) are introduced at the cut
section. The degree of redundancy of an indeterminate structure is equal to
three times the number of cuts less the number of forces necessary to make the
resultant portions, the determinate structures (cantilevers).
12.24 COLLAPSE LOAD FOR A PORTAL FRAME

A simple rectangular portal frame of uniform plastic moment is shown in Fig.
12.32. The portal frame is fixed at one support and hinged at the other support.
The number of possible plastic hinges is shown in Fig.12.32 by solid dots
N = 4
The degree of redundancy of this portal frame is
r = (3 – 1) = 2.
In order to determine the degree of redundancy of this structure, one cut has
been marked as shown in Fig. 12.32. The left hand portion of the portal frame
w
B L L C
w
E
Mr
MP MP L
A D
Fig. 12.32
would act as cantilever, since the support A is fixed. To make the right-hand
portion a cantilever structure, it requires one additional force, (i.e., the moment)
at the support D.
The number of possible independent mechanisms, from Eq. 12.28
n = (N – r) = (4 – 2) = 2
Namely, beam mechanism = 1
Panel or (sway) mechanism = 1
Total = 2
12.24.1 Beam Mechanism

The beam mechanism for the portal frame is shown in Fig. 12.33.
The plastic hinges are shown at both the supports (B and C) and under the
load, (E) since the portal frame is of uniform plastic moment, MP. Otherwise,
the plastic hinges should be located in the structural member which is weak
(i.e., the plastic moment of that member is less than the other). From the principle
of virtual work.
[W ⋅ Lθ = M P θ + M P θ + M P (θ + θ)]
WC1 ⎛ M ⎞
= ⎜4 P ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L ⎠
It is to note that there is no horizontal movement. The horizontal force does
not do any work.
w
L L
θ θ
θ θ
Mp
(θ + θ)
Fig. 12.33
12.24.2 Panel (Sway) Mechanism

The panel or sway mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.34. The horizontal deflections
at the top of columns are equal. The heights of columns are also equal. Therefore,
the rotations at the feet of the columns, and so also, at the top of the columns
are also equal.
W
L L
Δ' Δ
M p, θ E M p ,θ
θ θ
L
θ θ
M p, θ
A D
Fig. 12.34
There are three plastic hinges in the panel mechanism of this frame. There is
a mechanical hinge at point D. From the principle of virtual work
[Wc . L . θ = MPθ + MPθ + MP θ]
⎛ MP ⎞
WC2 = 3 ⎜⎝ ⎟ ...(i)
L ⎠
It is to note that there is no vertical movement. The work done by the vertical
load is zero.
12.24.3 Combined Mechanism

A third mechanism, which can be formed, is due to the combination of the beam
and panel mechanisms. The combined mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.35.
The rotations at the plastic hinges and deflections are the essential points to
be considered. At the point B, there is a plastic hinge in the beam mechanism
(see Fig. 12.33). The link BE in beam mechanism rotates clockwise. The moments
at the ends of RE would be in the anti-clockwise direction (i.e., the moment at B
is hogging). At the point B, there is also a plastic hinge in the panel mechanism
(see Fig. 12.34). Column AB rotates clockwise. The moments at the ends of AB
would be in the anti-clockwise direction, (i.e., the moment at B is sagging). Thus
two moments are of opposite nature. The rotations are of same magnitudes.
Therefore the value of moment at B would not reach the fully plastic moment of
the section. The plastic hinge at B does not exist in the combined mechanism.
The link EC in the beam mechanism rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
At point C, the moment and rotation at this point are hogging. It acts in clockwise
direction. Column CD rotates clockwise. The moments at the ends developed
would be in anticlockwise direction. The moment developed at end, C and the
rotation are again hogging. Therefore the values of rotations add to give (θ + θ),
B L L C
w
θ θ
M p (e + e )
θ θ θ
M p ( θ+ θ)
L
θ θ
M p' θ
A D
Fig. 12.35
the rotations at A and E are of independent mechanisms. From the principle of

the virtual work,
(W ⋅ Lθ + WLθ ) = [ M P θ + M P (θ + θ) + M P + (θ + θ )]
2WLθ = 5MPθ
WC2 ⎛M ⎞
= 2.5 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ L ⎠
It is to note that in the combined mechanism, both the loads do work and one
plastic hinge is also reduced. From expressions (i) and (ii) it is seen that the
expression (iii) gives the least value of load (or maximum value of plastic
moment). The collapse loads have been found by kinematic method. Therefore,
the collapse load is given by WC3 ,
⎛M ⎞
∴ WC = 2.5 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ L ⎠
The plastic bending moment diagram is drawn to apply the check.
The bending moment diagram is drawn on the tension side. The point D is a
mechanical hinge. The moment at D is zero. At the point C, the moment is MP .
It is plotted as shown in Fig. 12.36.
The plastic bending moment at C in the beam is also MP . The value of moment
at the centre E of the beam BC is MP . The total ordinate of bending moment at
E if the beam BE is simply supported is equal to
W ⋅ (2L ) WL 1 ⎛W L⎞
M = = = × 2.5 ⎜ C ⎟
4 2 2 ⎝ 2.5 ⎠
⎛ W ⋅L⎞
= 1.25 MP ⎜3 M P = C
⎝ 2.5 ⎟⎠
The bending moment at C reduces to MP at E in a distance L. The value of
moment decreases by 0 .75 MP . The variation of redundant bending moment is
linear. Therefore, the further decrease in moment is also 0.75 MP .The total
decrease of moment from MP from C is 1.50 MP . Therefore, the moment at B is
MP
0 .5 M P 0 .25 M P
B C MP
0 .5 M P
MP
A D
Fig. 12 36
equal to 0.50 MP . The moment at A is MP . From the plastic bending moment

diagram, shown in Fig.12.36, it is seen that the moment at any section is not
greater than fully plastic moment of the section. Therefore, the value of collapse
load given by the expression (IV) corresponds to collapse load.
Example 12.1. Determine the shape factors for the sections shown in Fig.
12.37. Also determine fully plastic moment of the section. Adopt yield stress of
the material as 250 Nlmm2.
Solution
Step 1: The shape factors for the sections are found as follows :
1. I-section
Width of the flange of I-section, B = 100 mm
100 m m 100 m m
10 m m 10 m m
X1 X1
32.5 m m
200 m m X X
10 m m
X X
10 10
77.5 m m
10 m m
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.37
Depth of I-section, D = 220 mm

Width of the flange excluding web,
b = (100 –10) = 90 mm
Depth of the I-section, excluding flanges,
d = (220 – 20) = 200 mm
Moment of intertia of the section, about xx-axis
⎛1 1 ⎞
Ixx = ⎜ BD 2 – bd3 ⎟
⎝ 12 12 ⎠
⎛1 3 1 ⎞ 4 4
Ixx =
⎜ × 10 × 22 – × 9 × 203 ⎟ × 10 mm
⎝ 12 12 ⎠
= 2875 × l04 mm4
Elastic modulus of section about, xx-axis
I xx 2875 × 104
Z = = = 261.3 × 103 mm3
D 110
2
Plastic modulus of section
⎛ BD2 bd2 ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 222 9 × 202 ⎞ 3
ZP = ⎜
⎝ 4
– ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ – ⎟⎠ × 10
4 4 4
= 310 × l03 mm3
Shape factor of I-section
⎛ Z ⎞ ⎛ 310 × 103 ⎞
= ⎜ P⎟ =⎜
S = 1.183
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ 261.6 × 103 ⎟⎠
Step 2: Fully plastic moment of the section
⎛ 250 × 55 × 103 ⎞
MP = σy· ZP = ⎜ ⎟ = 77.5 kN-m
⎝ 106 ⎠
2. Tee - section
Step 1: Shape factor for the section
The neutral axis is located by taking moment about the top of section. Let
y be the distance of neutral axis from top of the section. Then,
⎡100 × 10 × 5 + 100 × 10 (50 + 10 ) ⎤

y = ⎢
⎣ 100 × 10 + 100 × 10 ⎥⎦ = 32.5 mm
Moment of inertia of the tee-section about xx-axis (neutral axis)
⎡1 3 2 1 ⎤ 4
Ixx = ⎢ × 10 × 1 + 10 × 2.75 + × 1 × 103 + 1 × 10 × 2.752 ⎥ × 10
⎣12 12 ⎦
= 236.66 × 104 mm4
Elastic modulus of the tee-section

I xx ⎛ 4⎞
Z = = ⎜ 236.66 × 10 ⎟
Ymax ⎝ 77 ⋅ 4 ⎠
= 30.53 × 10 mm3 3
The plastic modulus of tee-section is found by locating the equal area axis.
Total area of the section.
A = (100 × 10 + 100 × 10) = 2000 mm2
A
Half area of the section, = 1000 mm2
2
Axis -X1X1represents the equal area axis of the section.
Step 2: Plastic modulus of the section,
A
ZP =
2
[ y1 + y2 ] = 1000 (5 + 50 )
= 55 × 103 mm3
Shape factor of the tee-section
⎛ Z ⎞ ⎛ 55 × 103 ⎞
S = ⎜ P ⎟=⎜ ⎟ = 1.805
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ 30.53 × 103 ⎠
Fully plastic moment of the section
⎛ 250 × 55 × 103 ⎞
MP = σy· ZP = ⎜ ⎟ =13.75 kN-m.
⎝ 106 ⎠
Example 12.2. A rectangular beam section b × h is subjected to 0.70 MP .
Determine the depth of the elastic core of the section.
Solution
A rectangular section is shown in Fig.12.38 (a). The section is subjected to
0.70 MP . The section is partially plasticised. Let the depth of elastic core be e.
The bending stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig.12.38 (a).
b σy
h –
2
X X e
h
+
2
σy
(a ) (b )
Fig. 12.38
Step 1: From Eq. 12.11 the moment of resistance of the section
⎡ e2 ⎤
M = MP ⎢1 – 2 ⎥
⎣ 3h ⎦
Step 2: Therefore the depth of elastic cone, e
⎡ e2 ⎤
0.70 MP = MP ⎢1 – 2 ⎥
⎣ 3h ⎦
⎡ e2 ⎤
0.70 = ⎢1 – ⎥
⎣ 3 × h2 ⎦
e2
= (1 – 0.70) = 30
3h2
e2 = 0.20 × h2
∴ e = 0.95 h.
Example 12.3. A rectangular beam 50 mm × 100 mm span 5 m is loaded by
a concentrated load at the middle of the span, till the central section becomes
fully plastic. Demarcate the region of yield. Take yield stress σy = 250 N/mm2.
The beam is simply supported at its ends.
σy C D E
σy
1 .66 m 1 .67 m 1 .66 m
5m
(a )
Mp
My My
(b ) B .M .D
Fig. 12.39
Solution
The central section of the beam is fully plastic.
Step 1: Plastic moment of the section
1 ⎛ 50 × 100 × 100 ⎞
MP = σy× ZP = 250 × × ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎝ 106 ⎠
= 31.25 kN-m ...(i)
Yield moment of the tension
1 ⎛ 50×100×100 ⎞
MY = σy× ZP = 250 × × ⎜ ⎟⎠
6 ⎝ 106
= 20.83 kN-m ...(ii)
Step 2: Let the value of bending moment be yield moment, MY, at a distance
x from left hand support. From the bending moment diagram
⎛ x MY 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2.5 = M = 1.5 ⎟⎠
P
2.5
∴ x = = 1.66 mm ...(iii)
1.5
The central section of the beam CDE has the region of yield varying from
zero to half the depth from outside from point C to D and E to D. The different
depths of elastic core have been calculated as under:
The bending moments at the sections 1.80 m, 2.00 m, 2.20 m, 2.40 m, add
2.50 m from the left and support are as under:
⎛ 31.25 × 1.80 ⎞
Step 3: M1 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 22.6 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
⎛ 32.25 × 2.00 ⎞
M2 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 25.0 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
⎛ 31.25 × 2.20 ⎞
M3 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 27.6 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
⎛ 31.25 × 2.40 ⎞
M4 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 30.1 kN-m
⎝ 2.50
M5 = 31.25 kN-m
From Eq. 12.11, the moment of resistance of the section, which is partially
plasticised
⎡ e2 ⎤
Step 4: M = MP ⎢1 – ⎥
⎣ 3h2 ⎦
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ e2 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ = ⎜1 – 2 ⎟
P ⎝ 3h ⎠
⎛ e2 ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞
or ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜1–
⎝ 3h ⎠ ⎝ M P ⎟⎠
⎛ M ⎞
e2 = ⎜1 – 2
⎟ (3h )
⎝ M P ⎠
It shows that the depth of elastic core varies parabolically. The depths of
elastic cores are as follows :
Step 5:
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 226 ⎞
e12 = ⎜1– (3h2) = ⎜1 – 2
⎟ (3h )
⎝ M P ⎟⎠ ⎝ 312.5 ⎠
∴ e1 = 0.918 h = 91.8 mm
Similarly e2 = 0.775 h = 77.50 mm
e3 = 0.600 h = 66.00 mm
e4 = 0.348 h = 34.80 mm
e5 = 0.000 h = 0.00 mm
The region of yield has been shown in Fig. 12.39 (a).
Example 12.4. A beam fixed at both ends is subjected to uniformly distributed
load W on the right half portion. Determine the value of collapse load Wc . The
beam is of uniform plastic moment, MP .
Solution
Step 1
The fixed beam is shown in Fig. 12.40 (a). There are three plastic hinges (i.e.,
at A, B and X) in the fixed beam at collapse. The plastic hinge at X, occurs at the
section, where the bending moment in a simply supported beam is maximum.
Let the distance of point X from right hand support be x .
When the beam AB is simply supported, then
⎛ 2 ⎞
Mx = ⎜ – 0.75 W ⋅ x + 2W ⋅ x ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L 2 ⎠
For maximum bending moment
⎛ dM x ⎞ ⎛ 2W 2 x ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎜ – 0.75W +
⎝
⋅ ⎟ =0
d.x ⎠ L 2 ⎠
⎛ 2W ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ ⋅ x⎟ = 0.75 W
L ⎠
(x = 0.375 L) ...(ii)
A B
C X
x
L L
2 2
L
(a )
MP
MP MP
(b ) B .M .D at colla pse
θ
MP θ1
MP
MP ( θ+ θ)
0 .5 L
0 .62 5 L 0 .37 5 L
(c)
Fig. 12.40
Step 2: Substituting the value of x in expression (i),

⎡ 2W (0.375L )2 ⎤
Mmax =
⎢ – 0.75W × 0.375L + × ⎥
⎣ L 2 ⎦
= – 0.1406 WC .L
The collapse load is found as follows :
(i) Static method
The plastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.40 (b). From the
equation of equilibrium
0.1406 W C . L = 2MP
⎛ 2 MP ⎞ M
∴ WC = ⎜ ⎟ = 14.22 P ⋅
⎝ 0.1406 L ⎠ L
(ii) Kinematic method
The mechanism diagram at collapse is shown in Fig. 12.40 (c). Let the rotation
of plastic hinge at A be θ, and at B be θ1
(1 – 0.375) Lθ = 0.375 Lθ1
⎛ 0.625 ⎞
∴ θ1 = ⎜ θ = 1.67 θ ...(i)
⎝ 0.375 ⎟⎠
The ordinate of plastic bending moment diagram at X
= 0.625 L θ
⎛ 0.500L ⎞
and at C = ⎜ × 0.625 Lθ⎟ = 0.500 L θ
⎝ 0.625L ⎠
= Intensity of load × area of collapse mechanism diagram under the load

WC ⎡⎛ 0.625Lθ + 0.500Lθ ⎞ 1 ⎤
=
L
× ⎢⎜
⎝ ⎟⎠ × 0.125L + × 0.375L × 0.625Lθ ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
2
⎛ 2W ⎞
= ⎜ C × 0.1875L2θ⎟ = 0.375 W C L θ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎠

= [Mrθ + MP (1.67 θ) + MP (θ + 1.67θ)] = 5.34 MP θ ... (iii)
∴ = 0.375 WC · Lθ = 5.34 MPθ
⎛M ⎞
∴ WC = 14.22 ⎜ P ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
Example 12.5. Determine the collapse load for the cantilever beam as shown
in Fig. 12.41 (a).
Solution
Step 1: Let a plastic hinge be formed at point C. The collapse mechanism
diagram for this is shown in Fig. 12.41 (b). From the principle of virtual work
done
⎛ L ⎞
⎜⎝ WC ⋅ θ⎟⎠ = MPθ
2
⎛ 2M P ⎞
(W C ) = ⎜ ...(i)
1 ⎝ L ⎟⎠
Let the plastic hinge be formed at a point A. The collapse mechanism diagram
for this, is shown in Fig. 12.41 (c). From the principle of virtual work,
W C . Lθ = 2MP(θ)
2
A 2 MP MP B
C
L L
2 2
L
(a ) W
θ
M P, θ
(b )
W
θ
2 M P, θ
(c)
Fig. 12.41
⎛ 2M P ⎞
Step 2: WC
= ⎜ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
2
The collapse load for the cantilever beam

⎛ 2M P ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟
L ⎠
Example 12.6. A beam fixed at both ends is subjected to an eccentric load W
as shown in Fig. 12.42 (a). Determine the value of the collapse load.
Solution
Step 1: Let the plastic hinges be formed at A, B and C. The plastic hinge at C
is formed in portion AC.
W
3L L
4 4
MP 2 MP
L L L
2 4 4
(a )
L L
2 2
θ θ
MP 2 MP
θ θ
(b )
MP
3L ( θ+ θ) L
4 4
θ θ
MP
θ 2 MP
3θ
(c) 2 M P, ( θ+ 3 θ)
Fig. 12.42
Step 2: The collapse mechanism diagram for this is shown in Fig, 12.24 (b).
The principle of virtual work
1⎛L ⎞
W C . ⎜ ⋅ θ⎟ = [MPθ + 2MPθ + MP (θ + θ)]
2⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 20 M P ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ L ⎠
Let the plastic hinges be formed at A, B and D. The collapse mechanism
diagram is shown in Fig. 12.42 (c). From the principle of virtual work
3.Lθ
WC . = [MP .θ + 2MP (θ + 3θ) +2MP(3)]
4
⎛ 20MP ⎞
∴ WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟
L ⎠
The collapse load for the beam

⎛ 20MP ⎞
WC = ⎜⎝ ⎟.
L ⎠
Example 12.7. A continuous beam of uniform section is loaded as shown in Fig.
12.43 (a). Determine the MP required by either the static method or kinematic method.
Solution
Step 1: The collapse load is found by kinematic method.
1. Span AB
When three plastic hinges are formed at A, B and D, then a beam mechanism
is formed as shown in Fig. 12.43 (c). From the principle of virtual work
[50 × 2 × 3θ + 50 × 2 × θ = MPθ + MP (3/θ) + MPθ + MP(θ + θ)]
(400θ = 8MPθ)
∴ MP1 = 50 kN-m ...(i)
5 0 kN 5 0 kN
2m 2m 1 0 kN /m
A C
D E B F
8m 6m
(a )
MP MP
MP MP
(b ) B .M .D . a t colla pse
2m 6m
θ
3θ MP
MP
M P, (3 θ+ θ) (c)
6m 2m
3θ
θ
MP MP
M P, θ θ
( +3 )
(d )
θ θ
θ
θ
MP MP
(e )
θ θ
(f)
M P, ( θ+ θ )
1
Fig. 12.43
When the plastic hinges are formed at A, B and E, then, also a beam
mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.43 (d).
[50 × 2 × 3θ + 50 × 2 × θ = MPθ + MP(3θ) + MP(3θ + θ)]
(400 θ = 8MPθ)
∴ (MP3 = 50 kN-m) ...(ii)
A combined mechanism may also form in the span AB on formation of four
plastic hinges as shown in Fig.12.43 (e). From the principle of virtual work
[50 × 2θ + 50 × 2θ = MPθ+ MPθ + MPθ+ MPθ]
(200 θ = 4 MPθ)
∴ MP3 = 50 kN-m ...(ii)
2. Span BC
The span BC acts as propped cantilever beam. When the plastic hinges at B
and F are formed, then, a beam mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.43 (f).
The plastic hinge at F is formed at a distance x = 0.414 × 6 = 2.484 m from the
support C.
∴ BF = (6–2.484) = 3.596 m
Then, 3.596θ = 2484θ1
⎛ 3.596 ⎞
θ1 = ⎜⎝ θ⎟ = 1.445θ
2.484 ⎠
The plastic moment for span BC
⎛ Wc ⋅ L ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 6 × 6 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ 50 kN-m
1 ⎝ 11.656 ⎠ ⎝ 11.656 ⎠
∴ MP = 50 kN-m
The maximum value of MP gives plastic moment. The bending moment
diagram at collapse shows that M at any section is not more than MP .
Example 12.8. A continuous beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.44 (a).
Determine the collapse load for the beam. MP is less than MP .
Solution
Step 1.
(i) Span AB
When three plastic hinges are formed in the span AB at A, B and D, as shown
in Fig. 12.44 (b) then a beam mechanism is formed. At B a plastic hinge is
formed in the weaker section, i.e., in span AB, in which case M´P< MP . From the
principle of virtual work,
⎡ L ⎤
⎢⎣2W ⋅ 2 θ = M P′ θ + M ´ P θ + M P′ (2θ )⎥⎦
4 M P′
WC1 = ...(i)
L
(ii) Span BC
When two plastic hinges are formed in the span BC at B and E, as shown in
Fig. 12.44 (c), then the beam mechanism is formed. From the principle of virtual
work
⎡ L ⎤
⎢⎣W ⋅ 2 × θ = M P′ θ + M P (θ + θ )⎥⎦
⎛ 4 M P + 2 M P′ ⎞
WC = ⎜ ⎟ ...(i)
2 ⎝ L ⎠
2W W
A D B E C
L L L L
2 2 2 2
MP MP
(a )
θ θ
M 'P M 'P
θ θ
M 'P
( θ + θ)
(b )
θ θ
M 'P
θ θ
(c) MP
MP
M 'P
(d ) B .M .D . a t colla pse
Fig. 12.44
It is to note that in the span BC also, at B, a plastic hinge would form in a

weaker section.The section of span AB is weaker than that of BC. Therefore,
the plastic hinge is formed in portion AB at B. The plastic moment at plastic
hinge at B is M´P.
The plastic analysis is done by the kinematic method. Therefore the collapse
load is that, which is least. The collapse load is
WC = ⎛⎜ 4M'P ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠ L
The plastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.44(c). The plastic
moment at A may be at the most equal to M´P . The moment M, at any section is
not more than MP of the section.
Example 12.9. A continuous beam ABC is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.45 (a).
Determine the collapse load in case (a) the beam is of uniform section, and (b)
the beam is of unequal section.
Solution
Step 1: Case (a) : The continuous beam ABCD is of uniform section. The
spans AB and CD act as propped cantilever beams. For a propped cantilever
beam carrying uniformly distributed load, the collapse load
⎛M ⎞
WC = 11.656 ⎜ P ⎟
⎝ L⎠
6 0 kN /m 8 0 kN /m 1 00 kN /m
4m 6m 4m
(a ) MP
MP
(b )
MP
3
(c)
MP MP MP
1 MP 2 3
1
X (d )
Fig. 12.45
1. Span AB
⎛ 11.656 ⋅ M P ⎞
Collapse load WC = ⎜ ⎟⎠
1 ⎝ L
⎛ WC × L ⎞ ⎛ 60 × 4 × 4 ⎞
∴ MP = ⎜ 1 = = 82.6 kN-m
⎝ 11.656 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 11.656 ⎟⎠
2. Span CD
⎛ 100 × 4 × 4 ⎞
MP = ⎜ = 137.2 kN-m
⎝ 11.656 ⎟⎠
3. For span BC
When three plastic hinges are formed in the span BC at B, C and one at the
centre, then a beam mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.45 (c). From
principle of the virtual work.
⎡ 1 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢WC 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⋅ Lθ⎟⎠ = M P θ + M P θ + M P (θ + θ )⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ 16 M P ⎞
WC = ⎜
⎝ L ⎟⎠
⎛ 80 × 6 × 6 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 180 kN-m
⎝ 16
The maximum value of plastic moment gives the value of fully plastic moment
for the beam of uniform section.
∴ MP = 180 kN-m
From the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 12.45 (b), it is seen that
M at any section is not greater than MP . The moment at B may be at the most
equal to MP .
Step 2: Case (b). The continuous beam ABCD consists of different sections.
The span AB and CD act as propped cantilever beam. The value of collapse load
for the uniformly distributed load is 11.656 MP/L .
1. Span AB
⎛ 60 × 4 × 4 ⎞
Plastic moment, MP = ⎜ ⎟ = 82.6 kN-m
1 ⎝ 11.656 ⎠
2. Span CD
⎛ 100 × 4 × 4 ⎞
Plastic moment, MP = ⎜ ⎟ = 137.2 kN-m
3 ⎝ 11.656 ⎠
3. For span BC
Let the maximum moment occur at a distance x from support B in the span
BC.
The bending moment at this section
⎡ 1 WC x 2 ⎛ M P3 – M P1 ⎞ ⎤
Mx = ⎢ – ⋅ WC ⋅ x + ⋅ +⎜ ⎟ x + M P1 ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 L2 2 ⎝ L2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
For maximum bending moment
⎛ dM x ⎞ ⎡ – 1 W + WC2 ⋅ x + ⎛ M P3 – M P1 ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢ 2 C2 L2 ⎜⎝ L2 ⎟⎠ ⎥ = 0
⎝ d.x ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
⎛ WC2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 M P3 – M P1 ⎞
∴ ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⋅ x = ⎜⎝ + 2 WC2 – L3 ⎟⎠
2
⎛ 1 M P3 – M P1 ⎞
∴ x = ⎜ + ⋅ L2 – ⎟
⎜ 2 WC ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 13.72 – 8.26 ⎞ ⎛ 5.46 ⎞

=⎜+ × 6 – ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 3– ⎟ = 2.886 m
⎝ 2 8×6 48 ⎠
⎡ 1 80 × 6 (2.886)2 ⎤
∴ MP = Mx = ⎢ – × 80 × 6 × 2.886 + – × ⎥
2
⎢ 2 6 2 ⎥
⎢ (137.2 – 82.6 ) ⎥
⎢ + × 2.886 + 82.6 ⎥
⎣ 6 ⎦
= – 253.1 kN-m
The plastic bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 12.45 (d). The value of
moment M, in each span is not greater than corresponding plastic moment of
the section. Therefore, the plastic moments are as follows :
Span AC, MP = 82.6 kN-m
1
Span BC, Mp = 253.1 kN-m
2
Span DD, MP = 137.2 kN-m.
3
Example 12.10. A propped cantilever beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.46.
Find the ultimate load for the beam, in case the fully plastic moment, MP of the
beam is uniform.
Solution
The ultimate load is determined by kinematic method. It is likely to form a
mechanism either as shown in Fig. 12.46 (b) or as shown in Fig. 12.46 (c).
1. Over hanging span BC
In case plastic-hinge is formed at B, from the principle of virtual work
⎛W L ⎞
⎜⎝ × θ⎟⎠ = MP . θ
8 3
⎛ M ⎞
or WC1 = ⎜ 24 P ⎟ ... (i)
⎝ L ⎠
2. Span AB
Step 1:
In case a mechanism is formed as shown in Fig. 12.46 (c), the load acting at
the free end of beam at C lifts up (in the direction opposite to that of the load),
since the link DBC is free to rotate at simple support B. Thus a negative work is
done by load acting at C. From the principle of work done
⎛ L W L ⎞
⎜⎝ W ⋅ θ – ⋅ ⋅ θ⎟⎠ = (MP· θ – MP . 2 θ)
2 8 3
72 ⎛ M P ⎞
∴ WC2 = ⎜ ⎟
11 ⎝ L ⎠
⎛M ⎞
or Wc3 = 6.545 ⎜ P ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ L ⎠
Step 2:
The ultimate load for the beam is that which is least, since the analysis is
carried out by the kinematic method. Therefore, the ultimate load for the beam
⎛M ⎞
Wc = 6.545 ⎜ P ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
W
W 8
D B
A C
L L L
2 2 3
MP MP
(a ) W
L 8
D B 3
A C
θ
M P. θ
(b )
W
8
M P. θ W
D B θ
A C
θ θ
L
3
( M P · 2 θ)
MP (c)
MP
B .M . D ia gra m
(d )
Fig. 12.46
The bending moment diagram corresponding to collapse mechanism is shown

in Fig. 12.46 (d ). The bending moment M at any section docs not exceed fully
plastic moment of the section, MP .
Example 12.11. Find the collapse load for the portal frame as shown in Fig.
12.47. The same section is used for the vertical as well as horizontal members.
Solution
The analysis is done by kinematic method
Number of possible plastic hinges, N = 5
Degree of redundancy of the frame, r = 3
Number of possible independent mechanisms
n = (N – r) = 5 – 3 = 2
Namely, (i) Beam mechanism (ii) Panel mechanism.
2P
L L
B 2 2 C
P
L
A D
Fig. 12.47
Step 1: Beam mechanism

The beam mechanism for the portal frame is shown in Fig. 12.48.
2P
L L
B 2 2 C
θ θ
MP MP
θ θ
MP
(2 θ)
Fig. 12.48
Work done by the external force
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ 2P θ ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 2 ⎠
Work absorbed by the plastic hinges
(MPθ + MP2θ+ MPθ) = 4MPθ ...(ii)
⎛ L ⎞
∴ ⎜ 2P θ ⎟ = 4MPθ
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ M ⎞
PC = ⎜4 P ⎟ ...(iii)
1 ⎝ L ⎠
2P
L L
2 2
P B C
E
MP MP
θ θ
θ θ
MP MP
A D
Fig. 12.49
Step 2: Panel mechanism

The panel mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.49
Work done by the external load
= P .Lθ
= (MPθ+ MPθ + MPθ ÷ MPθ) = 4MPθ
∴ P .Lθ = 4MPθ
⎛ 4M P ⎞
PC = ⎜ ...(iv)
2 ⎝ L ⎟⎠
Step 3: Combined mechanism

The combined mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.50
Work done by the external force
⎛ L ⎞
= ⎜ PLθ + 2P ⋅ θ ⎟ = 2PLθ ...(v)
⎝ 2 ⎠
= [MP θ+ MP .2θ + MP (θ + θ) + MP(θ)]
= 6MPLθ ...(vi)
∴ 2P.Lθ = 6MPLθ
⎛ 3M P ⎞
∴ PC = ⎜
3 ⎝ L ⎟⎠
As per kinematic method, the collapse load is that which is least.
⎛ 3M P ⎞
∴ PC = ⎜ ... (vii)
⎝ L ⎟⎠
L 2P L
B 2 2 C
P
θ θ
θ θ MP
MP
( θ + θ) θ
MP MP
θ θ
A D
Fig. 12.50
Step 4: Check for (M < Mp)
The bending moment diagram corresponding to the collapse mechanism
(combined mechanism) is shown in Fig. 12.51.
Total ordinate of free bending moment diagram (sagging) for beam BC
⎛ 2P ⋅ L ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
PL ⎛ 1 PL ⎞ 3
= = ⎜ ×3×
⎝2 ⎟ = (M )
L 3 ⎠ 2 P
MP
B 0 .5 M P C MP
MP
A D
MP MP
Fig. 12.51
Net bending moment at E = MP

Therefore, 0.5 MP of free bending moment diagram is overlapped by the
hogging moment. The moment MP at C decreases to 0.5 MP at E. From the same
slope, moment at B is zero. From the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig.
12.51, the moment at any section is not greater than MP .
Example 12.12. Determine the collapse load for the portal frame as shown in
Fig. 12.52. The plastic moment of beam section is 1.5 MP and that for column
section is MP .
W
B 2m 2m C
W
1 .5 M P
MP MP 4m
A D
Fig. 12.52
Solution
The collapse load is found by kinematic method.
Number of independent mechanism = 5 – 3 = 2.
The beam mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.53. It is to note that at the ends B
and C of the beam, the plastic hinges arc formed in the section, which is weak
(i.e., in the column section).
1 .5 W
B 2m 2m C
θ θ
θ θ
MP MP
θ θ
1 .5 M P ( θ + θ)
Fig. 12.53
The work done by external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic hinges.
∴ 1.5W × 2θ = [MPθ + 1.5 MP (θ+ θ) + MPθ]
3W C θ = 5MPθ
1
WC = 1.67 MP ...(i)
1
The panel mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.54. The plastic hinges are formed
at the section, which are weak.
1 .5 w
B 2m 2m C
W
E
MP MP
θ θ
4m
θ θ
MP MP
A D
Fig. 12.54
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges
∴ W × 4θ = (MPθ + MPθ + MPθ + MPθ )
∴ WC = 1.67 MP ...(ii)
2
The combined mechanism is shown in Fig.12.55.
1 .5 w
B 2m 2m
C
w
θ θ
E
MP
θ θ
( θ + θ)
1 .5 M P
θ
( θ + θ)
θ θ
A MP MP D
Fig. 12.55
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges
(∴ 1.5 × 2θ + W × 4θ) = [MPθ+ 1.5MP (2θ) + MP 2θ + MP ]
7W C . θ = 7MP θ
3
∴ WC = MP ...(iii)
3
The collapse load is that which is least.
∴ WC = W C = W
2 3 C
∴ Wc = MP
Step 4: Check for (M ≤ Mp)
The bending moment diagram corresponding to combined mechanism is shown
in Fig. 12.56.
The bending moment M, at any section is not more than the fully plastic moment
of this section.
It is to note that at joint B the value of moment M is MP in the bending
moment diagram. It shows that a plastic hinge also exists at B in the column
section. It shows that there are five plastic hinges corresponding to the collapse
mechanism. The number of plastic hinges are such that there is one more plastic
hinge than required. It shows that it is a case of over complete collapse. This
also reflects from (ii) and (iii) since W C = WC = W C.
2 3
MP
B MP C MP
MP
E
1 .5 M P
MP MP
A C
Fig. 12.56
Example 12.13. Determine the value of fully plastic moment of the frame,
when loaded upto collapse as shown in Fig. 12.57. The plastic moment of the
frame is uniform throughout.
5 0 kN
L oa d
2 0 kN B 2m 4m C
MP
2m MP MP
4m
A
Fig. 12.57
Solution
The plastic moment for the frame is found by the kinematic method.
Number of possible plastic hiriges, N = 5

Degree or redundancy of the frame, r = 3
Number of independent mechanisms = 5 – 3 = 2
Namely, 1. Beam mechanism
2. Panel mechanism.
The beam mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.58.
5 0 kN
2m 4m
C
B
θ θ
2 MP
MP
θ
θ
E 2
MP
θ
θ+
2
Fig. 12.58
∴ 2θ = 4θ1
⎛θ⎞
∴ θ1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The work done by the external force is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges
⎡ θ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
∴ 50 × 2θ = ⎢ M P θ + M P . 2 + M P ⎜ θ + 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
100 θ = 3MP θ
MP1 = 33.3 kN-m ...(i)
The panel mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.59. The lateral deflections at the
top of columns are equal
∴ 2θ = 4θ2
⎛θ⎞
θ2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The work done by external force is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic
hinges
⎡ ⎛θ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞⎤
∴ 20 × 2θ = ⎢MP θ + MP θ + MP ⎜ 2 ⎟ + MP ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
40 θ = 3MPθ
MP = 13.3 kN-m ...(ii)
2
5 0 kN
B 2m 4m C
2 0 kN
MP E MP
θ
θ
2m 2
θ
MP 4m
A
θ
2
MP
Fig. 12.59

The combined mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.60.
The work done by the external forces is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges.
2 0 kN
2m 4m C
2 0 kN B
θ θ/2
MP
θ θ θ θ
E +
2m 2 2 2
MP
θ θ
θ+
2
MP θ
θ 2 4m
A 2
D
Fig. 12.60
⎡ ⎛ θ⎞ ⎛θ θ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞⎤
∴ (20 × 2θ + 50 × 2θ ) = ⎢ M P θ + M P ⎜ θ + ⎟ + M P ⎜ + ⎟ + M P ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
140 θ = 4MP θ
MP = 35 kN-m ...(iii)
3
The plastic moment of the section for the frame is that which is maximum.
∴ MP = 35 kN-m
Step 4: Check (M ≤ Mp)
The bending moment diagram corresponding to collapse mechanism is shown
in Fig. 12.61.
3 5 kN -m
3 0 kN -m 3 1.7 kN -m
B C
3 5 kN -m
A
3 5 kN -m
D
3 5 kN -m
Fig. 12.61
The value of M is not more than MP at any section.

Example 12.14. Determine the value of plastic moment for the frame shown
in Fig. 12.62. The plastic moment is uniform throughout.
Solution
The plastic moment of the frame is found by the kinematic method.
2 0 kN /m
B C
1 00 kN
E
10 m
3m
A D
Fig. 12.62

Number of independent mechanisms = 2

Namely, 1. Beam mechanism
2. Panel mechanism.
The beam mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.63.
In the beam mechanism, the plastic hinge is formed in the centre. The work
done by the external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic hinges. Work
done by the external force
= Intensity of load × area of mechanism diagram under the load
1
= 20 × × 10 × 5 θ = 500 θ
2
2 0 kN /m
B C
θ θ
MP MP
θ θ
MP E ( θ + θ)
5m 5m
Fig. 12.63

= (MPθ + MPθ + MP.2θ) = 4MPθ
500 θ = 4MPθ
MP = 125 kN-m ... (i)
1
The panel mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.64
2 0 kN /m
B C
1 00 kN
MP MP
θ θ
3m
θ θ
A D
10 m
Fig. 12.64
The work done by the external force is equal to work absorbed by the plastic
hinges.
∴ 100 × 3θ = (MPθ + MPθ)
300 θ = 2MP θ
MP2 = 150 kN-m
The combined mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.65. It is to note that, now, the
plastic hinge in between joints B and C is formed at a distance x from B and not
at the centre.
Let the vertical deflection at E be Δ
∴ Δ = θx = θ1 (10 – x)
∴ θ1 = xθ/(10 – x)
B 2 0 kN /m C
1 00 kN
θ θ1
MP
( θ + θ1 )
θ θ ( θ + θ1 ) θ
MP θ1
X (1 0 – x )
3m
θ θ
D
A
10 m
Fig. 12.65
The work done by the external forces is equal to the work absorbed by the
plastic hinges.
1
∴ (100 × 3θ + 20 × × 10 × xθ)
2
⎛ xθ ⎞ ⎛ xθ ⎞
= MP ⎜ θ + + MP ⎜ θ +
⎝ 10 – x ⎟⎠ ⎝ 10 – x ⎟⎠
⎛ xθ ⎞
(300 θ + 100 θ x) = 2MP ⎜ θ + ⎟
⎝ 10 – x ⎠
(300 θ + 100 θx) = 2MPθ ⎛1 + x θ ⎞

⎜⎝ ⎟
10 – x ⎠
⎛ 300 θ + 100 θx ⎞ ⎛ 10 – x + x ⎞ θ
⎜ ⎟ = MP ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 10 – x ⎟⎠
⎡ 1 (10 – x ) ⎤
MP = ⎢⎣ 2 × 10 × 100 ⋅ (3 + x )⎥⎦
⎡ (3 + x )(10 – x ) ⎤
= ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ × 10 kN-m
2
For MP to be maximum
⎛ dM P ⎞ 10
∴ ⎜⎝ ⎟ = [(30 + x)(–1) + 1 × (10 – x)= 0
dx ⎠ 2
(– 3 – x + 10 – x) = 0
x = 3.5 m
⎛ 10 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ (3 + 3.5) (10 – 3.5) = 212 kN-m.
⎝ 2⎠
12.25 DESIGN OF BEAMS

The problems of design of beams are of two types. In the first type of problem,
the values of plastic moments of the members of a given structure are known.
The value of working load is to be found. The working load for a given structure
is found by dividing the collapse load by the load factor. The collapse load for
the given structure is found by the plastic analysis. In the second type of problem,
the value of working load is known. The members of suitable plastic moments
are to be selected. The procedure for the selection of the members is as follows :
The possible loading conditions on the structure are found. The values of
working load are found from the particular type of construction. The values of
collapse load are found by multiplying the working load by the load factor. The
maximum plastic moment, MP is found by analysing each loading conditions.
The values of reactions at the supports are found. The value of plastic modulus
of the section is calculated by dividing the maximum plastic moment obtained
by yield stress. The value of elastic modulus of the section is found by dividing
the plastic modulus of the section by the shape factor of the section. The structural
member is selected for the required elastic modulus of the section. After the
selection of the structural member, the design is checked according to design
guide, if any. The deflection of the member is found, if it is essential.
In case a uniform section is provided throughout, then, the design may not be
economical. In case of the continuous beams, the most economical design would
be that, in which, all the spans fail simultaneously. The independent (or
combined) mechanism is formed in each span simultaneously. The value of plastic
moment for each span is determined either by the static method or by the
kinematic method. The member is selected for the smallest plastic moment.
The beam is, then, reinforced with the cover plates. The cover plates provide
the plastic moment to make the difference. The lengths of cover plates may be
found either graphically or analytically. In the graphical method, the bending
loment diagran corresponding to the collapse mechanism is drawn. In the ending
moment diagram, the lines parallel to the datum line are drawn with he ordinate
equal to the plastic moment of the beam section, the lengths of these lines give
the theoretical lengths of the cover plates. The actual lengths of the cover plates
are found by providing additional lengths at both the ends. The additional lengths
are provided to accommodate the number of rivets necessary. The rivets should
be able to resist the horizontal force due to bending stress at the theoretical cut-
off.
Example 12.15. Design a continuous beam ABCD; analysed in Example 12.9.
Provide a uniform section throughout. The yield stress for mild steel is 250
N/mm2.
Solution
Design
Step 1: The continuous beam ABCD of Example 12.9 (a), is shown in
Fig. 12.45. The continuous beam with uniform section is designed for the
maximum value of plastic amount. From Example 12.9, the maximum, plastic
moment
MP = 180 kN-m
Yield stress, σy = 250 N/mm2
Step 2: Plastic section modulus
ZP = (M P/σ y )
⎛ 180 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞

= ⎜ 3
⎟⎠ = 720 × 10 mm
3
⎝ 250
The shape factor for I-section is assumed as 1.12.
Step 3: Elastic section modulus
⎛ 720 ⎞
Z = ⎜ × l03 mm3
⎝ 1.12 ⎟⎠
= 642.86 × l03 mm3
From ISI Handbook No. 1 select ISWB 300 @ 431 N/m.
Elastic section modulus provided
Zxx = 6548 × 103 mm3 > 636 × 102 mm3.
Hence, safe.
Provide ISWB 300 @, 481 N/m for the continuous beam.
Example 12.16. Design a continuous beam ABCD, analysed in Example 12.9.
Provide most economical section. The yield stress for mild steel is 250 N/mm2.
Solution
Design :
Step 1: The continuous beam ABCD, of Example 12.9 is shown in Fig. 12.45.
The continuous beam with most economical section is designed for the least
value of moment. From Example 12.9 (b), the plastic moments for the different
spans are as follows :
Span AB, MP = 82.6 kN-m

1
Span BC, MP = 253.1 kN-m
2
Span CD, MP = 137.2 kN-m
3
For the most economical design, a beam section is designed for MP1 = 82.6
kN-m, and plates are attached for MP2 in span BC, and for MP3 in span CD,
Yield stress, σy = 250 N/mm2
Step 2: Plastic section modulus
ZP = (M P/σ y )
⎛ 82.6 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞

= ⎜ 3
⎟ = 330.4 × 10 mm
3
⎝ 250 ⎠
The shape factor for I-section is assumed as 1.12.
Step 3: Elastic section modulus
⎛ 103 ⎞
ZP = ⎜⎜ 330.4 × ⎟⎟ = 295 × l03 mm3
⎝ 1.12 ⎠
From ISI Handbook No. 1, select ISLB 250 @, 279 kN/m
Zxx = 297.4 × 103 mm3 > Z required.
Plastic modulus of ISLB 250, @ 279 N/m
ZP = 1.12 × 297.4 × 103 = 333.08 ×103 mm3
Plastic moment of the section
⎛ 250 × 333.08 × 103 ⎞

MP = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 83.27 kN-m
⎝ 106 ⎠
Step 4: Cover plates for span BC
Additional MP required
= (253.1 – 83.27)= 169.83 kN-m
Plastic modulus of cover plates
⎛ 169.83 × 1000 × 100 ⎞

= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 250 ⎠
= 679.32 × 103 mm3
Area of cover plates required
⎛ ZP ⎞ ⎛ 679.32 × 103 ⎞
⎜ h ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2717.28 mm2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 250 ⎠
Provide two 100 mm × 14 mm plates. The plastic modulus of the plates
provided
= (2 × 100 × 14) × (250 + 14)
= 739 × 103 > 679.32 × 103 mm3
Step 5: Length of the cover plates

Let x be the distance of cut-off from the centre of span BC
⎛ x2 ⎞
⎜⎜ 80 × ⎟⎟ = 168.3 x = 2.06 m
⎝ 2 ⎠
Provide 2 m length of cover plates in the centre of span BC.

Step 6: Cover plates for span CD
Additional MP required
= (137.2 – 83.27) = 53.93 kN-m
Plastic modulus of the cover plates
⎛ 53.93 × 1000 × 1000 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ = 215.72 × 103 mm3
⎝ 250 ⎠
Area of cover plates required
⎛ 215.72 × 103 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 862.88 mm3
⎝ 250 ⎠
Provide 100 mm × 10 mm plates. The plastic modulus of the plates
provided
= 100 × 100 × (250 + 10)
= 260 × 103 mm3 > 215.72 × 103 mm3
Step 7: Length of cover plates
Let x1 be the distance of point of cut-off from the centre of span CD
⎛ x12 ⎞
⎜⎝ 100 × ⎟ = 53.93. x1 = 1.038 m
2 ⎠
Provide 2.20 m length for the cover plates in the centre of span CD.
Problems
12.1 Determine the shape factor for the following sections :
(a) An I-section consists of 8 mm thick web and 12 mm thick flanges. The
depth of web excluding flanges is 300 mm. The width of flanges is
120 mm.
(b) A channel section consists of 8 mm thick web and 12 mm thick flange.
The depth of web excluding flanges is 200 mm. The width of flange is
100 mm.
(c) A tee-section consist of 8 mm thick web and 10 mm thick flanges. The
depth of a web is 80 mm. The width of flange is 80 mm.
12.2 A propped cantilever beam is subjected to a concentrated load at the
centre. Determine the collapse load for the beam.
12.3 A beam fixed at both the ends is subjected to two concentrated loads,
each at one-third point of the span. Determine the collapse load for the
beam.
12.4 A two span continuous beam ABC has span lengths AB = 6 m, and BC
= 6 m, and carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 kN per metre
completely covering the span AB and BC, A and C are simply support.
If the load factor is 1.80 and the shape factor of the I-section is 115
design a suitable section. Assume yield stress for the material as less
250 N/mm2. Indicate any method by which economy of material may
be achieved.
12.5 The beam ABC shown in Fig. P. 12.5 is to be designed by the plastic
method. Determine MP if the load factor is 1.6. Draw the B.M. diagram
at collapse.
1 20 kN 1 80 kN
1 0 kN /m 8m 8m
A C
B
MP 2 MP
12 m 24 m
Fig. P. 12.5
12.6 A fixed beam ABCD is shown in Fig. P. 12.6. Prove that the collapse
load for the beam is
8 ⎛ M P′ + M P ⎞
WC = ⋅
9 ⎜⎝ L ⎟
⎠
W W
MP M 'P MP
3 3
L L L
2 2
B M 'P < M P C
Fig. P. 12.6
12.7 For the portal frame shown in Fig. P. 12.7, find the value of plastic
moment Mp and also indicate the collapse mechanism. The section of
the portal frame is uniform.
2W
L L
0 .75 W 2 2
Fig. P. 12.7
12.8 For a portal of uniform section shown in Fig. P. 12.8, determine the
collapse load in terms of MP (plastic moment of resistance of the section).
P
B C D
P
2
3m 3m
3m
A E
Fig. P. 12.8
12.9 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 12.9. Determine the plastic
moment for the frame. The frame is of uniform section.
1 00 kN
2 .5 m 2 .5 m
2 0 kN
6m
8m
Fig. P. 12 .9
12.10 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 12.10. Determine the plastic
moment for the frame.
2 0 kN /m
2 00 kN
2 MP
6m
MP MP
4m
Fig. P. 12.10
12.11 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.11. The members of the
frame are of uniform cross-section having a plastic moment of resistance
Mp , Determine the ultimate collapse load P in terms of MP and L .
12.12 A portal frame is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.12; the members of the
frame are of uniform section having a plastic moment of resistance
Mp. Determine the collapse load P in of MP´. Draw B.M.D. at collapse.
L 3L
4 4 2P
0 .5 P
L L
2 2
L.2
L L
Fig. P. 12.11 Fig. P. 12.12
12.13 A continuous beam ABC is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.13. The beam is
having a uniform section throughout its entire length. The plastic
moment of resistance of the beam is MP . Find the collapse load P in
terms of MP and L. Draw B.M.D. at collapse.
P P 2P
B C
A
L' L L L L
L L
Fig. P. 12 .13

12.1 For the plastic analysis, the criterion for the analysis of a structure is
based tipon :
(a) working load (b) yield load
(c) ultimate load (d) breaking load.
12.2 For the structures stressed primarily in bending, the plastic design
method is an advantageous replacement over conventional elastic
design method in case of:.
(a) statically loaded determinate structures
(b) statically load indeterminate structures
(c) dynamically loaded determinate structure
(d) dynamically loaded indeterminate structure.
12.3 The assumption of bi-linearly idealised stress-strain relationship for

plastic analysis and design is used for :
(a) aluminium structures
(b) prestressed concrete structures
(c) reinforced concrete structures
(d) steel structures
12.4 The maximum strain at the end of plastic range for structural steel is
about:
(a) 0.11 percent (b) 1.50 percent
(c) 15.00 per cent (d) 25.00 percent
12.5 The value of yield stress for structural steel is about:
(a) 160 N/mm2 (b) 260 N/mm2
(c) 420 N/mm2 (d) 540 N/mm2
12.6 The value of load-factor which accounts for margin of safety in plastic
design for gravity loads is about:
(a) 1.15 (b) 1.65
(c) 1.85 (d) 1.25
12.7 The plastic moment for a completely plastified section is given by
MP = σ. (Plastic modulus of section)
where, σ is
(a) working stress for the material
(b) yield stress for the material
(c) ultimate stress for ‘.he material
(d) breaking stress for the material
12.8 The plastic modulus of a square section of side d is given by
d3 d3
(a) (b)
3 4
d3 d3
(c) (d)
6 9
12.9 The shape-factor of an isosceles triangle for bending about the axis
parallel to the base is
(a) 1.34 (b) 1.64
(c) 2.34 (d) 1.64
12.10 The bending moment at a plastic hinge is
(a) equal to zero
(b) equal to yield moment of the section
(c) equal to plastic moment of the section
(d) greater than plastic moment of the section
12.11 When a section of a beam is plasticised due to given system of loading,
then
(a) the whole length of beam is plasticised

(b) the length of beam over which the moment is less than the yield
moment is plasticised
(c) the length of beam over which the moment is greater than or equal
to the yield moment is plasticised
(d) only one section of beam is plasticised
12.12 The number of plastic hinges necessary to convert a framed structure
into a mechanism is
(a) (r – 1) (b) (r + 1)
(c) (2r – l) (d) (2r + l)
where, r is the degree of redundancy of structure.
12.13 Following type of a mechanism is not possible in any frame structure
as an independent mechanism:
(a) beam mechanism (b) gable mechanism
(c) joint mechanism (d) panel (sway) mechanism
12.14 The number of possible independent mechanism, n is determined from
the following relationship :
(a) n = (N – r) (b) n = (N + r)
(c) n = (2N – r) (d) n = (2N + r)
where, N is number of possible plastic hinges and r is the degree of
indeterminacy of the structure.
12.15 In case the number of plastic hinges at failure is less than (r + 1),
where r is the degree of redundancy of the structure, then, the type of
collapse of structure is:
(a) complete collapse
(b) over-complete collapse
(c) partial collapse
(d) elastic collapse.

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
CHAPTER
13
Design of Steel Towers, Trestles
and Masts
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The tall structures with relatively small cross-section and with a large ratio between
the height and the maximum width are known as towers or masts. A tower is
also known as a pylon. A tower is a single cantilever freely standing self-supporting
structure fixed at its base. A mast is a structure pin-connected to its foundation
and braced with guys or other elements. The water towers, radio and television
towers, the towers of power transmission lines and radio relay systems, etc., are
examples of structures belonging to the tower family. The towers of power
transmission lines are used to support transmission cables transmitting voltage
exceeding 132 kV over longer distances. The tall transmission towers provide
necessary clearance, where the transmission cables have maximum sag. The towers
may be built-up with three or more legs. In general, the towers are constructed
with four legs, spaced suitably. The four legs of towers maintain stability of the
towers. The transmission line towers are self-supporting type, flexible type,
semi-flexible type, self-supporting wide base and guyed type. The self-supporting
type of towers are rigid in both the transverse and the longitudinal directions. The
flexible type of towers are not rigid in longitudinal direction, i.e., in the direction
along the transmission cables. In the straight portion of the power line, the line
towers are used. When the direction of power line is changed, then, the angle
towers are provided. The transmission line towers are shown in Fig. 13.1.
IS : 802 (Part I)–1967 Code of practice for use of structural steel in overhead
transmission line towers has recommended four types of towers, viz. (i) tangent
towers with not more than (2° line deviation), (ii) small angle towers with not
more than (10° line deviation with suspension insulators), (iii) medium angle
towers (upto 30° line deviation), and (iv) large angle (60° deviation) and dead
end towers.
DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS 697
The height of towers ranges from 20 to 40 metres. The towers of such heights
provide 6 to 10 m height from the ground surface to the point of the maximum sag
of the cables. The types of towers depend on the loading conditions and type terrain.
E levatio n
P lan
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 13.1
These towers also known as single circuit tower, double circuit tower, or
multiple circuit tower depending upon the number of circuits supported by the
towers.
Figure 13.2 shows towers consisting of battered trusses formed in plan a triangle,
square or regular polygon. The towers are used for viaduct construction and as
supports for elevated tanks. The ratio of width of the side face b, at the base (or the
diameter d, of a circular base) to the height of the tower H, varies within wide
limits according to the function of the tower. The dimensions b and d in case of
self-supporting towers should, not be less than one-eighth or one-tenth of their
height, H.
Figure 13.2 (a) shows tower with single diagonal bracing. The bracing have
long free length. The alterations of stresses take place in them. Figure 13.2 (b)
shows towers with cross diagonal or double diagonal bracing. The towers in this
case are assumed to act as single diagonal bracing.
a b a b
(a ) (b )
a b
(c) (d )
Fig. 13.2
The radio and television transmission towers and masts are shown in Fig. 13.3.
Figures 13.3 (a) and (b) show self-supporting radio and television towers. Figure
13.3 (c) shows mast. The masts are guyed with wire ropes at one or more levels.
The rigid diaphragms are provided at the top and at several intermediate sections
in self-supporting towers to increase the stiffness of the cross-sections of the towers.
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 13.3
13.2 LOADS ON TOWERS

The vertical loads acting on towers are the dead load and live load. The vertical
loads on the power transmission line towers include the self-weight of the towers,
the self-weight of insulators and fitting, the self-weight of ice-coatings, if any, and
weight of lineman with tools. The vertical loads on towers supporting water tanks
include the self-weight of towers, self-weight of tank and water, weight of ladder,
and weight of the platform. The self-weight of tower is found on the basis of
provisional estimate of the cross-section of the members. The self-weight of towers
may be found by comparison with similar existing structures, the self-weight of
towers may also be determined from existing available Ryle’s empirical formulae,
which are as follows :
W = kH(M)0.5 ...(i)
where, W = Weight of tower in tonnes
H = Overall height of tower above ground in metres
M = Overturning moment at the ground level in kg-m due to wind
k = Constant. Its value lies between 0.35 to 0.46
W = CKh (F10.67 + 0.875 F00.5 + F10.67) kg ...(ii)
where, C = Constant. Its value lies between 0.2 to 0.3
h = Height of centre of gravity of conductor of loads above ground in
metres
F1 = Total transverse loads in conductors in kg
F1 = Total vertical loads due to conductors in kg
P1 = Longitudinal loads in conductor in kg
For suspension towers
0.5
⎛ L2 ⎞
K = ⎜⎜1.44 ⎟⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 37 ⎠
For dead end towers
0.5
⎛ L2 ⎞
K = ⎜⎜ 2.89 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 13.5 ⎟⎠
L = Maximum torque arm for longitudinal load
in metres
The weight of conductors and ground wires on a tower depends on the appropriate
weight span. The horizontal distance between the lower points of the conductors in
the two adjacent spans is known as weight span. The weight of lineman with tool
to be included in the design is taken as 150 kg.
The transmission line towers are exposed to open atmospheric conditions. These
towers are subjected to severe temperature variations. The minimum and maximum
values of temperatures noted from appendices C and D of IS : 800–1962. These
values are increased by 17°C to permit the radiation due to sun and effects of heat
to current in the conductors.
When the symmetry exists in the arrangement of legs of the towers (columns),
then the vertical loads are assumed to be distributed equally between the columns.
It is assumed that the struts and diagonals are not stressed by such vertical loads.
The towers are also subjected to wind load. The wind load is assumed to acts as
horizontal loads. The wind loads are adopted from IS : 875–1964. The wind pressure
on conductors and the ground wires may be adopted 25 percent less than the
specified values to allow for swing effect of the wires, and to allow for possibility of
wind gust and the front not covering the full span. The cross-sectional area for the
circular conductors and ground wires may be adopted as 0.67 times the sectional
projected area exposed to wind. The exposed area of tower to the wind consists of
projected area of the tower on the windward side plus fifty percent of that on the
leeward side. For the purpose of determining transverse loads due to wind span is
considered. It is taken as half the sum of two adjacent spans to the tower being
considered. For the conditions of broken wire, it is taken as fifty percent of the
normal span plus ten percent of the broken span. In case of transmission towers,
the towers are also subjected to unbalanced wire pull, and wind load on the
wires. The unbalanced wire pull is caused by broken wires and when the wires
change their direction. Such loads are longitudinal loads. The unbalanced pull
due to broken conductors on one side exerts a torque on the tower. The tower
members are subjected to torsional stresses.
The unbalanced wire pull due to broken conductor is adopted as 60 percent of
the maximum working tension in the cable in case of supports with suspension
cables.’When the ground wire is broken then the unbalanced wire pull is taken as
100 percent or such percent of ground wire tension for which the ground wire
clamp is designed. The unbalanced wire pull depends on the number of cables
broken and type of tower.
For single circuit towers of all the four categories, any one power conductor
of one ground wire is considered as broken, whichever is more serious for a particular
member.
For double circuit towers of first two categories, any one power conductor or
one ground wire is considered is broken. For medium angle tower any two of the
power conductors are considered as broken on the same circuit and on the same
span or any one of the power conductor and one ground wire are considered as
broken on the same span. For large angle tower and dead tower, three power
conductors are considered as broken or any two of the power conductors and any
one of ground wires are considered as broken.
Figure 13.4 shows the rectangular base of a tower. In case the pull in the
transmission cable is parallel to AB and CD trusses, then PV and PH are the
vertical and the horizontal components of the pull in the cables. The vertical
component of pull in the cable PV, is distributed equally in the four legs of the
tower, because of symmetry. The horizontal component PH is distributed equally
in the two trusses AB and CD.
A D A D
PV
B C B C
PH
Fig. 13.4 Fig. 13.5

Figure13.5 shows the rectangular base of a tower. The pull in the cable P, is
included with the plane of AB and CD trusses. The pull in the cable is resolved into
three components PV,PH and PY. The horizontal component PH, is parallel to AB
and CD trusses. The component PY is parallel to AD and BC trusses. The horizontal
component PH is distributed equally in AB and CD trusses. The component PV is
distributed equally in AD and BC trusses. The vertical component PV is distributed
equally in the four legs of the tower.
Figure 13.6 shows the rectangular base of a tower. In case some transmission
cables are snapped, then the pull in the wire are eccentrically, at a distance a,
from the centre. The pull in the wire P1 is resolved into its three components,
PT
2
D
A
PT
1
PV PY
b
PT
1
B C
PT
2
e
PH
a
Fig. 13.6
PV,PH, and PY. The component PY is distributed equally in AD and BC trusses.The

vertical component PV causes bending moment M = PV . e, because of the
eccentricity. It is assumed that the moment M is resisted by AD and BC trusses.
The vertical component PV, also produces equal axial loads in the four legs of the
tower. The horizontal component PH cause a twisting couple, Mt = PH · e. The
horizontal force PH, is distributed equally in AB and CD. The twisting couple Mt,
is resisted equally force in the trusses AC and CD and PT be force in the trusses
2
AD and BC due to the twisting couple, Mt.
⎛M ⎞
PT = ⎜ t ⎟ , PT = ⎛⎜ M i ⎞⎟
1 ⎝ 2⋅ a⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⋅ b⎠
13.3 SHAPE, SAG (DIP) AND TENSION IN UNIFORMLY

LOADED CONDUCTORS
In order to determine the total height of towers above the ground level, in addition
to the clearance requirement (viz., minimum vertical height of conductor above
the ground level), the maximum sag of the conductors at the highest temperature
is needed. The maximum sag of the conductor may be found by knowing the
tension in the conductor at the corresponding temperature.
Consider a conductor supported by the towers of equal height as shown in
Fig. 13.7.
Y
RA RB
A B HB = PH X
d1
d2
C1
X
C2
S p an = L
Fig. 13.7 Uniformly loaded conductor
The shape of the conductor (with the conductor chord AB, horizontal) with origin
at the support A is given by
4 ⋅ dx
y = (L – x) ...(13.1)
L2
In general, the sag of conductor (dip) carrying uniform distributed load of
intensity w kN per linear metre of horizontally projected conductor is given by
⎛ w ⋅ L2 ⎞
d = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(13.2)
⎝ 8PH ⎠
where, PH = Horizontal component of tension in the conductor
L
d = Sag of the conductor at .
2
It is worthwhile to note that the horizontal component, PH, of the tension in the
conductor, T shall be same at any point of the conductor, since all the loads acting
on the conductor are vertical. The horizontal reactions at the supports A and B
will be each equal to PH .
When the conductor is spread and stretched over the supports A and B, the
length of conductor along its arc is given by
⎛ 8 d2 ⎞
s = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟⎟ ...(13.3)
⎝ 3 L ⎠
The stretch in the chord length AB with the tension in the conductor, T is found from
⎛ TL ⎞
ΔL = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ EA ⎠
where, E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the conductor material, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The tension in the conductor becomes maximum when the atmospheric
temperature, t 1 is the least. The maximum tension in the cable, nmax should not
exceed the allowable tension in the conductor d1. At the centre of the conductor at
L
x= , the horizontal component of the tension in the conductor is also equal to T.
2
As such, the dip of the conductor in its position AC, B is given by
⎛ w L2 ⎞
d1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 8T1 ⎠
The vertical load per linear metre of horizontally projected conductor, w1 is
found as the vector sum of the self-weight of the conductor and the maximum
intensity of wind. The arc length of conductor AC1B is calculated from Eq.13.3,
⎛ 8 d12 ⎞
S1 ⎜
= ⎜ L + ⎟ ...(ii)
⎝ 3 L ⎟⎠
Substituting the value of d1 from the expression (i) the arc length of conductor
AC1B is found as below :
⎛ 8 w12 ⋅ L4 ⎞
S1 = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟⎟
⎝ 3L 64 T12 ⎠
⎛ w12 ⋅ L3 ⎞
or S1 = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 24T12 ⎟⎠
The stretch of the conductor
⎛T L ⎞
ΔL1 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ EA ⎠
The tension in the conductor becomes minimum when the atmospheric
L
temperature, t 2 is the maximum. At the centre of the conductor at x = , the
2
horizontal component of the tension in the conductor is equal to T2. The dip of the
conductor in its position AC2B is given by
⎛ w2 L2 ⎞
d2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ...(v)
⎝ 8T2 ⎠
At the maximum temperature t 2, it may be assumed that there is no wind

pressure acting on the conductor. Hence, the vertical load per linear metre of
horizontally projected conductor, w2 is due to the self-weight of the conductor only.
The arc length of the conductor AC2B is computed as under
⎛ 8 d22 ⎞
S2 = ⎜⎜ L + ⋅ ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 3 L ⎟⎠
Substituting the value of d2 from the expression (v), the arc length of the
conductor AC2B is obtained as follows :
⎛ 8 w22 L4 ⎞
S2 = ⎜⎜ L + ⎟⎟
⎝ 3L 64T22 ⎠
⎛ w22 ⋅ L3 ⎞
or S2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ ...(vii)
⎝ 24T2 ⎠
The change in arc length AC1B at temperature t 1 is given by
⎡ w12 L3 ⎤
Δs 1 = ⎢L + 2
– ( L + ΔL1 ) ⎥
⎢⎣ 24T1 ⎥⎦
⎛ w12 L3 T1 L ⎞
or Δs 1 = ⎜⎜ – ⎟ ...(viii)
⎝ 24T1
2 EA ⎟⎠
The change in arc length AC2B at temperature t 2 is given by
⎡ w22 L3 ⎤
Δs 2 = ⎢ L + 2
– ( L + ΔL2 ) ⎥
⎣⎢ 24T2 ⎦⎥
⎛ w22 ⋅ L3 T2 L ⎞
Δs 2 = ⎜⎜ – ⎟ ...(ix)
⎝ 24T2
2 EA ⎟⎠
The change in arc length when the temperature varies form t 1to t 2 shall be
α (t 2 – t 1) . L (Δs2 – Δs1) ...(x)
Substituting for Δs1and Δs2 from the expression (viii) and (ix) respectively
⎛ w22 L3 T2 L w13 L3 T1 L ⎞
α (t 2 – t 1) L = ⎜⎜ − − + ⎟
⎝ 24T2
2 EA 24T12 EA ⎟⎠
⎡ (T2 – T1 ) w2 L2 ⎤ ⎛ w2 L2 ⎞
or ⎢ + α (t2 – t1 ) + 1 2 ⎥ = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ...(xi)
⎢⎣ EA 24T1 ⎥⎦ ⎜ 24T ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ w12 L2 ⎤ ⎛ w22 L2 ⎞
or (T2 – T1 ) + α (t2 – t1 ) EA +
T22 ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ EA
⎢ 24T12 EA ⎥⎦ = ...(13.4)
⎣ ⎝ 24 ⎠
The tension in the conductor T2 at the maximum atmospheric temperature, t 2

may be determined from Eq.13.4. The maximum sag (dip) of the conductor at the
corresponding temperature, d2 is found by substituting T2 Eq.13.2.
13.4 ANALYSIS OF TOWERS

Most frequently, the high radio towers have a triangular or rectangular cross-
section in a horizontal plane, as a rule, a pyramidal configuration in height.
1 1
The width of the base is taken equal to – th of the height. The inclination
8 15
1 1
of pitch of the sides is kept to . The tubular sections have good streamlining
6 40
and a considerably lower aerodynamical coefficient, in comparison with others.
Therefore, the elements of tower chords are generally made of tubes with flanges
welded to their ends which form a bolted joint convenient for erection. The lattice
or trellis of a tower consists of cross-diagonals made from round steel bars with a
tensioning device and rigid braces made from round steel bars with a tensioning
device and rigid braces also having a tubular section.
The weight of radio towers 100 to 200 metres high is respectively about 2–3 kN/m
for triangular and 4–5 kN/m for rectangular towers designed of tubes.
The water towers are designed in the form of posts located in plan at the corners
either of a square or polygon inscribed in a circle. The sections of the posts consist
of I-shape or channels, but may also be built-up ones.
X
H=b 2
X
X
b q b q Y Y
q X
H=b 3 X
q h=
2
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 13.8
The towers are analysed as a trussed squared beam fixed at its base. The vertical
loads are uniformly distributed between the posts (chords). The total force induced
by the vertical and horizontal loads in a tower post is equal to
F = (Fy ± Fh)
P
where Fy is equal to cos α ; the case in post induced by vertical loads uniformly
N
distributed between N posts of the tower, forming with the vertical axis an angle
α (if inclined) and Fh is force in post induced by horizontal forces and originated by
tilting moment.
In a quadrangular tower, the maximum force in a chord is obtained when the
horizontal (wind) is directed towards a rib of the tower and only chords are subjected
to bending Fig. 13.8 (a),
⎛M ⎞
Fq = ⎜ 2⎟ ...(13.5)
⎝ b ⎠
In a triangular tower, the maximum force in a chord induced by the horizontal
load q is given by Fig.13.8 (b)
⎛ 2M ⎞
Fq = ⎜ 3⎟ ...(13.6)
⎝ b ⎠
In a multipost tower, the force Fh in a post with a section of A is found in
accordance with the tilting moment with respect to axis xx (Fig.14.8 (c)) from the
expression
⎛M ⎞ ⎛ MR ⋅ A ⎞ ⎛ 2 M ⎞
Fq = σ . A ⎜ ⋅ A⎟ = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ ...(13.7)
Z
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ I x ⎠ ⎝ N .r ⎠
where, the equatorial moment of inertial Ix in symmetrical sections is equal to
half the polar moment of inertia, J,
J ⎛ Nr A ⎞
2
Ix = = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ...(13.8)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
The plane of the maximum radius of gyration of the post sections, as a rule, is
arranged along the radii of the tower. When investigating the posts for stability in
compression, their effective length in the plane of a tower side is taken equal to the
distance between the horizontal rings and the joints of the lattice. In towers with
four and six points, the effective length of a post in buckling in a radial direction is
taken equal to the distance between joints of the lattice, whereas with eight or
more posts, this length is taken equal to the total length (height of tower), if in a
horizontal plane, there are no rigidly secured membranes possessing adequate
stiffness in a vertical plane.
The lattice of a tower is subjected to shear force and is analysed on the assumption
that this force is resisted by two plane vertical trusses.
13.5 MASTS
A mast with guys consists of a shift or a pole of a triangular, square or round
cross-section. The chords of a triangular or quadrangular shaft are made of tubes
connected by means of flanges in the same way as tower members. It is possible to
use angle sections, although this will be less rational. A round shaft section is
formed of a rolled and welded plate.
The guys are made of steel ropes with a steel core. They are embedded in concrete
anchor slabs in the ground. The guys are arranged along the height of mast either
parallel to each other and at an angle of 45 degree to the mast, each guy having its
own foundation or a group of guys are directed to several tiers of the mast from one
foundation and are braced with yards. In the latter case, the maximum angle of
inclination of a top tier guy to the horizontal is 60 degree. In a plan view, the guys
are arranged in a radial direction in relation to the axis of the mass shaft, three
being used with a triangular or round section of the shaft and four with a
quadrangular section. The ends of guy ropes are embedded in steel sleeves with
the aid of zinc or other alloys.
The radio masts are lighter and cheaper than radio towers, but require a greater
area for arrangement of the guys.
The radio masts are investigated mainly for the wind load and the vertical
component of the guy tensioning forces with various combinations of temperatures
and magnitudes of the wind velocity head. In case there is wire antennae between
masts, the possibility of their complete or partial rupture should be taken into
consideration. Allowance must also be made for the formation of an ice crust on all
the elements of the members.
The maximum bending deflection of the mast shaft at the places of guy
⎛ 1 ⎞
connections should not exceed ⎜ ⎟ th or the height of these connections form
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
the foundation. The top of mast should not deflect more than ⎜ ⎟ th of the
⎝ 100 ⎠
length of the cantilever.
A mast is investigated in two stages. In the first stage, the shaft is considered
as a bar in compression and bending on stiff supports (guys). The longitudinal
force is determined as the sum of the weight of the members and the equipment
located on the mast, and of the vertical components of the guy reactive forces.
These forces are used to select the sections of the mast shaft and guys after which
the second more precise stage of investigation is carried out. In this stage, the guy
is analysed as a tension flexible cable with an initial tension (or a predetermined
sag) and the possible horizontal displacement of the guy connections are determined.
Next the mast shaft is investigated as a bar in compression and bending of flexible
yield bearings.
The shaft of a mast rests on a central bearing. In insulated masts, the bearing
is made barret-shaped porcelain insulators carrying a cast steel equalising bearing.
13.6 TRESTLES
The trestles are the frames made of horizontal pieces of wood with spreading lets
at each end. The trestles made of steel are known as steel trestles. Figure13.9
shows a usual form of a vertical bent.
The horizontal bracings consist of horizontal members AB, CD, EF and GH.
These horizontal members are capable of resisting either compression or torsion.
The diagonal bracing consists of members. These members are designed for the
tension only. The posts AG and BH are inclined. These posts may be vertical.
P P
2 2
A B
C D
E F
G H
Fig. 13.9
These posts may also be vertical on one side and inclined on the other side. In case
the posts are inclined on both the faces, it is assumed that these are equally
inclined. The stress or forces in the various members due to vertical loads and the
horizontal loads have been found in Secs. 13.7 and 13.8, respectively.
13.7 STRESSES IN TRESTLES DUE TO VERTICAL LOADS

In case the vertical loads acting on the trestles are symmetrical as shown in
Fig.13.9, then the loads acting at A and B are equal. Because of symmetry, the
diagonal bracings do not receive any stress from such loadings. The stresses in AC
and BD are equal to 12 P sec θ. The stress in horizontal member AB is equal to
1
2
P tan θ. In order to find the stresses in the members below the point D, the
additional dead load should be taken into consideration.
In case of double track structure, or a tructure on a curved track, the loads are
applied unsymmetrically. The loads at A and B are not equal. If the load is near to
the point B, then AD, CF, and EH diagonals are subjected to tension. The diagonals
subjected to tension are assumed to be active and other diagonals remain dummy
as shown in Fig. 13.10 by dotted lines.
y1
y2
y3
d
W1
e
P
F
W2
W3
A B
S1
h1
X1 X1
W4
C D
S2
X2
h2
X3 X3
E F
X5
S3
h3
G S4 H
Fig. 13. 10
Let e be the eccentricity of the centre line. The point O represents the point of
the centre lines of the posts when produced. The height of point O above the horizontal
plane AB is d. The forces in the various members may be found by taking moments
as follows.
The force in AC is found by considering a section X1X1 . The section X1X1 intersects
AC, AD and BD. The lines of foces in AD and BD intersects at D. Therefore force in
AC is found by taking moment about D. The force in AC
⎡ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ P ⎜ 2 S2 – e ⎟ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎥
∴ FAC = ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⋅ AC ⎥
⎜ ⎟
⎢ S 2 ⎝ h1 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The force in BD is found by taking moment about A.
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⋅ S1 + e ⎞ ⎛ X BD ⎞⎤
∴ FBD = ⎢ P ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ h ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ S1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦⎥
The force in AD is found by taking moment about O.
⎡ ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ x AD ⎞⎤
∴ FAD = ⎢P ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ d + h1 ⎠ ⎝ S1 ⎠⎦
Consider section X2X2 . The section X2X2 intersects AC, CD and DF. The force
in CD may be found by taking moment about O.
⎛ e ⎞
∴ FCD = P ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d + h1 ⎠
Consider section X3X3. The section X3X3 intersects CE, CF and CF. The force in
CF is found by taking moment at F.
⎛ ⎛ 1 S – e ⎞ ⎛ xCE ⎞⎞
∴ FCE = ⎜ P ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜ . h ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎝ S3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
The force in member DF is found by taking moment about point C.
⎛ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ S2 + e ⎟
∴ FCD ⎜
= ⎜P 2 (x ) ⎟
⎟⎟ DF ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜⎜ S
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
The force CF is found by taking moment about point O.
⎛ ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ xCF ⎞⎞
∴ FCF = ⎜ P ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ d1 + h1 + h2 ⎠ ⎝ S2 ⎠⎠
where, x is the perpendicular distance from the point at which the moment is
taken to the member under consideration.
13.8 STRESSES IN TRESTLES DUE TO HORIZONTAL

LOADS
The horizontal loads include the wind loads acting on the train on the girder
resting on the trestle, the wind load on the trestle and centrifugal load. The wind
loads acting on the trestles are considered as concentrated loads acting at the
joints. The centrifugal load, E acts at the centre of gravity of the train. Let W 1 be
the wind load acting on the train as shown in Fig. 13.10, W 2 the wind load acting
on the girder and W 3, W4, W 5 etc., wind load acting at the various joints as shown
in Figure13.10, on the trestle. The y1 , y2 , y3 are found frost. The forces in the
various members are found as before by taking moments. For example, consider
section X1X1 and take moment about D. The force AC.
⎡W1 (d + h1 – y1 ) + F (d + h1 – y2 )W2 ((d + h1 – y3 ) + W3h1 ) ⎤ ⎛ x AC ⎞

FAC = ⎢ ⎥ .⎜ ⎟
⎣ S3 ⎦ ⎝ h1 ⎠
13.9 DESIGN OF MEMBERS IN TOWERS

The main legs of transmission towers are curved or bent in a shape similar to that
of the famous Eiffel tower in Paris. As such, the towers are then termed as effelised
towers. Then these towers are to be analysed as space structures (i.e., structures
in three dimensions). When the legs of these transmission towers have constant
batter, then these towers are analysed as plane frames. Even if the slope of the
legs is not constant, the analysis may be quickly done, in case these are considered
as set of plane frames. The graphical method is used to determine the forces in the
various members of the towers. The plane frames are analysed as statically
determinate structures after deleting the horizontal members. The diagonal
members are designed for compression as well as for tension.
The members in a transmission line tower are subjected to tension or
compression. The members in the transmission towers are usually slender and
the magnitudes of secondary stresses are also small. Therefore, the secondary
stresses are not taken into consideration for the design.The ultimate strengths of
the members are determined for the design of members in the towers. The ultimate
strengths are divided by the load factor to find the working loads. For the normal
conditions of towers and the broken wire conditions, IS : 802–1967 has recommended
the load factors equal to 2.0 and 1.5 respectively.
The method of determining the sterngth of tensile members is as usual. The
compressive strength of the member is determined by the following expressions as
per IS : 802–1967.
⎛1⎞
For the slenderness ratio ⎜ ⎟ greater than zero and less than 20
⎝r⎠
σUC = σy ...(i)
⎛1⎞
For the slenderness ratio ⎜ ⎟ greater than 20 and less than 150
⎝r⎠
⎡ (σ y – k ) ⎛ l ⎞⎤
σUC = ⎢σ y ⎜ – 20 ⎟ ⎥ ...(ii)
⎣⎢ 130 ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥
For slenderness ratio greater than 150 and less than 200
⎡ π2 E ⎤
σUC = ⎢ ⎥ ...(iii)
⎢⎣ (l / r 2 ) ⎥⎦
where, σUC = Ultimate compresive strength
σy = Yield strength in steel (250 N/mm2)
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (2.047 × 105 N/mm2)
⎡ π2 E ⎤
k= ⎢ 2⎥
⎣ (150 ) ⎦
The maximum slenderness ratio of compression members should not exceed
the values given in Table13.1. These values have been recommeded in IS : 802–
1967.
Table 13.1 Maximum slenderness ratio of compression members
⎛ l ⎞
S.No. Type of members ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rmin ⎠
1. For main members of cross-arms and for leg members 140
2. For other members having calculated stresses 200
3. For members having nominal stresses 250
4. For members other than those covered in (1)
carrying tensile streses 400
As per IS : 802–1967 (Part I), the tension in the conductor; at 32°C in absence
of any internal load should not be thirty five percent of ultimate tensile strength
for the initial unloaded tensions and twenty five percent that for final unloaded
tensions.
Example 13.1. Analyse the steel trestle subjected to loads as shown in Fig.
13.11.
Solution
Step 1: Reactions at Supports. The support G is a fixed support and support
H allows expansion
:. Horizontal reaction at G
= (135 + 270 + 104 + 48) = 557 kN
The lateral loads cause overturning moment. The overturning moment is
balanced by resiting couple provided by two vertical equal and opposite reactions
at G and H. Take the moment of all the force about G
28 × VH = 48 × 2.96 + 104 (2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18)
+ 270 (2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18 + 0.7)
+ 135 (2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18 + 0.7 + 0.95)
∴ VH = 1300 kN (Acts upward)
∴ VG = 1300 kN (Acts downward).
Step 2: Force in member DE
Consider a section X1X1 as shown in Fig. 13.11. The section intersects GE, EF
and DF. The members GE and EF meet at E. The force in DF is found by taking
moment of all the forces about E. The force in member DF is resolved vertically
and horizontally. The vertical component of force DF.
O
0 .35 m
1 35 kN
0 .95 m
2 .00 m
2 70 kN
0 .7 m
1 04 kN 0 .46
A B m
0 .8 m 1 .18 m
0 .72 m
C D
1 .11 m 0 .72 m
X2 X2
1 .76 m
1 .14 m
X1
4 8 kN
E 1 .7 6 m
F
1 .14 m
X1
2 .96 m
1 .82 m
5 57 kN
G 1 .4 m 1 .4 m H
2 .8 m
1 30 0 kN 1 30 0 kN
Fig. 13.11
1
VDF = [104 (1.18 + 1.86) + 270 (0.7 + 1.18
1.76
+ 1.86) + 135 (0.95 + 0.7 + 1.18+ 1.86)]
= 1138 kN
Length of member BH works out to be 609 m. Vertical height of B from H =
2(2.96 + 1.86 + 1.18) = 6.00 m.
Let the inclination of BH with vertical be θ.
⎛ 6.09 ⎞
Then sec θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.015
⎝ 6.00 ⎠
∴ Force in member DF
= VDF × sec θ = 1138 × 1.015
= 1152 kN (compression).
Step 3: Force in EF
The section X1X1 is also suitable for determining the force in member EF. The
section X1X1 intersects GE, EF and DF. The prolonged directions of GE and DF
meet at point O. The force in member EF may be found by taking moment about
O.
FEF = (1.86 +1.18 + 2.0) = 48 (1.86 + 1.18 + 2.0)
+ 104 × 2.0 + 270 (0.95 + 0.35 + 135 × 0.3)
FEF = 160 kN (Compression).
Step 4: Force in DE
Consider a section X2X2. The setion X2X2 intersects CE, DE and DF. The prolonged
directions of members CE and DF meet at point O. The force in member DE is
resolved horizontally and vertically at the point of intersection of this member
with the centre line. The moment of its vertical component is zero.
∴ HDF × (0.72 + 1.18 + 2.0) = [ l35 × 0.35 + 27 × (0.35 + 0.25) + 104 × 2]
∴ HDE = 145 kN
The force in member DE may be found by multiplying horizontal component by
secant of its inclination with the horizontal.
2.35
∴ HDE = 145 = 237 kN (Tension)
1.44
The forces in the various members may be found in the similar manner.
13.10 DESIGN OF TOWER FOUNDATION

The various forces on the towers (vertical loads, lateral loads and overturning
moments are transferred to and resisted by the foundation. Either a combined raft
foundation or pile foundation is provided in case the bearing capacity of the soil is
poor.
An uplift pressure (if any) is acting on the tower foundation, it is considered
while the foundation is designed. The unit weight of soil resisting the uplift pressure
is determined by considering an inverted frustum of pyramid of earth on the footing
pad. Its angle of inclination with the vertical in case of cohesive soil is adopted as
30° and that for the non-cohesive soil is adopted as 20°. These angels have been
recommended as the plane of rupture for the soil approximates to these inclinations.
The uplifted forces are resisted by the mobilised soil contained with the frustum.
The foundations for towers are designed as per the specifications and formulae
given in IS : 4091–1967 ‘Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design and
Construction of Foundation for Transmission-lines Towers and Poles’.
Example 13.2. A steel tower is to be erected for transmission line for a single
circuit three-phase, 50 cycles per second to transmit 50 MW at 0.75 power factor
for 259 km.
Data
The various concerning data are as under:
(i) Voltage of transmission = 132 kV
(ii) Power conductor
30 mm diameter A.C.S.R (aluminium cable steel reinforced conductors
consisting of 54 strands of 3 mm diameter of aluminium and 7 strands of 3 mm
diameter of steel) shall be used.
Unit weight of conductor = 16.76 N/m (0.01676 kN/m)
Permissible axial tension = 35.60 kN
Young’s modulus of elasticity = 0.842 × l05 N/mm2
Coefficient of expansion = 0.00001992/°C
Shape factor for conductor = 0.67
(iii) Ground wire
10 mm diameter galvanised steel wire shall be used
Permissible axial tension = 25.40 kN
(vi) Clearance requirements
Vertical height of conductor above ground
= 6.7 m (min)
Vertical spacing between power conductors
= 3.5 m (min)
Horizontal spacing between power conductors
= 6.25 m (min)
Height of ground wire above topmost power conductor shall be half of the
horizontal spacing of power conductors.
Telegraph wires shall not be provided under the transmission line.
(v) Variation of temperature
Range = 5° C to 60°C
(vi) Wind. Uniform intensity of wind
= 1.50 kN/m2
(Vii) Snow. Snowfall is not expected.
(viii) Tower. Tangent type of towers with not more than 2° line deviation shall
be erected, weight span of tower = wind span = 240 m.
Suggest the geometry of the tower and determine the length of every member
of the tower.
Solution
Step 1: Geometry of tower
The total height of tower is decided keeping in view the clearance requirements
and maximum sag for power conduction.
1. Clearance requirements
Vertical height of conductor above ground = 6.70 m (min)
Vertical spacing between power conductors = 4.00 m
Provided more than min. of 3.5 m
Height of ground wire above top-most
1
power conductor × 6.25 m = 3.12
2
Total 13.82 m
2. Maximum sag for power conductor
Sag below lowest wire support, from Eq.13.1
⎛ w ⋅ L3 ⎞
d = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 8PH ⎠
Step 2: Tension in transmission cable
Both the supports of wire are considered at one level. The weight span of tower
is 240 m. Weight of conductor at maximum temperature and not wind, w2 = 16.76
N/m.
Horizontal component of wire pull, P from Eq. 13.4.
⎡ 2 2
⋅L EA ⎤ ⎛ w22 ⋅ L2 EA ⎞
T22 ⎢(T2 – T2 ) + W 1 + (t2 – t1 ) α ⋅ EA ⎥ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎢⎣ 24T1
2
⎥⎦ ⎝ 24 ⎠
where, T1 = Permissible tension in the conductor = 35.60 kN
T2 = Tension in the cable at mid-span
A = Effective cross-sectional area. (It is calculated on the basis of net
area of each stand)
π
A = (54 + 7) × 32 = 431.18 mm2
4
(t 2 – t 1) = Variation of temperature
= (60 – 5) = 55°C
E = 0.842 × 105 N/mm3
Since, the wind gusts are not likely to cover complete span, and the swinging of
conductors continues, the intensity of wind is decreased to 75 per cent.
Wind load = (0.75 × 1.50) × 0.667 × 0.03 kN/m
w1 = 0.0225 kN/m
Weight of the conductor at minimum temperature with wind,
w1 = [0.02252 + 0.016762]1/2
= 0.02806 kN/m
⎡ ⎛ 2 2 5 ⎞ 55 × 0.00001992 ⎞ ⎤
T22 ⎢T2 – 35.60 + ⎜ 2.806 × 240 × 0.842 × 10 × 431.18 ⎟ + ⎛⎜
⎝ 100 × 100 × 24 × 35.60 × 35.60 × 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ × 0.842 × 10 × 431.18 ⎥⎦
5
⎣
⎛ 1.6762 × 2402 × 0.842 × 105 ⎞

= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 100 × 100 × 24 × 1000 ⎠
T22 + 58.308.T23 = 2.4475 × 104
∴ T22 = 17.918 kN
At mid-span PH = T2 = 17.918 kN
Maximum sag of the conductor at mid-span
⎛ w 2 L2 ⎞ ⎛ 9.01676 × 240 × 240 ⎞

d = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 6.7347 m
⎝ 8PH ⎠ ⎝ 8 × 17.918 ⎠
Step 3: Height of tower
From clearance requirement = 13.82 m
Maximum sag of the conductor = 6.7347 m
Total = 20.5547 m
Height of the tower may be fixed as 21 m.
Step 4: Width of the base of tower
For stability requirement, the width of the tower at the base is kept as
1 21
th × height of tower = = 5.25 m
4 4
The width of the tower at the base may be adopted as 5.50 m. The complete
proposed geometry of tower is shown in Fig.13.12.
Step 5: Length of members (as projections in the plane of paper)
2
DD´ = 2(2.75 – 0.75) × + 1.50 = 2.00 m
16
4
CC´ = 2(2.75 × 0.75) × +1.50 = 2.50 m
16
10
BB´ = 2(2.75 – 0.75) × + 1.50 = 4.00 m
16
16
AA´ = 2(2.75 – 0.75) × + 1.50 = 5.50 m
16
EE´ = FF´ = GG´ =1.50 m
ED´ = E´D´ = (22 + 0.252)1/2 = 2.0155 m
DC = DĆ´ = (22 + 0.252)1/2 = 2.0155 m
CB = C´B´ = (22 + 0.752)1/2 = 6.0467 m
BA = BÁ´ = (62 + 0.752)1/2 = 6.0467 m
DE´ = ED´ = (22 + 1.752)1/2 = 2.6575 m
DC´ = CD´ = (22 + 2.252)1/2 = 3.0104 m
CB´ = BC´ = (62 + 3.252)1/2 = 6.8236 m
BA´ = AB´ = (62 + 4.75´)1/2 = 7.6526 m
G ro un d w ire
H
1 .0
m
G G' 1 .0
m
1 .0
P o w er F G' m
con du ctor 1 .0
m
4 .00 m 1 .0
P o w er m
E E' con du ctor
2 .0 m
P o w er D D'
con du ctor
2 .0 m
C C'
2 1.0 m
6 .0 m
B B'
6 .0 m
A A'
G ro un d 5 .50 m L evel
Fig. 13.12 Geometry of transmission tower
Length of each diagonal in the upper four panels

= (1.002 + 1.52)1/2 = l.8028 m
GH = G´H = (12 + 0.752)1/2 = 1.25 m.
Example 13.3. In Example 13.2, determine the various forces (lateral forces
due to wind, longitudinal force, if any, torsional forces, if any and dead load)
acting on the tower under the following conditions :
1. Normal operating conditions.
2. Top-most power conductor in broken condition.
3. Ground wire in broken condition.
Solution
Step 1: Various forces acting on the tower under the normal operating
conditions of the conductors are as below :
1. Lateral force due to wind. The lateral force due to wind acting at
every panel joint is found as a product of intensity of wind and the exposed area of
members of the tower consists of the projected area of the windward face plus fifty
percent of that of the leeward face. In order to estimate the projected area, the
sizes of members taken are as under:
Column sizes for complete length : ISA 130 mm × 130 mm × 10 mm
Horizontals for bottom panel joint: ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 6 mm
Other horizontals, diagonals and the secondary members of nominal (minimum)
size : ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm.
The members sizes are compared with those found after their design.
(i) Panel joint B (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces)
⎛ AB + BC ⎞
Columns: 2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50
⎝ 2
150
2 × (6.0467 + 6.0467) × 0.130 × = 2.358 m2
2
Horizontal: 1 × BB´ × 0.080 × 1.50
1 × 4.00 × 0.080 ×1.50 = 0.480 m2
⎛ BA´+ BC´ ⎞
Diagonals : 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 7.6526 + 6.8236 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50 = 1.411 m
2
⎝ 2
Secondaries: 5.0 (measured) × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.488 m2
Total = 4.737 m2
Lateral force due to wind = 1.50 × 4.737 = 7.1055 kN
(ii) Panel joint C (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces)
⎛ CB + CD ⎞
Columns: 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 6.0467 + 2.0155 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × l.50 = 1.572 m
2
⎝ 2
Horizontals : 1 × CC´ × 0.065 × 1.50
1 × 2.50 × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.244 m2
⎛ CB´+CD´ ⎞
Diagonals : 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 6.8236 + 3.0104 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.959 m2
⎝ 2
Secondaries : 3.5 (measured) × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.341 m2
Total 3.116 m2
Lateral force due to wind
= 1.50 × 3.115 = 4.6740 kN
(iii) Panel joint D (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces).
⎛ DC + DE ⎞
Columns : 2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 ×1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 2.0155 + 2.0155 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50 = 0.786 m2
⎝ 2
Horizontals:1 × DD × 0.065 × 1.50
1 × 2.00 × 0.065 ×1.50 = 0.195 m2
⎛ DC´+ DE´ ⎞
Diagonals : 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 3.01104 + 2.6575 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟ × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.533 m2
⎝ 2 ⎠
Total 1.514 m2
Lateral force due to wind
= 1.50 × 1.514 = 2.2710 kN
(iv) Panel joint E (Exposed area of windward plus leeward faces)
⎛ ED + 2.00 ⎞
Columns: 2 × ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50
⎝ 2
⎛ 2.0155 + 2.00 ⎞
2× ⎜ ⎟⎠ × 0.130 × 1.50 = 0.783 m
2
⎝ 2
Horizontals : 1 × (EE´ × 0.75) × 0.065 × 1.50
1 × (1.50 × 0.75) × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.219 m2
⎛ ED´ ⎞
Diagonals: ⎜ + 2 × 1.8021 ⎟ × 0.065 × 1.50
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 2.6575 ⎞
⎜ 2 + 2 × 1.8028 ⎟ × 0.065 × l.50 = 0.481 m2
⎝ ⎠
Cross arm (assumed) = 0.750 m2
Total 2.233 m2
Step 2: Lateral loads
(i) Lateral load due to wind
= 1.50 × 2.233 = 3.3495 kN
(ii) Lateral load due to wind acting on the conductor.

IS : 802 (Part I)–1967 recommends that projected area of conductor is found as
0.667 times its diameter and intensity of wind is decreased by percent in order to
account the swinging effect of the conductors
240 × 0.020 × 0.667 × 1.50 × 0.750 = 5.4027 kN
(iii) Lateral load due to deviation of conductor from the tangent line.
Three adjacent towers 1, 2 and 3 are shown in Fig. 13.13. Each conductor
deviates from the tangent line by θ = 15°. The maximum permissible tension, T in
the cable is 35.60 kN. The lateral load acting on the conductor at the level of
conductor
2T sin θ = 35.60 × sin 1.5°
= 2 × 35.60 × 0.026176
= 186.38 kN
Total lateral load at the panel joint E
(3.3495 + 5.4027 + 2.86380) = 1.0616 kN
Panel joint B (Exposed area for windward plus leeward faces)
Columns: (2 × 2 × 0.130 × 1.5) = 0.780 m2
Horizontals:(EF´ + 2 × 0.75) × 0.065 × 1.50
(1.50 + 2 × 0.75 ) × 0.065 ×1.50 = 0.2925 m2
Diagonals :4 × 1.8028 × 0.065 × 1.50 = 0.7031 m2
Cross arms (assumed) = 0.75 m2
Total 2.5256 m2
2
1 3
T T
θ P θ
L L
L - Span for conductor line deviation
Fig. 13.13

= 1.50 × 2.5256 = 3.7884 kN
(ii) Lateral load due to wind acting on the conductor
= 5.4027 kN
Its magnitude is equal to that for panel joint E.
(iii) Lateral load due to deviation of the conductor from the tangent line
= l.8638 kN
Its magnitude is equal to that for the panel point E.
Total lateral load at the panel joint F
(3 .7884 + 5.4027 + 1.8638) = 11.0549 kN
Panel joint G
Total lateral load at the panel joint G is equal to that for the panel joint F
= 11.0549 kN
Panel joint H
Cross arms and bracings (assumed)
= 0.80 m2
= 1.50 × 0.80 = l.20 kN
(ii) Lateral load due to wind acting on the ground wire (10 mm diameter
galvanised steel wire)
= 240 × 0.010 × (0.667 × (l.50 × 0.75)
= 1.8009 kN
(iii) Lateral load due to deviation of the ground wire from the tangent line
= 2T sin 1.5° = 2 × 2540 × 0.026176
= 1.32794 kN
Total lateral load at the panel joint H
(1.20+ 1.8009+ 1.32974) = 4.3306 kN
These lateral loads are resisted by two faces of the tower. As such, the lateral forces
acting on one tower are made half and these loads have been listed in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Lateral loads resisted by one tower at different panel joints
Under the condition

Lateral force
1 (kN) 2 (kN) 3 (kN)
PH 0.50 × 4.3306 0.50 × 4.3306 0.50 × 3.61024
PG 0.50 × 11.0549 0.50 × 8.8938 0.50 × 11.0549
PF 0.50 × 11.0549 0.70 × 11.0549 0.50 × 11.0549
PE 0.50 × 10.6160 0.50 × l0.6160 0.50 × l0.6160
PD 0.50 × 2.2710 0.50 × l2.2710 0.50 × 2.2710
Pc 0.50 × 4.6740 0.50 × 4.6740 0.50 × 4.6740
PB 0.50 × 7.1055 0.50 × 7.1055 0.50 × 7.1055
Step 3 : Dead load acting on the tower
Self-weight of tower is found from Ryle’s formula
W = 0.04 H.M 1/2
where, W = Self-weight of tower in kN
H = Height of tower in m
M = Total moment due to lateral forces about the base in kN-m
M = PH × 21 × PG × 20 = PF × 18 × PE × 16 + PD × 14 + PC × 12 + PB ×
6 PP
∴ M = 4.3306 × 21 × 11.0549 × 20 + 11.0549 ×18 +10.6160 × 16 + 2.2710
× 14 + 4.6740 × 12 × 47.1055 × 6
= 90.9426 + 221.098 + 198.9882 + 169.856 + 31.794 + 56.088 + 42.623
= 811.3998 kN-m
Therefore,
W = 0.0004 × 21 × (811.3908)1/2 × 100 kN
= 23.9273 kN
Trial weight of the tower
The sizes of various members have been assumed to determine the lateral forces
due to wind. The trial weight of the tower may be found by measuring the lengths
and by multiplying by their respective unit weights (which may be noted form ISI
Handbook No. 1).
Columns : ISA 130 mm × 130 mm × 10 mm @ 0.107 kN/m
4 × [2 + 5.467 + 4 × 2.0155 + 4] × 0.197
= 15.8580 kN
Diagonals : ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm @ 0.058 kN/m
4 × [2 + 7.6526 + 2 × 6.8236 + 2 × 3.0104 + 2 × 2.6575] × 0.058
= 3.3468 kN
4 × [8 × 1.8028] × 0.58 = 3.3460 kN
Horizontals : ISA 80 mm × 80 mm × 6 mm @ 0.073 kN/m
4 × 4.00 × 0.73 = 1.1610 kN
ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm @ 0.058 kN/m
4 × [2.5 × 2.00 + 5 × 1.5] × 0.58
= 2.7840 kN
Secondaries ISA 65 mm × 65 mm × 6 mm @ 0.058 kN/m
4 × (5.0 × 3.5) × 0.58 = 1.9720 kN
Cross-arms (assumed)
= 5.5252 kN
Total estimated weight of tower
= 40.00 kN
Weight of 3 power conductors
3 × 240 × 0.01676 = 12.0672 kN
Weight of ground wire
240 × 0.006 = 1.44 kN
Weight of lineman with tools as recommended in IS : 802
= l.50 kN
Total dead load = 55.0072 kN
Step 4: Various forces acting on the tower under top-most power
conductor in broken condition are as below :
(i) Lateral loads due to wind at panel joints B, C, D, E, F and H remain

unaltered whereas the lateral load at the panel joint G is as under :
Due to wind (unchanged)
= 3.7884 kN
Due to wind on the conductor (broken condition) for 60 percent span
(0.60 × 240) × (0.030 × 9.667) × (1.50 × 0.750)
= 3.24162 kN
Due to deviation of the conductor from the tangent line (unchanged)
= 1.8638 kN
Total = 8.89382 kN
These lateral loads have been listed in Table 13.2.
The broken power conductor causes a longitudinal tensile force on the tower
= 60 percent of working tension
= 060 × 35.00 = 21.36 kN
The broken power conductor also causes torsional force as shown in Fig.13.14.
T
F1
F1
F1
F1
Fig. 13.14 Torsional force
2F1 × a = T × b
2 × F1 × 1.50 = 21.36 × 3.125
∴ F1 = 22.25 kN
(ii) Dead load
As one conductor is broken, its 40 percent weight is reduced from that calculated
above
(0.40 × 240 × 0.01676) = 1.6089 kN
Total dead load = (55.0072 – 1.6089) kN = 53.3982 kN
3. Various forces acting on the tower under ground wire in broken condition
are as below :
Lateral loads due to wind at the panel joints B, C, D, E, F and G remain

unchanged whereas the lateral load at the panel joint H is as under:
Due to wind (unchanged) = 1 .20 kN
Due to wind on the ground wire
(broken condition) for 60 percent span
(0.60 × 240) × (0.010 × 0.667) × (1.50 × 0.75) = 1.0805 kN
Due to deviation of the ground wire
from the tangent line (unchanged) = 1.32974 kN
Total = 3.61024 kN
These lateral loads are also listed in Table 13.2.
The broken ground wire causes a longitudinal tensile force on the tower
= 100 percent of working tension
= 25.40 kN
PH
PG
PF
X2 X2
PE
PD
X1 X1
XC
PB
Fig. 13.15
(iii) Dead load

As the ground wire is broken, its 40 percent weight is reduced from that
calculated in first condition
0.40 × 240 × 0.006 = 0.576 kN

Total dead load = (55.0072 – 0.5760) kN = 54.4312 kN
The lateral forces acting on one face of the tower at the various panel joints are
shown in Fig. 13.15.
Example 13.4. In Examples 13.2 and 13.3, determine the stresses (internal
forces) in the various members of the tower.
Solution
Step 1: Stresses in the various members of the tower under the normal
operation conditions of the conductor are as below :
The transmission line tower as shown in Fig.13.12 is highly indeterminate.
The stresses in the various members may be found by approximate method. The
tower is reduced to a determinate plane frame as shown in Fig.13.15 by neglecting
the horizontal and secondary members.
The horizontal reaction at the foot of each column is equal to half the sum of
total lateral load acting on one face of the tower
= 12.7767 kN
The maximum bending moment about the base of one tower
M1 = 0.50 × 811.3998 kN-m
= 405.6999 kN-m
The spacing between the columns is 5.50 m
⎛ 405.6992 ⎞
∴ Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 5.50 ⎠
= 73.7636 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the bottom panel are found
by resolving the forces horizontally and vertically at A´.
∴ Axial force is column
= 68.96306 kN
Axial force in diagonal = 6.80344 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the third panel from bottom
are determined by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
∴ Axial force in the column
= 44.6882 kN
Axial force in the diagonal
= 6.90945 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the fifth panel from bottom
are obtained by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium:
∴ Axial force in the column
= 24.2907 kN
= 7.9444 kN
Step 2: Stresses in the various members of the tower under the

topmost power conductor broken condition are as follows :
1. Stresses due to lateral forces (wind forces)
Let the total moment due to lateral forces about the base M´ kN-m. It is noted
from Table13 .3, that there is difference in magnitudes of lateral foces at the panel
joint G. As such
M1´ = M – PG × 20 + PG × 20
= 811.3998 – 20 (11.0549 – 8.8981) kN-m
= 768.178 kN-m
M1´ = 0.50 × 768.1778 kN-m
= 384.0889 kN-m
The spacing between the columns is 5.50 m
⎛ 384.3889 ⎞
∴ Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 5.50 ⎠
= 69.3843 kN
The horizontal reaction at the foot of each column is equal to half the sum of
total lateral load acting on one tower
= (12.7767 – 50 × 11.0549 + 0.5 × 8.8938) kN
= 11.6962 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the bottom panel are found
by resolving the forces horizontally and vertically at A´
∴ Axial force in column
= 65.8914 kN
Axial force in diagonal
= 5.67595 kN
The axial forces in column and diagonal members of the third panel from bottom
Axial focre in the column
= 41.7224 kN
= 6.63155 kN
are obtained by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column
= 22.39945 kN
= 7.2951 kN
2. Stresses in the members due to longitudinal force acting on the

tower
The maximum bending moment at the base due to longitudinal force due to
broken condition of the top-most power conductor (for one tower)
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 21.36 × 20 ⎟ = 213.60 kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 213.60 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ = 38.83636 kN
⎝ 5.50 ⎠
Horizontal reaction
= 0.5 × (0.5 × 21.36) kN-m
= 5.340 kN
Axial force in column
= 38.40398 kN
= 0.92862 kN
The axial force in column and diagonal members of the third panel from bottom
Moment about point of intersection of diagonal members
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 21.36 × 6.889 ⎟ kN-m
⎝2 ⎠
= 73.57452 kN-m
= 33.36878 kN
= 1.9348 kN
are obtained by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
= 24.92 kN
= 6.4179 kN
3. Stress in the members due to torsional force acting on the tower
The stresses developed in the columns due to torsional forces on adjacent faces
cancel each other. However, the torsional forces develop stresses in the web members.
The maximum bending moment at the base
= 22.25 × 20 = 445.00 kN-m
⎛ 445.00 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ = 80.9091 kN
⎝ 5.5 ⎟⎠
Horizontal reaction
= 0.5 × 22.25 = 11.125 kN
= 17.9233 kN
Axial force in the diagonal member of third panel from the bottom is found by
the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
= 14.1019 kN
Axial force in the diagonal member of fifth panel from the bottom is obtained by
the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium
= 13.37059 kN
Step 3: Stresses in the various members of the tower under the ground
wire in broken condition are as follows :
(a) Stresses due to lateral forces
Let the total moment due to lateral forces about the base be M´. It is noted from
Table 13.2, that there is difference in magnitude of lateral forces at the panel joint
H. As such
M´´ = M – PC × 21 – PC´´ × 21
= 811.3998 – 21 (4.3347 – 3.61014)
= 796.27224 kN-m
= 0.5 × 796.27224 kN-m
= 398.13612 kN-m
⎛ 398.13612 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ kN
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
= 72.38838 kN
Horizontal reaction = (12.7767 – 0.50 × 4.3306 + 0.5 × 3.16024)
= 12.41652 kN
= 67.9591 kN
= 6.44324 kN
The axial forces in the diagonal and column members of the third panel from
the bottom are determined by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.

= 43.3976 kN
= 6.8772 kN
The axial forces in the column and diagonal members of the fifth panel from the
bottom are obtained by the method section and by horizontal equilibrium
= 23.4802 kN
= 7.7279 kN
2. Stress in the members due to longitudinal force acting on the tower
The maximum bending moment about the base due to longitudinal force (due to
broken condition of ground wire) for one tower
= 0.5 × 25.40 × 21 = 26.670 kN-m
⎛ 266.70 ⎞
Vertical reaction = ⎜ ⎟ = 48.49091 kN
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
Horizontal reaction
= 6.35 kN
= 48.4310 kN
= 0.4446 kN
The axial forces in the column and diagonal members of the third panel from
the bottom are obtained by the method section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column = 33.9202 kN
Axial force in the diagonal = 1.0783 kN
The axial force in the column and the diagonal members in the fifth panel are
found by the method of section and by horizontal equilibrium.
Axial force in the column = 38.10 kN
Axial force in the diagonal = 7.63175 kN.
Problems
13.1 Figure P.13.1 shows an open gantry trestle with the forces acting upon
it. The section of the vertical member is formed of single RSJ 250 × 114 ×
0.377 kN/m and that of the inclined member a single channel 250 × 80 ×
0.304 kN/m. Bending stress is limited to 1575 N/mm2. The permissible
direct stress can be calculated by any formula you know of. Assume the
weight of vertical member as 6 kN. The effective length of the vertical
member perpendicular to the plane of horizontal forces is 0.85 times of
actual length.
1 7.3 kN
1 kN
1 kN 0 .75 0 m
1 kN
0 .07 5 m
Fig. P. 13.1
(a) Force in all the members forming th trestle including the reactions
at the supports
(b) Check the adequacy of the sections of vertical and inclined members.
(A vertical load at apex 287 kN acts with eccentricity of 76 mm from
centre of RSJ web).
CHAPTER
14
Design of Aluminium Structures
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Aluminium is a very light silver like metal. Aluminium is produced by an
electrolytic process from bauxite ore. The ultimate tensile strength of aluminium
in its pure form is only 91 N/mm2. The strength of aluminium may be raised by
adding alloying elements, by cold working, and by heat treatment. By cold working
the tensile strength of pure aluminium may be increased to about 168 N/mm2.
The tensile strength of heat treated alloy is about 560 N/mm2. The unit weight of
aluminium is about 35 per cent as much as that of steel. The value of Young’s
modulus of elasticity of aluminium is about one-third that of steel. The value of
coefficient of thermal expansion is approximately twice that of steel. Aluminium
alloys are used for structural work. The aluminium alloys are classified in two
categories, viz., heat treatable and non-heat treatable alloys. The manganese and
magnesium are the principal ingredients, which are used in the non-heat treatable
aluminium alloys. The strength and durability of these alloys are raised by cold
working. These alloys are mainly used for corrugated roofing sheets, wall panels
for office buildings, storage tanks and pressure vessels. The aluminium alloys,
which are commonly used for structural work are heat treatable alloys whereas
some of the aluminium alloys are non-heat-treatable. These alloys are commercially
known as 2014–T6 and 6061–T6. The composition of alloy is identified by number
6061. Four digits have been used to distinguish that it is a wrought alloy rather
than cast alloy. The alphabetic letter T refers that the alloys has been heat treated.
The type of heat treatment is indicated by the last numeric 6. An aluminium
alloys 3003–H14 is an example of a non-heat-treatable alloy. The number in four
digits 3003 designates the alloys and is wrought condition. The significance of
letter H is that the temper has been developed by strain hardening instead of heat
treatment. The specific temper is indicated by the final number 14.
Indian Standard Institution has not published specifications which cover design
procedure and method of fabrication. The specifications published by the American
Society of Civil Engineers for the design have been followed. In general, aluminium
alloys have excellent resistance to corrosion. These alloys are considered as general
purpose structural alloys. These alloys do not need any paint or other protection.
However some of the high-strength aluminium alloys, (e.g., 2014–T6) require to
be protected against corrosion by painting or anodizing. Alloy 6061–T6 is used for
medium strength and high resistance to corrosion. Alloy 2014–T6 is used for high
strength.
The wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys, bars, rods and sections (for
general engineering purpose are given in IS : 733–1967. The aluminium bars,
rods and sections are made from three grades of wrought aluminium and from
eleven wrought aluminium alloys in various conditions. The letter symbol E is
used to indicate the bar, rod and section. Similarly other letters are used to indicate
the other products. The prefix letter N is used to represent non-heat treatment.
The prefix letter H is used to represent heat treatable alloys, that is, those which
are strengthened by heat treatment. For example NE indicates non-heat treatable
alloys in the form of bar, rod and section. Similarly HE represents that treatable
alloys in the form of bar, rod and section.
The different grades of pure aluminium and aluminium alloys have been assigned
numerical and designations and the same number has been used to indicate any
pure grade of aluminium or aluminium alloy in whatever wrought form it may be
obtainable. For example, aluminium of 99.99 percent purity have been assigned
the number 1 and the three other grades of aluminium have been shown as 1A, IB
and 1C.
The aluminium structural members are available in various shapes, which are
either rolled or extruded. Aluminium sheets, plates, tubes, bars and rivets are
manufactured by rolling process. Aluminium angle sections, I-sections, channel
sections, Z-sections, bulb angle sections, hat-sections are manufactured by extrusion
process. In this process the hot material is forced through an orifice. The shape of
orifice is kept as for the shape of desired cross-section. This process allows the
manufacture of many shapes which cannot be obtained from the rolling process.
Alcoa Structural Handbook of the aluminium company of America gives the
geometrical properties of the various aluminium structural sections.
The aluminium I-beams manufactured in our country are designed at IS ALB.
The designation is followed by the depth of section, width of flange in millimetres
and weight in newton per metre of the section (e.g., ISALB 120 × 60 @ 0.47 N/m).
The dimensions and section properties of Indian Standard Aluminium I-beam
sections are given in IS : 5384–1969. The weights of Indian Standard Aluminium
beam sections have been calculated on the basis of 2.7 gm/cm3 as the density of
aluminium. The aluminium beams are extruded from aluminium alloys. HE 9,
HE 14, HE 15, HE 19, HE 20, HE 30, NE 4, NE 5, NE 6 and NE 8). These alloys
are specified in IS : 733–1967.
The aluminium channel sections are designated as ISALC followed by depth of
the section, width of flange and thickness of web expressed in millimetres (e.g.,
DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 735
150 mm × 60 mm × 8 mm). The dimensions and sectional properties of the channel

sections are given in IS : 3921–1966. The aluminium channels are extruded from,
the aluminium alloys (HE 9, HE 10, HE 14, HE 15, HE 20, HE 30, NE 4, NE 5,
NE 6 and NE 8).
The aluminium equal leg angle sections are designated as ISALE 30 mm × 30 mm
× 4.0 mm). The dimensions and geometrical properties are given in IS : 3908–1966.
14.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Table 14.1 (a) gives the chemical composition of the two aluminium alloys used for
the structural work.
Table 14.1 (a) Chemical composition
Composition 2014–T6 percent 6061–T6 percent
Copper 4.4 0.25
Silicon 0.8 0.60
Manganese 0.8 —
Magnesium 0.4 1.00
Chromium — 0.25
Aluminium 93.6 97.90
Table 14.1 (b) gives the chemical composition of the three aluminium grades used
for the structural work, as per IS : 733–1967.
Table 14 .1 (b) Chemical composition
Composition Percent for Aluminiun IS designation
FIA EIB EIC
Copper, max 0.03 0.05 0.10
Silicon, max 0.15 0.30 0.05
Iron, max 0.15 0.40 0.70
Manganese, max 0.03 0.05 0.1
Zinc, max 0.06 0.10 —
Copper + Silicon + Iron + 0.20 0.5 1.0
Manganese + Zinc max
Note. IS : Designation EIA represents aluminium of 99.8 percent purity.

IS : Deignation EIB represents aluminium of 99.5 percent purity.
IS : Designation EIC represents aluminium of 99 percent purity.
The chemical compositions of various aluminium alloys are given in
IS : 733 : 1967.
14.3 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR ALUMINIUM

The stress-strain relationship for the aluminium alloys is shown in Fig. 14.1.
The stress-strain curves rises continuously and it does not have a flat spot
(plato) as a seen for steel. The curve does not show sharply defined yield point. The
yield for the aluminium alloys is defined as the stress, which gives a permanent
set of 0.2 percent of the initial gauge length. The yield strength of the aluminium
alloys lies in between 65 percent and 90 percent of the ultimate tensile strength.
S tress N /m m 2
U ltim ate ten sile stre ng th
Yie ld
sten g th
S train
0 .00 2
(B a sed on S tructu ra l H a nd bo o k, A lco a)
Fig. 14.1
14.4 PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Typical physical and mechanical properties of some of the aluminium alloys may
be noted by making reference in ‘Structural Engineering Handbook’ edited by
Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr. and Charles N. Gaylord published by McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York (second edition pp 10.2,10.3).
Table 14.2 gives the physical properties of the two aluminium alloys used for
the structural work.
Table 14.2 Physical properties
Physical properties 2014–T6 6061–T6
Unit weight 28.00 kN/m 3
27.10 kN/m3
Modulus of elasticity 0.745 × 103 N/mm2 0.703 × 103 N/mm2
Shear modulus of elasticity 0.282 × 103 N/mm2 0.264 × 103 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio 0.33 0.33
Coefficient of thermal expansion 23.0 × 10–6 23.4 ×10–6
Table 14.3 (a) gives the mechanical properties of the two aluminium alloys used
for the structural work.
Table 14.3 (a) Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties 2014–T6 percent 6067–T6 percent
Tension
Ultimate tensile strength 424 267
Yield strength 373 246
Contd.
Table 14.3 (a) Contd.

Mechanical properties 2014–T6 percent 6067–T6 percent
Compression
Shear
Ultimate strength 246 169
Bearing
Ultimate strength 800 563
The percentage elongation for 2014–T6 is 3 to 8 percent and that for 6061–T6 is
8 to 14 percent.
Table 14.3 (b) gives the mechanical properties of three aluminium grades as per
IS : 733–1967.
Table 14.3 (b) Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties Aluminium of IS : Designation
EIK EIB EIC
Condition M M M
Tensile strength (min.) (N/mm2) 55 65 65
Elongation on 4 ( S0 percent 30 25 20
(min.)
Note. 1. The letter M denotes that the material is in the as manufactured

conditions that is, as rolled, as extruded, straightened and/or drawn to size or
as forged without subsequent heat treatment of any kind.
2. S0 denotes the cross-sectional area of the test piece.
The mechanical properties of different aluminium alloys are given in IS : 733–
1967.
14.5 FACTOR OF SAFETY

A smaller factor of safety is allowed against yielding than against fracture or
collapse of a structure AASHTO, AREA and similar specifications recommended
that the permissible stress may be obtained by adopting factor of safety of at least
1.65 on yielding and 2.2 on ultimate strength for the bridges and other structures.
Whereas AISC and similar specifications recommended that the permissible
stresses may be adopted by using factor of safety of 1.65 on yield strength and 1.95
on ultimate strength for buildings and other structures.
14.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The advantages of aluminium alloys to be used for the structural work are as
follows :
The strength to unit weight ratio of the aluminium alloys is more than that of
the steel. In general, the aluminium alloys have good resistance to corrosion by
weather. The aluminium alloy 6061–T6 resists corrosion so nicely that it is
commonly used in the open conditions without any protective covering. The
aluminium alloy 2014–T6 is used after appying some paint or other protective
coating, where corrosion is likely to take place. A pure aluminium coating is applied
to 2014–T6 aluminium sheets and plates. The aluminium structures are light in
weight. The structures have better appearance. The aluminium structures require
less maintenance. The aluminium alloy 6061–T6 is readily weldable. The
aluminium alloys are easily machined. These alloys allow rapid fabrication and
less tool trouble. The aluminium alloys have high workability when subjected to
pressing, rolling, or forging, which makes it possible to manufacture articles of a
complicated configuration. The aluminium alloys retain their high mechanical
characteristics at temperatures below freezing point. When the aluminium alloys
strike with various articles, then the spark is not there.
The disadvantages of aluminium alloys are as follows :
The initial cost of aluminium structures is high. The aluminium is not available
in abundance. The value of modulus of elasticity E for the aluminium is low. As a
result of which the stiffness of aluminium structural members is reduced,
Therefore, the aluminium structural members need thick sections. The aluminium
alloys 2014–T6 is not very suitable for welding. The factor of safety used for
aluminium structures is more than that of steel. The aluminium is less ductile
than the steel. The aluminium alloys have high coefficient of thermal expansion.
The supply of aluminium alloys is also short. The aluminium alloys have
comparatively low refractoriness.

The permissible stresses for the various parts have been given in Table 14.4 as per
ASCE Committee on light weight structural alloys recommendations.
Table 14.4 Permissible stresses
Kind of stresses Permissible stresses
2014–T6 6061–T6
N/mm 2 N/mm 2
Structural members
Direct tension on net area 155.0 105.0
Fibre streses in bending
(a) Tension on net area 155.0 105.0
(b) Compression on gross area 155.0 98.0
Shear in plates and web
(a) On net area 91.0 63.0
(b) On gross area 105.0 70.0
Contd.
Table 14.4 Contd.

Kind of stresses Permissible stresses
2014–T6 6061–T6
N/mm 2 N/mm 2
Rivets
Shear in rivets: cold driven — 70.0
hot driven — 56.0
Bearing on hot driven or cold driven rivets 252.0 190.0
Pins
Extreme fibre stresses 240.0 155.0
Shear 112.0 70.0
Bearing 210.0 153.0
Bolts
Bearing on turned bolts in reamed holes 252.0 190.0
Note. These stresses are applicable for normal loading.
When the effect of wind, other lateral loads, longitudinal forces and temperatures
stresses (occasional loads) are taken into account, then, these stresses may be
exceeded by 33.333 percent for the structural member and 25 per cent for the
connections.
14.8 TENSION MEMBERS

The procedure and specifications for the design of aluminium tension members
are similar to those of steel tension members. The members are designed on net
area basis. The permissible stresses for direct for axial tension for the aluminium,
given in Table 14.4 are adopted.
14.9 COLUMNS AND COMPRESSION MEMBERS

In case the column and compression members are compact and short, then, the
members do not fail in buckling. The failure of such columns may take place by
crushing. The crushing of columns takes place in case the stress in the member
reached the yield stress for the material. In case the average stress on the cross-
section is kept less than the compressive yield strength of the material, then, the
yielding would not occur. The columns and compression members are short
occasionally only. Generally, the strength of long and axially loaded columns and
compression members are controlled by the following types of failure.
1. Buckling or bending.
2. Twisting.
3. Bending combined with twisting.
4. Local buckling of the individual elements of the section over a short
length.
14.9.1 Buckling or Bending Failure

In addition to the properties of the material and geometrical properties of the
cross-section, the strength of columns and compression members depends upon
the effective slenderness ratio. The effecive slenderness ratio is the ratio of the
effective length of column to the appropriate radius of gyration. A typical column
strength curve for aluminium alloys is shown in Fig. 14.2.
The ultimate compressive strength of column σc in N/mm2 is found from the
following terminals,
⎡ π2E ⎤
⎛I ⎞ ⎢ 2⎥
For ⎜ > Cc ⎟ , σc = ⎢ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎥
...(14.1)
⎝r ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎛I ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎤
and, for ⎜ ≤ Cc ⎟ , σc = ⎢⎣Bc − Dc ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ...(14.2)
⎝r ⎠
where, Bc, Dc and Cc are constants depending upon mechanical properties, L is the
length of column in mm, r is appropriate radius of gyration in mm, K is effective
length factor and E is Young’s modulus of elasticity in N/mm2.
Based upon experimental evidence, it is seen that column strength for aluminium
members correspond closely to the Euler’s column formulae in the elastic range
and the tangent modulus formula in the inelastic range.
According to Professor J.W. Clark and R.L. Rolf, the tangent modulus column
formula may be approximated nearly by a straight line in the elastic range.
(K L )
σc =B c – Dc r
KL
≤ Cc
r
π2E
U ltim ate colum n
S tre ng th N /m m 2
σc = 2
⎛ KL ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
r
Bc
Effective slenderness ratio

(Based on structural Handbook, Alcoa)
Fig. 14.2
The values of these constants depend upon the mechanical properties of the
material.
The values of constants Bc, Dc and Cc are determined from the following formulae.
For all wrought aluminium alloys except those which are artificially aged (all
tempers except those from T5 to T9) and cast aluminium product. These expressions
for Cc and Dc are in kips per square inch units. (Reference : Structural Engineering
Hand Book by Gaylord and Gaylord).
⎡ 1/2 ⎤
Bc = σc.y ⎢1 + ⎛ σc⋅y ⎞ ⎥ ...(i)
⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Bc ⎛ 16Bc ⎞ 1/2
Dc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(ii)
20 ⎝ E ⎠
2 ⎛ Bc ⎞
Cc = ... (iii)
3 ⎜⎝ Dc ⎟⎠
For artificially aged wrought aluminium alloys
Bc = σc.y ⎡1 + ⎛ σc⋅ y ⎞
1/ 2 ⎤
...(iv)
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2250 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Bc ⎛ Bc ⎞ 1 / 2
Dc = ⎜ ⎟ ...(v)
10 ⎝ E ⎠
⎛ Bc ⎞
Cc = 0.41 ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ ...(vi)
c
where σcy is the compressive yield strength and E is Young’s modulus of elasticity.
Table 14.5 gives values of Bc, Dc and Cc for sheet and plates extruded rods, bars,
and shapes and for rolled or extruded standard structural shapes.
Table 14.5 Buckling-formula constants for columns and plates
2014–T6 6061–T6
Description Bc Dc Cc Bc Dc Cc
Sheet and plate
0.025 mm to 51 mm 479.5 4.144 52 279.3 1.841 68
52 mm to 76 mm 461.3 3.906 53 279.3 1.841 68
Extruded bars, rods
and shapes
Upto 12.5 mm 429.8 2.870 50 268.1 1.414 63
from 125 mm to 19 mm 471.1 3.297 48 268.1 1.414 63
All — — — 268.1 1.414 63
Standard shapes structural
rolled or extruded
All 452.9 3.801 54 268.1 1.414 63
Note. The values based on Alcoa Structural Handbook in kips per square inch
have been converted in N/mm2. (1 kips/in2 = 7 N/mm2).
14.9.2 Twisting Failure

The stiffness of the most conventional shapes of columns and compression members,
(e.g., box section, closed tubes, circular and rectangular solid sections etc.) in
torsion, is large. Therefore, these sections do not fail in twisting. In case, the
nature of support for the column is such that the effective length of the column for
bending failure is not less than the effective length for twisting failure then, the
symmetrical sections (e.g., I-section, H-section, and Z-section), also do not fail in
twisting.
In case a bar is twisted by couples applied at the ends and acting in planes
normal to the axis of the bar, and the ends are free to warp, then, the bar fails in
pure twisting. The ultimate compressive strengths for the members, which fail in
twisting may be found by Eqs. 14.1 and 14.2 except that the radius of gyration
used is r1 instead of r.
1/ 2
⎡ Cs + 0.038 J ( KL )2 ⎤
r = ⎢ ⎥ ...(14.3)
⎣⎢ Ix + I y ⎦⎥
where, I2 = Moment of inertia about xx-axis in mm4
Iy = Moment of inertia about yy-axis in mm4
K = Factor representing end conditions of the compression member
L = Length of the member
J = Torsion bending constant in mm6
rt = Equivalent radius of gyration for twisting failure in mm
In case of thin walled open sections (e.g., angle section, tee section, thin walled
channel sections etc.), the torsional rigidity of the member is less than the bending
rigidity. As such these sections may fail in twisting combined with bending.
14.9.3 Bending Combined with Twisting Failure

The unsymmetrical sections and sections having one axis of symmetry (e.g., angle
sections, tee sections, and thin walled channel sections), fail in bending combined
with twisting. For bending combined with twisting failure, the reduced value of
equivalent radius of gyration should be used. The value of equivalent radius of
gyration may be obtained as follows :
1/2
1 1 1 ⎡⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
⎛ yο ⎞ ⎤
2
= + + ⎢ – +⎜ ⎥ ...(14.4)
(rtb )2 2rt 2 2rt 2 ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 2rt 2 2rt 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ rt .r.rp ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where, r = Radius of gyration about the axis of the symmetry,

⎛ Polar moment of interia ⎞
rp2 = ⎜
⎝ Area of cross-section ⎟⎠
y0 = Distance of shear centre from the c.g. of the section.
Equation 14.4 for determining the value of the equivalent radius of gyration for
bending and twisting is tedius. The value of rtb may be adopted as r, given by Eq.
14.3 since the differences between these values are small.
14.10 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN COMPRESSION FOR

COLUMNS
The permissible stresses in compression for columns on the gross-area of the cross-
section are found from the curves shown in Fig. 14.3. These curves are based on
the ASCE recommendations.
In case the cross-section of column involves web and outstanding legs of such
proprtions that the design is controlled by local buckling, then, the design should
be checked for local buckling.
The long columns are comparatively flexible. The strength of long columns due
to the presence of lateral loads, e.g., wind, is appreciably reduced. Therefore, as far
as possible, the columns with slenderness ratio, more than 120 should not be used.
In case the effect of lateral loads, e.g., wind is taken into consideration by using
the provision for combined compression and bending, then the columns with
slenderness ratio more than 120 may be used.
1 68
2 01 4– T6
1 40
11 2
C om p ressive stre ss
84
K = 0 .5
N /m m 2
56
K = 0 .7 5
28
6 06 1– T6 K = 1.00
0
20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80
B a se d on th e A S C E C o m m itte e recom m e nd ation s
Fig. 14.3
14 .11 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COLUMNS

The effective length of columns depends upon the end conditions. If a column is
hinged at both ends, then, the effective length of column is equal to actual length.
In case the column is partially restrained at the ends, the effective length of column
is 0.75 times the actual length. In case the column is fixed at both the ends, the
effective length of column is 0.5 times the actual length. The column rarely occurs
as an isolated member. Therefore, it is difficult to know the end conditions of the
columns and consequently the effective length of column. In case it is not clearly
known that the end conditions of the columns are hinged or fixed, the effective
length of column for partially restrained at both the ends may be adopted.
14.12 LACED AND BATTENED COLUMNS

In built-up aluminium columns, when the column sections are connected by load
carrying elements, then, the lacing or batten plates are used to connect the different
load carrying elements. The stay plates are provided near end of the laced column
as practicable. In case the lacing is interrupted at any points, then the stay plates
are also provided as such points. The length of the end stay plates shall not be less
than 1.25 times the distance between rivet lines. The thickness of stay plates shall
not be less than one-fortieth of the distance between the rivet lines.
The slenderness ratio of the parts of the flange between the lacing bar connections
shall not be more than two-thirds of the slenderness ratio of the member.
The lacing or batten plates are designed for the transverse shear V, in addition
to the actual shear due to transverse loads on columns. The transverse shear
⎡ 2⎛ P⎞⎤
V = ⎢ 4.5r ⎜⎝ σt – A ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(14.5)
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ C ⋅ σb ⋅ L ⎦⎥
and V <
| 0.025 P ...(14.6)
where, P = Axial load on the columns
A = Cross-sectional area of column
L = Actual length of column
r = Appropriate radius of gyration
c = Distance of the extreme fibre from the centroidal axis of the column
σc = Allowable compressive stress
σb = Allowable bending stress.
14.13 COMBINED COMPRESSION AND BENDING

In case the columns are subjected to bending in addition to the compression (e.g.,
an eccentrically loaded column) the column should be checked for the following
expression:
σc ⎛ σ ⎞ ...(14.7)
+ ≤ 1.00
Fc ⎜⎜ ⎛ σ ⎞ ⎟⎟
⎜ Fb ⎜1 – F ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ CE ⎠⎠
where, σc = Average stress in compression on gross-area
Fc = Permissible stress in axial compression

σb = Actual maximum stress in bending
Fb = Permissible stress in bending
FCE = Euler stress for axis of bending.
Amplification or magnification factor
⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢⎛ σc ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ FCE ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
14.14 BEAMS
When the beams of single web are not laterally supported continuously throughout
the span, the strength of beam is generally governed by buckling. It causes lateral
buckling (bending) along with twisting of the beams. The value of critical stress
(as per Eq. 6.10, Vol. I), is given by
1/ 2
π2 EI y h ⎛ 1 4GK ´l2 ⎞
Ci = ⋅ ⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟ ...(i)
2 Z xx l2 ⎝ π 2 EI y a 2 ⎠
The compressive stress in an imaginary column of the effective length equal to

the effective length of the compression flange of beam
π2 E
σc = 2
...(ii)
⎛l⎞
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
c
If the expression (i) and (ii) are equated, then

1/ 2
π 2 Erc2 π2 EI y h ⎛ 1 4GK ´l2 ⎞
= ⋅ ⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟
l2 2 Z xx l2 ⎝ π 2 EI y a 2 ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ EI yh ⎞ ⎛ 1 4GK ´l2 ⎞
∴ re = ⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 + ⋅ ⎟ ...(14.8)
⎝ Z xx l2 ⎠ ⎝ π2 EI y a2 ⎠
where,
re = Equivalent radius of gyration
K´ = Torsional constant.
The allowable stress in bending in compression for beam may be found by using
the equivalent radius of gyration, re in the column curves.
The ASCE Committee recommends the allowable stress in compression in the
extreme fibre on gross area of single web beam of rolled shapes, extruded shapes,
girders and built-up sections subjected to bending. The curve is shown in Fig.
14.4. The various terms used in Fig. 14.4 are as follows :
2 04 –T 6
C o m pre ssive stre ss
N /m m 2
6 06 1 – T6
20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 60 1 80
Value s of L / (B /Zxx) 1 /2
( B ased on AS C E S pecifications)
Fig. 14.4
L is the laterally unsupported length of beam (clear distance between the supports
at which the beam is prevented for deflection in laterai direction). For the cantilever
beam L is 1.33 times the laterally supported length. Zxx is the section modulus of
the beam about the axis normal to the web, and
1/ 2
⎡ I ⎛ L⎞ ⎤
2
B = I y h ⎢11.7 + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥ ...(14.9)
⎢⎣ I y h h ⎥⎦
where, h = Depth of beam

ly = Moment of inertia about yy-axis, (axis parallel to the web of the
beam)
J = Torsional constant
14.15 LOCAL BUCKLING OF ELEMENTS IN

COMPRESSION
In case the columns have cross-sections, which involve the web and the outstanding
legs of such proportions, that the local buckling of elements in compression may
take place, then, the design is governed by local buckling. The allowable stress in
compression for single angle section, or tee-section is adopted from Fig. 14.5 and
Fig. 14.3 whichever is small.
R a tio L 1 /2
b 3 /4
1
1
2 2
4
N /m m 2
3
5
6
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(a ) W idth-T hickn ess ratio b
t
1 L
2 b
3
4
C o m pre ssive stress
1
1
2
N /m m 2
3 2
4
5
6
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(b ) W idth-T hickne ss ratio b
t
b
L b
b
(B a sed on th e A S C E C o m m ittee recom m en da tion s)
Fig. 14.5
The following procedure is adopted for the design of compression members other
than angle or tee-section member. This procedure provides a suitable margin of
safety for weaking effect of local buckling of elements in compression.
L = 3
R a tio
b 4
C om p ressive stre ss
1
1
2 1
5 3 2
N /m m 2
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
t
L = 3
R a tio 4
b
1
2 1
2
5 3
N /m m 2
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
(b ) W idth-T hickne ss ratio b
t
b
be
L be
be
(B a sed on th e A S C E C o m m itte e recom m en da tion s)
Fig. 14 6
The compressive stress for flat plate, web or leg is found on the gross-area for
the design loads. The compressive stress should be less than the permissible stress
in compression, corresponding to this compressive stress σc, the limiting width
11 4 L = 3
b 4
84
1
1
1
4
56
2
10
28
N /m m 2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

t
L = 3
4
1
1
1
2
N /m m 2
2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(b ) W idth-T hickn ess ratio b
t
b
L L
(b e/2 ) (b e/2 )
(B a sed on the A S C E C o m m itte e reco m m e nd ation s)
Fig. 14.7
thickness ratio. b/t, (b/t)lim is found from Figs. 14.6 and 14.7. In case the width
thickness ratio is not more than the limiting width thickness ratio, then, the local
buckling does not occur. The gross-area of entire section is taken as effective.
In case the ratio of width to thickness of the flat plate, web or leg is more than
(b/t)lim then, the effective width is used for determining the effective area. The
effective width
⎛f ⎞
be = b ⎜ 1 ⎟ ...(14.10)
⎝ fc ⎠
where, b = Unsupported width of the elements
fc = Compressive stress on gross-area
f1 = Compressive stress obtained from Fig. 14.6 or Fig. 14.7
corresponding to b/t
The stress in compression is then found on the effective area. For the axially
loaded column, the stress in compression is equal to axial load divided by the total
effective area. For the beam and girders the stress in compression is found as
under:
The extreme fibre stress in compression, fc is found for the gross section of the
beam or girder. The ratio of gross compression flange area to the effective
compression flange area is found. Each flange area includes one-sixth the web
area. The effective stress in compression, is then, obtained as the product of fc and
the above ratio. The effective stress should not be more than the allowable stress
obtained from Fig. 14.4.
14.16 RIVETED CONNECTIONS

The aluminium alloy rivets are commonly used for the connections of the structural
members. The steel rivets may also be used. The designation of rivet before and
after driving procedure are given in Table 14.6.
Table 14.6
Driving Shear Suitability
Designation procedure strength for
N/mm 2 alloys
Before After
driving driving
6061–T6 6061 – T6 Cold 210.0 6061 – T6
6061 – T6
6061–T4 6061 – T43 Hot 170.0 2014 – T6
2117–T6 2117 – T3 Cold 230.3 2014 – T6
Note. Table 14.6 is based on Alcoa Structural Handbook).
14.16.1 Effective Diameter

The effective diameter of rivet is defined as the diameter of rivet hole. The diameter
of rivet holes shall not be more than hole diameter given in Table 14.7.
Table 14.7
Nominal diameter of rivet Diameter of hole

(mm) Cold driven (mm) Hot driven (mm)
9.5 9.8 10
11.0 11.5 11.8
12.6 13.2 13.4
14.4 14.8 15.2
16.0 16.3 16.8
19.0 19.4 19.8
22.1 22.6 23.2
25.4 25.8 26.4
14.16.2 Effective Bearing Area

The effective bearing area is defined as the effective diameter of rivet multiplied by
the length in bearing except for the counter-sunk rivet.
Table 14.8 Permissible stresses for rivets
Kinds of stresses Aluminium alloys
6061–T6 6061–T43 2117–T3
(N/mm 2) (N/mm 2) (N/mm 2)
Shear stress 70.0 56.0 70.0
Bearing stress for 6061–T6 190.0 190.0 —
2014–T6 — 252.0 252.0
14.16.3 Permissible Stresses

The permissible stresses have been given in Table 14.4. In addition to this, the
permissible stresses for the aluminium alloy rivets are given in Table 14.8, as above.
14.16.4 Reduction in Strength

When the aluminium rivets are used over comparatively thin plates or shape, the
strength of rivet in shear is reduced. Table 14.9 shows the loss in shear strength
for different diameter of the rivet to thickness of plate ratio.
Table 14.9
(D/t) ratio Percentage reduction in shear strength

Single shear Double shear
1.5 0.0 0.0
2.0 0.0 6.5
2.5 0.0 13.0
3.0 0.0 19.5
3.5 2.0 26.0
4.0 4.0 32.5
Table 14.10
Ratio of edge distance Bearing stress on

to rivet diameter
2014–T6 6061-T6
(N/mm 2 ) (N/mm2)
2 or more 252.0 190.0
1.75 232.0 176.0
1.50 211.0 162.0
The strength of rivet is also reduced in case the small edge distance is provided.
Table 14.10 gives the reduced strength of rivet.
14.16.5 Edge Distance of Rivet

From the plane edge, the edge distance should not be less than 1.5 times the
diameter of rivet. For the flanges of beam and channels the edge distance should
not be less than 12.5 times the diameter of rivet. The distance of the nearest rivet
line from the edge of plate shall not be more than 6 times the thickness of plate.
14.16.6 Spacing of Rivet

The distance between centre to centre of rivet shall not be less than 3 times the
diameter of rivet.
14.16.7 Pitch of Rivets in Built up Compression Member

The pitch in the direction of the stress should be such that the allowable stress on
the individual outside plates and shapes, treated as columns having a length equal
to the rivet pitch in accordance with Fig. 14.3, exceeds the calculated stress. The
pitch of rivets should not be more than 6 times the diameter of rivet. The pitch of
rivet in the end portion is equal to 1.5 times the width, should not be more than
3.5 times the diameter of rivet.
Example 14.1 Design an Indian Standard Aluminium Equal Leg Angles (ISALE)
strut to carry an axial load of 160 kN. The effective length of strut is 1.25 m. Provide
a single section. Adopt a factor of safety of 2.5.
Solution
Step 1: From IS : 3908–1966, try ISALE 100 mm × 100 mm × 12 mm.
Cross-sectional area of the section = 2273 mm2
rxx = ryy = 30.4 mm
ryy = 38.3 mm, ryy = 19.6 mm
∴ rmin = 196 mm
Step 2: Slenderness ratio of the strut
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1200 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 61.2
⎝ rmin ⎠ ⎝ 19.0 ⎠
Let the angle section be made of 6061–T6

From Table 14.5, for rolled structural shapes, Cc = 63
Since, the slenderness ratio,
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 61.2
⎝ rmin ⎠
is less than the value of Cc = 63.
Step 3: Ultimate stress in axial compression (as per Eq. 14.2.) i.e.,
⎡ ⎛ KL ⎞ ⎤
σc = ⎢ Bc = Dc ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎥ = N/mm
2
⎣ ⎦
From Table 14.5,
(Bc = 268.l, Dc = 1.414)
σ c = (268.1 – 1.414 × 61.2) = 181.56 N/mm2
Step 4: Allowable axial stress in compression
⎛ 181.56 ⎞
σc = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 72.625 N/mm2
2.5 ⎠
Step 5: Safe load carrying capacity of the section
⎛ 72.625 × 2273 ⎞
P = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ kN
1000
P = 165.08 kN > 160 kN. Hence, safe.
Example 14.2 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam ISALB 200, @ 161 N per
metre is used as a column. The actual length of column is 3.20 m.
The column is partially fixed at both ends. Determine the safe load carrying
capacity of the column.
Solution
Step 1: Actual length of column = 3.20 m
The column is partially fixed at both ends. The effective length of column
l = 0.75 × 3.2 = 2.4 m
From IS : 5384–1969, for ISALB 200 @ 161 N/m
Cross-sectional area, A = 5980 mm2
Ixx = 3814.3 × 104 mm4, Iyy = 464.2 × 104 mm4
rxx = 79.9 mm, ryy= 27.9 mm
J = 49.6 × l04 mm4
∴ Iy = Ixx + Iyy= (3814.3 + 464.2) × 104
= 4278.5 × 104 mm4
Step 2: Slenderness ratio for failure by bending
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2.40 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 86.02
⎝ rmin ⎠ ⎝ 27.9 ⎠
For failure by twisting, the equivalent radius of gyration is given by Eq. 14.3
1
⎡ Cc + 0.038J ( KL )2 ⎤ 2
rt = ⎢ ⎥ mm
⎣⎢ Ix + I y ⎦⎥
For I-section
⎛ d2 I y ⎞
Cs = ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞
= ⎜ 200 × 200 × 464.2 × 10 ⎟
4
∴ Cs = 46420 × 104 mm
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎡ 46420 × 104 + 0.038 × 49.6 × 104 × 2400 × 240 ⎤

∴ rt = ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 4278.5 × 104 ⎦⎥
= 33.0 mm
1 ⎛ 2.40 × 1000 ⎞
∴ =⎜ ⎟⎠ = 72.727
rt ⎝ 33.0
The maximum slenderness ratio is 86. Let the column section be made of 2014-
T6.
Step 3: Permissible stress in axial compression from Fig. 14.3.
σc´ = 74.0 N/mm2
Step 4: Safe load carrying capacity of the section
⎛ 74.0 × 5980 ⎞
P = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 442.52 kN.
⎝ 1000
Example 14.3 An Indian Standard Aluminium Channel Section ISALC 200,
@ 153.3 N/m carries a vertical load of 120 kN at an eccentricity of 60 mm along
the xx-axis. The effective length of the column is 1.60 m. Find whether the column
is strong enough to carry the load. The column is partially fixed at both ends.
Solution
Step 1: From IS : 3921–1966, the geometrical properties of the section ISALC
200, @ 153.3 N/m are as follows:
Cross-sectional area,
A = 5678 mm2, Zxx = 349.97 × 103 mm3
rxx = 78.5 mm, ryy = 31.2 mm
∴ rmin = 31.2 mm
Step 2: Maximum slenderness ratio
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1.60 × 1000 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 51.28
⎝ rmin ⎠ ⎝ 31.2
Step 3: Permissible stress in axial compression (from Fig.14.3 for

2014–T6)
Fc = 132.l N/mm2
Step 4: Average axial stress in the column
⎛ 120 × 1000 ⎞
σc = ⎜ = 21.13 N/mm2
⎝ 5678 ⎟⎠
Step 5: Actual bending stress in the section
⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 120 × 1000 × 60 ⎞
σb= ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟ = 20.57 N/mm
2
⎝ Z xx ⎟⎠ ⎝ 349.97 × 1000 ⎠
Step 6: Permissible bending stress (from Table 14.4)
Fb = 155.0 N/mm2
Step 7: Euler’s stress for axial of bending
⎛ π2 × 0.745 × 105 ⎞
π2 E
FCE = = ⎜ ⎛ 1600 ⎞
2 ⎟
⎛ ⎞1
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ 78.5 ⎠
x
= 1769.92 N/mm2
Step 8: Check: The column is subjected to compression combined with bending
σc ⎡ σb ⎤ ⎡ 21.13 20.57 ⎤
∴ +⎢ = ⎢132.10 + 21.13 ⎞ ⎥
Fc
⎢ Fb ⎛⎜1 – c
σ ⎞ ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎛
155 ⎜1 – ⎟⎥
F ⎟ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 1769.92 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ ⎝ CE ⎠ ⎦⎥
= (0.16 + 0.134 = 0.294) < 1.00. Hence, safe.
Example 14.4 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam Section ISALB 150 @
121 N/m is used as a cantilever beam. Compute the safe uniformly distributed
load inclusive of self-weight, which the beam may carry without lateral or local
buckling. The cantilever beam is 3.20 m. For lateral buckling, the effective length
may be adopted as 0.85 times the actual length.
Solution
Step 1: From IS : 5384–1969, the geometrical properties are as follows :
Depth of section, h = 150 mm
Width of flange, b = 100 mm
Thickness of web, tw = 10 mm
Thickness of flange, t = 16 mm
Ixx = 1607.9 × 104 mm4, Zx x = 214.4 × 103 mm3
Iyy = 268.1 × l0 4 mm4, K = 353 × 104 mm4
Step 2: For lateral buckling
Effective length of beam = 0.85 × 3.20 = 2.72 m
From Eq. 14.9,

1/2
⎡ J ⎛L⎞ ⎤
2
B = Iy .h . ⎢11.7 + ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⎥ mm5
⎢⎣ Iy ⎝ h ⎠ ⎥
⎦
1/2
⎡ 353.3×104 ⎛ 2720 ⎞ ⎤
= 268.1 × 104 × 150 ⎢11.7+ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ 268.1×104 ⎝ 150 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 2.98 × 105 mm5
I 2720
∴ = 1/ 2 = 23
B / Zxx ⎛ 2.28×105 ⎞
⎜⎜ 3 ⎟
⎟
⎝ 21.4 × 10 ⎠
Let the beam be made of 2014–T6 alloy. From Fig. 14.4. the allowable compressible
stress in bending
σbc = 124.0 N/mm2
For local buckling
Width-thickness ratio for outstand of the flanges
⎛ b 1 ⎞ ⎛ 100 1 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎟=⎜ × ⎟ = 3.125
⎝ 2 t ⎠ ⎝ 2 16 ⎠
⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ 3.20 × 100 ⎞
⎜ b / 2 ⎟ ratio = ⎜ 50 ⎟ = 160
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
This for the purpose of determining the allowable stress in bending in compression
may be adopted as infinity.
From Fig. 14.7 (b),
σ = 155.0 N/mm2
The failure would occur in lateral buckling. Therefore, the allowable stress is
adopted as 124.0 N/mm3 to avoid lateral buckling.
Moment of resistance of the beam section
⎛ 3⎞
M = ⎜ 124.0 × 214.4 × 10 ⎟ = 26.58 kN-m
⎝ 1000 × 1000 ⎠
The maximum bending occurs at the support for the cantilever beam,
1
M1 = w × 3.202 kN-m
2
∴ ( 12 × w × 3.20 ) = 26.58
∴ w = 5.19 kN/m
Example 14.5 Two plates 12 mm × 200 mm and 16 mm × 200 mm are jointed

by rivets by lap joint. Design the connection for the full strength of the plate
subjected to tension.
Solution
Step 1: It is assumed that the plates are made of 6061–T6 aluminium
alloy. Let 19 mm diameter rivets are used and rivets are cold driven. Let the chain
be done, and three rivets be provided in one chain line.
Gross diameter of rivet = 19.4 mm
Minimum edge distance
= (1.25 ×19.4) = 24.2 mm
Provide 25 mm edge distance.
Minimum spacing of rivets
= (3 × 19.4) = 58.2 mm
Provide 75 mm spacing between the rivets.
Net sectional area of the thinner plate
= (200 – 3 × 19.4) × 12 = 1701.6 mm2
Maximum strength of thinner plate in tension
⎛ 1701.6 × 155 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 263.748 kN
⎝ 100
Let the rivets be made of 2117–T3 aluminium alloy.
⎡ π (12.4 )2 × 70.0 ⎤
= ⎢ × ⎥ = 20.691 kN
⎣4 1000 ⎦
⎛ D⎞ ⎛ 19.4 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ratio = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 1.615
t 12 ⎠
There is no loss of shear as per Table 14.9
Edge-distance to diameter of rivet ratio
⎛ 25 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 1.29
⎝ 19.4 ⎠
Allowable stress in bending from Table 14.10
= 211N/mm2
⎛ 12 × 211.0 ⎞
= 19.4 × ⎜ = 49.12 kN
⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠
⎛ 263.748 ⎞
Number of rivets = ⎜ = 12.746
⎝ 20.691 ⎟⎠
Provide15 rivets in five rows with 3 rivets in each row.
Problems
14.1 Design an Indian Standard Aluminium Equal Leg Angle (ISALE) strut
to carry an axial load of 12 kN. The effective length of the strut is l.80 m.
Provide a single angle section.
14.2 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam ISALB 200, @ 129 N/m is used as
a column. The actual length of column is 2.80 m. The column is partially
fixed at both the ends. Determine the safe load carrying capacity of the
column.
14.3 An Indian Standard Channel section ISALC 150, @ 102.6 N/m carries a
vertical load of 180 kN at an eccentricity of 80 mm along the xx-axis. The
effective length of the column is 2.40 m. Find whether the column is
strong enough to carry the load. The column is partially fixed at both the
ends.
14.4 An Indian Standard Aluminium Beam section ISALB 200, @ 134 N/m is
used as a cantilever beam. Compute the safe uniformly distributed load
inclusive of self-weight, which the beam may carry without lateral or
local buckling. The cantilever beam is 3.80 m. For lateral buckling, the
effective length may be adopted as 0.85 times the actual length.
14.5 Two plates 10 mm × 160 mm and 12 mm × 160 mm are connected by
rivets by lap joint. Design the connection for the full strength of the plate
subjected to tension.
15. Influence Lines for Stresses in Frames
16. Analysis of Space Frames
17. Analysis of Secondary Stresses
18. Special Structures

CHAPTER
15
Influence Lines for Stresses in
Frames
15.1 INTRODUCTION
German Professor E. Winkler introduced the concept of influence lines in 1867.
When a structure is subjected to external loads and analysed, the reactions at the
supports, shear forces, bending moments and axial forces and deflections (referred
as some functions) are determined at some or more locations by drawing the
respective influence diagrams.
An influence line diagram is a diagram which represents some function
(e.g., reaction at the support, shear force, bending moment, deflection, stresses
in members) at a particular point of section or a given member of a girder, as a
unit load moves over the span. The influence line diagram shows the influence of
a unit load as it travels across the structure on a certain function (for which the
influence line diagram is drawn). The ordinates of influence line diagrams are
termed as influence coefficients. The influence line diagram is drawn with
span as the base line. The ordinates are drawn on some suitable scale. The ordinates
represent the value of that function at the given section or member for the various
positions of unit load on the span. The influence line diagrams are widely used
particularly in the design of truss girder bridges. The stresses in various members
are obtained for the specified live loads (moving or rolling loads) by using the
influence line diagrams for the members of the frames or truss girders.
The influence line diagrams are used for two purposes. Firstly, the influence
line diagram is essential to determine the position of live loads (moving or rolling
loads) which shall give the maximum value of the specific function for which the
influence line diagram has been constructed. Secondly, the value of the particular
function with the loads placed at the above said position is calculated. The influence
line diagrams may be drawn for both determinate as well as indeterminate
structures.
The various types of bridge truss girders have been shown in Fig. 4.1 in
Sec. 4.2. The various types of truss girders are parallel chord truss girders, the
truss girders with inclined or curved chords and the truss girders with sub-
divided panels. The parallel chord truss girders are used for 30 m to 60 m spans.
The inclined or truss curved chord truss girders are used for 60 m to 120 m span.
For large spans, and to maintain economical panel length and inclination of
diagonals, the truss girders with sub-divided panels, or K-trusses are used. These
members which are essential for the stability of the truss girders are known as
main members. There are sub-members or secondary members in some truss
bridge girders. In case the sub-members are removed, even then, the trass bridge
girders remain stable.
The influence line diagrams for stresses in the various members of the truss
bridge girders have been discussed in the subsequent articles. It would be seen
from the influence line diagrams that the main members carry stresses for all
position of load on the span, and the sub-members carry stresses for some or
limited positions of load on the span.
15.2 INFLUENCE LINE DIAGRAMS FOR STRESSES IN

MEMBERS OF A PRATT TRUSS WITH PARALLEL
CHORDS
A Pratt truss with parallel chord is shown in Fig. 15.1 (a).
Pratt truss is a statically determinate structure. The height of Pratt truss is
7 m and panel length is 5 m
7
sin θ = = 0.814, cosec θ = 1.228, cos θ = 0.58
7 + 52
2
15.2.1 Influence Line Diagram For U3U4 (Top Chord Members)

For the members U3U4, the stress is determined by considering a section aa as
shown in Fig. 15.1 (a). The section aa intersects three members, namely U3U4,
U3L4 and L3L4. Both the portions of truss girder viz., left and right hand portions
of section aa are in equilibrium separately and individually. Each portion carries
a reaction at its support due to unit load having some position as external force
and forces in U3U4,U3L4 and L3L4 as internal forces. Any portion either left or
right of the truss girder may be considered. It is desirable to consider only one
side, say left side of the truss girder as a usual practice. The members U3U4 and
L3L4 intersect at point L4. Therefore, the stress in members U3U4 is
⎛ Bending moment about L4 M ⎞

U 3U 4 = ⎜ = L4 ⎟
⎝ Perpendicular distance from L4 to U3U4 7 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for U 3U 4 = (I.L.D. for MLA).
7.
INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 763
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel point L4 is a triangle.
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is (20 × 20)/40 = 10. The maximum ordinate
1
of the triangle showing the influence line diagram × 10 = 1.427. In order to
7
mark the nature of force, whether compressive or tensile, consider a unit load at
3
L3 (any panel point). The reaction at support A, RA = .
8
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 U7
7m
θ
A
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 B
b a
8 P a ne ls @ 5 m = 40 m
(a ) P ra tt truss
(– ) 1 .42 7
(b ) I.L.D . for U4
(+ ) 1 .33 9
(c) I.L.D . fo r L 3 L 4
(+ ) 0 .37 5
0 .50 (+ )
(d ) I.L.D . for U 3 U 3
0 .61 4 (+ )
(– ) 0 .46 1
(e ) I.L.D . for U U
3 3
(+ ) 1 .00
(f) I.L .D . fo r U 1 L 1
Fig. 15.1
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of the frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces, reaction RA, and unit load at L3,
and internal forces in U3U4 U3 and L4. The moments of L3L4 about panel point L4
are zero. The moment of external forces about L4.
⎛5 ⎞
MLA = ⎜ 8 × 20 – 1 × 5 ⎟ = + 7.5 units.
⎝ ⎠
The bending moment about a point from the left hand side of a section in clockwise
direction. The bending moment ML4 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance
bending moment ML4, an anti-clockwise moment due to (force, stress in the member
U3U4 about L4 in needed. The stress in member U3U4 gives anti-clockwise moment
about L4, when the force in U3U4 acts right to left. This direction right to left is
marked at the panel point U3, since the left hand portion of the frame is under
consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U3U4 is compressive
(negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the
unit load. Since, the influence line diagram for U3U4 is only on negative side of the
base, the nature of stress in U3U4 for all positions of unit load is compressive. The
influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in U3U4 is shown in Fig. 15.1 (b).
15.2.2 Influence Line Diagram for L3 L4 (Bottom Chord

Member)
The section aa shown in Fig.15.1 (a) is also suitable for determining the stress in
the member L3L4. The section aa intersects three members, namely L3L4, U3L4
and U3U4. The members U3L4 and U3U4 intersect at point U3. The force in L3L4 is
determined by taking moment about panel point U3. Therefore,
⎛ Bending moment about U3 ⎞ MU 3
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ Perpendicular distance from U3 to L3 L4 ⎠ 7
1
∴ I.L.D. for L3 L4 = (I.L.D. for MU3)
7
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel pointU3 is a triangle.
(15 × 25)
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is = 9.37. The maximum ordinate
40
1
of the triangle showing the influence line diagram is× 9.37 = 1.339. In order to
7
mark the nature of force, whether compressive or tensile, consider unit load at
5
any panel point say L3. The reaction at support, RA = .
8
Consider the left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of the frame is
in equilibrium under the action of external forces (reaction RA, and unit load at L3)
and the internal forces in the members L3L4, U3L4 and U3U4. The moments of
U3U4 and U3L4 about panel point U3 are zero. The moment of the external force
about U3,
⎛5 ⎞
MU3 = ⎜ × 15 ⎟ = + 9.37 units.
⎝8 ⎠
The bending moment MU3 is in clockwise direction, and, it is positive. In order
to balance bending moment MU3, an anti-clockwise moment due to stress in the
member L3L4 about U3 is needed. The stress in member L3L4 gives anti-clockwise
moment about U3, when the force in L3L4 acts left to right. This direction left to
right is marked at the panel point L3, since the left hand portion of the frame is
under consideration. This shows that the nature of sress in L3L4 is tensile (positive).
The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram, under the unit load.
This influence line diagram for L3L4 is only on positive side of the base, the nature
of stress in L3L4 for all postions of unit load is tensile. The influence line diagram
(I.L.D.) for stress in L3L4 is shown in Fig. 15.1 (c).
15.2.3 Influence Line Diagram for U3U4 (Vertical Member)

The stress in member U3L3 is determined by considering a section bb as shown in
15.1 (a). The section bb intersects three members, namely, U2 U3, U3 L3 and L3 L4.
The vertical components of stresses in U2U3 and L3L4 are zero. The member U3L3
is a vertical memeber, and, it belongs to the panel L3L4. Therefore,
U3U4 = Shear force in panel L3L4 = FL3L4
I.L.D. for = I.L.D. for FL3L4
The one ordinate of influence line diagram for shear force in the panel L3L4 is
⎛m⎞ ⎛3⎞
⎜ n ⎟ = ⎜ 8 ⎟ = 0.375
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
where, m = Number of panels to the left of panel L3L4
n = Total number of panels of the frame.
The other ordinate of influence line diagram for shear force in panel L3L4 is
(n – 1 – m ) (8 – 1 – 3 )
= = 0.5. In order to mark the nature of force in member
n 8
U3U3, whether compressive or tensile, consider any panel point, say L2 for AO,
and any other panel point, say L4 for OB.
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The unit load is at L2 . The reaction RA
is equal to 0.75. The shear force in the panel L3L4, FL3L4 = (1 – 0.75) = 0.25 units.
This shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3L3 acts
upwards. The upward direction of force is marked at L3 in the member U3L3 since
the left hand portion is under consideration. This shows that the nature of force in
U3L3 for positions of unit load from A to O is tensile (positive). The positive sign is
marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load. Similarly, consider unit
load at L4 and the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame. The reaction RA is
eaqual to 0.5. The unit load is on right hand side of the section bb. The shear force
acts upward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3L3 acts downward. The
downward direction of force is marked at L3 in the memberU3L3. This shows that
the nature of force is compressive (negative) for all positions of unit load from O to
B. This influence line diagram for stress in U3L3 is shown in Fig. 15.1(d).
15.2.4 Influence Line Diagram for U3L4 (Diagonal Member)

The section aa shown in Fig. 15.1 (a) is also suitable for determining the stress in
a diagonal member U3L4 . The section aa intersects three members, namely U3U4,
L3L4 and U3L4. The members U3U4and L3L4are horizontal members. The vertical
components of stresses in U3U4 and L3L4 are zero. The member U3L4 is a diagonal
member and it belongs to the panel L3L4. The vertical component of stress in
U3U4 is equal to the shear force in the panel L3L4. Therefore, force in L3L4 is
U3 L4 = SF in L3L4 × cosec θ = SF in L3L4 × 1.228
I.L.D. for U 3 L4 = 1.228 × I.L.D. in SF in L3L4.
The influence line diagram for shear force in panel L3L4 is same as influence
line diagram for force in member U3L3 as discussed above. The ordinates of influence
line diagram shown in Fig.15.1 (d) are multiplied by 1.228 and are shown in
Fig. 15.1(e).
In order to mark the nature of force in member U3L4, whether compressive or
tensile, consider any panel point say L2 for AO1 and any other panel point, say L2
for O1B.
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The unit load is at L2 . The reaction RA
is equal to 0.75. The shear force in panel L3L4. FL3L4 = (1 – 0.75) = 0.25 units. This
shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
stress in U3L4 acts upward. Therefore the direction of force inU3L5 is right to left
upward. This shows that the stress in U3L4 is compressive (negative). The negative
sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the load. Similarly consider
unit load at L4. The reaction RA is equal to 0.5. The unit load is on the right hand
side of the section. The shear force in panel L3L4 is equal to 0.5. This shear force
acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of stress in U3L4 acts
downward. The force in U3L4 corresponding to this acts from left to right downward.
This sign is marked at U3. This shows that the force in U3L4 is tensile (positive).
The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram for the member U 3 L4
under the load. The influence line diagram U3 L4 is shown in Fig. 15.1 (e).
15.2.5 Influence Line Diagram for U 1L1

The member U1L1 carries the load so long as unit load, load travels L0to L2. When
the unit load is at L1, then, the stress in U1L1 is equal to 1.00. The unit load acts
downward, the stress in U1L1 acts upward and it is tensile. The influence line
diagram for U1L1 is shown in Fig. 15.1 (f).
This is to note that U1L1 , U4L4, and U7L7 are the sub-members. The removal
of these members does not affect the stability of the frame. The rest of the members
of the frame are main members. They are subjected to stress for all positions of
moving load.
15.3 INFLUENCE LINE DIAGRAM FOR STRESSES IN

MEMBERS OF A PRATT TRUSS WITH CURVED
CHORD
A Pratt truss with curved chord is shown in Fig.15.2 (a). Pratt truss consists of
six panels, each of 6 m length
4.5 6
sin θ = = 0.6 cos θ = = 0.8
(4.5
2
+6 )
2 1/2 (56.25)1 / 2
15.3.1 Influence Line Diagram for U1U2

The stress in member U1U2 is determined by considering a section aa as shown in
Fig.15.2 (a). The section aa intersects three members, namely, U1U2,U1U2 and
L1L2. The members U1L2 and L1L2 meet at panel point L2. Therefore, the stress in
member U1U2 is
⎛ Moment about L2 ⎞ M L2
U1U2 = ⎜ ⎟= x
⎝ P erpendicular distance L2 to U1U2 ⎠ U1U2
In order to determine perpendicular distance L2 to U1U2, xU1U2 ,produce U2U1

and L2L0, these directions intersect at point P.
⎛ 7.5 – 4.5 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.5,θ1= 26° 34´
⎝ 6
sin θ = 0.447, cos θ1 = 0.984
⎛ 4.5 ⎞ ⎛ 7.5 ⎞
PL1 = ⎜ = 9 m, PL3 = ⎜ = 15 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ tan θ1 ⎟⎠
∴ xU1U2 = PL2 sin θ1 = 15 × 0.447 = 6.70 m
⎛ M L2 ⎞
Therefore, U1U2 = ⎜⎝ ⎟
6.7 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
I.L.D/ for U1U2 = ⎜ × I.L.D. for ML2
⎝ 6.70 ⎟⎠
⎛ 12 × 24 ⎞
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is ⎜ = 8.0. The maximum ordinate
⎝ 36 ⎟⎠
⎛ 8 ⎞
of influence line diagram stress in member U1U2 is ⎜ = 1.93. In order to
⎝ 6.7 ⎟⎠
mark the nature of force, whether compressive or tensile, consider a unit load at
L1. The reaction at support A is RA,
⎛ 5⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6⎠
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces (reaction RA, and unit load at L1);
and internal forces in U1U2, U1L2 and L1L2. The moments of internal forces in
U1L2 about panel point L2 are zero. The moment of external forces about L2,
⎛5 ⎞
ML2 = ⎜ × 12 – 1 × 6⎟ = + 4 units
⎝6 ⎠
U3
U2 U4
a b
U1 9m U5
7 .5 7 .5 4 .5
4 .5
θ1 θ m θ m
A L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 B
6 P a ne ls @ 6 m = 36 m
(a ) P ra tt tru ss w ith
curve d ch ord
(– ) 1 .19 3
(b ) I.L.D for U 1 U 2
(+ ) 1 .111
(c) I.L.D fo r L 1 L 2
0 .22 2 (+ )
(– )
0 .72 2
(d ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 L 2
(+ )
0 .86 7
(e ) I.L.D for U 2 L 2
(f) I.L .D for U 1 L 1
Fig. 15.2
The moment ML2 is in clockwise direction. In order to balance ML2, an anti-

clockwise moment due to stress in U1U2 about L2, is necessary. The stress in
member U1U2 gives anti-clockwise moment about L2, when the force in U1U2 acts
right to left downward. This direction right to left downward is marked at point
U2, since the left hand portion of the frame is under consideration. This shows
that the nature of stress in U1U2 is compressive (negative). The negative sign is
marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load. Since the influence line
diagram for stress in U1U2 is only on negative side of the base, the nature of stress
in U1U2 for all positions of unit load is compressive. The influence line diagram
(I.L.D.) for stress in U1U2 is shown in Fig. 15.2 (b).
15.3.2 Influence Line Diagram for L1 L2

The stress aa shown in Fig. 15.2 (a) is also suitable for determining the stress in
member L1L2. The section aa intersects three members, namely, L1L2, and U1L2
and . The members U1U2 and U1L2 meet at panel point U1. Therefore in L1L2 is
determined by taking moment about point U1. Therefore,
⎛ Bending moment about U1 ⎞ MU1

L1 L2 = ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ P erpendicular distance U1 to L1 L2 ⎠ 4.5
1
I.L.D. for L1 L2 = ×(I.L.D for MU1)
4.5
The influence line diagram for bending moment at panel point U1 is a triangle.
⎛ 6 × 30 ⎞
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 5.0. The maximum ordinate
⎝ 36 ⎠
⎛ 5.0 ⎞
of triangle which shows the influence line diagram for stress in U1U2 is ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 4.5 ⎠
1.111 at U2 as shown in Fig.15.2 (c). In order to mark the nature of stress, whether
compressive or tensile, consider unit load at any panel-point say L1. The reaction
at support A is RA,
5
RA =
6
Consider left-hand portion of the frame. The left-hand portion frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces, (reaction RA, and unit load at L1),
and internal forces in U1U2,U1L2 and L1L2. The moments of U1U2 and U1L2 about
point U1 are zero. The moment of external forces about U1,
⎛5 ⎞
MU1 – ⎜ × 6 ⎟ = + 5.0 units.
⎝ 6 ⎠
The bending moment MU1 is in clockwise direction. In order to balance bending
moment MU1, an anti-clockwise moment about U1 due to stress in L1L2 is necessary.
The stress in L1L2 gives anti-clockwise moment U1. when the force in L1L2 acts
left to right. This direction left to right is marked at panel point U1, since the left
hand portion of the frame is under consideration. This shows that the nature of
stress in L1L2 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line
diagram under the unit load. The influence line diagram for L1L2 is only on positive
side of the base. The nature of stress in L1L2 for all positions of unit load is tensile.
The influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in L1L2 is shown in Fig. 15.12 (c).
15.3.3 Influence Line Diagram for U1 L2

The section aa shown in Fig.15.2 (a) is also suitable for determining the stress in
diagonal member U1L2 . The section aa intersects three membrs, namely,
U1U2,U1L2 and L1L2. The prolonged directions of U1L2 and L1L2 intersect at P.
Therefore, stress in L1L2 is
⎛ Moment about P ⎞ MP
L1 L2 = ⎜
⎝ Perpendicular distance from P to L1 L2 ⎟⎠ X U1L2
PL2 = 15 m from above. Therefore,
xU1L2 = 15 × sin θ = 15 × 0.6 = 9 m. Therefore,
⎛1 ⎞
U1L2 = ⎜ ⎟ × MP .
⎝9⎠
⎛1 ⎞
I.L.D. for U1 L2 = ⎜ × I.L.D. for M P ⎟
⎝9 ⎠
Consider left hand portion of the frame when the unit load is at support A, RA =
1.00. Thereforer, MP = 0. Hence, the stress in member U1L2 is zero. When the unit
⎛ 5⎞
load is at L1 the reaction at support A is RA, ⎜ RA = ⎟
⎝ 6⎠
⎛1 ⎞ ⎡ 5 ⎤
U1U2 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎢1 × 9 – × 0.3 ⎥ = 0.722 (Compressive).
⎝9⎠ ⎣ 6 ⎦
The moment due to unit load is greater than that due to reaction RA, about P.
The moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an anti-
clockwise moment due to stress in U1L2 is necessary. The force in U1L2 gives anti-
clockwise moment about P, when the direction of force is right to left upward.
This direction is marked at point U1. This shows that the stress in U1L2 is
compressive (negative).
⎛4⎞
When the unit load is at L2, the reaction at support A, RA is equal to ⎜ ⎟ . The
⎝6⎠
unit load is on right hand side of the section aa. The MP due to reaction, RA about
P is anti-clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in member U1L2 gives
clockwise moment. The stress in member U1L2 gives clockwise moment when the
direction of force is left to right downward, i.e. tensile (positive).
⎛1 4 ⎞
U1L2 = ⎜ × × 3⎟ = + 0.222 (Tensile).
⎝9 6 ⎠
When the unit load is at support B, RA is zero. Hence, MP and stress in U1L2
are zero. The influence line diagram for stress in U1L2 shown in Fig. 15.22 (d).

In order to determine the stress in member U1L2, consider a section bb as shown
in Fig. 15.2 (a). The section bb intersects three members, namely U1L2, U2L2 and
U2L3. The prolonged directions of members U1L2 andU2L3 meet at point P.
Therefore, stress in member U2L2 is,
⎛ MP ⎞
U1U2 = ⎜
⎝ xU2L2 ⎟⎠
The perpendicular distance from point P, to the member is U2L2, xU2L2 15 m.
⎛M ⎞
Therefore, U2 L2 = ⎜ P⎟
⎝ 15 ⎠
Where, MP is the moment of all the forces to the left of section bb.
When the unit load is at support A,RA= 1. The moment MP is zero. Hence, the
stress in U2L2 is also zero. When the unit load moves form A to L2, value of RA
⎛4⎞
becomes less than unity. When the unit load is at L2, reaction RA = ⎜ ⎟ . The
⎝6⎠
moment due to unit load at L2 about point P is greater than that due to reaction
RA. The net moment due to these external forces, MP is in clockwise direction. In
order to balance this, the stress in U2L2 gives anti-clockwise moment about P.
The stress in U2L2 gives anti-clockwise moment when the direction of force in it is
upward. This direction is marked at L2. This shows that the nature of force in
U2L2 for unit load at L2 is tensile.
⎛1 ⎞ ⎡ 4 ⎤
U1 L2 = ⎜ 15 ⎟ × ⎢1×15 – × 3⎥ = + 0.867
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ 15 ⎦
When unit load is at L3, then, the load is on right hand side of section bb. The
section at support A, RA = 0.50.
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The reaction RA , is only external force
acting on the left hand portion. The moment due to reaction RA about point P, MP
is therefore anti-clockwise. A clockwise moment due to stress in U2L2 is necessary
in order to balance MP . The moment due to stress in U2L2 is clockwise when the
direction of force in U2L2 acts downward. This direction is marked at L2. This
shows that the nature of force is compressive (negative). Therefore,
1
U1 L2 = × (0.5 × 3) = 0.1 (Compressive)
15
When the unit load is at B,RA is zero. Therefore, MP and stress U2L2 are
zero. The influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in member U2L2 is shown in
Figure 15.2 (e).
15.3.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U1L1

The member U1L1 carries stress so long as unit load moves from L0 to L2. For rest
of the positions of moving load, stress in member U1L1 is zero. When the unit load
is at L1, the stress in U1L1 is 1.00 and it is tensile. The influence line diagram
(I.L.D.) for stress U1L1 is shown in Fig.15.2 (f).

MEMBERS OF A WARREN TRUSS WITH PARALLEL
CHORDS
A Warren truss with parallel chord is shown in Fig.15.3 (a). Warren truss is a
statically determinate structure. Warren truss is composed of five equal panel
length is 7 m. The diagonal members are inclined 60° to the horizontal.
3
The height of truss is 7 = 6.05 m. The bottom chord is loaded.
2
sin 60° = 0.866, cos 60° = 0.500
15.4.1 Influence Line Diagram for U2 L3 (Top chord member)

In order to obtain the stress in member U2U3, consider a section aa as shown in
Fig.15.3 (a). The section aa intersects three members, namely, U2U3, U2L2, and
L1L2. The members U2L2 and L1L2 meet a panel point L2. The stress is member
L1L2 is obtained by dividing the bending moment about point L2 by the height of
truss. Therefore,
⎛ Bending moment about L2 ⎞ M L2

U2 L3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 6.05
⎝ Height of truss girder ⎠
⎛ M L2 ⎞
I.L.D. for U2 L2 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎝ ⎟
6.05 ⎠
(14 × 21)
35
⎛ 8.4 ⎞
of triangle showing influence line diagram is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.388. To mark the nature
⎝ 6.05 ⎠
of force whether compressive or tensile, consider unit load at any panel point, say
⎛4⎞
L1. The reaction at support A, RA = ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝5⎠
Consider the left-hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces (reaction RA , and unit load at L1
and internal forces in members U2U3, U2L2 and L1L2. The moments of stress in
U2L2 and L1L2 about L2 are zero. The moment of external forces about L1.
⎛4 ⎞
ML = ⎜⎝ × 14 – 1 × 7⎟⎠ = + 5.2 units
2 5
The bending moment ML2 is in clockwise direction. In order to balance bending
moment ML2, an anti-clockwise moment due to stress in member U2U3 is necessary.
The stress in member U2U3 gives anti-clockwise moment about L2, when the
direction of force in U2U3 is from right to left. This direction right to left is marked
at panel point U2, since, the left-hand portion of the frame is under consideration.
This shows that the nature of stress in U2U4 is compressive, (negative). The
negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the load. The influence
line diagram for stress in U2U3 is only on negative side of the base. The nature of
stress in U2U3 for all positions of unit load is compressive. The influence line
diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in U2U3 is shown in Fig. 15.3 (b).
15.4.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in Member L1L2

(Bottom Chord Member)
The section aa as shown in Fig.15.3 (a) is suitable for determining the stress in
member L1L2. The section aa intersects three members, nemely, U2U3, U2L2 and
L1L2. The members U2U3 and U2L2 meet at point U2. The stress in member L1L2
is found by dividing bending moment at U2 by the height of girder. The stress in
member L1L2 is maximum, when the bending moment at U2 is maximum. When
the unit load moves across the girder, it produces maximum bending moment at
U2, and, therefore, the maximum stress in the member L1L2, when the unit load
is the vertical plane U2X.
In a bridge, the unit load moves on rails. The rails are supported by stringers.
The stringers are connected to the floor beams. The floor beams are connected at
the panel points of the bottom chord in the case of through type bridge. The load is
transmitted to the main girders through the floor beams.
When the unit load is at the centre of the stringer, which spans between the
floor beams at L1and L2, then, it is transferred to the panel points at L1 and L2 as
two loads of half unit each. Therefore the actual bending moment in the vertical
panel U2X and the stresses in L1L2 are less than if the whole of unit load was
placed directly to the main truss as X.
If it is assumed that unit load is applied directly on the main truss at X, then
⎛ 10.5 × 24.5 ⎞
bending moment at X is equal to ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 7.36 units. The stress in member
⎝ 35
⎛ 7.36 ⎞
is equal to ⎜ ⎟ = 1.211 units. ARB as shown in Fig. 15.3 (c) would have been
⎝ 6.05 ⎠
the influence line diagram for the stress in member L1L2. PQ and TW ordinates
are drawn from panel points L1 and L2 respectively to the diagram ARB. The
b a
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5
θ= 60 °
A B
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
b a
6 P a ne ls @ 7 m = 3.5 m
(a ) W a rren truss
(– ) 1 .38 8
R' (b ) I.L.D . for U 2 U 3

T
P
0 .80 4 1 .211 1 .03 1

(+ )
Q S (c) I.L.D . for L 1 L 2
(+ ) 0 .69 2
– 0.2 31 O
(d ) I.L.D . for U 2 L 2
(– ) 0 .69 2
(e ) I.L.D for U 2 L 1
Fig. 15.3
diagram APTR as shown in Fig.15.3 (c) is the required influence line diagram for
the stress in member L1L2. This is to note that this truncating of the diagram is
special feature of the influence line diagram for Warren truss and it applies to the
loaded chord.
In order to mark the nature of stress, whether compressive or tensile, consider

unit load at any panel point, say L1. Consider the left hand portion of the frame
⎛4⎞
from section aa. The reaction at support A is RA = ⎜ ⎟ . The bending moment
⎝5⎠
about U2,
⎛4 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 10.5 – 1 × 3.5 ⎟ = + 5.3 units
2
⎝ 5 ⎠
This bending moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this an
anti-clockwise moment due to stress in L1L2 about U2 is needed. The stress in
L1L2 gives anti-clockwise moment when the direction of force is from left to right.
This left to right direction is marked at L1. This shows that the nature of stress in
L1L2 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked under the unit load which
one is at L1.
15.4.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2L2 (Diagonal

Member)
The section aa as shown in Fig.15.3 (a) is also suitable for obtaining stress in
member U2L2. The section aa intersects U2U3, U2L2 and L1L2. The members
U2U3 and L1L2 , are horizontal members. The vertical components of stresses in
U2U3 and L1L2 are zero. The vertical component of stress in member U2L2 is equal
to the shear force in panel L1L2. The stress in member U2L2 is equal to shear force
in panel L1L2 multiplied by cosec θ.
Therefore,
U1 L2 = FL cosec θ = 1.154 × FL
1L2 × 1L2
I.L.D. for U1 L2 = 1.154 × I.L.D. for FL

1L2
The ordinate of influence line diagram for stress in member U2L2 at L1
⎛ 1.154 × 1 ⎞
= 1.154 × m = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.231
n ⎝ 5 ⎠
where, m is number of panels to the left of L1 and x is total number of panels.
The ordinates of influence line diagram for stress in member U2L2 at L2
⎛ n –m–1 ⎞ ⎛ 5–1–1 ⎞
= 1.154 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.154 × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.692.
⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
In order to mark the nature of stress in member U2L2 whether compressive or
tensile, consider unit load at any point, say, L1 for A to O1 and any other point say
L2 for O1 to B.
Consider left hand portion of frame. When unit load is at L1, the reaction RA is
4
equal to . The force in panel L1L2
5
FL ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
1L2 = ⎜1 – ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ units
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝5⎠
This shear force acts downward. The vertical component of stress in U2L2 acts
upward. The vertical component of stress in U2L2 is upward, when the force in
member acts right to left upward. The sign is marked at U2. This shows that the
stress in U2L2 for unit laod at L1 is compressive (negative). The negative sign is
marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load. Now consider, unit load
3
at L2. The reaction at support A is RA = . The unit load is on right hand side of
5
the section aa. The shear force in panel L1L2
FL ⎛3⎞
1L2 = ⎜ ⎟ units.
⎝5⎠
This shear force acts upward. The vertical component of stress in U2L2 acts
downward to balance this shear force. The vertical component of stress in U2L2
acts downward, when the force in U2L2 acts from left to right downward. This
direction is marked at U2, since the left hand portion of the frame is under
consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U2L2 for unit load at L2 is
tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram under
the unit load at L2. The influence line diagram is shown in Fig.15.3 (d).
15.4.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2L1 (Diogonal

Member)
The stress in member U2L1 is determined by considering a section bb as shown in
Fig.15.3 (a). Section bb intersects U1U2, U2L1 and L1L2. The members U1U2 and
L1L2 are horizontal members. The vertical components of stresses in U1U2 and
L1L2 are zero. Therefore, the vertical component of stress in U2L1 is equal to the
shear force in panel L1L2. The stress in member U2L1 is equal to shear force in
panel L1L2 multiplied by cosec θ.
Therefore, U 2 L1 = FL × cosec θ = 1.154 × FL
1L2 1L2
I.L.D. for U2 L1 = 1.154 × I.L.D. for FL

1L2
Thus it is seen that the ordinates of the influence line diagram for stress in
member U2L1 are identical with those for memeber U2L2.
In order to mark the nature of stress in member U2L1, whether compressive or
tensile, consider unit load at any point, say L1 for A to O1 and any other point, say
L2 for O1 to C. Consider the left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load is at
⎛4⎞
L1, the reaction at support A, RA is ⎜ ⎟ . The shear force in panel L1L2
⎝5⎠
⎛ 4⎞ 1
FL = ⎜1 – ⎟ = units.
1L2 ⎝ 5⎠ 5
This shear force acts downward. The vertical component of stress in U2L1 acts
upward in order to balance this shear force. The vertical component of stress in
U2L1 is upward, when the force in member acts left to right upward. This sign is
marked at L1. This shows that the stress in U2L1 for unit load at L1 is tensile
(positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the
3
unit load. Now consider unit load at L2. The reaction at, support A, RA is . The
5
unit load is on right hand side of the section bb. The shear force in panel L1L2
⎛3⎞
FL = ⎜ ⎟ units.
1L2 ⎝5⎠
This shear force acts upward. The vertical component of stress in U2L1 acts
downward to balance this shear force. The vertical component of stress in U2L1
acts downward when the force in U2L1 acts from right to left downward. This
direction is marked at L1, since the left hand portion of the frame is under
consideration. This shows the nature of stress in U2L1 for unit load at L2is
compressive (negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram
under the unit load at L2. The influence line diagram is shown in Fig.15.3 (e).
It is to note that the influence line diagram for stress in U2L1 is identical with
that for member U2L2 except that the nature of stress is reversed.

MEMBERS OF A WARREN TRUSS WITH CURVED
CHORD
A Warren truss with curved chord is shown in Fig.15.4(a). It consists of six panels,
and each panel is 6 m long.
15.5.1 Influence Line Diagram for U1U2

The stress in member U1U2 is obtained by considering a section aa as shown in
Fig.15.4 (a). Section aa intersects U1U2, U2L1 and L1L2. The members U1L1 and
L1L2 meet at panel point L1. The stress in member U1U2 is obtained by dividing
the bending moment about panel point L1 by the perpendicular distance from the
point L1 to the member U1U2. Therefore,
⎛M ⎞
U1U2 = ⎜ L1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ xU1L2 ⎠
In order to determine xU1L2 produce U2U1 and L2L0. These directions intersect
at point P,
⎛ 6–3 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5, θ1 = 26°34´
⎝ 6 ⎠
sin θ1 = 0.447 = 0.5, cos θ1 = 0.894
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
PL0 + 3 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=6
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.5 ⎠
∴ PL0 = (6 – 3) = 3 m
PL1 = (6 + 3) = 9 m
xU1U2 = PL1 sin θ1 = 9 × 0.447 = 4.02 m
Therefore,
U1U2 = ( M L1 /4.02)
I.L.D. for U2U1 = I.L.D. for ( M L1 /4.02)

(6 × 30 )
36
⎛ 5.0 ⎞
of influence line diagram for stress in member U1U 2 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.24. In order to
⎝ 4.02 ⎠
mark the nature of stress, whether compressive or tensile, consider a unit load at
5
any panel point, say L1. The reaction at support A,RA is .
6
Consider left hand portion of the frame. The left hand portion of frame is in
equilibrium under the action of external forces, (reaction RA, and unit load at L1)
and internal forces in U1U2, U2L1 and L1L2. The moments of internal forces U2L1
and L1L2 about point L1 are zero. The moment of external forces about L1,
(5 × 6 )
M L1 = = + 5 units.
6
The moment ML1 is in clockwise direction. In order to balance ML1, an anti-
clockwise moment due to stress in U1U2 about L1 is necessary. The stress in
member U1U2 gives anti-clockwise moment about L1, when the force in U1U2 acts
from right to left. This direction is marked at point U1, since the left hand portion
of the frame is under consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U1U2
is compressive (negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram
under the unit load. The influence line diagram for stress in U1U2 is only on
negative side of the base. The nature of stress in U1U2 for all positions of unit load
is compressive. The influence line diagram (I.L.D.) for stress in U1U2 is shown in
Fig.15.4 (b).
15.5.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L1L2

Section aa as shown in Fig.15.4 (a) is suitable for obtaining the stress in member
L1L2. Section aa intersects three members U1U2, U2L1 and L1L2. The members
U1U2 and U2L1 meet at point U2. The stress in member L1L2 is obtained by
dividing bending moment at U2 by the perpendicular distance from U2 to the
member L1L2. The stress in member L1L2 is maximum, when the bending moment
at U2 is maximum. When the unit load travels across the girder it produces
maximum bending moment at U2 and therefore, the maximum stress in the
member L1L2, when the unit load is in the vertical plane U2X.
In the bridge, the unit load moves on rails. The rails are supported by stringers.
The stringers are connected to the floor beams. The floor beams are connected at
the panel points of bottom chord in the case of through type bridge. The load is
transmitted to the main truss through the floor beams.
b a
U3 U4
U2 U5
XU L U1
2 1 U6
6m 6m
7 .5 m 7 .5 m 3m
θ1 θ2 θ2
A L0 θ2 L L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 B
1
XU b a
L
2 1 6 P a ne ls @ 6 m = 36 m
(a ) W a rre n truss w ith cu rve d ch o rd
(– ) 1 .2 4
(b ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 U 2
R
P
1.12 5
0 .75 1 .00
(+ )
Q S W
(c) I.L.D . fo r L 1 L 2
+0 .8 08
– 0.2 48
(d ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 L 1
+ 0.3 93
(e ) I.L.D . fo r U 1 L 1
Fig. 15.4
When the unit load is at the centre of the stringer, which spans between the floor
beams as L1 and L2, it is transferred to the panel-points at L1 and L2 at two loads
of half unit each. Therefore the actual bending moment in the vertical plane U2X
and the stresses in L1L2 are less than those, if the whole of unit load was placed
directly to the main truss at X.
If it is assumed that unit load is applied directly on the main truss at X, then,
(9 × 27 )
the bending moment at X is equal to = 6.75 units. The stress in member
36
1
is equal to × 6.75 = 1.225. ARB as shown in Fig.15.4 (c) would have been the
6
influence line for the stress in member L1L2. PQ and TW ordinates are drawn
from panel points L1 and L2. The ordinaie PQ and TW are 0.75 and 1.00. The
diagram APTB as shown in Fig.15.4 (c) is the required influence line diagram for
stress in L1L2. This is to note that this truncating of the diagram is a special
feature of the influence line diagram for Warren truss and it applied to the loaded
chord.
In order to mark the nature of stress, whether compressive or tensile, consider
unit load at any panel point, say L1. Consider the left hand portion of the frame from
5
section aa. The reaction at support A,RA is . The bending moment about U2,
6
⎛5 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 6⎟ = 5 units
2 ⎝6 ⎠
The bending moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an
anti-clockwise moment due to stress in L1L2 about U2 is necessary. The stress in
L1L2 gives anti-clockwise moment when the direction of force is left to right. The left
to right direction is marked at L1. This shows that the nature of stress in L1L2 is
tansile, (positive). The positive sign in marked under the unit load which is at L1.

Section aa as shown in Fig.15.4 (a) is also suitable for obtaining stress in member
U2L1. Section aa intersects U1U2, U2L1 and L1L2. The prolonged diretions of
members U1U2 and L1L2 meet at point P. The stress in member U2L1 is obtained
by dividing the moment about P by the perpendicular distance from point P to the
member U2L1. Therefore,
⎛ MP ⎞
U 2 L1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ X U1L1 ⎠
In order to determine xU2 L1 , consider angle θ2 as shown in Fig.15.4 (a).
⎛6⎞
tan θ2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 2, θ2 = 60° 26´, sin θ2 = 0.894,
⎝3⎠
PL1 = 9m
∴ xU2 L1 = 9 × sin θ2 = (9 × 0.894) = 8.04 m
Consider left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load is L1, the reaction
5
at support A, RA1 is . Therefore,
6
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
U2 L1 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜1 × 9 – × 3 ⎟ = 0.808.
⎝ 8.04 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
The moment of unit load at 11 about P is greater than the moment due to reaction
RA. The net moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
moment due to stress in U2L1 about P should be anti-clockwise. The stress in
U2L1 gives anti-clockwise moment, whent the direction of force is from left to
right upward. This direction is marked at L1. This shows that the stress in member
U2L1 is tensile (positive). This positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram
under the unit load at L1.
4
When the unit laod is at L2, then, the reaction at support A, RA is . The unit
6
load is on right side of the section aa. Therefore,
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞
U2 L1 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ × 3 ⎟ = 0.248.
⎝ 8.04 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
The moment due to reaction RA about point P acts in anti-clcockwise direction.
In order to balance this moment, a clockwise moment due to stress in U2L1 about
P is necessary. The moment due to stress in U2L1 about P is clockwise, when the
direction of force in U2L1 is from right to left downward. This direction is marked
at L1. This shows that the nature of stress in U2L1 for unit load at L2 is compressive
(negative). The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the
unit load. The influence line diagram for stress in U2L1 is shown in Fig.15.4 (d).

The stress in member U1L1 is obtained by considering a section bb as shown in
Fig.15.4 (a). Section bb intersects U1U2, U1L1 and L0L1. The prolonged directions
of members U1U2 and L0L1 meet at point P. The stress in member U1U1 is obtained
by dividing the moment of forces about P by the perpendicular distance from the
point P to the member U1U1. Therefore
U2L1 = (M P xU1L1 )
In order to determine xU1L1 consider angle θ3 as shown in Fig.15.4 (a)
3
tan θ3 = = 1,θ3 = 45°
3
sin θ2 = 0.707
PT1 = 9m
∴ xU1L1 = 9 × sin θ3 = (9 × 0.707) = 6.36 m.
In order to obtain the stress in U1L1, consider the equilibrium of left hand
portion of the frame. When unit load is at A, RA is 1, the moment MP is zero. When
the unit load is at L1, the load is on the right side of the section. The reaction at
5
support A, RA is .
6
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛5 ⎞
U1 L1 = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ × 3 ⎟ = 0.393.
⎝ 6.36 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
The moment due reaction RA about P acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order
to balance this, a clockwise moment due to stress in U1L1 about P is necessary.
The moment due to stress in U1L1 is clockwise, when the direction of force, in
U1L1 is from left to right downward. This sign is marked at L1. This shows that
the nature of stress in U1L1 for unit load at L1 is tensile (positive). The positive
sign is marked under the unit load, which one is at L1. The influence diagram for
stress in U1L1 is shown in Fig.15.4 (e).

MEMBERS OF A BALTIMORE TRUSS WITH SUB-TIES
A Baltimore truss is shown in Fig.15.5 (a). It consists of 12 panels, each of 8 m
length. The height of truss is 20 m.
15.6.1 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in Member U2U4

(Top Chord Member)
The stress U2U4 is determined by passing a section aa as shown in Fig.15.5 (a).
The section aa intersects U2U4,U2M3 and L2L3. The members U2M3 and L2L3
meet at panel point L4. The stress in member U2U3 is obtained by dividing the
bending moment about point L4 by the height of the truss girder. Therefore, the
stress in U2U4 is
⎛ M L4 ⎞
U3 L4 = ⎜
⎝ 20 ⎟⎠
10
When the unit load is at L2, the reaction at support A,RA is . Consider left
12
hand portion of truss
⎛ 19 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 32 – 1 × 16 ⎟ = 10.67 units
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, an anti-
clockwise moment due to stress in U2U4 about L4 is necessary. The moment due
to stress in U2U4 is’anti-clockwise, when the direction of force in U2U4 is right to
left. This ‘shows that the stress is compressive (negative). The stress in U2U4 is
1 ⎛ 10.67 ⎞
U2 L4 = M × ⎜ 20 ⎟ = 0.533
20 L4 ⎝ ⎠
The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load,
which one is at L2.
9
When the unit load is at L3, the reaction at support A, RA is . The unit load
12
is on right side of the section aa. The left hand portion of frame is under cosideration,
therefore, moment about L4
⎛ 9 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 32⎟ = 24 units
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this moment, an
a de
b U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1
M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11 20 m
A L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10 L 11 L 1 2 B
b a c d e
1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) B a ltim ore truss
– 0.53 3
1 .20
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 4
+ 0 .6 67
(c) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 4 a nd U 2 U 4
+ 0 .96 1
– 0.21 3
(d ) I.L.D fo r U 2 M 3
+ 1.00
(e ) I.L.D fo r U 2 L 2
+ 1 .00
(f) I.L .D for M 3 L 3

+0 .64
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 3 U 4
+ 0.85 4
0 .32
– 0.21 3
(h ) I.L.D fo r M 3 L 4
0 .33 3
+ 0.16 7
(– ) 0 .58 3 (–)
0 .25
(i) I.L.D fo r U 4 L 4
Fig. 15.5
anticlockwise moment, due to stress in U2U4 about L4 is necessary. The moment

due to stress in U2U4 about L4 is anti-clockwise when the direction of force is
right to left. This direction is marked at U2, since the left hand portion of frame is
under consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U2U4 is compressive
(negative). The stress in U2U4 when the unit load at L3 is
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
U2 L4 = M
20 L4 ⎜ 20 × 24 ⎟ = 1.2
⎝ ⎠
8
When the unit load is at L4, the reaction at support A, RA = . The init load is
12
on the right side of the section
⎛ 8 ⎞
ML = ⎜ 12 × 32 ⎟ = 21.32 units
4 ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
U2 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.0665
⎝ 20 ⎠
From the influence line diagram of U2 L4 , for the right side portion from panel
point L3
⎛ 1.20 ⎞ ⎛ 1.0665 ⎞
⎜ 72 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.553
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 64 ⎠
The variation of axial force in U2U4 is along one straight line.
From the influence line diagram of U2 L4 , for the left side portion from panel
point L3
⎛ 1.0665 ⎞ ⎛ 0.553 ⎞
⎜ 32 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0333
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
However, the ordinate of 1.20 lies out of one straight line from L0 to L4.
It is to note that I.L.D, does not follow the same straight line as that from L0 to
L3but it changes its direction. It follows same straight line from L3to L12. It is a
special feature for the top chord member U2U4, as main panel L2L4 is subdivided
and load is transferred from the joint L2 to M3 and then from M3 to U4 upper joint.
The negative sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load
which one is at L3. The influence line diagram is shown in Fig.15.5 (b). The
influence line diagram from stress in member U2U4 is on negative side of the base.
This shows that the stress in U2U4 is compressive for all positions of uit load over
the span.
15.6.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L2L3 and L2 L4

(Bottom Chord Members)
At the joint L3, the two members L2L3 and L2L4 are horizontal members, and
M3L3 is a vertical member. Therefore, the stress in L2L3 is equal to the stress in
L2L4. The influence line diagram for stress in member L3L4.
The stress in member L2L3 is obtained by considering the section aa. Section aa
as shown in Fig.15.5 (a) intersects U2U4, U2M3 and L2L3. The members U2U4 and
U2M3 meet at U2. The stress in member L2L3 is determined by dividing the bending
moment about U2 by the height of truss girder. Therefore,
⎛ M U4 ⎞
U2 L3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for U2U3 = ×(I.L.D for MU )
20 2
The influence line diagram for bending moment about point U2 is a triangle.
⎛ 16 × 80 ⎞
The maximum ordinate of this triangle is at U2 and is equal to ⎜ ⎟ = 13.33
⎝ 96 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
units. The ordinate of influence line diagram for stress in L2L3 is ⎜ × 13.33 ⎟ =
⎝ 20 ⎠
0.667. To mark the nature of stress, whether compressive or tensile, consider the
left hand portion of the frame from section aa. Consider unit load at L1. The
10
reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛ 10 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 16 ⎟ = 13.33 units.
2
⎝ 12 ⎠
clockwise moment due to stress in member L2L3 is necessary. The moment due to
stress in L2L3 about U2 acts in anti-clockwise direction, when the direction of force
in L2L3, is from left to right. This direction is marked at point L2, since the left
hand portion of the frame is under consideration. This shows that the nature of
stress in L2L3 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence line
diagram under the unit load, which one is at L2. The influence line diagram for
stress in L2L3 (and L3L4) is shown in Fig.15.5 (c). This influence line diagram is
only on positive side of the base. This shows that the nature of stresses in L2L4 and
L3L4 are tensile for all positions of unit load on the span.
15.6.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2M3 (Diagonal

Member)
Section aa as shown in Fig.15.5 (a) is also suitable for determining the stress in
member U2M3. Section aa intersects U2U4, U2M3 and L2L3. The members U2U4
and L2L3 are horizontal members. The vertical components of stresses in U2U4
and L2L3 are zero. Therefore, the vertical component of stress in U2M3 is equal to
the shear force in panel L2L3. Therefore stress in U2M3 is
U2 L3 = FL × cosec θ
2L3
22 20
sin θ = 1/2
= = 0.78
(202 + 162 ) (656 )1 / 2
cosec θ = 0.625, cosec θ = 1.28
∴ U2M3 = 1.28 × FL L
2 3
I.L.D. for U2M3 = 1 .28 × I.L.D. for FL
2L3
Consider left hand portion of the frame from section aa. When unit load is at 12,
the reaction at support A is
10
RA =
12
FL ⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
2L3 = 1 – ⎜ ⎟ = units
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
The shear force in panel L2L3 acts downward. In order to balance this, the
vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts upward. The vertical component of
stress in U2M3 acts upwards when the direction of force in U2M3 acts from right to
left upwarrd. This direction is marked at the joint U2. This shows that the nature
of the stress in U2M3 is compressive, (negative). The negative sign is marked in
the influence line diagram. The ordinate of influence line diagram for unit load at
L2 is
⎛ 1⎞
U2 M 3 = ⎜1.28 × ⎟ = 0.213.
⎝ 6⎠
When the unit load is L2, the load is on right side of the section. Consider the
9
left hand portion of the frame from section aa. The reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛9⎞
FL = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75 units.
2L3
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component
of stress in U2M3 acts downward. The vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts
downward, when the direction of force in it acts left to right downward. This
direction is marked at the joint U2, since the left hand portion of the frame is
under consideration. This shows that the nature of stress in U2M3for unit load at
L3 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence diagram under
the unit load at L2. The ordinate of influence line diagram is
⎛ 1.28 ⎞
U2 M 3
= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.961.
⎝ 0.75 ⎠
When the unit load is at A or B, the shear force in panel L2L3 and stress in
member U2M3 are zero. The influence line diagram for stress in U2M3 is shown in
Fig.15.5 (d).
15.6.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2L2 (Vertical

Member)
The stress in member U2L2 is obtained by considering a section bb as shown in
Fig.15.5 (a). Section bb intersects U2M1, U2L2 and L2L3. The prolonged directions
U2M1 and L2L1, meet at point A. The stress in U2L2 is obtained by dividing the
moment about point A by the perpendicular distance from point A to the member
U2L1. Therefore,
⎛M ⎞
U2L2 = ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎠
Consider left hand portion of the frame from section bb. When unit load is at L1,
then, the reaction at support A is
⎛ 11 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛1 × 8⎞
Therefore U2L2 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.5.
16 ⎠
The moment due to reaction RA about A is zero. The moment due to unit load at
L2 about A is clockwise. In order to balance this an anti-clockwise moment due to
stress in U2L2 is necessary. The moment due to stress in U2L2 bout A is anti-
clockwise, when the direction of force in U2L2 acts upward, this sign is marked at
L2 in member U2L2 since the left hand portion is under consideration. This shows
that the nature of stress in U2L2 for unit load at L1 is tensile (positive). The
positive sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the load.
When unit load is at L2 the reaction at support A is
⎛ 10 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 1 × 16 ⎞
Therefore U2L2 = ⎜ 16 ⎟ = 1.00
⎝ ⎠
The moment due to reaction RA about A is zero. The moment due to unit load at
L2 about A is clockwise. In order to balance this, an anti-clockwise moment due to
stress in U2L2 is necessary. The moment due to stress in U2L2 about A is anti-
clockwise when the direction of force in U2L2 acts upward. This sign is marked at
L2 in member U2L2. This shows that nature of stress in U2L2 for unit load at L2 is
tensile.
When the unit load is L3, the load is on right side of the section aa. The load is
on right side of the section for all positions of unit load beyond L2. The external
force on left hand portion of the frame from section bb is only RA. The moment of
reaction RA is zero. Therefore, stress in U2L2 is zero. The influence line diagram
for U2L2 is shown in Fig.15.5 (e).
It is to note that when the unit load moves from A to L1 the sub-member M1L1
becomes active. This sub-member transfers one-half of its load to the member
U2L2. When the unit load moves from L1 to L2 and approaches panel point L2 more
load is transferred at panel point L2 from stringer in panel L1L2 and less in the
memberU2L2. When the unit load reached to joint L2, then, unit load is wholly
carried by U2L2. When the unit load travels on the stringer in panel L1L2 then,
reaction at point L2 decreases and that at L3 increases. When the unit load is at L3
the whole load is carried by member M3L3 and the force in U2L2 becomes zero.
The influence line diagram for stress in U2L2 shown in Fig.15.3 (e).
15.6.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M3L3

The member M3L3 is a sub-member. This member carries stress so long as unit
load travels from L2 to L4 only. When the unit load is at L2, then, the stress in
M3L3 is zero. When the unit load is at L3 then, the stress in M3L3 is 1.00 tensile
(positive). When the unit load is at L4, then the stress in M3L3 is again zero. The
influence line diagram for stress in U2U2 is shown in Fig.15.5 (f).
15.6.6 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M3M4(Sub -Tie)

The member M3M4 is a sub-tie and thus, it is a sub-member. The stress in member
M3M4is obtained by passing a horse-shoe section cc, the horse-shoe section cc
intersects five members, namely, L2L3, U2M3, M3U4, M3M4 and L3L4. Out of these
four members, namely L2L2, U2M3, M3M4 and L3L4 pass through a joint L4, when
produced. The stress in member M3M4 is obtained by dividing the moment about
joint L4 by the perpendicular distance from L4 to the member M3M4.
⎛ M L4 ⎞
Therefore, M 3U4 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x M 3U4 ⎠
xM U
3 4 = 20 cos θ = (20 × 0.625) = 12.5 m
Now consider the equilibrium of portion of the frame within horse-shoe section.
When the unit load is at L2 then the load is outside the section. There is no
external force acting on the portion of the frame. Therefore, ML4 is zero, and stress
in M3M4 is also zero. Similarly, when the unit load is at L4, then, the unit load is
again outside the section, therefore, ML4 and and stress in M3U4 are again zero.
When the unit load is at L3, then, the external load on frame is load itself.
Therefore, ML4 = 1 × 8 = 8 units
⎛ 1 ⎞
M 3U4 = ⎜ × 8 ⎟ = 0.64.
⎝ 12.5 ⎠
The moment ML4 is an anti-clockwise direction. Therefore clockwise moment
about L4 due to stress in M3U4 is necessary. The moment about L4 due to stress in
M3M4 is clockwise, when the direction of force is from left to right upward. This
direction is marked at M3 on the member M3M4, since, the end M3 is within the
horse-shoe section and the portion under consideration. This shows that the nature
of stress in M3M4 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked in the influence
diagram under the unit load which one is at L3. The influence diagram is shown
in Fig.15.5 (g).
The vertical component of stress in M3M4 is equal to

0.64 cos θ = (0.64 × 0.781) = 0.50
Thus, it is interesting to note that in general, for both the parallel chord and
inclined chord trusses with sub-divided panels, the vertical component of stress
in sub-diagonal member is equal to one-half of the load applied at the joint, so
long as the inclination of the sub-diagonal member is same as that of main-
member.

The stress in M3L4 is determined by considering a section dd as shown in Fig.
15.5 (a). The section dd intersects four members namely, U3U4, M3U4, M3L4 and
L3L4. The membr U2U4 and L3L4 are horizontal members. The vertical components
of stresses in U3U4and L3L4 are zero. The sum of vertical components of stresses
in members M3U4 and M3L4 is equal to the shear force in panel L3L4. Therefore,
M 3U4 sin θ + M 3 L4 sin θ = FL
3L4
M 3U4 + M 3 L4 = FL cosec θ
3L4
M 3U4 + M 3 L4 = 1.28 FL
3L4
M 3U4 = 1.28 × FL – M 3 L4
3L4
Consider left hand portion of frame. When unit load is at L2, then the stress in
10
M3U4 is zero. The reaction at support RA is . The shear force in panel L3L4
12
FL ⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
= ⎜1 – ⎟ = unit
3L4 ⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
This shear force acts downward. The vertical component of stress in M3L4 acts
upward. The vertical component of stress in M3L4 acts upward when the direction
of force is from right to left upward. This shows that the nature of stress in M3L4
for unit load at L2 is compressive (negative)
⎛1 ⎞
M 3 L4 = ⎜ × 1.28⎟ = 0.213
⎝6 ⎠
When unit load is at L3, the stresss in M3U4 is + 0.64 (tensile). The vertical
9
component of M3U4 acts upward. The reaction at support A, RA is = 0.75.
12
M 3 L4 sin θ + M 3 L4 sin θ = FL
3L4
M 3 L4 sin θ + 0.50 = FL
3L4
M 3 L4 sin θ = FL – 0.50 = 1 – 0.75 – 0.50 = – 0.25

3L4
The negative sign shows that the shear force acts upward. Therefore, the verical
component of stress in M3L4 acts downwards. The force in M3L4 acts left to right
downward The nature of stress in M3L4 is tensile (positive).
0.25
M 3 L4 = = 0.25 cosec θ = l.38 × 0.25 = + 0.32
sin θ
9
When the unit load is L4, the reaction RA is = 0.667. The stress in M3U4 is
12
zero.
∴ M 3 L4 = (1.28 × 0.667) = 0.854
The shear force in panel L3L4 acts upward. The verical component of stress in
M3L4 acts downward. Therefore the force in M3L4 acts from left to right downward.
Therefore, the stress in M3L4 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stres in
M3L4 is shown in Fig.15.5 (h).

The stress in memberU4L4 is obtained by considering a section ee as shown in
Fig.15.5 (a). The section ee intersects four members, namely U2U4, M3L4 and
L4L5. The members U2U4and L4L5 are horizontal members. The vertical
components of stresses inU2U4 and L4L5 are zero. The sum of stress in U2U4 and
vertical component of stress in M3U4 is equal to the shear force in panel L4L5.
Therefore, U4 L4 + M 3U4 sin θ = FL
3L4
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section ee. When
10
the unit load is at L2, then, the reaction at support A, RA is and the stress in
12
M3U4 is zero. Therefore,
⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
U4 L4 = ⎜1 – ⎟ = = 0.167
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
This shear foces in panel L4L5 acts downward. The stress in U4L4 acts upward.
This shows that the stress in U4L4 is tensile (positive). The positive sign is marked
in the influence diagram under the load which one is at L3.
9
When the unit load is at L3, then the reaction at support A, RA is , and the
12
stress in M3U4 is 0.64 (tensile). The vertical component of stress acts downward.
Therefore,
⎛ 9 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜1– – 0.64 × 0.781 ⎟ = – 0.25
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force in panel L4L5 acts upward. The stress in L4L4 acts downward.
This direction is marked at L4 in the member U4L4. This shows that the stress in
U4L4 for unit load at L3 is compressive (negative). The negative sign is marked in
the influence line diagram.
8
When the unit lad is L4, then the reaction at support A, RA is and the stress
12
in M3U4 is zero. Therefore,
⎛ 8⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜1 – ⎟ = 0.33
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts downward. The stress in U4L4 acts upward. This direction
is marked at L4 in the member U4L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is tensile
(positive). The positive sign is mark in the influence line diagram.
7
When the unit load is L5, then, the reaction at support A,RA is and the stess
12
in M3U4 is zero. Therefore,
⎛7⎞
U4L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.583
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. The stress inU4L4 acts downward. This direction
is marked at L4 in the member U4L4. This shows that, the stress in U4L4 is
negative. The negative sign marked in the influence line diagram.
The influence line diagram for stress in U4L4 is shown in Fig. 15.5 (j).

MEMBERS OF A BALTIMORE TRUSS WITH
SUBSTRUTS (THROUGH TYPE)
A Baltimore truss with L2 panels, each of 8 m length is shown in Fig.15.6 (a).
Baltimore truss has sub-struts instead of sub-ties at shown in Fig.15.5 (a).
15.7.1 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U4U4 (Top Chord

Member)
The stress in U2U4 is obtained by considering a section aa as shown in Fig.15.6
(a). Section aa intersects U2U4, M3L4 and L3L4. The members M3L4 and L3L4 meet
at point L4. The stress in member U2U4 is determined by dividing the bending
moment about U2 by the height of truss girder. Therefore,
⎛ M L4 ⎞
U4U4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for U2U4 = × I.L.D. for ML
20 4
The influence line diagram for bending moment ML is a triangle. The maximum
4
⎛ 32 × 64 ⎞
ordinate of this triangle is at L4 and is equal to ⎜ = 21.33 units. This
⎝ 96 ⎟⎠
maximum ordinate of the influence line diagram is also at L4 and is equal to
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ = 1.067. In order to mark the nature of stress in U2U4, consider unit load
20 ⎠
9
at any panel point, say L3. The reaction at support A, RA is .
12
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame
⎛ 9 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 32 – 1 × 8⎟ = 16 units.
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
clockwise moment about L4 due to stress in U2U4 is necessary. The moment due
to stress in U2U4 about L4 is anticlockwise, when the direction of force in member
U2U4 is fro right to left. This direction is marked at U2 in the member U2U4. This
shows that the nature of stress in U2U4 is compressive (negative). The negative
sign is marked in the influence line diagram under the unit load, which one is at
L3. The influence line diagram for stress in member U2U4 is shown in Fig. I5.6
(b).
15.7.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L2L3 and L3L4

(Bottom Chord Members)
At the panel point L3, two members L2 and L3L4 horizontal members and M3L3 is
a vertical member. Therefore the stresses in L2L3 and L3L4, are equal. The influence
line diagram for stress in L3L4also represents the influence line diagram for the
stress in L2L3.
The stress in L3L4 is obtained by considering a section aa as shown in Fig. 15.6
(a). Section aa intersects U2U4, M3M4 and L3L4. The members U2U4 and M3L4
meet at point U2. The stress in member L3L4 is obtained by dividing the bending
moment by the height of the truss girder. Therefore,
⎛ MU4 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
10
When the unit load is at L2, then, the reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛ 10 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 16 ⎟ =13.33 units
4
⎝ 12 ⎠
This moment acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress in
L3L4 provides an anti- clockwise moment. The direction of force in L3L4 is from
left to right. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is
tensile. The stress in L3L4 is
⎛ 13.33 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ = 0.667
⎝ 23 ⎟⎠
d c a
U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11
20 m
B
L0 L1 L 2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2
d b b
c a 1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) B a ltim ore tru ss
(– ) 1.0 67
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 4
0 .66 7 + 1 .00 0 .53 3
(c) I.L.D fo r L 2 L 3 a nd L 3 L 4
+0 .8 53
– 0.32
(d ) I.L.D fo r M 3 L 4
+ 1 .00
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 3 L 3
– 0 .6 4
(f) I.L.D for L 2 M 3
0 .85 3 (+)
0 .32
0 .21 3 (g ) I.L.D fo r U 2 M 3
+ 1 .0 0
0 .5 0 .5
(h ) I.L.D fo r U 2 L 2
Fig. 15.6
9
When the unit load is at L3, then, the reaction at support A RA is
12
⎛ 9 ⎞
MU = ⎜⎝ × 16 + 1 × 8⎟⎠ = 20
2 12
⎛ 20 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.00
⎝ 20 ⎠
It is to note that the value of force further increases from the ordinate at L2 to
that at L3.
This moment acts in clockwise direction. The stress in L3L4 provides an anti-
clockwise moment to balance this. The direction for force in L3L4 is from left to
right. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is
tensile.
When unit load is at L4, the load is on right side of the section aa. The reaction
8
is .
12
⎛ 8⎞
MU = ⎜ ⎟ × 16 = 10.67 unit
2 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 10.67 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ = 0.533
⎝ 20 ⎟⎠
This moment also acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in provides
an anti-clockwise moment about U2. The direction of force L3L4 is from left to
right. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that nature of stress in L3L4 is
tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L2L3 (and L3L4) is shown in Fig.15.6
(c).
From the influence line diagram, for left side portion of L3
⎛ 1.00 ⎞ = ⎛⎜ 0.667 ⎞⎟ = 0.04166

⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎝ 16 ⎠
24 ⎠
It shows that the variation of axial force in L2L3/L3L4 is along one straight
line.
From the influence line diagram for right side portion of L2
⎛ 0.667 ⎞ = ⎛⎜ 0.533 ⎞⎟ = 0.00834

⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎝ 64 ⎠
80 ⎠
It shows that the ordinate of 100 lies out of the straight line from L2L12. It is to
note that I.L.D. does not follow the same straight line as that from L4, to L12. Its
direction is different in between L3 and L4.
It is a special feature for the bottom chord member L2L3/L3L4 as main panel
L3L4 is sub-divided and load is transferred from L3 to M3 and than from M3 to L2
lower joint.

The section aa as shown in Fig.15.6 (a) is also suitable for obtaining the stress in
member M3L4. Section aa intersects U2U4, M3L4 and L3L4. Members U2U4 and
L3L4 are horizontal members. The vertical component of stresses in U3U4 and
L3L4 are zero. Therefore, the vertical component of stress in M3L4 is equal to the
shear force in the panel L3L4. Therefore, the stress in M3L4 is
M 3 L4 = FL
3L4 × cosec θ
20
sin θ = = 0.781
(20 2
+ 162 )
cos θ = 0.625, cosec θ = 1.28
∴ M 3 L4 = 1.28 × FL
3L4
Consider the left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load is at L3
⎛ 9⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 9⎞
FL = ⎜1– ⎟ = 0.25
3L4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
M 3 L4 = (0.25 × 1.28) = 32
The shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component
of stress in M 3 L4 acts upward. The direction of force is from right to left upward.
The stress M3L3 is compressive (negative).
When the unit load is L4,
8
RA =
12
8
FL =
3L4 12
⎛8 ⎞
M 3 L4 = ⎜ × 1.28 ⎟ = 0.853
⎝ 12 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. In order to balance this vertical component of
stress M3L4acts downward. The direction of force is from left to right downward.
The stress in M3L4 is tensile (positive). The influence line diagram for stress in
M3L4is shown in Fig.15.6 (d).

The member M3L3 is a sub-member. This member carries stress so long as unit
load travels from L2 to L4 only. When the unit load is at L2, then, the stress in
M3L4 in zero. When the unit load is at L3, then, the stress in M3L3 is 1.00, tensile.
When the unit load is at L4, then, the in M3L3 is again zero. The influence line
diagram for stress in M3L3 is shown in Fig.15.6 (e).
15.7.5 Influence Line Diagram For Stress in L2M3 (Sub-Strut)

The stress in member L2M3 is obtained by a horse-shoe section bb. This horse-
shoe section, bb intersects five members, namely L2M3 ,L2M3 ,U2M3, M3L4 and
L3L4. Out of these, four members L2M3, U2M3, M3L4 and L3L4 meet at joint L4.
The stress in L2M3 is obtained by dividing the moment about point L4 by the
perpendicular distance from LA to the member L2M3. Therefore
L2 M 3 = ML x L2 M3
4
x L2 M 2 = 16 × sin θ = (16 × 0.781) = 12.50
⎛ M L4 ⎞
∴ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
L2 M 3 ⎝ 12.50 ⎠
Now, consider the equilibrium of portion of the frame within the horse-shoe
section. When the unit load is L2, the unit load is outside the section. There is no
external load acting on this portion of frame. Therefore, ML4 is zero and the stress
in L2M3 is also zero. Similarly, when the unit load is L4, it is again outside this
portion of frame. Therefore, ML is again zero. The stress in L2M3 is zero. When
4
the unit load is at L3, then
ML = 1 × 8 = 8 units
4
8
= = 0.64
L2 M 3 12.5
The moment ML4 acts anti-clockwise. In order to balance this the stress in L2M2
provides clockwise moment. The direction of force in L2M3 is from left to right
upward. This direction is marked at M3. This shows that the stress in L2M3 is
compressive. Tlie influence line diagram for stress in L2M3 is shown in Fig.15.6 (f).
15.7.6 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2M3

The stress in U2M3 is obtained by considering a section cc as shown in Fig. 15.6
(a). Section cc intersects four members, namely, U2U4, U2M3, L2M3 and L2M3.
The members U2U4 and L2L4 are horizontal members. The verical components of
stresses in U2U4 and L2L3 are zero. The sum of vertical components of stresses in
members in U2M3 and L2M3 is equal to the shear in panel L2L3. Therefore,
U2 M 3 sin θ L2 M 3 sin θ = FL
2L3
Consider left-hand portion of frame. When the unit load is at L2 then, the stress
10
in L2L3 is zero. The reaction at support A. RA is . Therefore,
12
⎛ 10 ⎞ 1
U2 M 3 sin θ = ⎜1 – ⎟ =
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6
⎛1 10 ⎞
∴ U2 M 3 = ⎜ × = 0.213
⎝ 6 0.781 ⎟⎠
The shear force in panel L2L3 acts downward. In order to balance this, the
vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts upward. The direction of force in U2M3
is from right to left upward. This direction is marked at U2. This shows that the
stress in U2M3 is compressive.
When the unit is at L3, then, the stress in L2M3 is 0.64 compressive. The unit
9
load is on the right side of the section cc. The reaction RA is equal to . Therefore
12
9
U2 M 3 sin θ + 0.64 × 0.781 =
12
⎛ 9 ⎞
U2 M 3 sin θ ⎜⎝ – 0.64 × 0.781⎟⎠ = 0.25
12
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
U2 M 3 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.32.
0.781 ⎠
This shear force acts upward. The verical component of stress in U2M3 acts
downward. The direction of force is from left to right downward. This sign is
marked at U2. This shows that the stress in U2M3 is tensile.
8
When the unit load is at L4, the reaction RA is = 0.667. The load is on right
12
side of the section. The stress in L2M3 is zero. Therefore,
U2 M 3 sin θ = 0.667
⎛ 0.667 ⎞
U2 M 3 = ⎜ = 0.853
⎝ 0.781 ⎟⎠
This shear force acts upward. The vertical component of stress in U2M3 acts
downward. The direction of force is U2M3 is from left to right downward. This
direction is marked at U2. This shows that the stress in U2M3 is tensile. The
influence line diagram for stress in U2M3 is shown in Fig.15.6 (g).

The stress in member U2L2 is obtained by cosidering section dd. Section dd
intersects U2L1, U2L2, L2M3 and L2L3 The members U2L2 and L2M3 meet at point
A. The stress in U2L2 is obtained by dividing the moment about point A by
perpendicular distance from A to the member U2L2. Therefore,
⎛ MA ⎞ ⎛ MA ⎞
U2 L2 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xU2L2 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
Consider, the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load
is at A, the moment MA and stress in U2L2 are zero. When the unit load is L2, the
stress in U2L3 is zero.
Therefore,
⎛ 8⎞
U2 L3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5
⎝ 16 ⎠
The moment MA = 8 acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in U2L2
provides anti-clockwise moment. The direction of force in U2L2 is upward. This
direction is marked at L2. This shows that the stress in U2L2 is tensile.
When unit load is at L2 the stress in L2M3 is zero.
⎛ 16 ⎞
U2 L2 = ⎜ ⎟ =1.00
⎝ 16 ⎠
This moment, MA = 16, acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
U2L2 provides anti-clockwise moment.
The direction of force inU2L2 isupward. This direction is marked at L2. This
shows that the force in U2L2 tensile.
When unit load is at L3, the stress in L2M3 is 0.64 compressive. The load is on
right side of the section. The resolved vertical component of stress in L2M3 at joint
L2 is 0.64 × 0.781 = 0.50. The resolved horizontal component of stress in L2M3
passes through point A . Therefore,
⎛ 16 ⎞
U2 L3 = ⎜⎝ 0.5 × ⎟ = 0.5
16 ⎠
This moment MA = 0.5 × 16 = 8 units, acts in clockwise direction. In order to
balance this, the stress in U2L2 providcs an anti-clockwise moment. The direction
of force in U2L2 acts upward. This direction is marked at L2. This shows that the
force in Ufais tensile. The influence line diagram lor stress in U2L2is shown in
Fig.15.6 (h).

MEMBERS OF A PETTIT OF PENNSYLVANIA
TRUSS WITH SUB-TIES
A Pettit or Pennsyvania truss is shown in Fig.15.7 (a). The truss consists of 12
panels each of 8 m length.

The stress in U4U6 is obtained by considering a section aa as shown in Fig.15.7
(a). Section aa intersects U4U6, U4M5 and L4L5 The members U4M5 and L4L5 meet
at point L6. The stress in U4U6 is obtained by dividing the moment about point L6
by the perpendicular distance from L6 to the member U4U6 .
Therefore, U4U6 = (M L6 X U4U6 )

a c
d U6
U4 U8
U2 U 10 20 m
M5 M7 U 11
M1 M3
M9
P1 P2 40 B
m L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 a L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2
11 2 m d b b
1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) P e ttit truss
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 4 U 6
+ 1.16 5
(c) I.L.D fo r L 4 L 5 a nd L 5 L 6
+0 .5 46
– 0.57 9
(d ) I.L.D fo r U 4 M 5
+1 .0 0
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 4 L 5
0 .67 9
(f) I.L.D fo r M 4 L 6
+ 0.46 8
– 0.57 9 – 0.05 5
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
+0 .3 14 6 0 .62 96 0 .32 41 (– )
– 0.02 77
Fig. 15.7
The prolonged directions of U6U4 and L6 A meet at point P1. The angle
θ1represents the inclination of U6U4with the horizontal,
⎛ 20 – 18 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ = 0.125 ; θ1= 7° 7´
⎝ 16 ⎟⎠
sin θ1 = 0.124 ; cos θ1 0.992
⎛ U L ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
∴ P1L6 = ⎜ 6 6 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 160 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 1.125 ⎠
∴ AP1 = (160 – 48)= 112 m
xU4U6 = 160 sin θ1 =160 × 0.124 = 19.48 m
Therefore, U4U6 = ML6/19.84.
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section aa when
the unit load is at L4,
8
RA =
12
⎛ 8 ⎞
ML6 = ⎜⎝ × 48 – 1 × 6⎟⎠ = 16 units
12
⎛ 16 ⎞
U4U6 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.806
19.84 ⎠
The moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
6
in U4U6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L6. The direction of stress in
L4U6 is from right to left downward. The sign is marked at U4. This shows that
the stress in U4U6 is compressive (negative).
When unit load is at L5, the load is on right side of the section,
7
RA =
12
⎛7 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 48⎟ = 28 units
6 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 28 ⎞
7"7$ = ⎜ = 14.11.
⎝ 19.84 ⎟⎠
The moment M4 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
U4U6 is from right to left downward. This sign is marked at U4. This shows that
the stress in U4U6 is compressive (negative). The influence line diagram for stress
in U4U6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (b).
15.8.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L4L5 (and L5L6 )

At the panel joint L5, the members L4L5 and L5L6 are horizontal members and
M5L6 is vertical. The stresses in L4L5 and L5L6 are equal. The influence line
diagram for stress in L4L5 also represents influence line diagram for stress in
L5L6. The stress in L4L5 is obtained by dividing the moment about L4 by the
perpendicular distance fromU4 to the member L4L5.
⎛ M U4 ⎞
Therefore, L4 L5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 18 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from the section aa.
When unit load is at L4,
⎛8⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 8 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 32 ⎟ = 21.33 units
4
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
L4 L5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 11.85
⎝ 18 ⎠
The moment MU4 acts in clockwise direction. The stress in L4L5 provides an
anti-clockwise moment about U4 to balance MU4. The stress in member L4L5 acts
from left to right. The direction is marked at L4 in the member L4L5 . This shows
that the stress in L4L5 (and L5L6 ) is shown in Fig.15.7 (c).

Section aa as shown in Fig.15.7 (a) is also suitable for determining the stress in
member U4M5. Section aa intersects U4U6,U4M5 and L4L5. The prolonged direction
of members U4U6 and L4L5 meet at P1. The stress in U4M5 is determined by
dividing the moment about P1 by the perpendicular distance from P1 to the member
U4M5 .
⎛ MP ⎞
Therefore, U4 M 5 = ⎜ 1
⎟
⎜ xU M ⎟
⎝ 4 5 ⎠
xU4 M5 = 160 sin θ
18
sin θ = = 0.7478
182 + 162
∴ xU4 M5 = 160 × 0.7478 = 119.65 m
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section aa.
8
When unit load is at L4, the reaction RA is .
12
P1L4 = (32 + 112) = 144 m
⎛ 8 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 144 – × 112 ⎟ = 62.334 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
∴ U4 M 5 = ⎜ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎟⎠
This moment MP acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in U4 M5
1
provides an anticlockwise moment about P1. The direction of stress in U4 M5 is
from right of left upward. This direction is marked at U4 in the member U4 M5 .
This shows that the stress in U4M5 for unit load at L4 is compressive (negative).
When the unit load is at L3, the load is on the right side of the section aa. The
7
reaction at support A, RA is .
12
⎛7 ⎞
MP = ⎜ × 112⎟ = 65.33 units
1 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
U4 M 2 = ⎜ = 65.33⎟ = 0.546.
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts anticlockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
1
provides clockwise moment. The direction of stress U4M5 is from left to right
downward. The direction is marked at U4 in the member U4M5 . This shows that
the stress in U4M5 is tensile when the unit load is at L5.
When the unit load is at A, RA = 1. The moment MP is zero. Therefore, stress
1
in U4M5 is also zero. When the unit load is at B, RA = 0, the moment at P1 is again
zero. The stress in U4M6 is again zero. The influence line diagram for stress is
U4M6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (d).

The member M5U5 is a sub-member. It carries stress so long as unit load moves
from L4 to L6. For all other positions of unit load, the stress in M5L5 is zero. When
unit load is at L4, then the stress in M5L5 is zero. When the unit load is at L6,
then, also the stress in M5L5 is zero. When unit load is at L5 the stress in M5L5 is
1.00 tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in M5L5 is shown in Fig.15.7 (e).
15.8.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M5U6

The member M5U6 is a sub-member (sub-tie). It carries stress so long as unit load
moves from L4 to L6. The stress in M5U6 is obtained by a horse-shoe section bb as
shown in Fig.15.7 (a). The horse-shoe section intersects five members, namely,
L4L5, U4M5, M5U5 , M5L6 and L5L6. Out of these, the line of actions of L4L5, U4M5,
M5L5 and L5L6 meet at joint L6. The stress in M5U6 is obtained by dividing the
moment about point Z.6 by the perpendicular distance from the point L6 to the
member M5U6.
⎛ M L6 ⎞
Therefore, M 5U6 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xM U
⎝ 6 6 ⎠
x M5U6 = 20 sin θ
⎛ 8 ⎞
Sin θ = ⎜ ⎟ 0.589 (M is at mid-point of U U )
⎜( 2 2 )1 / 2 ⎟ 5 4 4
⎝ 8 + 11 ⎠
⎛ 11 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜ = 0.811
⎝ (185)1 / 2 ⎟⎠
∴ xU5 M 6 = (20 × 0.589) = 11.78 m
⎛ M L6 ⎞
M 5U6= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 11.78 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of that portion of the frame which is within the horse-
shoe section. When unit load is at L4, the load is outside the section. Therefore,
ML and stress in M5U6 are zero. Similarly when unit load is at L6, the load is also
6
outside the section. The moment ML and stress in M5L6 are zero. When the unit
6
load L6
ML = 1 × 8 = 8 units
6
⎛ 8 ⎞
M 5U6= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.679
⎝ 11.78 ⎠
This moment ML acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
5
stress in M5U6 provides clockwise moment about L6. The direction of stress in
M5U6 is from left to right upward. This direction is marked at M5 in the member
M5U6 . This shows that the stress in M5U6 is tensile. The influence line diagram
for stress in M5U6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (f).

The stress M5U6 is obtained by considering the section cc as shown in Fig.15.7 (a).
Section cc intersects U4U6, M5U6 , M5L6 and L5L6. The lines of actions of U4U6
and L5L6 pass through P1. The stress in M5L6 is obtained by dividing the moment
about P1 by the perpendicular distance from P1 to the member M5L6. Therefore,
⎛ MP1 ⎞
M 5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xM L
⎝ 5 6 ⎠
x M 6 L6 = P1L6 × sin θ = (160 × 0.7478) =119.65 m
⎛ M P1 ⎞
∴ M 2 L6
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section cc. When
8
the unit load is at U5, RA – , and M5U6 = 0.
12
MP ⎡ 8 ⎤
1 = ⎢⎣1×(160 – 60) – 12 × 112⎥⎦ = 63.33 units
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
M 2 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
The moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
1
in M5L6 provides anti-clockwise moment about P1. The direction of stress in M5L6
is from right to left upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the
stress in M5L6 is compressive.
7
When the unit load is at L5, the reaction at support A is RA= . The stress in
12
M5U6 is 0.679 tensile. The vertical component of stress in M5U6 (i.e. 0.679 cos φ)
acts upward and the horizontal component of stress in (i.e. 0.679 × sin φ) acts from
left to right. Therefore,
7
MP1 = 1 × (160 – 8) – × 112 – 0.679 × cos φ × 152 + 0.67 sin φ × 9
2
= 6.57 (sin θ = 0.689, cos θ = 0.811
⎛ 6.57 ⎞
∴ M 5U6 = ⎜ = 0.055 (compressive)
⎝ 119.65 ⎟⎠
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of the section. The
1
reaction at support A is RA = .
12
⎛1 ⎞
MP = ⎜ × 112 ⎟ = 56 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 56 ⎞
M 5U6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.468
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
The moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in M5L6 provides clockwise moment. The direction of stress in M5L6 is left to
right downward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the stress in M5L6
is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in M5L6 is shown in Fig.15.7 (g).

The stress in member U4L4 is obtained by considering the section dd as shown in
Fig.15.7 (a). The section dd intersects U2U4, M3U4, U4L4 and L4L5. The lines of
actions of stresses in U2U4 and L4L5 meet at P2.
⎛ 18 – 14 ⎞ 4
tan θ2 = ⎜ ⎟= − 0.25
⎝ 16 ⎠ 16
θ2 = 14°2´
sin θ2 = 0.242, cos θ2 = 0.97
⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞
P2L4 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 72 m
⎝ tan θ2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.25 ⎠
AP2 = 40 m
The stress in U4L4 is obtained by dividing the moment about P2 by the
perpendicular distance from P2 to member U4L4 . Therefore,
⎛ MP 2 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 72 ⎠
10
When the unit load is at L2, stress in M3U4 is zero ; RA =
12
⎡ 10 ⎤
MP = ⎢1× (40 + 16) – × 40 ⎥ = 22.67 units
2 ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎛ 22.67 ⎞
U4 L4= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.314
⎝ 72 ⎠
U4L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 is upward.
This direction is marked at L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is tensile.
9
When unit load is L2, the reaction at support A is RA= , the vertical component
12
of stress in M3U4 (i.e., M 3U4 cos φ), acts upward and horizontal M 3U4 component
sin θ acts left to right. The stress in M3U4 is obtained as 0.755 tensile, therefore,
⎛ 9 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 64 – 0.755 × 0.811 × 64 – × 40 + 0.755 × 0.589 × 7 ⎟ = – 2.00
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
2
∴ U4 L4 = = 0.0277
72
The negative sign of moment MP shows that this moment MP acts in anti-
2 4
clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress in U4L4 provides clockwise
moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 acts downward. This sign is marked at
L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L4, the stress in M3U4 is zero. The reaction at support
8
A,RA is .
12
MP ⎡ 8 ⎤
2 = ⎢⎣1 × 72 – 72 × 40 ⎥⎦ = 45.33 units
⎛ 44.33 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.6296
⎝ 72 ⎠
This moment MP acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in U4L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The stress in U4L4 acts upward.
This sign is marked at L4. This shows that the stress inU3L4 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L5, the stress in M3U4 is zero. The load is on right side
7
of the section dd. The reaction at support A, RA is .
12
⎛7 ⎞
MP 2 = ⎜ × 40⎟ = 23.33 units
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 23.33 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ = 0.324
⎝ 72 ⎟⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. The stress in M4L4 provides
2
clockwise moment to balance this. This sign is marked at L4. This shows that the
stress in L4L4 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U4L4 is
shown in Fig.15.7 (h).

MEMBERS OF PETTIT OR PENNSYLVANIA TRUSS
WITH SUB-STRUTS
A Pettit or Pennsylvania truss with sub-struts is shown in Fig.15.8 (a). The truss
consists of 12 panels, the length of each panel is 8 m.
15.9.1 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in L5L6 and (L 4L5)

At the joint L5, the members L4L5 and L5L6 are horizontal members, and the
member M4L4 is a vertical member. The stresses in L4L5 and L5L6 are equal. The
influence line diagram for stress in L5L6 also represents the influence line diagram
for stress in L4L5. Section aa is drawn as shown in Fig.15.8 (a). Section aa intersects
U4U6, M5L6 and L5L6. The members U4U6 and M5L6 meet at U4. The stress in
member L5L6 is obtained by dividing the moment MU by the perpendicular distance
4
from U4 to the member L5L6. Therefore,
⎛ M U4 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 18 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of the left hand portion of the frame from section aa.
8
When the unit load is at L4, RA is .
12
MU ⎛ 8 ⎞
4 = ⎜ × 32 ⎟ = 21.33 units
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 21.33 ⎞
L5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.185
⎝ 18 ⎠
This moment, MU acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4 . The direction of
stress in L5L6 is from left to right. This sign is marked at L5. This shows that the
7
stress in L5L6 is tensile. When the unit load is at L5, RA is .
12
⎛7 ⎞
MU = ⎜ × 32 + 1 × 8 ⎟ = 26.66 units
4
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 26.66 ⎞
L5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.481
⎝ 18 ⎠
This moment MU acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4 . The direction of
stress in L5L6 is from left to right. This sign is marked at L5. This shows that the
stress in L5L6 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of the section aa. The
1
reaction at support A, RA is
12
⎛ 32 ⎞
MU ⎜ ⎟ = 16 units
4
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 16 ⎞
L5L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.889
⎝ 18 ⎠
The moment MU also acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
4
L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in L5L6 is from
left to right. This direction is marked at L5. This snows that the stress in L5L6 is
tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L5L6 (and L4L5) is shown in Fig.
15.8 (b).

The section aa as shown in Fig.15.8 (a) is suitable for obtaining the stress in
U4U6. The section aa intersects U4U6, M5L6, and L5L6. The members M5L6 and
L5L6meet at L6.
⎛ ML6 ⎞
Therefore, U4U6 = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ xU L ⎟
⎝ 4 6 ⎠
The prolonged directions U6U4 and L5L6 meet at point P1. The angle represents
the inclination of U4U6 with the horizontal.
c a U
d 6
U4 U8
U2
M5 U 10 20 m
M7
M3 M9 18 m
M1 M4
10 m
P 1 P2 40 A B
m L0 L1 L2 L3 L 4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2
c
11 2 m b a
d b
1 2 P an els @ 8 m = 9 6 m
(a ) P e ttit truss
+1 .1 85 1 .48 1 0 .88 9
(b ) I.L.D fo r L 4 L 5 A n d L 5 L 6
– 1.2 1
(C ) I.L .D . for U 4 U 6
+0 .4 68
– 0.5 79
0 .72 6
(d ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
+1 .1 00
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
– 0.6 68
(f) I.L .D for L 4 M 5
+0 .4 68
– 0.0 57 9 – 0.0 55
(g ) I.L.D fo r U 4 M 5
+0 .6 29 6 +0 .1 76
– 0.2 78
(h ) I.L.D fo r U 2 L 2
Fig. 15.8
⎛ 20 – 18 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.125, θ1 = 7°7´
⎝ 16 ⎠
sin θ1 = 0.124,cos θ1 = 0.992
⎛ U L ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
P1L6 = ⎜ 6 6 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 160 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.124 ⎠
AP = (160 – 48) = 112 m
1
xU4U6 = 160 × sin θ1 = 160 × 0.124 = 19.84 m

Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from the section aa.
1
When unit load is at L6, the reaction RA is .
2
48
ML = = 24 units
6 2
⎛ 24 ⎞
U4U6 = ⎜ = 1.21
⎝ 19.84 ⎟⎠
This moment, M6 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
U4U6 is from right to left. This sign is marked at U4. This shows that the stress
in U4U6 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U4U6 is shown in
Fig.15.8 (c).

The section aa as shown in Fig.158 (a) is also suitable for obtaining stress in M5L6.
The section aa intersects U4U6, M5L6 and L5L6. The lines of actions of U4U6 and
L5L6 meet at A.
Therefore,
⎛ M P1 ⎞
⎜ M 5 L6 = ⎟ ,( x M 5L6 = P1L6 sin θ)
⎜ x M5L6 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
18
sin θ = = 0.7478
182 + 162
x M5 L6 = (160 × 0.7478) = 119.65
⎛ M P1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜
M 6 L6 ⎟⎟
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
8
When the unit load is at L4, the reaction RA is .
12
⎡ 8 ⎤
MP = ⎢1 × (160 – 16) – × 112⎥ = + 69.33 units
1 ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
M5L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment Mp acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
1
in M5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in M5L6 acts
from right to left upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the
7
stress in M5L6 is compressive when unit load is at L5, the reaction RA is .
12
⎡ 7 ⎤
MP
1
= ⎢⎣1 × (160 – 8) – 12 × 112⎥⎦ = + 85.67 units
⎡ 86.67 ⎤
M 5 L6 = ⎢119.65 ⎥ = 0.7265
⎣ ⎦
This moment MP also acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in M5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment. This direction of stress is from
right to left upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the nature
of stress inM5L6 is compressive.
When the unit load at L6, the load is on the right side of section aa, the reaction
1
RA is .
12
⎛1 ⎞
MP = ⎜ × 112 ⎟ = 56 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 56 ⎞
M 5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.468
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress in M5L6 provides a clockwise moment. The direction of stress in M5L4 in
from left to right downward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that the
stress in M5L6 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in M5L6 is shown in
Fig. 15.8 (d).

The member M5L5, is a sub-member. It carries stress so long as unit toad travel
from L4 to L6. For all other positions of unit load, the stress in M5L5 is zero. When
the unit load is at L4, then, the stress in M5L5 is also zero. When the unit load is
at L6, then, the stress in M5L5 is also zero. When the unit load is at L5, the stress
in M5L5 is 1.00 tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in M5L5 is shown in
Fig.15.8 (e).
15.9.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress is L4M5

The member L4M5 is a sub-member, (sub-strut). It carries stress so long as unit
load travels from L4 to L6. The stress in L4M5 is obtained by passing a horse-shoe
section bb as shown in Fig.15.8 (a). The section bb intersects L4L5, L4M5, U4M5,
M5L6, L5L6 .Out of these five members, the lines of action of four members
L4L5,U4M5, M5L6 and L5L6, pass through the joint L5.
Therefore,
⎛ M L4 ⎞
L4 M 5 = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ x L4 M5 ⎠
x L4 M5 = 16 × sin θ = (l6 × 0.7478) = 11.92 m
⎛ M L4 ⎞
L4 M 5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 11.92 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of that portion of the frame, which is within the horse-
shoe section bb. When the unit load is at L4, the load is outside the section. Therefore,
ML and stress in L4M5 are zero. When the unit load is at L4, then, also, the load
4
is outside the section, the moment, ML and stress in L4M5 are zero.
4
When unit load is at L5,
ML = (1 × 8) = 8 units
5
⎛ 8 ⎞
L4 M 5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.668
⎝ 11.92 ⎠
This moment ML , acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this,
5
the areas in L4M5 provides clockwise moment. The direction of stress in L4M5 is
from left to right upward. This direction is marked at M5. This shows that stress
in L4M5 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in L4M5 is shown in
Fig.15.8 (f).

The stress in U4M5 is obtained by drawing a section cc as shown in Fig.15.8 (a).
The section cc intersects U4U6, U4M5, L4M5 and L4L5, The lines of action of U4U6
and L4L5 pass through P1.
M P1
Therefore , U4 M 5 =
xU4 M 5
8
the unit load is at L4, the stress in L4M5 is zero, and the reaction RA is
12
xU4 M 4 = (160 sin θ = 160 × 0.7578) = 119.65 m
⎛ 8 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 144 – × 112 ⎟ = 69.33 units
1
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 69.33 ⎞
U4 M5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.579
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP , acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
1
stress inU4M5 provides an anti-clockwise moment about P1. The direction of stress
is from right to left upward. This direction is marked at U4. This shows that the
stress in U4 M5 is compressive.
7
When the unit load is at L5, the reaction at support A, RA is . The stress in
12
L4M5 is 0.668. The vertical component of stress in L4M5 (i.e. 0.668 sin θ) acts
downward and the horizontal component of stress is U4M5 (i.e., 0.668 cos θ) acts
from right to left. The unit load is on right side of section cc.
⎡ 7 ⎤
∴ MP = ⎢0.668 × 0.7478 × 144 – × 112⎥ = 6.67 units
1 ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎛ 6.67 ⎞
L4M5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.055
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts in clockwise direction about P1 In order to balance this,
1
the stress U4M5 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in
U4M5 is from right to left upward. This shows that U4M5 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of section cc. The
1
reaction at support A, Ra is
12
112
MP = = 56 units
1 2
⎛ 56 ⎞
U4M5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.468
⎝ 119.65 ⎠
This moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction about P1. In order to balance
1
this, the stress in U4M5 provides a clockwise moment. The direction of stress in
U4M5 is from left to right downward. This shows that the direction of stress in
U4M5 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in U4M5 is shown in Fig.
15.8 (g).
15.9.7 Influence Line Diagram for Stress U4L4

The stress in U4L4 is obtained by drawing section dd as shown in Fig.15.8 (a). The
section dd intersects U2L4, U4L4,L4M5 and L4L5. The lines of actions of U2U4 and
L4L5 meet at P2.
tan θ2 = ⎛ 18 – 14 ⎞ = 0.25,θ2 = 14° 2´

⎜ 16 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
tan θ2 = 0.242, cos θ2 = 0.97
⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞
P2L4 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 72 m, AP2 = 40 m
⎝ tan θ2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.25 ⎠
⎛ M P2 ⎞
∴ U4 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 72 ⎠
When the unit load is at L4 the stress in L4M5 is zero. The reaction at support
8
A, RA is
12
⎛ 8 ⎞
MP = ⎜1 × 72 – × 40⎟ = 45.33 units
2 ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 45.33 ⎞
= ⎜ = 0.6296
U4 L4 ⎝ 72 ⎟⎠
1
stress in U4U4 provides an an ti-clockwise moment about P2. The direction of
stress in U4U4 acts upward. This direction is marked at L4. This shows that the
stress in U4U4 tensile.
When the unit load is at L5, the load is on the right side of the section dd. The
stress in L4L5 is 0.668 compressive. The vertical component of stress (0.668 sin θ)
7
acts downward. The reaction at support, A RA is
12
⎛ 7 ⎞
∴ MP = ⎜ 0.668 × 0.7478 × 72 – × 40 ⎟ = 12.67 units
2
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ 12.67 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.176
⎝ 72 ⎠
This moment Mp acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
2
in U4L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 is
upward. The direction is marked at L4. This shows that the stress in U4 L4 is
tensile.
When the unit load is at L6, the unit load is on right side of the section. The
1
stress in L4M5 is zero. The reaction at support A, RA is
2
⎛ 40 ⎞
MP = ⎜ ⎟ = 20 units
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 20 ⎞
U4 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.278.
⎝ 72 ⎠
The moment MP acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in U4L4 provides a clockwise moment. The direction of stress in U4L4 is
downward. Tis direction is marked at L4. This shows that the stress in U4L4 is
compressive. The influence line diagram for U4L4is shown in Fig.15.8 (h).

MEMBERS OF A K-TRUSS
A K-truss is shown in Fig.15.9 (a). K-truss consists of 8 panels and length of each
panel is 8 m. The two diagonals in each panel have the same slope.
15.10.1 Influence Line Diagram for S tress in U2U3

The stress in U2U3 is obtained by drawing a section aa as shown in Fig. 15.9 (a).
The section aa intersectsU2U3, U2M3,M2L2 and L2L3. The lines of actions of stress
in U2M2, M3L2 and L2L3 meet at joint L2. Therefore,
⎛ M L2 ⎞
U2U3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for U2U3 = × (I.L.D. for ML )
12 2
The influence line diagram for ML is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
2
⎛ 48 ⎞
triangle is ⎜16 × = 12.0. The ordinate of triangle representing influence line
⎝ 64 ⎟⎠
⎛ 12 ⎞
diagram of stress in U2U3 is ⎜ × 1.00 ⎟ . In order to mark the nature of stress in
⎝ 12 ⎠
U2U3, consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame, from section aa.
When the unit load is at L2,
⎛6⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝8⎠
ML2 = (0.75 × 16) = 12 units.
This moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
2
stress in U2U3 provides an anti-clockwise moment. Therefore, the direction of
stress in U2U3 is from right to left. This direction is marked at U2. This shows
that the stress in U2U3 is shown in Fig.15.9 (b).

The section aa as shown in Fig.15.9 (a) is also suitable for determining stress in
L2L3. The section aa cuts U2U3, U2M3, M2M2, L2L3. The lines of action of stress in
U2U3, U2M3 and M2L2 meet at U2. Therefore,
⎛ M U2 ⎞
L2 L3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
1
I.L.D. for L2L3 = × (I.L.D for MU )
12 2
a b c d
U2 U3 U4 U5 U6
M1 M9
M3 M5 M7 12 m
6m
A
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 B
a b d c
8 P a ne ls @ 8 m = 64 m
(a ) K Truss
– 1.00
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 3
+ 1.00
(c) I.L .D fo r L 2 L 3
+ 0.20 8
– 0.52
(d ) I.L.D fo r M 2 U 3
+ 0.52
– 0.20 8
(e ) I.L.D fo r M 2 L 3
+ 0.31 3
– 0.12 5
(f) I.L.D fo r
0 .68 7
+0 .1 25
– 0.25
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 2 L 3
Fig. 15.9
The influence line diagram for MU is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
2
⎛ 16 × 48 ⎞
triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 12. The ordinate of triangle representing influence line for
⎝ 64 ⎠
stress in L2L3 is
⎛ 12 ⎞
⎜ 12 ⎟ = 1.00
⎝ ⎠
In order to mark the nature of stress in U2U3, consider the equilibrium of left
hand portion of the frame from section aa. When the unit load is at L2.
⎛6⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝8⎠
MU = (0.75 × 16) = 12 units.
2
2
stress in L2L3provides an anti-clockwise moment. Therefore, the direction of stress
in L2L3 is from left to right. This direction is marked at L2. This shows that the
stress in L2L3is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L2L3 is shown in
Fig.15 .9 (c).
15.10.3 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M2U3 and M2L3

The member M2U3 and M2L3have same slope with the horizontal. Consequently,
these members carry equal stresses, but opposite in sign. The vertical component
of their stresses act in one direction. The stress in M2U3 and M2L3 are obtained by
passing a section bb as shown in Fig.15.9 (a). The section bb intersects U2U3,
M2U3, M2L3 and L2L3. The members U2U3 and L2L3are horizontal members. The
vertical components of stress in U2U3 and L2L3 are zero. Therefore the sum of
vertical component of stress in M2U3 and M2L3 is equal to the shear force in panel
L2L3. Therefore,
M 2U3 sin θ + M 2 L3 sin θ = FL
2L4
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load
is at A, the reaction at support, A, RA = 1. The shear force in panel L2L3 is zero.
Similarly, when the unit load is at B, the reaction RA is zero. Therefore, the stress
in M2U3 and M2L3 are zero. When the unit load is at L2
⎛6⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝8⎠
FL L = (1 – 0.75) = 0.25
2 3
The vertical components of stresses in M2U3 and M2L3 are equal and act in one
direction. Therefore,
2M 2U3 sin θ = 0.25
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
M 2U3 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2sin θ ⎠
6
sin θ = = 0.6, cos θ = 0.8
6 + 82
2
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
∴ M 2U3 = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.208
2 × 0.6 ⎠
This shear force FL L acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical
2 3
components of M2U3 and M2L3 act upward. The vertical components act upward
when the direction of stresses in M2U3 and M2L3 are left to right upward and right
to left upward respectively. These directions are marked at M2. This shows that
the stress in M2U3 is tensile and that in M2L3 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L3, the load is on right side of the section bb. The
⎛5⎞
reaction at support A, RA is ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝8⎠
⎛5⎞
FL = ⎜ ⎟
2L3
⎝8⎠
Therefore,
⎛5⎞
2M 2U3 sin θ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠
⎛5 1 ⎞
M 3U3 = ⎜ × = 0.52
⎝ 8 2 × 0.6 ⎠⎟
This shear force FL2L3 acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical
components of M2U3 and M2L3 act downward. The vertical components act
downward, when the direction of the stress in M2U3 and M2L3 are right to left
downward and left to right downward respectively. These directions are marked
at M2. This shows that the stress in M2U3 is compressive and that in M2L3 is
tensile. The influence lines for stresses in M2U3 and M2L3 are shown in Fig.15.9
(d) and Fig.15.9 (e), respectively.
15.10.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stresses U3M3

The stress in U3M3 is obtained by considering a section dd as shown in Fig. 15.9
(a). The section dd intersects U3U4, U3M3, M2L3 and L2L3. The members U3U4
and L2L3 are horizontal members. The vertical components of Stress in U3M4 and
L2L3 are zero. The sum of stress inU3M3 and the vertical component of stress in
M2L3 is equal to shear force in panel L2L3. Therefore.
U3 M 3 + M 2 L3 sin θ = FL L
2 3
is at L2,
M 2 L3 sin θ = (0.208 × 0.6) = 0.125
6
RA = = 0.75
8
FL = (l – 0.75) = 0.25
2L3
Therefore, U3 M 3 = 0.25 – 0.125 = 0.125
This shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3M3
acts upward. The direction is marked at U3. This shows that the stress in U3M3 is
compressive.
When the unit lead is at L3, the load is on the right side of the section.
M 2 L3 sin θ = (0 – 52 × 0.6) = 0.312
5
RA =
8
This vertical component acts downward
⎛5 ⎞
U3 M 3 = FL – M 2 L3 sin θ = ⎜ – 0.312 ⎟ = 0.313
2L3
⎝8 ⎠
The shear force acts upward. In order to balance this, the stress in U3M3 acts
downward. This direction is marked at U3. This shows that the stress in U3M3 is
tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in U2M3 is shown in Fig.1.59 (f).

The stress in member M3L3 is obtained by drawing the section cc as shown in
Fig.15.9 (a). The section cc intersects,U2U3, M2U3, M3L3 and L3L4. The members
U2U3, and L3L4 are horizontal members. The vertical components of stress in
U2U3 and L3L4 are zero. Therefore,’the sum of stress in M2L3 and vertical component
of stress in M2L3 is equal to shear force in panel L3L4. Therefore,
M 2 L3 + M2U3 sin θ = FL
2L4
⎛6⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝8⎠
M 2U3 sin θ = (0.208 × 0.6) = 0.125 (upward)
FL L = (1 – 0.208) = 0.25
2 3
M 3 L3 = (0.25 – 0.125) = 0.125
This shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in M3L3
acts upward. This direction is marked at L3. This shows the stress in M3L4 is
tensile. When the unit load is at I3,
5
RA =
8
M2U3 sin θ = (0.52 × 0.6) = 0.312 (downward)
⎛ 5⎞ 3
FL = ⎜1 – ⎟ =
3L4 8⎠ 8
⎝
⎡3 ⎤
M 3 L4 = ⎢ 8 – ( –0.312 )⎥
⎣ ⎦
This shear force also acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in
M3L3 acts upward. This direction is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in
M3L3 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L4, the load is on the right side of the section.
M2U3 = 0.416
M 2U2 sin θ = 0.416 × 0.6 = 0.25 (downward)

RA = 0.5
M 3 L3 = (0.5 – 0.25) = 0.25
This acts upward. In order to balance this, stress in M3L3 acts downward. This
is marked at L3. This shows that the stress in M3L3 compressive. The influence
line diagram for stress in M3L3 is shown in Fig.15.9 (g).

MEMBERS OF A K-TRUSS WITH INCLINED CHORD
A K-truss with inclined chord is shown in Fig.15.10 (a). The two diagonals in each
panel have same slope. The stresses in two diagonals of each panel are equal but
are opposite in sign. The top chord of the truss is straight between U2 and U4,U4,
andU6, andU6,and,U8. The top chord fromU8 to U14 is symmetrical to that of from
U2 to U8.

The stress in U4U5 is obtained by drawing a section aa as shown in Fig.15.10 (a).
The section aa intersects U4M5,U4M4,M4L4 and L4L5. The members U4M4, M4L4
and L4L5 meet at L4. Therefore,
⎛ M L4 ⎞
U 4U 5 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xU U
⎝ 4 5 ⎠
xU4U5 = P2L4 × sin θ1
⎛ 26.25 – 24 ⎞
tan θ1 = ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.1125. ∴ θ1 = 6° 25´
⎝ 20
sin θ1 = 0.1118, cos θ1 = 0.9938
⎛ U L ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
P1L4 = ⎜ 4 5 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 213.33 m
⎝ tan θ1 ⎠ ⎝ 0.1125 ⎠
AP1 = (213.33 –40) = 173.33 m
xU4U5 = (213.33 × 0.1118) = 23.85 m
⎛ M L4 ⎞
Therefore, U 4U 5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 23.85 ⎠
⎛ M4 ⎞
I.L.D. for U 4U 5 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 23.85 ⎠
a b ed
c U6 U7 U8 U9 U 1 0 U 11
U5
U2 U3 U4 U 12 U
13 U 14
M4 M5 M6 M7 M 9 M 1 0 M 11 M 1 2
θ1 M1 M2 M3 M 13 M M
14 15
P1 A L0 L L2 L 3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L 1 2 L 1 3 L 1 4 L 1 5 L 16
1
ce
f
a b d
1 6 P an els @ 10 m = 16 0 m
(a ) K -Truss with incline d ch o rd
– 1.2 58
(b ) I.L.D fo r U 2 U 5
+1 .2 5
(c) I.L .D fo r L 4 L 5
– 1.37 7
(d ) I.L.D fo r U 5 U 6
+ 1.36 8
(e ) I.L.D fo r L 5 L 6
+0 .2 48
– 0.35 7
(f) I.L.D fo r M 4 U 5
+ 0.30 5
– 0.2 93
(g ) I.L.D fo r M 5 L 6
+ 0.25 4
– 0.1 78
(h ) I.L.D fo r U 5 M 6
0 .72 1
+0 .1 96
– 0.2 54
(i) I.L.D for M 5 L 5
Fig. 15.10
The influence line diagram for moment ML is a triangle. The maximum ordinate
4
⎛ 40 × 120 ⎞
of this triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 30. The maximum ordinate of the triangle
⎝ 160 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞
representing influence line diagram for stress U4U5 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.258. When
⎝ 23.85 ⎠
⎛ 12 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 16 ⎠
ML4 = (0.75 × 40) = 30 units.
This moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in U4U5 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L4. The direction of stress
in U4U5 is from right to left at U4. This shows that the stress in U4U5 is
compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U4U5 is shown in Fig.15.10
(b)

The section aa as shown in Fig.15.10 (a) is suitable to determine the stress in
L4L5. The section aa intersects U4U5, U4U5,M4L4 and L4L5. The lines of actions of
stress in U4U5, U4M4 and M4L4 meet atU4.
⎛ M U4 ⎞
Therefore, L4 L5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 24 ⎠
⎛ MU 4 ⎞
I.L.D. for L4 L5
= ⎜⎜ I.L.D for ⎟
⎝ 24 ⎟⎠
The influence line diagram for MU is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
4
⎛ 40 × 120 ⎞
triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 30 units. The maximum ordinate of triangle representing
⎝ 160 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞
influence line diagram for stress in L4 L5 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.25. Consider the equilibrium
⎝ 24 ⎠
of left hand portion of the frame. When the unit load is at L4,
⎛ 12 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 16 ⎠
ML = (0.75 × 40) = 30 units.
4
This moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the stress
4
in L4L5 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4. The direction of stress in
L4L5 is from left to right. This direction is marked atL4. This shows that the
stress in L4L5 is tensile. The influence line diagram for stress in L4L5 is shown in
Fig. 15.10 (c).

The stress in U5U6 is obtained by considering a section bb as shown in Fig. 15.10
(a). The section bb intersects U5U6, U5M5, M5L5 and L5L6. The lines of action of
U5M5, M5L5and L5L6 meet at L5.
⎛ M L5 ⎞
Therefore, U5U6 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xU U
⎝ 5 6 ⎠
x U U = P1L5 sin θ1 = (213.33 + 10) × 0.1118 = 24.96 m
5 6
⎛ M L5 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 24.96 ⎠
⎛ M L5 ⎞
I.L.D. for U5U6 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 24.96 ⎠
The influence line diagram for ML is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of the
5
triangle is
⎛ 50 × 110 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 34.375 units.
⎝ 160 ⎠
The maximum ordinate of triangle representing the influence line diagram for
⎛ 33.375 ⎞
stress in U5U6 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.377. Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion
⎝ 24.96 ⎠
11
of the frame. When the unit load is at L5, RA = .
16
⎛ 11 ⎞
ML = ⎜ × 50 ⎟ = 34.375 units.
5
⎝ 16 ⎠
The moment ML acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this stress in
5
U5U6 provides anti-clockwise moment about L5. The direction of stress in U5U6 in
from right to left. This direction is marked at U5. This shows that the stress in
U5U6 is compressive. The influence line diagram for stress in U5U6 is shown in
Fig.15.10(d).

The section bb as shown in Fig.15.10 (a) is also suitable for determine the stress in
L5L6. The section bb intersects U5U6, U5M6, M5L6and L5L6, The line of actions of
U5U6, U5M6 and M5L6 meet at U5. Therefore,
⎛ MU5 ⎞
L5 L6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 25.125 ⎠
⎛ MU5 ⎞
I.L.D. for L5 L6 = I.L.D. for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 25.125 ⎠
The influence line diagram for MU5 is a triangle. The maximum ordinate of this
⎛ 50 × 110 ⎞
triangle is ⎜ ⎟ = 34.375 units. The maximum ordinate of the triangle
⎝ 160 ⎠
⎛ 34.375 ⎞
representing the influence line diagram for stress in L5L6 is ⎜ ⎟ = 1.368.
⎝ 24.124 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section bb. When
the unit load is at L5. RA is 11 .

16
⎛ 11 ⎞
MU = ⎜ ⎟ × 50 = 34.375 units.
5
⎝ 16 ⎠
5
stress in L5L6 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U5. The direction of stress
in L5L6 at L5 point is form left to right. This shows that stress in L5L6 is tensile.
The influence line diagram for stress in L5L6, is shown in Fig.15.10(e).
15.11.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M4U5

The stress in M4U5 is obtained by drawing the section cc as shown in Fig. 15.10
(a). The section cc intersects U4U5, M4U5, M4L5 and U4U5. The member L4L5 is a
horizontal member. The vertical components of stress in L4L5 is zero. Therefore,
the sum of vertical components of stresses in U4U5, M4U5 and M4L5 is equal to the
shear force in panel L4L5. The inclination of diagonals M4U5 and M4L5 are equal.
The stresses in M4U5 and M4L5 are equal but are opposite in sign. Therefore the
vertical components of stresses in M4U5 and M4L5 act in one direction and are
equal.
Therefore, M 4U5 sin φ1 + M 4 L5 sin φ1+ U 4U 5 ×sin φ1 = FL
4L5
∴ M 4U5 sin φ1 = M 4 L5 sin φ1

∴ 2M 4U5 sin φ1 = (FL4L5 – U4U5 sin φ1)
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from the section cc.
When the unit load is at L4 RA is 12 = 0.75
16
U 4U 5 = 1.258 (Compressive)
U 4U 5 sin φ1 = (1.258 × 0.1118) = 0.139 (Downward)

FL L = (1 – 0.75) = 0.25 (Downward)
4 5
∴ 2M 4U5 sin φ1 = 0.25 – (– 0.139) = 0.3896 (Downward)
⎛ 0.3896 ⎞
M 4U5 = ⎜ ⎟ × sin φ1
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 26.125 ⎞
tan φ1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.256,φ1 = 51° 28´, sin φ1 = 0.782
⎝ 2 × 10 ⎠
⎛ 0.3896 ⎞
M 4U5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.248
⎝ 2 × 0.782 ⎠
The shear force acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component
of stress in M4U5 acts upward. The direction of stress in M4U5 is from left to right
upward at M4. This shows that the stress in M4U5 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L5 the load is on the right side of the section cc, RA is
11
= 0.687 (Upward)
16
⎛ 110 ⎞
U 4U 5 = ⎜1.258 – ⎟ = 1.125 (Compressive)
⎝ 120 ⎠
U 4U 5 sin φ1 = (1.152 × 0.1118) = 0.124 (Downward)

Therefore,
2M 4U5 sin φ1 = (0.687 × 0.124) = 0.563
⎛ 0.563 ⎞
M 4U5 = ⎜ = 0.357
⎝ 2 × 0.782 ⎟⎠
This shear acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
M4U5 acts downward. The direction of stress in M4U5 is from right to left downward
at M4. This shows that the stress in M4U5 is compressive. The influence line
diagram for stress in M4U5 is shown in Fig.15.10 (f).
15.11.6 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in M 5L6

The stress in M 5L6 is obtained by considering a section dd as shown in Fig. 15.10
(a). The section dd intersects U5U6, M5U6, M 5L6, and L5L6. The member L5L6 is
a horizontal member. The vertical component of siress in L5L6 is zero. The sum of
vertical components of stresses in U5U6, M5L6 and M5L6 is equal to shear force in
panel L5L6, The inclinations of diagonals M5U5 and M5L6 are equal. The stresses
in M5U6 and M5L6 are equal but are opposite in sign. Therefore, the vertical
components of stresses in M5U6 and M5L6 act in one direction, and are equal.
Therefore,
M 5 L6 sin φ2 + M 5U6 sin φ2 + U2U6 sin φ2 + FL
5L6
sin φ2 = M 5U6 sin φ2

∴ M 5 L6
2M5L6 sin φ2 = FL – U5U6 sin θ1

∴ 5L6
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame, from the section dd.
11
When the unit load is at L5. RA is = 0.687
16
U5U5 = 1.377 (Compressive)
U5U6 sin θ1 = (l .377 × 0.1118) = 0.153 (Downward)
∴ 2M5L6 sin φ2 = 0.313 – (– 0.153) = 0.446
⎛ 1 26.25 ⎞
tan φ2 = ⎜ × = 1.3125,φ2 = 52° 42´, sin φ2 = 0.7955
⎝2 10 ⎠⎟
⎛ 0.466 ⎞
M 5 L6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.293
⎝ 2 × 0.7955 ⎠
This shear acts downward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
stress in M5L6 , acts upward. The direction of stress in M5L6 is from right to left
upward. This shows that the stress in M5L6 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on the right side of the section dd.
⎛ 10 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.625
⎝ 16 ⎠
⎛ 100 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜1.368 × = 1.242(Compressive)
⎝ 110 ⎟⎠
2M4U5 sin φ2 = (0.625 – 0.1388) = 0.4862
⎛ 0.4862 ⎞
M4U5 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.305
⎝ 2 × 0.7955 ⎠
This shear acts upward. In order to balance this, the vertical component of
M5L6 acts downward. The direction of stress in M5L6 is from left to right downward
at M5. This shows that the stress in M5L6 is tensile. The influence line diagram
for stress in M5L8 is shown in Fig.15.10 (g).

The stress in U5M5 is obtained by drawing the section ee as shown in Fig.15.10
(a). The section ee intersects U5U6, U5M5, M4L5 and L4L5. The member L4L5 is
horizontal member. The vertical component of stress in L4L5 is zero. The sum of
vertical components of stress in U5U6 and M4L5 and stress in is equal to the shear
force in panel L4L5. Therefore,
U5 M6 + U5U6 sin θ1 + M4 L4 sin φ1 = FL L

4 5
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section ee. When
the unit load is at L4,RA is 12 = 0.75 (Upward)

16
⎛ 1.368 × 40 ⎞
U5U6 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.092 (Compressive)
⎝ 50 ⎠
U5U6 sin θ1 = (1.092 – 0.1118) = 0.1220 (Downward)
M 4 L5 = 0.248 (Compressive)
M 4 L5 sin φ1 = (0.248 × 0.782) = 0.194 (Upward)

FL L = (1 – 0.75) = 0.25 (Downward)
4 5
Therefore, U5M5 = 0.25 – (– 0.122) – 0.194 = 0.178
This shear acts downward. In order to balance this, the stresses in U5M5 acts
upwards at U5. This shows that the stress in U5M5 is compressive.
When the unit load is at L5, the load is on the right side of the section.
11
RA = = 0.687 (Upward)
16
U5U6 sin θ1 = (l.377 × 0.1118) = 0.154 (Downward)
M4 L5 = + 0.357 (Tensile)
M4 L5 sin φ1 = (0.357 × 0.782) = 0.279 (Downward)
∴ U5U6 = (0.687 – 0.154 – 0.279) = 0.254
This shear acts upward. In order to balance this, the stress inU5M5 acts
downward at U5. This shows that the stress in U5M5 is tensile. The influence line
diagram for stress in U5M5 is shown in Fig.15.10 (h).

The stress in member M5L5 is obtained by considering a section ff as shown in
Fig.15.10 (a). The section ff intersects U4U5, M4U5, M5L5 and L5L6 . The member
L5L6 , is a horizontal member. The vertical component of stress in L5L6 is zero.
The sum of vertical components of stress in U4U5, M4U5 and stress in M5L5 is
equal to the shear force in the panel L5L6. Therefore,
M5L5 + U4U5 sin θ1+ M5U5 sin φ1 = FL
5L6
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section ff. When
12
the unit load is at L4, RA is = 0.75 (Upward).
16
M4U5 = 0.248 (Tensile)
M4U5 sin φ1 = (0.248 × 0.782) = 0.194 (Upward)

FL = (1 – 0.75) = 0.25 (Downward)
5L6
Therefore, M5U5 = 0.25 – (–0.14) – 0.194 = 0.196

This shear acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress M5L5 acts upward
at L5. This shows that the stress in M5L5 is tensile. When the unit load is at L5.
⎛ 11 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.687
⎝ 16 ⎠
⎛ 110 ⎞
U4U5 = ⎜1.258 × = 1.152 (Compressive)
⎝ 120 ⎟⎠
U4U5 sin θ1 = (l.152 × 0.1118) = 0.129 (Downward)
M4U5 = 0.375 (Compressive)
M4U5 sin φ1 = (0.375 x 0.782) = 0.279 (Downward)

FL = (+ 1 – 0.687) = 0.313 (Downward)
5L6
Therefore, M4U5 = 0.313 – (– 0.129) – (0.279) = 0.721
This shear also acts downward. In order to balance this, the stress in M5L5 acts
upward at L5. This shows that the stress in M5L5 is tensile.
When the unit load is at L6, the load is on right side of the section ff.
⎛ 10 ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.625 (Upward)
⎝ 16 ⎠
⎛ 110 ⎞
U4U5 – ⎜1.258 × = l.047 (Compressive)
⎝ 120 ⎟⎠
U4U5 sin θ1 = (l.047 × 0 .1118) = 0.1170 (Downward)
⎛ 100 ⎞
M4 L5 = ⎜ 0.357 × = 0.324 (Compressive)
⎝ 110 ⎠⎟
M4 L5 sin φ1 = (0.324 × 0.782) = 0.254 (Downward)
Therefore, M4 L5 = (0.625 – 0.117– 0.254) = 0.254 (Downward)

This shear acts in upward direction. In order to balance this, the stress in M5L5
acts downward at L5. This shows that stress in M5L5 is compressive. The influence
line diagram for stress in M5L5is shown in Fig.15.10 (j).

MEMBERS OF A BRACED CANTILEVER AND
SUSPENDED SPAN GIRDER
A braced cantilever with suspended span bridge is shown in Fig.15.11 (a). The
bridge shown in Fig.15.11 (a) is particularly a load type bridge. This type of bridge
is used for spans 200 m or more. Figure15.11(b) shows the enlarged view of the
bridge. There are mechanical hinges at C and D.
15.12.1 Influence Line Diagram for Reactions RA and RB

The support A is a hinged support. Consider that the unit load is moving from A to
C. Let the unit load be at a distance x at any instant from A. The bending moment
at C is zero, since there is a mechanical hinge. Take moment about C.
RA × 70 + RB × 30 – 1 (70 – x) = 0 ...(i)
S ince, the reactions at support E and F, RE and RF are zero
RA + RB = 1 ... (ii)
Solve (i) and (ii), the values of RA and RB are found as follows:
⎛ x⎞
RA = ⎜1 – ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ 40 ⎠
⎛ x ⎞
RA = ⎜ ⎟ ...(iv)
⎝ 40 ⎠
These expressions (iii) and (iv) hold good for the load positions from A to C
when x =0 RA = 1(↑) RB = 0
when x = 40 m RA = 0 RB = 1(↑)
when x = 70 m RA = 0.75(↓) RB = 1.75(↑).
Consider that unit load moves from C to D. Let the unit load be at a distance x
at any instant from C. The load transmitted at C,
⎛ 60 – x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
PC = ⎜ ⎟↑= ⎜1 – 60 ⎟ ↓
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Taking moment about A,
⎛ x ⎞
RB × 40 – ⎜1 ⎟ × 70 = 0
⎝ 60 ⎠
70 ⎛ x ⎞
RB =
40 ⎜1 – 60 ⎟ ↑
⎝ ⎠
U2 U3 U4 B U6 U7 C D E F
L3
L3
L4 L6 L7
4 @ 10 = 40 m 4@ 6 @ 10 = 60 m 3@ 4 @ 10 = 40 m
1 0= 30 m 1 0= 30 m
b a (a )
P1 A U2 U3 U4 B U6 U7 C D
θ θ
X L3U4 L2
L7
L3 L4 L5 L6
b a
4 P a ne ls 3 P a ne ls 6 P a ne ls
@ 10 = 40 m @ 10 = 30 m @ 10 = 60 m
(b ) B ra ced can tileve r w ith su spen d ed spa n bridg e
1 .00
0 .75
(c) I.L.D for R A
1 .75
1 .00
(d ) I.L.D . for R B
+ 1.12 5
– 0.75
(e ) I.L.D for U 3 U 4
+ 0.31 6 0 .47 4
– 1.42 1
(f) I.L .D for L 3 L 4
+ 0.37 5
+ 0.75
–
0 .12 5 (g ) I.L.D for L 3 U 4
+ 0 .12 5
– 0.75
– 0.37 5
(h ) I.L.D for U 3 L 3
Fig. 15.11
⎡⎛ x ⎞ ⎤
RA = ⎢⎜1 – 60 ⎟ – RB ⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎡ x 70 ⎛ x ⎞⎤
= ⎢1 – 60 – 40 ⎜1 – 60 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎛ x ⎞
= ⎜ 0.75 – 0.75 ⎟ ...(vi)
⎝ 60 ⎠
when x =0 RA = 0.75(↓) RB = 1.75(↑)
when x = 60 RA = 0 RB = 0.

The stress in U3U4 is obtained by drawing a section aa as shown in Fig.1511 (b).
The section aa intersects U3U4, L3U4 and L3L4. The members L3U4and L3L4 meet
at L3. Therefore,
⎛ M L3 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ xU U
⎝ 3 4 ⎠
xU3U4 (10 + 3.33) = 13.33 m
⎛ M L3 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 13.33 ⎠
1
is atU3, RA is
2
⎛ 20 ⎞
ML = ⎜ ⎟ = 10 units
3
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 13.33 ⎠
The moment ML acts in clockwise direction about L3. In order to balance this,
3
the stress in U3U4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about L2. The direction of
stress inU3U4 is from right to left at U3. This shows that the stress in U3U4 is
compressive.
When the unit load is at B, RA is zero
ML = 0, U3U4 = 0
3
When the unit load is at C,
RA = 0.75 (↓)
ML = 0.75 × 20 = 15 units
3
⎛ 15 ⎞
U3U4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.125
⎝ 13.133 ⎠
The moment ML acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the

3
stress in U3U 4 provides a clockwise moment at L4. The direction of stress in U3U4
is from left to right at U3. This shows that the stress in U3U4 is tensile. The
influence line diagram for stress in U3U4 is shown in Fig.15.11 (e).

The section aa as shown in Fig.15.11 (b) is also suitable for determining stress in
the member L3L4. The section aa intersects U3U4 , L3U4 and L3L4. The members
U3U4 and L3U4 meet at U4.
⎛ MU ⎞
Therefore, L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x L3 L4 ⎠
⎛ 20 – 10 ⎞
tan θ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.3333, θ = 18°16´
⎝ 30 ⎠
sin θ = 0.3162, cos θ = 0.9487
⎛ U U ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
P1U1 = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 30 m
⎝ tan θ ⎠ ⎝ 0.3333 ⎠
AP1 = 20 m,P1U4 = 50 m
x L3 L4 = 50 × sin θ = (50 × 0.3162) = 15.81 m
⎛ MU 4 ⎞
∴ L3 L4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
When the unit load is at U3, RA is 0.5 (Upward).
MU = (0.5 × 30 – 1 × 10) = 5 units
4
⎛ 5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.316
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
L3L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4. The direction of stress in L3L4
is from left to right downward at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is tensile.
When the unit load is at U4.
RA = 0.25 (Upward)
MU = 0.25 × 30 = 7.5 units
4
⎛ 7.5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.474
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
This moment MU also acts clockwise. In order to balance this, the stress in
4
L3L4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about U4. The direction of stress in L3L4
is from left to right downward at L3. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is tensile.
When the unit load is at support B, the reaction at support A is zero. The stress
L3L4 is also zero. When the unit load is at C,
RA = 0.75 (Downward)
MU = 0.75 × 30 = 22.5 units

4
⎛ 22.5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.421
⎝ 15.81 ⎠
This moment MU , acts in anti-clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
4
stress in L3L4 provides clockwise moment about U4. The stress in L3L4acts from
right to left upward. This shows that the stress in L3L4 is compressive. When the
unit load is at D, RA is 0. The stress in L3L4 is zero. The influence line diagram for
stress in L3L4 is shown in Fig.15.11 (f).
15.12.4 Influence Diagram for Stress in L3L4

The section aa shown in Fig.15.11 (b) is also suitable for obtaining the stress in
L3L4. The section aa intersects U3U4, L3L4and L3L4. The lines of action of U3U4
and L3L4meet at P1.
⎛ M P1 ⎞
Therefore, L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ x L3U4 ⎠
x L3 L4 = 50 sin φ
⎛ 13.33 ⎞
tan φ = ⎜ = 1.333. φ = 53° 8´, sin φ = 0.8
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠
x L3U4 = 50 × 0.8 = 40 m
When the unit load is at U3, the reaction RA is 0.5
MP = (l × 40 – 0.5 × 20) = 30 units
1
⎛ 30 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75
⎝ 40 ⎠
1
stress in L3U4 provides an anti-clockwise moment about P1. The direction of
stress in L3U4 is from left to right upward at L3. This shows that the stress in
L2U4 is tensile.
RA = 0.25 (Upward)
MP = 0.25 × 20 = 5 units
⎛ 5 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.125.
⎝ 40 ⎠
1
stress in L3U4 provides a clockwise moment and P . The direction of stress in
1
L3L4is from right to left downward at L3. This shows that stress in L3L4 is
compressive.
When the unit load is at B, the RA is zero. The stress in L3L4 is zero when the
unit load is at C,
MP1 = (075 × 20) = 15 units
⎛ 15 ⎞
L3 L4 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.375.
⎝ 40 ⎠
This moment MP1 acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance this, the
stress in L3U4 provides an anti-clockwise moment at P1. The stress in L3U4 acts
from left to right upward. This shows that the stress in L3U4 is tensile. When the
unit load is at D, the reaction RA is zero. The stress in L3U4 is zero. The influence
line diagram for L3U4 is shown in Fig. 15.11 (g).
15.12.5 Influence Line Diagram for Stress U3L3

The stress in U3L3 is obtained by drawing a section bb as shown in Fig.15.11 (b).
The section bb intersects U3U4 ,U3L3 and L2L3. The lines of actions of U3U4 and
L2L3 meet at P1.
⎛ M P1 ⎞ ⎛ M P1 ⎞
Therefore, U3 L3 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xU3L3 ⎠ ⎝ 40 ⎠
Consider the equilibrium of left hand portion of the frame from section bb.
When the unit load is at U3.
RA = 0.5 (Upward)
MP = (l × 40 – 0.5 × 20) = 30 units
1
⎛ 30 ⎞
U 3 L3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.75.
⎝ 40 ⎠
1
stress in U3L3 provides an anti-clockwise moment. The stress in U3L3 acts upward
at U3. This shows that the stress in U3L3 is compressive.
When the unit load is at U4, the load is on the right side of the section,
RA = 0.25 (Upward)
MP = 0.25 × 20 = 5 units
1
1
stress in U3L3 provides clockwise moment . The stress in U3L3 acts (downward) at
U3. This shows that the stress inU3L3 is tensile. When the unit load is at B, RA is
0. The stress in U3L3 is zero.
When the unit load is at C, the load is on the right side of the section,
MP = 0.75 × 20 = 15 units
⎛ 15 ⎞
U3 L3 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.375
⎝ 40 ⎠
This moment MP , acts in clockwise direction. In order to balance, this the
1
stress in U3L3provides an anti-clockwise moment about P1. The stress in acts
upward at U3. This shows that the stress in U3L3 is compressive. When the unit
load is at D, the reaction RA is zero. The stress in U3L2 is zero. The influence line
diagram for stress in U3L3 is shown in Fig.15.11 (h).
Problems
15.1 For a bridge truss as shown in Fig. P 15.1 draw the influence line
diagrams for forces in members PB, PQ, PC, and QC for load travelling
on the bottom boom. Also draw the influence line for the reaction at F.
R
O S
14 m
P T
12 m
8m
A G
B C D E F
5 P a ne ls @ 1 0 = 5 0 m 0m
Fig. P. 15.1
15.2 Draw the influence lines for the members U4M5, L3L4 and U2U4 of a
Baltimore truss sketched below consisting of 12 bays of 7.5 m each.
U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11 15 m
7 .5 m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 1 0 L 11 L12
90 m
Fig. P. 15.2
15.3 Draw the influence lines for three members X, Y and Z in the bridge
shown in Fig.P. 15.3
X
U4 U6
U8
U2 30 m U 10
28 m M M
M3 M9 M 11
M1 20 m Z
L0 L 12
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L 11
1 2 b ays o f 1 0 m = 1 20 m
Fig. P. 15.3
15.4 The height of the K-girder shown in Fig. P. 15.4 is 6 m and the span is 30
m. If the loads are carried by cross-girders at the lower points, draw the
influence lines for the forces in the members GD, DE and EF. If the dead
load is 15 kN/m and the live load is 45 kN/m, find the maximum and
minimum forces of the members FE.
F
3m
G J
3m
A B
C D E H K
30 m
Fig. P. 15.4
15.5 For the AK-truss shown in Fig. P.15.5 draw influence line diagrams for
forces in members U2U3, L2L3, M2L3 and M1L1. Also determine the
maximum compressive and tensile forces in these members due to a
uniformly distributed dead load of 20 kN/m and a uniformly distributed
live load of 40 kN/m may length.
U2 U3 U4 U5 U6
M1 M2 M3 M5 M6 M7
6m
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
8 ba ys @ 3 m = 2 4 m
Fig. P. 15.5
15.6 A Baltimore truss with sub-ties is shown in Fig. P.15.6. Draw influence
line diagrams for the forces in the members U4M5, L4L5 and M5L5.
U2 U4 U6 U8 U 10
M1 M3 M 11 20 m
M5 M7 M9
10 m
O
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L 10 L 11 L12
1 2 b ays @ 8 m = 96 m
L0
Fig. P. 15.6
15 .7 Draw influence line diagrams for the axial forces in the members and
U4L4 of the truss shown in Fig. P. 15.7.
U6
U4
U2
16 m
15 m M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 M 11
12 m
L0 L1 L2 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L 12
L3 L9 L10 L 11
12 @ 8 m = 96 m
Fig. P. 15.7
CHAPTER
16
Analysis of Space Frames
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The plane frames or frame structures or trusses are the structures in two
dimensions. The space frames are structures in three dimensions. The stresses
in various members of the plane frame are found by various methods. The three
methods, which are commonly used are method of joints, method of’ section and
graphical method. In the method of joints, the stresses in various members of
plane frames are found by resolving the forces horizontally and vertically and
by applying the laws of statical equilibrium. The method of tension coefficient
is the most efficient method for analysis of space frames. This method is also
applicable for the analysis of plane frames. This method was propounded by
Professor R.V. Southwell, The method of joints for analysis of space frames has
been neatly and systematically presented in this method. The various other
methods, which are available for the analysis of space frames are tedious and
combersome as compared to this method. The method of tension coefficients
has been discussed in this chapter. The analysis of plane frames by this method
has also been discussed.
16.2 TENSION COEFFICIENTS

The tension coefficient is defined as the ratio of force in a member to the
length of that member. If F is the force in the member, and L is the length of the
member, then, the tension coefficient
t = (F/L) ...(16.1)
If the nature of the stress or force in member is tensile, then, the tension
coefficient is known as positive tension coefficient or simply tension coefficient.
If the nature of stress in a member is compressive, then, the tension coefficient
is known as negative tension coefficient.
A member PQ of a perfect pin jointed frame is shown in Fig. 16.1. The perfect
frame is in equilibrium under a given system of forces. The two co-ordinate axes
are represented by OX and OY. The co-ordinates of end P of the member are (xP,
yP) and those of end Q are (xQ . yQ). The length of member PQ is determined by
LPQ = [(x – xP)2 + (yQ – yP)2]1/2 ...(16.2)
If FPQ is the tensile force in member PQ, then, its component parallel to OX-
axis or x-axis is
⎛ PR ⎞
=FPQ . cos θ = FPQ . ⎜
( xQ – x P )
⎟ = FPQ . L
⎝ PQ ⎠ PQ
⎛ FPQ ⎞
where, t PQ = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = Tension coefficient for stress in the member PQ.
⎜ LPQ
⎝ ⎠
Y Q (x Q – y Q )
PQ
L
(y Q – y Q )
θ
P (x , y )
P P yP
O x
xP (x Q – y P )
xQ
Fig. 16.1
Similarly, the component of FPQ parallel to OY-axis or y-axis is

⎛ QR ⎞ ( yo − yr )
= FPQ · sin θ = FPQ · ⎜ ⎟ = FPQ ⋅
⎝ PQ ⎠ LPQ
⎛ FPQ ⎞
= ⎜ (y – y ) = t PQ.(yQ – yP) ...(ii)
⎜ L ⎟⎟ Q P
⎝ PQ ⎠
Thus it is seen that the components of stresses in the various members along
x-axis and y-axis are expressed in terms of the tension coefficients and the co-
ordinates of the ends of members with reference to reference axes.
16.3 ANALYSIS OF PLANE FRAMES

A plane frame is shown in Fig. 16.2. The frame is in equilibrium under the
given system of forces. The reference axes are shown by OX and OY. The positive
directions of axes are shown by the arrows. The cordinates of various joints of
the frame are also shown.
ANALYSIS OF SPACE FRAMES 839
XP represents a force acting parallel to the positive direction of x-axis at the

joint P. YP represents a force acting parallel to the positive direction of y-axis at
the joint P. In case, the external force acting at the joint P is inclined in any
other direction, then, XP and YP represent the components of external force
parallel to the positive directions of x-axis and y-axis respectively.
Y
YP
(x P – y P ) P
Q xP
(x Q , y Q )
S
(x S , y S ) (x R , y R ) R
X
O
Fig. 16.2
Consider joint P in order to determine the stresses in the member PQ, PR and
PS, meeting at the joint P. The joint P is in equilibrium. The algebraic sum of
resolved components of stresses in these members and external force in any
direction is zero. Therefore, the algebraic sum of components of the stresses in
the members and external forces along x- axis and y-axis are given by the
following expressions and equated to zero:
t PQ (XQ – XP) + tPR (xR –xP) + tPS (xS – xP) + ........ + XP = 0 ...(16.3)
t PQ (yQ – yP) + t PR (yR – yP) + tPS (y S – yP) + ....... + YP = 0 ...(16.4)
Equations 16.3 and 16.4 can also be expressed as
∑ t (xF – xN) + XP = 0 ...(16.5)
∑ t (xF – yN) + YP = 0 ...(16.6)
where ∑ t (xF – xN) is the sum of components of stresses of all the members
meeting at the joint P along x-axis, (xY, yF) represent the co-ordinates of far
ends of the members meeting at the joint P. All the ends of the members farther
from the ends or joint under consideration are called as far ends, (xN, yN) represent
the co-ordinates of near ends of the members. The end of member or joint under
consideration is called near end.
In the above equations, the tension coefficients are only unknown. There are
two equations, at one joint of the frame. If n are the number of joints in a frame,
then there are in equations. The tension co-efficients t PQ, tPR, tPS...etc. are found
by solving these equations. The stresses in a various members of the frame are
determined by the product of corresponding tension co-efficients and lengths of
the members.
It is to note that there are m – (2n – 3) members in a perfect frame of n joints.
There are 2n equations for determining the stresses in the various members.
Thus, there are three surplus equations in this method of tension coefficients.
These surplus equations may be utilized for applying the check or for determining
the reactions at the supports.
The forces in various members are assumed to be acting away from the joint,
i.e., tensile forces at the joints under considerations are written positive if they
are acting parallel to the positive directions of axes. Any joint of the frame may
also be assumed as the origin and the reference axes be marked. The origin of
axes should be assumed at such a point, or any other point, from which the
coordinates of various joints, may be written easily.
16.4 PROCEDURE FOR THE APPLICATION OF METHOD

The following is the procedure for the application of method of tension coefficient
for the analysis of pin jointed perfect plane frames.
Step 1. The origin of reference axes are assumed at any suitable point. The
joint of the plane frame may also be assumed to be the origin. The positive
directions of reference axes (x-axis and y-axis) are marked.
Step 2. The co-ordinates of various joints of the plane frames are written
with the reference to the assumed origin.
Step 3. The lengths of various members of the plane frame are determined,
knowing the co-ordinates of the various joints.
Step 4. Consider each joint of the plane frame, turn by turn and write the
two equations, Eq. 16.5 and Eq.16.6, for each joint, using the two mutually
perpendicular x-axis and y-axis.
Step 5. The tension coefficients for various members of the plane frame are
determined by solving the above equations.
Step 6. The forces in various members are determined by multiplying the
tension coefficients and the respective lengths of the members.
Step 7. A check may be applied upon the accuracy of the work.
Equation 16.5 and Eq.16.6 are written in a tabulated form and the values of
tension coefficients are also written. The lengths of various members and forces
in various members are mentioned as illustrated in the worked out examples.
Example 16.1. Determine the stresses in the members of the plane frame as
shown in Fig. 16.3 by the method of tension coefficients.
Solution
Step 1: The joint O is assumed at the origin. The positive directions of
axes are as shown in Fig.16.3. The co-ordinates of O, A and B are as follows :
Joint Co-ordinates
x y
O 0 0
A 0 3m
B 4m 0
3m
x
O
4m
1 00 kN
Fig. 16.3
Step 2: The length of member OB is 4 m, and the length of member AB

LAB = [(6 – 0)2 +(0 – 3)2]1/2 m = 5 m
Step 3: The equations of method of joints are as follows :
Joints Equations Member t L F=t×L
100
x tOB (0 – 4) – tAB (0 – 4) OB – 4m –133.3 kN
3
+0=0
100
B y tOB (0 – 0) – tAB (3 – 0) AB + 5m + 166.7 kN
3
–100 = 0
The stress in member OB = 133.3 kN (Compressive)
The stress in member AB = 166.7 kN (Tension).
Example 16.2. Determine the stresses in the member of a pin-jointed plane
frame as shown in Fig. 16.4, by applying the method of tension coefficient.
Solution
Step 1: The joint P is assumed as origin. The positive directions of x-axis and
y-axis are as shown in Fig. 16.4.
The co-ordinates of various joints are as follows :
Joint Co-ordinates
x y
P 0 0
Q 2.5 m 2.5 3 m
R 7.5 m 2.5 3 m
S 10 m 0
Step 2 : The lengths of members are as follows :

LPS = 10 m, LQR = 5 m
LPQ = [(2.5 – 0)2 + (2.5 3 – 0)2]1/2 = 5 m
LPR = [(7.5 – 0)2 + (2.5 3 – 0)2]1/2 = 5 3 m
LRS = [(10 –7.5)2 + (0 – 2.5 5 )2]1/2 = 5 m
1 50 kN 8 0 kN
Q R
2 .5 3 m
P X
S
5 .0 m
R1 R2
Fig. 16.4
Step 3 : The stress in various members of pin jointed frame PQRS are
determined as follows.
Joints Equations Member t L F =L×t
x tPQ (0 – 0.5 + t QR QR – 10 3 5m –50 3 kN
(7.5 – 2.5) = 0
Q
y t PQ (0 – 2.5 3 )
+ tQR ( 2.5 3 – 2.5 3 )
– 157 = 0 PQ – 20 3 5m –100 3 kN
x tQR (2.5 – 7.5) + tPR
× (0 – 7.5) + tRS
× (10 – 7.5) = 0 3
PR 10 5 3 30 k N
5
Contd.
Contd.
R
y tPR (0 – 2.5 3 )
+ tRS (0 – 2.5 3 )
– 90 = 0 RS – 14 3 5m – 70 3 kN
x t PS (0 –10) + tRS
× (7.5 –10) = 0
S PS + 35 10 m 35 3 kN
y tRS(2.5 3 –0) + R3 = 0 × 3 × 3
The stress in the member are as follows :

PQ = 100 3 kN (Compression)
QR = 50 3 kN (Compression)
RS = 70 3 kN (Compression)
PR = 30 kN (Tension)
PS = 35 3 kN (Tension)
Example 16.3. A symmetrical pin-jointed roof truss is shown in Fig. 16.5.
Determine the stresses in various member of the truss by applying the method of
tension coefficient.
1 kN
C
1 kN 1 kN
B D 0 .5 kN
0 .5 kN 9 0°
3 0°
A X
5m
G F
2 kN 2 kN
Fig. 16.5
Solution
Step 1: It is to note that the roof truss is symmetrical about the centre line.
The stresses in members on one side have been found.
The joint A is assumed to be the origin. The positive directions of the axes
have been marked in Fig.16.5.
The height of truss,
1
CX = (AX tan 30° + 7.5 × ) = 2.5 3
3
The length of rafter,
AC = [7.52 + (2.5 3 )3]1/2= 5 3 m
The length of member,
AB = BC = AC = 2.5 3 m
2
The length of member, CG
= [(2.5 3 )3 + (2.5)2]1/2 = 5 m
The length of member, BG
1
AG × sin 30° = 5 × = 2.5 m
2
Step 2: The co-ordinates of various joints are as follows :
Joint Co-ordinates
x y
A 0 0
G 5m 0
B 3.75 m 1.25 3m
C 7.5 m 2.5 3 m
The reactions at supports RA = RB = 2 kN. The stresses in the various members
are found by the method of tension coefficient given on Page 816.
Step 3: The stresses in the members are as follows :
AB = DE = – 3 kN BC = CD = – 2.5 kN
GF = + 3 kN AG = FE = 1.5 3 kN
BG = LF = – 0.5 3 kN CG = CF = 0.5 3 kN
16.5 ANALYSIS OF SPACE FRAMES

In the analysis of plane frames there are two reference axes assumed in the
method of tension coefficients and two equations are written. In the analysis of
the space frames, there are three reference axes assumed in the method of
tension coefficients and three equations are written. The joints of plane frames
are assumed as pin-jointed. The joints of space frames are assumed as ball jointed.
There are m = (3n – 6) members in a perfect space frame of n joints. The number
of members is just sufficient to form tetrahedrons. The method of tension
coefficient is applied for the analysis of space frame in the same manner as it is
applied for the plane frame.
Let PQ be a member of perfect space frame in equilibrium under a given
system of forces. Let Fp be the tensile force in the member PQ. (Let xP, yP, zP)
Q

m kN
x t AB (3.75 – 0) AB – 0.4 3 2.5 3 – 3.00 kN
A + tAG (5 – 0) – 0
y tAB(1.25 3 – 0) AG 0.3 3 5 + 1.50 3
+ 1.50 = 0 kN
x t AB (0 – 3.75) BC –1 3 2.5 3 – 2.50 kN
+ tBC (7.5 – 3.75)
+ tBG (5 – 3.75) = 0
B
y tAB (0 – 1.25 3
+ tBC(2.5 3 – 1.5 3 ) BG – 0.2 3 2.5 –0.5 3 kN
+ tBG(0 – l.25 3 )
–1.00 = 0
x (tBC = tCD, t CG = tCF) CG 0.1 3 5.0 0.5 3 kN
tBC (3.75 – 7.5)
+ tCG(5 – 7.5)
+ tCD (11.25 – 7.5)
+ tCF (10 –7.5) = 0
C
y t BC (l.25 3 – 2.5 3 )
+ tCG (0 – 2.5 3 )
+ tCD (1.25 3 – 2.5 3)
+ tCF (0 – 2.5 3 )
– 1.00 = 0
x tAG (0 – 5) GF 0.20 3 5 3 kN
+ tBG (3.75 – 5)
+ tCG (7.5 – 5)
+ tGF (10 – 5) = 0
G
y t BG(1.25 3 – 0)
+tCC (2.5 3 – 0) = 0
and zQ, yQ, zQ be the co-ordinates of P and Q with reference to suitably assumed
axes of reference. The length of member PQ is determined as follows :
LPQ = [(xQ –yP)2 + (xQ –yP)2 + (zQ – zP )2]1/2 ...(16.7)
Z
Q
θ3
θ1 R
P
θ2 X
S
Y
Fig. 16.6
The member PQ is inclined θ1, θ2 and θ3 with the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis as
shown in Fig.16.6, respectively.
The components of tensile force FPQ along the positive direction of x–axis is
⎛ PR ⎞ FPQ ( xQ − x P )
= FPQ cos θ1 = FPQ . ⎜ =
⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ LPQ
= t PQ .(xQ – xP) ...(i)
The components of tensile force FPQ along the positive direction of y-axis is
⎛ PS ⎞ FPQ ( yQ − yP )
= FPQ cos θ2 = FPQ . ⎜
⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ LPQ
= tPQ .(yQ – yP)
he components of tensile force FPQ along the positive direction of z-axis

⎛ PT ⎞ FPQ( zQ – zP )
= FPQ cos θ3 = FPQ . ⎜
⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ LPQ
= tPQ .(zQ – zP) ...(ii)
Let XP, YP and ZP be the three external forces acting along the three axes
of reference at the joint P. If the external force acting at the point P is an
inclined force, then, XP, YP and ZP represent the components of the inclined
force. The components act along the positive directions of the reference axes.
Let PQ, PR, PS be the members meeting at the joint P. The joint P is in
equilibrium. The algebraic sum of resolved components of these forces in any
direction is zero. Therefore, the algebraic sum of resolved components of these
forces along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively are given by the following
expressions and are equated to zero.
t PQ (xQ – xP) + t PR (xR – xP) + t PS (x S – xP) +... + XP ...(16.8)

t PQ (yQ – yP) + t PR (yR – yP) + t PS (yS – yP) +... + YP ...(16.9)
t PQ (zQ – zP) + t PR (zR – zP) + t PS (zS – zP) +... + ZP ...(16.10)
Equation16.8, Eq.16.9, and Eq.16.10 can also be expressed as
∑t (xF – xN) + XP = 0 ...(16.11)
∑t (y F – yN) + YP = 0 ...(16.12)
∑t (zF – zN) + ZP = 0 ...(16.13)
The ends of members farther from the end or joint under consideration are
called far end and denoted by suffix F. The joint or end of the member under
consideration is called near end, and is denoted by suffix, N.
In the above equations, tension coefficients are only unknown. There are
three equations at one joint of the space frame. If n is number of joints in the
space frame, then there are 3n equations. The tension coefficients t PQ, tPR, t PS
.....etc., are found by solving these equations. The stresses in various members
are determined by the product of corresponding tension coefficients of lengths
of the members.
There are m = (3n – 6) members in a perfect space frame of n joints. There are
3n equations for obtaining the stresses in the various members. Thus, there are
six surplus equations in this method of tension coefficients. These surplus
equations may be used for applying the check or determining the reactions at
the supports.
Example 16.4. The length of each leg of a pair of shear leg is 5 m. The distance
between their feet is 2 m. The distance from the foot of the guy rope is 7 m, the
length of guy rope is 10 m. A load of 120 kN is suspended from the head. Determine
the pull in the guy rope and the thrust in each leg by applying the method of
tension coefficients.
Solution
Step 1: In Fig.16.7, PQ and PR represent two legs of a pair of shear leg. O
represents the foot of the guy rope. OP represents the guy rope. The point O is
Y
0m
e=1
Rop
G uy 5m
1 20 kN
5m
Q
O
O X
P1 P2
7m R
QR = 2 m
Fig. 16.7
assumed as the origin. The positive directions three reference axes are shown
in Fig.16.7. The point P1 is at the centre of R. Join P and P1. In the plane PQR,
PP1 is perpendicular to the line QR.
Therefore, from triangle PP1Q right angled at P1
PP1 = (PQ2 – P1Q2)1/2 = (52 – 12)1/2 = 4.899 m
In the triangle OPP1let ∠POP1 = θ. Then
⎛ OP 2 + OP12 – PP12 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 × OP × OP1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 102 + 72 – 24 ⎞
cos θ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.8928
⎝ 2 × 10 × 7 ⎠
θ = 26°37´, sin θ = 0.441
OP2 = OP cos θ = 10 × 0.8928 = 8.928 m
PP2 = OP sin θ = 10 × 0.448 = 448 m
P1P2 = (8.928 –7)= 1.928 m.
Step 2: The co-ordinate of the various points are as follows
Joint Co-ordinates
x y z
O 0 0 0
P 8.928 m 0 4.48 m
Q 7.00 m –1 m 0
R 7.00 m +1m 0
Step 3: The thrust in the legs and pull in the guy rope are found as below:
Joints Equations Members t L F =L×t
x t OP (0 – 8.928) PQ – 17.05 5m – 85.25 kN
+ t OP (7 – 8.928)
+ tOP (7 – 8.928) = 0
P y tOP (0 – 0) + tOP (–1 – 0) PR – 17.05 5m – 85.25 kN
+ tPR (1 – 0) = 0
z + tOP (0 – 4.48) OP + 07.30 10 m + 73.0 kN
+ tPQ (0 – 4.48)
+ t PR (0 – 4.48) – 120 = 0
Thrust in each leg is 85.25 kN and pull in guy rope is 73 kN.

Example 16.5. Analyse the space frame shown in Fig. 16.8, by employing the
tension coefficient method or any other method you know. Point A is attached
with a ball to the supports. Point e rests on a smoother sphere.
Y
b 'd' c'
P
5m
a' 4 5°
x
e'
5m 2 .88 m
E levatio n b
Z
2m
e c
x
o
2m
P lan d
Fig. 16.8
Co-ordinates
a, (0, 0,0); b, (5, 5, 2); c, (7.88, 5, 0); d. (5,5,– 2); e, (5, 0,0).
Solution
Step1: The lengths of members areas follows:
AE = 5 m, BD = 4 m
AB = AD = [(5 – 0)2 + (5 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2]1/2= 7.348 m
BE = DE = [(5 – 5)2 + (5 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2]1/2= 5.385 m
CE = [(7.88 – 5)2 +(5 – 0)2]1/2 = 5.771 m
Step 2: The stresses in various member of the space frame are found by
applying the method of tension coefficient.
The moment due to load P is resisted by equal and opposite reactions at A
and E. Taking moment about A.
Therefore 5 × R = P × 7.88
∴ R = 1.576 P acts upward at E
Joints Equations Member t L F
P
x tBC (5 – 7.88) BC 3.464 0.346 P
10
+ tCD (5 – 7.88)
+ tCE (5 – 7.88) = 0
P
C y tBC (5 – 5) + tCD(5 – 5) CD 3.464 3.464 P
10
t CE(0 – 5) – P = 0
Contd.
Contd.
Joints Equations Member t L F
P
z + t BC (2 – 0) CE – 5.771 –1.154 P
5
+ tCD(– 2 – 0) = 0
x tAB (0 – 5) AB 0.058 P 7.348 0.426 P
+ tBC (7.88 – 5)
+ tBD (5 – 5)
+ tBE (5 – 5)= 0
B y tAB (0 – 5) + tBC (5 – 5) BE – 0.058 P 5.385 –0.313 P
+ tBD (5 – 5)
+ tBE (0 – 5) = 0
z tAB (0 – 2) + tBC (0 – 2) BD – 0.05P 4 – 0.20 P
tBD (– 2 – 2)
tBE (0 – 2)= 0
x tAD (0 – 5) AD + 0.058P 7.348 0.426 P
tCD (7.88 + 5)
tBD (5 – 5)
tDE (5 – 5)= 0
D y tAB (0 – 5) + tCD(5 – 5) DE – 0.058P 5.385 – 0.313 P
+ tBD (5 – 5)
+ tDE (0 – 5)= 0
z tAD [0 –(–2)]
+ t CD[0 –(–2)]
+ t BD[0 –(–2)]
+ tDE[0 –(–2)] = 0
x tAE (0 – 5) + tBE (5 – 5)
tDE (5 – 5)
tDE (7.88 – 5) = 0
y tAE (0 – 0) + tBE (5 – 0) AE – 0.115 P 5 – 0.575 P
+ tDE (5 – 0)
+ tCE (5 – 0)
+ 15.6 P = 0
z tAE (0 – 0) + tBE (2 – 0)
tDE (– 2 – 0)
tCE (0 – 0)= 0
The stresses in members of the space frame are as follows:

AE = – 0.575 P AB = AD = 0.426 P
BD = – 0.20 P BE = DE = – 0.313 P
CE = – 1.154 P BE = CD = 0.346 P
Example 16.6. A space frame is shown in Fig. 16.9. The space frame is
supported by ball joints at A, B, C and D in one horizontal plane. The horizontal
member EF is 2 m above the base. The horizontal loads of 20 kN and 40 kN act
at joints
A D
2m
E F
2 0 kN
4 0 kN
2m
X
C
1m 1m 1m
Fig. 16.9
E and F respectively. Find the force in all the members of the space frame by the
method of tension coefficient.
Solution
Step 1: Let B be the origin, and the directions of axes as shown in Fig. 16.9.
The direction of z-axis is vertically upward positive. The co-ordinates of various
joints are as follows :
Joint Co-ordinates
X Y Z
B 0 0 0
C 3 0 0
D 3 4 4
A 0 4 0
E 1 2 2
F 2 2 2
Step 2: The lengths of various members are as follows :

BE = [(l – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2]1/2 = 3 m
BE = [(2 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2 + (2 – 0)2]1/2 = 2 3 m
EF = 1 m
FU = FD =AE = BE = 3 m.
Step 3: The tension co-efficients of the various members are as follows :

x tBE (0 – 1) + t EF (2 – 1) BE 0 3 0
+ tAE (0 – 1) + 20 = 0
E y tBE (0 – 2) + t EF (2 – 2) AE 0 3 0
+ t AE (4 – 2) = 0
z + t BE (0 – 2) + t EF (2 – 2) EF – 20 1 – 20 kN
+ t AE (0 – 2) = 0
20 40
x tEF (1 – 2) + tBF (0 – 2) BE 2 3 kN
3 3
+ tEF (3 – 2)
+ tDF (3 – 2)= 0
F y tEF (2 – 2) + tEF (0 – 2) DF –10 3 – 30 kN
+ t EF (0 – 2)
+ tDF (4 – 2) + 40 = 0
10
z + tEF ( 0 – 0)+ tBF (0 – 2) CF 3 10 kN
3
+ tBF (0 – 2)
+ t DF (0 – 2) = 0
Step 4: The forces in members of space frame are as follows:

BE = AE = 0 BF = – 20 kN
⎛ 40 ⎞
BE = ⎜ ⎟ kN DF = – 30 kN
⎝ 3⎠
CF =10 kN
Problems
16.1 Determine the stresses in the members of the plane frame as shown in
Fig. P. 16.1 by the method of tension co-efficient.
3m
A B
3m
6 0 kN
Fig. P. 16.1
16.2 Determine the stress in the members of the plane frame as shown in
Fig. P. 16.2 by applying the method of tension co-efficient.
5 0 kN 5 0 kN
6 0° 6 0° 6 0° 6 0°
3m 3m
Fig. P. 16.2
16.3 The length of each leg of a pair of shear leg is 4 m. The distance between
their feet is 1.80 m. The distance from the foot of the guy rope is 6 m.
The length of guy rope is 8.40 in. A load of 80 kN is suspended from the
head. Determine the pull in the guy rope and the thrust in each leg by
applying ihe method of tension co-efficient.
16.4 A space frame is shown in Fig. P. 16.4. The shape frame is supported
by the ball joints A, B,C, and D in one horizontal plane. The horizontal
member EF is 3 m above the base. The horizontal loads 10 kN and 20
kN act at E and 30 kN at F as shown in Fig. 16.12. Find the forces in
the various members of the space frame by the method of tension co-
efficient.
D
A
3m
1 0 kN E F
2 0 kN 3 0 kN 3m
B
C
2m 3m 2m
Fig. P. 16.4
16.5 A tripod is shown in Fig. P.16.5. The feet to legs, P, Q and R are in one
horizontal plane. The apex S is 3 m above the base. Find the stresses
in ail the members due to horizontal loads 30 kN and 20 kN at S.
2m
S R
3 0 kN
2m 2 0 kN
Q
3 .6 m 3 .6 m
Fig. P. 16.5
16.6 A space frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P. 16.6. The feet of legs A, B
and C are in one horizontal plane. The vertex D is 4.5 m above the
base. Analyse the space frame using the tension co-efficient method.
Supports A, B and C are all ball joint supports.
3m
C
3 0 kN
3m 3 0 kN
B
5 .4 m 5 .4 m
Fig. P. 16.6
16.7 A space frame is loaded as shown in Fig. P.16.7. The space frame is
supported by the universal ball joints at A, B, C and D in one horizonlal
plane. The horizontal member EF is 6 m above the base. Analyse the
space frame using the tension co-efficient method.
A D
6m
20 kN E F
40 6m
60 kN
B
4m 6m 4m C
Fig. P. 16.7
CHAPTER
17
Analysis of Secondary Stresses
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the analysis and design of roof trusses and design of truss girder bridges, the
axial or direct stresses (forces) in the various members are determined by
assuming that (a) all the members are straight and free to rotate at the panel
points (joints), (b) all the panel points (joints) of the truss lie at the intersection
of the gravity axes of the members, and (c) all loads including the self-weight of
the members themselves are applied at the joints. These axial or direct stresses
are defined as primary stresses. In practice, the above assumptions are not
realized and, consequently the members are subjected not only to axial stresses,
but also to bending and shear stresses. These stresses are known as secondary
stresses. The secondary stresses are defined as the stresses due to rigidity
(stiffness) of the joints, eccentricity of connections, members not being straight,
the self-weight of the members etc. The secondary stresses are classified into
two groups, namely,
(a) stresses which are the result of the elastic deformation of the structure
combined with rigidity of the joints ; and
(b) stresses which are the result of eccentricity of connections generally
and off panel point loading (e.g., loads rolling direct on the chord, self
weight of the members, and the wind load of the members. It is noted
that the secondary stresses due to unknown eccentricities arising out of
fabrication are already allowed for in the factor of safety.
The term secondary stresses in its narrow sense is usually referred to the
flexural (bending) stresses produced in the plane of the truss by the resistance
of the joints to free rotation. When determining the secondary stresses, it would
be seen that the flexural stresses are the most important secondary stresses to
be considered. The shear stresses are important in some cases only. The
secondary axial stresses may also exist, which modifies the primary stresses
slightly. These are very small in magnitude. These are not usually considered.
ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 857
The values of these secondary stresses very largely. The secondary stresses
generally range from 5 to 25 percent of the primary stresses in case of common
type of stresses with members having high slenderness ratio, the secondary
stresses are 40 to 100 percent of the primary stresses in case of sub-divided trusses
and Warren trusses with verticals. The secondary stresses in Warren trusses and
very small. The significance of the secondary stresses even their magnitude is
high, is not essentially comparable to that of primary stresses because of the
following reasons. Firstly, the values of secondary stresses would be large only in
few members. Secondly, the high values of secondary stress would exit only in
the extreme fibres at the end of the members. In case, the values of localized
stress becomes equal to yield stress, even then, these would not result in the
failure of the structure. The basic allowable stresses are very low. Therefore, the
high localized stresses do not create a problem so long as these are not repeated
for number of terms in which case, they would result in the fatigue failure.
The structure should be designed, fabricated and erected in such a manner
as to minimize, as far as possible, the secondary stresses. The secondary stresses
included in group (b) are computed and added to the co-existent stresses in
arriving at the maximum combined stresses in its members, but stresses due to
self-weight of the members and the wind load on it may be neglected.
The secondary stresses due to the rigidity of the joints have been only discussed
in this chapter.
17.2 SECONDARY STRESSES DUE TO RIGIDITY OF

JOINTS
Figure 17.1 (a) shows a pin-jointed truss. A hinged or pinned support is provided
at one end, while a roller support is provided at the other end. The two equal
W W
(a) Deflected shape of pin-jointed truss
W W
(b) Deflected shape of truss with rigid joints

Fig. 17.1
loads are applied at the lower panel points of the truss. The joints of truss are
free to rotate.
When the truss is loaded, then all the members are deformed. The deflected
shape of the pin jointed truss is shown by dotted lines in Fig.17.1 (a). The
longitudinal deformations of the members due to axial stresses (forces) in the
members produce slight changes in the angles between all the members at joints.
The changes in the angles have been found in Sec.17.3.
Now consider that the members are rigidly joined at all the connections. When
the truss is loaded, then, all the members have longitudinal deformations. But
the members are prevented from free rotations at the joints. The angles between
the members cannot change. The deflections of all the joints compel all the
members to bend as shown in Fig.17.1 (b) by the dotted lines. It produces bending
moments in the members. The bending moments are maximum at the joints.
These moments are known as secondary moments. The secondary bending
stresses are produced in the members due to these secondary moments.
17.3 DETERMINATION OF CHANGES OF ANGLES IN

ANY TRIANGLE
Figure17.2 shows a rigid triangle of any truss. Let the lengths of the sides of the
triangle be LAB, LBC and LCA. Let FAB, FBC and FCA be the stresses in these
members. The change in length of each member due to axial stresses are found
as follows:
A A'
θa b θa c
A
LAB LC A
θb a θc a
C
B
B LB C C B' θc b C'
θb c
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 17.2
⎛ F ⋅L ⎞
ΔAB = ⎜ AB AB ⎟ ...(17.1)
⎝ E ⎠
⎛ F ⋅L ⎞
ΔBC = ⎜ BC BC ⎟ ...(17.2)
⎝ E ⎠
⎛ FCA ⋅ LBA ⎞
ΔCA = ⎜ ⎟ ...(17.3)
⎝ E ⎠
where, E = Young’s modulus of elasticity.
In case the joints of triangle do not offer any resistance for free rotations,
then, the angles of the triangle would change. Let the angle of the triangle be A,
B and C, and change in angles be δA, δB and δC. From trigonometrical relation
⎡ ( L )2 + ( L )2 – ( L )2 ⎤
cos A = ⎢ CA AB BC
⎥ ...(17.4)
⎣⎢ 2LCA ⋅ LAB ⎦⎥
The change in angle A (i.e., θA) depends upon the change in length of the
sides of the triangle. Therefore, the lengths of sides of the triangle are treated
as the functions of angle A.
Differentiating Eq, 17.4 w.r.t A
⎡ ΔCA LCA Δ AB Δ AB LAB ΔCA ⎤

2 δA sin A = ⎢ L – + – ⎥
⎢⎣ AB ( LAB )2 LCA (LCA )2 ⎥⎦
LBC Δ BC ⎡ Δ AB ΔCA ⎤
–2 + (LBC)2 ⎢ + 2⎥ ...(i)
⎢⎣ LCA ⋅ ( LAB ) LAB ( LCA ) ⎥⎦
2
LCA LAB
⎡ ( L )2 + ( L )2 – ( L )2 ⎤
∴ δA=
1 ⎢ BC CA AB
⎥ . ΔCA
2sin A ⎢⎣ L CA ⋅ L AB ⎦⎥ LCA
+
(LBC )2 + (LAB )2 – (LCA )2 . Δ AB – 2 LBC .
Δ BC
...(ii)
LCA L AB LAB LCA LAB
LBC LCA L
∴ = = AB
sin A sin B sin C
and
LBC = LCA .cos C + LAB cos B
⎡ ΔCA Δ AB ⎤
⎢ – L ⋅ cot C – L – cot B ⎥
∴ δA = ⎢ CA AB ⎥ ...(iii)
⎢ ⎛ LBA cot C + LAB cot B ⎞ ⎥
⎢ Δ AB ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ LCA LAB sin A ⎦⎥
⎡Δ Δ ⎤ ⎡Δ Δ ⎤
= ⎢ BA – AB ⎥ cot B + ⎢ BC – CA ⎥ cot C ...(iv)
L
⎣ BC L AB ⎦ ⎣ BC LCA ⎦
L
From Eq. 17.1, Eq. 17.2 and Eq. 17.3,

⎛ Δ BC Δ EC ⎞ ⎛ Δ AB FAB ⎞ ⎛ Δ CA F ⎞
⎜⎝ L = ⎟⎠ , ⎜⎝ L = ⎟⎠ , ⎜⎝ L = CA ⎟
BC E AB E CA E ⎠
Substituting these values in expression (iv)
1
∴ δA = [(FBC – FAB) cot B + (FBC – FCA) . cot C] .. .(17.5)
E
Similarly, the expression for change in angles B and C may be found.
1
∴ δb = [(FCA – FAB) cot C + (FCA – FAB) . cot A] .. .(17.6)
E
1
∴ δC = [(FAB – FCA) cot A + (FAB – FBC) . cot B] ...(17.7)
E
Equations 17.5, 17.6 and 17.7 give the changes in the angles, if the joints of
the triangle are free to rotate. It is to note that in each case, the numerator is
the value of stress (force) for the opposite side minus that for the side adjacent,
the cotangent of the included angle.
The changes in angles are positive or increasing, when the sign of result is
positive, and decreasing when the sign is negative.
Now the sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.
Therefore, the following check is applied
(δA + δB + δC) = 0 ...(17.8)
Figure 17.2 (ii) represents the position of the triangle after deformation has
occurred. The sides of the triangle have been shown for the free rotation of the
joints by dotted lines. The included angles of the triangle would be
(A + δB ) (B +δB ) and (C + δC)
If the joints of the triangles are perfectly rigid (stiff), there would be no change
in the angle of the triangle. The bars bend as shown in Fig. 17.2 (ii). The angular
displacements are represented by θab, θba etc. The angular displacements are
known as the deflection or deformation angles. The deflection angles θab, θba...etc.
are the angles between the tangents to the ends to elastic curve (curved centre
line A´B´) with the straight line joining A´ and B´. The clockwise angular
displacements measured from the straight line joining the two joints is assumed
as positive. In case the value of angular displacement work out to be negative, it
means that the angular displacements is anti-clockwise.
17.4 DETERMINATION OF DEFLECTION ANGLES

Figure 17.3 represents any one joint A, of a truss after the distortion. The straight
lines AB, AC, AD...etc. show the lines joining the various joints of the truss from
joint A. The deflection angles of the various members are represented by θab,
θca, θad etc. at the joint A. Let the original angles between the members be A1,
A2, A3and so on, and the change in these angles. If the joints were free to rotate
be δA1, δA2, and δA3, and so on. One deflection angle θab, is selected as a reference
angle. The values of the various deflection angles may be found as follows :
D
C
θc d
A 2 + δA 2
θa c
A2
A3 A 1 + δA 1
θa e
A1
E
A B
θa b
Fig. 17.3
From Fig. 17.3, it is seen that

(θac + A1) = (θab + A1 + δA1)
∴ θac = (θab + δA1)
Similarly, θab = (θab + δA1 + δA2)
θac = (θab + δA1 + δA2 + δA3)
x
In general, θax = θab + ∑δA ...(17.9)
c
x = c, d, e, ...
In Eq. 17.9, the value of deflection angle has been expressed in terms of one
of the deflection angle (which is known as the reference deflection angle) and
sum of changes of the angles between the reference angle and the calculated or
desired deflection angle. The values of changes of angles may be found from
Eqs. 17.5, 17.6 and 17.7. From the deflection angles, the values of secondary
moment may be found as discussed in Sec. 17.5.
The deflection angle of the first member met in passing around the joint in
a clockwise direction is adopted as the reference deflection angle, beginning
from outside of the truss.
17.5 SECONDARY MOMENTS

The members of a truss with rigid joints bend due to the distortion of the truss
under loading. The members are subjected to bending moments and shears. If
θab and θba and so on, represent the angles between the tangents to the ends to
the elastic curve (curved centre line of the member) with the straight line joining
the ends of the memebrs, then, the bending moments at the ends of the members
are as follows :
2EI AB
MAB = (2θab + θba) ...(17.10)
L AB
2EI AB
MBA = (2 θba + θab) ...(17.11)
L AB
The values of secondary moments depend upon deflection angles. The values
of deflection angles may be substituted from Eq. 17.9.
17.6 EQUILIBRIUM OF JOINTS

A truss subjected to a system of load is in equilibrium. Then, every pan of the
truss is also in equilibrium. It is assumed that the axial stresses in the members
meet at a joint. The moment of these axial forces about this joint is zero. The
primary or axial stresses do not result in any bending moment. The joint is in
equilibrium under the moments developed due to the bending moment and other
moments due to shear. As compared to moments due to bending, the moments
due to shear are small, and, therefore, these are neglected.
For the equilibrium of joint A, in Fig.17.3 on the above assumptions, the
condition is as follows :
∑MA = (MAB + MAC + MAD + MAE) = 0 ...(17.12)
The values of moments in Eq.17.12 may be written in terms of deflection
angles as per Eqs. 17.10, and 17.11. Then,
MAB + MAC + MAD + MAE = 0
⎡ 2EI AB 2EI AC ⎤
⎢ L (2θab + θba ) + (2θac + θba ) ⎥
LAC
∴ ⎢ AB ⎥=0
⎢ 2EI AD 2EI AE ⎥
⎢+ (2θad + θda ) + (2θac + θca ) ⎥
⎣ LAD LAE ⎦
⎛I⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ = K, and 2E is common (throughout)
⎝L⎠
∴ [KAB (2θab) + KAC (2θac+ θca) + KAD (2θad+ θca) + KAB (2θac+ θca)] = 0
...(17.13)
Equation17.13 is a fundamental equation for the equilibrium of any joint
(e.g., joint A). Equation 17.13 may be written for each joint of the truss. The
number of equations would be equal to the number of the joints.
For one member, there are two unknown deflection angles. If n is the number
of joints, then the number of member, m, in a perfect frame is equal to (2n – 3)
and the number of unknown deflection angles would be (4n – 6). There are only
n number of equations. Therefore, the values of deflection angles cannot be
found from Eq. 17.13.
The values of deflection angles at any point may be expressed in terms of
only one reference angle and the changes in the angles at a joint as per Eq.17.9.
It would reduce the number of unknown deflection angles at joint in terms of a
single angle.
Finally, the number of unknown deflection angles would be equal to the
number of joints or number of equations available. The values of deflection angles
could be then obtained.
Thus, the moments at the ends of various members may be found from
Eqs. 17.l0 and 17.11.
17.7 SECONDARY STRESSES DUE TO BENDING OF

MEMBERS
After the determination of the deflection angles from the conditions of
equilibrium of the joints, the secondary moments developed due to the bending
of members of a truss with rigid-joints, may be found from Eqs. 17.10 and 17.11.
The secondary bending stresses at the ends of various members may be found
by the flexural formula
f = M .y
I
where, M = Secondary moment at the end of the member
I = Moment of inertia of the member
y = Distance of extreme fibre from the neutral axis.
For the facility of the work, the calculations of the secondary stresses are
arranged below:
Step 1. The primary or axial stresses in the various members of the truss
subjected to the system of loads are found.
Step 2. The changes in the various angles of the individual triangles of the
frame are found, and then, the check is also applied.
Step 3. The linear equations are written for each joint of the frame from the
conditions of the equilibrium of the joints.
Step 4. The values of deflection angles are then, found by solving in the
linear equations.
Step 5. The values of secondary moments at the ends of the members due to
bending of members are found from the deflection angles.
Step 6. The values of secondary bending stresses at the ends of the various
members due to those of moments are found.
Example 17.1. Determine the change in angles of the various triangles of a
frame as shown in Fig. 17.4. Assume that the joints are free to turn.
Solution
The primary or axial stresses in various members are found as follows:
B1 B2
3m
Q1 = A D1 D2 θ2 = C
A C
D
2 4 kN
5m 3m
Fig. 17.4
Step 1: Reaction at supports

⎛ 3⎞
RA = ⎜ 24 × ⎟ = 9 kN
⎝ 8⎠
⎛ 5⎞
RB = ⎜ 24 × ⎟ = 15 kN
⎝ 8⎠
2
sin θ1 = = 0.514, cos θ1 = 0.856
(52
+ 32 )
1/2
sin θ2 = 0.708, cos θ2 = 0.708 (3 θ = 45°)

Step 2: Primary stresses. Resolving the forces about joint A
FAB sin θ1 = 9
⎛ 9 ⎞
FAB = ⎜ ⎟ = 17.50 kN (Compression)
⎝ 0.514 ⎠
FAD = FAB sin θ1 = (17.50 × 0.856) = 15.00 kN (Tension)
Resolving the forces about joint C
FBC sin θ2 = 15
⎛ 15 ⎞
FBC = ⎜ ⎟ = 21.21 kN (Tension)
⎝ 0.708 ⎠
FCD = (21.21 × 0.708) = 15.00 kN (Tension)
At joint D.
FBD = 24.00 kN (Tension)
Step 3: Values of co-tangents

cot A = 1.67, cot C =1.00
cot B1 = 0.60, cot B2 =1.00
cot D1= 0.00, cot D2 = 0.00
Step 4: Changes in various angles
1. ΔABC
1
(i) δA = [F – FAB) cot B1 + (FBD – FAD) .cot D1]
E BD
1 ⎛ 24.90 ⎞
= [24.00 – (–17.50)] × 0.60 = + ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(ii) δB1= [(FAD – FED) cot D1 + (FAD – FAB ) . cot A]
E
1 ⎛ 54.40 ⎞
= [15.00 – (–17.50)] × 1.67 = ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(iii) δ D1= [(FAB – FAD) cot D1 + (FAB – FBD ) . cot B1]
E
1
= [–17.50 –15.00)] × 1.67 + (1 – 17.5) – 24.00) × 0.60]
E
⎛ 79.30 ⎞
=– ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠
Check
⎛ 24.90 54.40 79.30 ⎞
(δA1 + δB1 = δD1) = ⎜ E + E + E ⎟= 0
⎝ ⎠
(2) ΔBCD
1
(i) δB2 = [ (FCD – FED) cot C + (FCD – FBD) .cot D2]
E
1 ⎛ 35.21 ⎞
= [15.00 – (–21.21)] × 1.00 = + ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(ii) δ C = [(FBD – FED) cot D2 + (FBD – FCD ) . cot D2]
E
1 ⎛ 45.21 ⎞
= [24.00 – (–21.21)] × 1.00 = + ⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ E ⎠
1
(iii) δD2= [(FBD – FCD) cot C + (FBC – FBD ) . cot B2]
E
1
= [(–21.21 –15.00) × 1.00 + (–21.21 – 24.00) × 1.00]
E
⎛ 81.42 ⎞
=– ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠
Check
⎛ 36.21 45.21 81.42 ⎞

(δB2 + δC = δD2) = ⎜ E + E + E ⎟= 0
⎝ ⎠
Changes in the angles are as follows :
1. ΔABD 2. ΔBCD
⎛ 24.90 ⎞ ⎛ 36.21 ⎞
δA=+ ⎜ ⎟, δB2 = + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
⎛ 54.40 ⎞ ⎛ 45.21 ⎞
δB1 = + ⎜ ⎟, δC = + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
⎛ 79.30 ⎞ ⎛ 81.42 ⎞
δD1 = + ⎜ ⎟, δD2 = + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠
Example 17.2 Write the equilibrium conditions in terms of reference angles
for the various joints of the frame shown in Fig. 17.1, Adopt E = 2.1 × 105
N/mm3.
Solution
Step 1 : Equilibrium conditions of the joints
(1) Joint A. (MAB + MAD ) = 0
2EI AB 2EI AD
+ (2θab+ θba) + + (2θad+ θda) = 0
L AB L AD
∴ IAB = 2I, IAD = I
534
∴ (2θab+ θba) + (2θad+ θda) = 0
2 × 500
or (2θab+ θba) + 0.584 (2θad+ θda) = 0 ...(1)
(2) Joint C. (MCB + MCD) = 0
2EI BC 2 EI CD
+ (2θcb+ θbc) + + (2θcd+ θdc) = 0
LBC LCD
3 IBC = 2I, ICD = I
(2θcb+ θbc) + 0.5 (2θcd+ θdc) = 0 ...(2)

(3) Joint B. (MBA + MBD + MBC) = 0
2EI AB 2EI BD 2EI CD
+ (2θdb+ θad) + + (2θbd+ θdb) + + (2θbc+ θcb) = 0
L AB LBD LBD
IBC = IBD = IAB = 2I
5.84 5.84
∴ (2θba+ θab) + (2θbd+ θdb) + (2θbc+ θcb) = 0
5 4.25
(2θba+ θab) + 1.95 (2θbd+ θdb) + 1.374(2θbc+ θcb) = 0 ...(3)
(4) Joint D. (MDA + MDB + MDC) = 0

2EI AD 2EI BD 2 EI CD
+ (2θdb+ θab) + + (2θdb+ θbd) + + (2θdc+ θcd) = 0
L AD LBD LCD
∴ IAD = ICD = IBD = 2I
2 × 500 500
∴ (2θda+ θad) + (2θdb+ θbd) + (2θdc+ θcd) = 0
300 300
or (2θda+ θad) + 3.33 (3θdb+ θbd) + 1.67(2θdc+ θcd) = 0 ...(4)
Step 2: The four conditions of equilibrium from the joints in terms of deflection
angles are as follows :
(2θab + θba) + 0.584 (2θad + θda) = 0 ...(1)
(2θcb + θbc) + 0.5 (2θcd + θdc) = 0 ...(2)
(2θba + θab) +1.95 (2θbd + θdb) + 1.374 (2θbc+ θcb) = 0 ...(3)
(2θda + θad) + 3.33 (2θbd + θdb) + l.67 (2θcd + θcd) = 0 ...(4)
Step 3: Equilibrium equation in terms of reference angles
E = 2.1 × l05 N/mm2
Changes of angles from Example 17.1, Fig. 17.4
⎛ 24.90 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
δA = ⎜ ⎟ = + ⎜ 24.90 × 10 ⎟ = + 1.183 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 5 ⎠
54.40⎞
δB1 = ⎛⎜
⎛ 3⎞
⎟ = + ⎜ 54.40 × 10 ⎟ = + 2.600 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 5 ⎠
⎛ 79.30 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
δD1 = ⎜ = + ⎜ 79.30 × 10 ⎟ = – 3.79 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 ⎠
5
⎛ 36.21 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
δB2 = ⎜ = + ⎜ 36.21 × 10 ⎟ = + 1.742 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 ⎠
5
45.21⎞
δC = ⎛⎜
⎛ 3⎞
⎟ = + ⎜ 45.21 × 10 ⎟ = + 2.16 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 ⎠
5
81.42⎞
δD2 = ⎛⎜
⎛ 3⎞
⎟ = + ⎜ 81.42 × 10 ⎟ = – 3.88 × 10–3
⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 × 10 5 ⎠
(i) For joint A, assume θab= Reference angle
θad = θab + δA = (θab + 1.188 × 10–3) ...(5)
(ii) For joint C, assume θcd = Reference angle
θcb = θbd + δC = (θdd + 2.16 × 10–3) ...(6)
(iii) For joint B, assume
θbc = Reference angle
θba = θbc + δB2 = (θbc + 1.742 × 10–3) ...(7)
θba = θbc + δB2+ δB1 = (θbc + 4.342 × 10–3) ...(8)
(iv) For joint D, assume θda = Reference angle
θdb = θda + δD1 = (θda + 3.78 × 10–3) ...(9)
θdc = θda – 7.67 × 10–3) ...(10)
The angles θab, θcd, δbc and δda are the reference deflection angles.
The equilibrium equations of the joints Eqs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 may be written in
terms of reference angles only by substituting the values of other deflection
angles from Eqs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
Equation 1
2θab + δbc + 0.584 (2θad + θda) = 0
2θab + (θba + 4.342 × 10–3) + 0.584 × 2 × (θab + 1.188 × 10–3) + 0.584 θda = 0
3.168 θba + θbc + 0.584 θda = 5.727 × 10–3 ...(11)
Equation 2
(2θcb+ θbc ) + 0.5 (2θcd + θdc) = 0
θbc + 2θdc + θbc + 0.5θdc = 0
θbc + 2(θcd + 2.16 × 10–3) + θcd + 0.5 (θda – 7.67 × 10–3) = 0
θba + 3θcd + 0.5θda = – 0.49 × 10–3 ...(12)
Equation 3
2θba+ θab + 1.95 × 2θbd + 1.95 θdb+ 2 × 1.374 θbc + 1.374 θcb = 0
2θab + 2(θbc+ 4.342 × 10–3) + 3.90 (θbc + 1.742 × 10–3)
+ 1.95 (θda – 3.79 ×10–3) + 2.748 θbc + 1.374 (θcd + 2.16 × 10–3) = 0
θab + 8.648θbc + 1.95θda+ 1.374θcd = 11.084 × 10–3 ...(13)
Equation 4
2θda+ θad + 2 × 3.33θdb + 3.33 θdb+ 2 × 1.67θdc + 1.67cd = 0
2θda + (θab+ 1.88 × 10–3) + 6.66 (θda – 3.79 ×10–3) + 3.33 (θbc+ 1.742 × 10–3)
+ 3.34 (θda – 7.67 ×10–3) + 1.67θcd = 0
θda (2 + 6.66 + 3.44) + θab + 5.33θbc + 1.67 θcd = + 43.869 θab
+ 3.33θbc + 1.67θcd + 12θad = + 43.869 ...(14)
Step 4: The equilibrium equations in terms of the reference deflection angles

are as follows :
3.168 θab + θbc + 0.584 θda = – 5.727 × 10–3 ...(11)
θbc + θcd + 0.5 θda = – 0.49 × 10 –3 ...(12)
θab + 8.648θda + 1.374θcd + 1.95θda = – 11.084 ×10–3 ...(13)
θab + 3.33θbc + 1.67θcd + 12θad = + 43.869 × 10–3 ...(14)
It is to note that after determining the values of four reference angles by
solving the equations, the values of the other deflection angles could be found.
The values of secondary moments may be found from the deflection angles. The
values of secondary flexural stresses at the ends of the members could be obtained
by using the flexural formula.
Problems
17.1 Determine the change in angles of the various triangles of a frame as
shown in Fig. P. 17.1. Assume that joints are free to turn.
17.2 Write the equilibrium conditions in terms of reference angles for the
various joints of the frame shown in Fig. P. 17.2 in Problem 17.1.
1 .5 m
A B
D
3m 3m
Fig. P. 17.2
17.3 Determine the secondary stresses due to rigidity of the joints in Problem
P. 17.2.
CHAPTER
18
Special Structures
18.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the structures with new developments in structural design have
been discussed, in general terms with respect to the type of structures. These
structures have been referred as special structures or modern structures because
of new development in the structural design.
The concept of a large plate girder with complete width of roadway as the
compression flange has been included in the design of bridges since 1946. These
types of bridges are known as orthotropic bridges. The orthotropic steel plate
panels are used for the decks, and therefore, these bridges are referred as all-
steel bridges. The orthotropic steel plate panels have been discussed in Secs.
18.2 to 18.4. For detailed information, the reference may be made in ‘Design of
Steel Structures’ by Boris Bresler, T.Y. Lin, and John B. Scalzi, published by
Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi.
The tension-load structures are due to developments of the last decades. The
tents were the first surface structures under tensile loads. The flexible skin of
tents can take up large stresses. The ship-sails were separately developed from
the tents. The ship-sails are included in the pneumatic structure. A strong
impetus was received in the beginning of 1930 to the developments of tension
loaded surface structures by attempts to roof large spans. The general
development in the field of tension-loaded structures have been noticed since
1960. The tension-loaded structures have been discussed in Secs. 18.5 to 18.15.
For detailed information, the reference may be made in ‘Tensile Structures’
volume one (Pneumatic Structures) and volume two (Cable Structures) by Frei
Otta, published by the M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts, Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England.
SPECIAL STRUCTURES 871
18.2 ORTHOTROPIC STEEL PLATE PANELS AND

BRIDGES
The plates with stiffeners attached to one side, usually by welding are known as
orthotropic steel plate panels. These panels are most commonly used for deck or
wall components of ships, trucks, etc., and decks of all-steel bridges spans. The
stiffeners of orthotropic panels between supports may be provided in the two
directions mutually perpendicular to each other. The details at stiffener
connections incur high fabrication cost. Therefore, the stiffeners are provided
only in one direction. The stiffeners are generally placed closed enough together.
The average panel stiffness per unit width may be considered only while
investigating the structural behaviour. The analysis and design of the orthotropic
steel plate panels may be done as an equivalent plate continuum without
considering each stiffeners as a separate structural member. In the isotropic
plates, the stiffness per unit width is the same in all the directions. In the
orthotropic steel plates, the stiffness per unit width is different in two
perpendicular directions. The stiffness per unit width in the direction of stiffeners
S u pp orts S u pp orts S u pp orts

(i) C ro ss-S e ctio na l elevatio n (ii) S id e V ie w
(a ) To rsion a lly so ft p an e ls (O pe n rib stiffe n ers)
S u pp orts S u pp orts S u pp orts

(i) C ro ss-S e ctio na l elevatio n (ii) S id e V ie w
(b ) To rsion a lly stiff pa ne ls (C lo se d pa ne ls)
Fig. 18.1
is much greater than the other direction. The orthotropic steel plate panels are
basically of two different types : (i) torsionally soft panels and (ii) torsionally
stiff panels. The torsionally soft panels consist of plates with open rib stiffeners,
such as bars, angles, structural tee-sections, and I-sections. The torsionally soft
panels are shown in Fig. 18.1 (a), The torsionally stiff panels consist of plates
with closed stiffeners, such as U-trapezoidal or Y-section stiffeners. The
torsionally su’ff panels are shown in Fig. 18.1 (b). The open rib stiffeners have
less fabrication cost. But in case, the design is governed by concentrated loadings,
the torsional rigidity provided by the closed stiffeners gives the significant
material saving.
In the orthotropic steel plate bridges, the orthotropic steel plate panels are
used. These panels act monolithically with supporting grillage of beams and
girders as shown in Fig. 18.2. Design manual for orthotropic steel plate deck
bridges, 1963 edition published by the American Institute of Steel Construction
includes very useful design aids for conducting the analysis and an extensive
list of references to the theoretical and experimental work on orthotropic panels
and bridges. The orthotropic steel plate bridges with straight rib stiffeners and
structural tee-stiffeners are shown in Fig. 18.3 (a) and (b).
M ain lon g itu dina l girde rs

L on gitud in al stiffe ne rs
Cro ss g ird ers

(a ) (floo r b ea m s)
D e ck p la te
C ro ss g ird er
M ain lon g itu dina l girde rs

(b )
Fig. 18.2
O rth otrop ic p la te w ith

S traigh t rib stiffne rs
(a) Bridge cross-section at support

O rth otrop ic p la te w ith

Tee stiffe ne rs
(b) Bridge cross-section at support

Fig. 18.3
The orthotropic steel plate bridges with U-stiffeners and Y-stiffeners are
shown in Fig. 18.4 (a) and (b). When the orthotropic panels arc subjected to
concentrated loads, then, the closed stiffeners are used. The superior torsional
stiffness of closed stiffeners helps to distribute the load over more stiffeners. It
O rth otrop ic p la te with

U -stiffe n ers
(a )
O rth otrop ic p la te
Y-stiffen ers
(b )
Fig. 18.4
results in the saving of the material. The orthotropic steel plate bridges are
economical for long span bridges. There is significant saving in material
requirements for the entire bridge due to low dead weight of the all steel spans
in the long span bridges.
18.3 ANALYSIS OF ORTHOTROPIC PANELS

In the orthotropic plate panels, the stiffeners are placed very closely. The
deflection w and loading q of a orthotropic panel are related by the following
differential equation
⎛ ∂ 4w ∂ 4w ∂ 4w ⎞
⎜⎜ Dx + 2H + D y + q ⎟⎟ = 0 ...(18.1)
⎝ dx 4 ∂x 2∂q2 ∂q4 ⎠
where, Dx = Flexural rigidity of the panel in x-direclion
Dy = Flexural rigidity of the panel in y-direction
H = Torsional rigidity of the panel
Equation. 18.1 is derived by (i) expressing the in-plane strains, and then the
stresses and subsequently bending and twisting moments in terms of w, and (ii)
substituting these expressions for moments into the equation for static
equilibrium that relates vertical loading, the vertical shears, and bending and
the twisting moments. The direction y is in the direction of stiffeners. The flexural
rigidity Dy is the product of modulus of elasticity E and average moment of
inertia Iy per unit width of the stiffened plate. The direction x is in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the stiffeners. The flexural rigidity Dx is only
the plate rigidity
E ⋅ t3
Dx = ...(i)
12 (1 – μ2 )
where, t = Thickness of the plate
μ = Poisson’s ratio
The flexural rigidity Dx of the orthotropic plate is very small in comparison lo
the flexural rigidity Dy and the first term in Eq. 18.1 is neglected in the analysis.
Therefore Fig. 18.1 becomes
⎛ ∂ 4w ∂ 4w ⎞
⎜⎜ 2H 2 2 + Dy 4 + q ⎟⎟ = 0 ...(18.2)
⎝ ∂x ∂q ∂y ⎠
The value of torsional rigidity H calculated to reflect the effect of elastic
flexibility of the deck plate between closed stiffeners in reducing the resistance
of the panel to twisting has been started in the AISC Design Manual for
orthotropic steel plate deck bridges. When the orthotropic panels have open-rib
stiffeners, then, the value of H may be generally regarded zero, except as noted
in the following.
18.3.1 Panel with Open Stiffeners

For the orthoiropic panels with open-rib stiffeners, Dx and H both are neglected
from Eq. 18.1.Therefore, Eq. 18.l becomes
⎛ ∂4w ⎞
⎜⎜ Dy 4 + q ⎟⎟ = 0 ...(18.3)
⎝ ∂y ⎠
Equation 18.3 is simply a differential equation for a beam loaded with

uniformly distributed load. It does not explain the capacity of panel with open
rib stiffeners to distribute the load to enable more than one stiffener to support
a concentrated load in case the load is situated directly over a stiffener. It needs
the use of Eq.18.1 to determine the distributing effect for panels with open rib
stiffeners. With the aid of formulae and charts given in the AISC design manual
to find this distributing effect the analysis of an open-rib panel may be done by
considering it as a series of parallel beams with each beam made of a stiffener
and portion of plate acting with the stiffener.
18.3.2 Panels with Closed Stiffeners

The bending moments, shears, and reactions in orthotropic panels with closed
stiffeners are found by using the concept of influence surfaces. The stiffeners in the
orthotropic panels are provided in y-direction. The bending moments in a simply
supported rectangular orthotropic panel in the y-direction is found as follows.
Consider a simply supported rectangular orthotropic panel as shown in Fig.
18.5. It is assumed that the panel is cut along the critical transverse section dd
and rejoined with a continuous hinge. The net angle change at hinge dd for a
⎛ nπx ⎞
vertical live load of 1. sin ⎜ ⎟ along a given transverse section cc is equal to
⎝ b ⎠
x
c b
A ssum e
h in ge
b
L oa d
1 .sin n πx
b θd c sin n πx
b
c d
L L
2 2
L
(a )
c d
M om e nt
E q ua l an d
sin n πx
b o n e ach sid e
o f h in ge
W cd . sin n πx
b
θd d sin n πx
2
c d
(b )
Fig. 18.5
⎛ nπx ⎞
θdc . sin ⎜ ⎟ for any given value of n. In case the line load is removed and
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ nπx ⎞
horizontal jacks are installed at the hinge dd to give a moment of 1. sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
in the panel on each side of the hinge, then the net angle change at hinge dd is
⎛ nπx ⎞
given by θdd . sin ⎜ ⎟ , and the net deflection at section cc is given by W cd .
⎝ b ⎠
⎛ nπx ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ b ⎠
In the actual penel, there cannot be an angle change at hinge dd. Therefore,
the actual moment at dd due to line load at cc is given by
⎛θ ⎞ ⎛ nπx ⎞
My = ⎜ dc ⎟ . sin ⎜ ⎟ ...(18.4)
⎝ θdd ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
The hypothetical horizontal jacks exactly act against the angle change at
hinge dd that would be caused by the vertical line load at cc on the hypothetically
hinged panel. From the theorem of reciprocal deflections
⎛ nπx ⎞ ⎛ nπx ⎞
∴ θdc . sin ⎜ ⎟ = W cd . sin ⎜ b ⎟ ...(18.5)
⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∴ θdc = W cd
⎛W ⎞ ⎛ nπx ⎞
My = ⎜ cd ⎟ . sin ⎜ ⎟ ...(18.6)
⎝ θdd ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
Equation 18.6 gives the ordinates along cc to the influence surface for moment
at dd for the practical value of n under consideration.
The deflection W cd and rotation θdd may be found by solving the hypothetical
problem IO the sinuosoidal distortion due to sinusoidal moments at the hinge.
18.4 ANALYSIS OF ORTHOTROPIC BRIDGES

In the orthotropic steel plate bridges, the orthotropic steel plate panels are used.
These panels act monolithically with supporting grillage. The supporting grillage
consists of cross-beams supported by main longitudinal girders. The main girders
rest on piers. The stresses and distortion in the orthotropic bridges may be
found from the following method. The method is known as Pelikan Esslinger
design Method.
The orthotropic plate panels are analysed by assuming that the supporting
cross-beams do not deflect and using the design aids given in the A1SC Design
Manual. The reactions of the orthotropic on the cross-beams are determined.
The cross-beams are loaded with the reactions from the orthotropic plate
panels and restrictions against deflections are removed. The deflection of entire
bridge take place. All structural components (both the girder grillage and the
orthoiropic plate panels) contribute to the support of the vertical loading on the
cross-beam. The AISC design has the equations and charts to determine the
stresses due to this step.
The final stresses are found by adding the stresses of both the above steps.
18.5 TENSILE STRUCTURES OR TENSION LOADED

STRUCTURES
The tensile structures are also known as tension loaded structures. The use of
tensile structures is rapidly expanding. In general, the tensile structures are
more readily constructed than the pressure or elasticity dependent structures.
Because, the tensile structures are not subjected to buckling. The tension-loaded
structures are rarely subjected to such complicated state of stress as occur in
bending. This remark applies particularly when all the tension-loaded
components are, in fact capable of taking up tension only. These components
are neither rigid in bending nor rigid in compression. The tens ion-loaded
structures consist of tensile components to a large extent. The tensile components
are flexible elements. The flexible elements may be connected to elements which
are rigid in bending or in compression.
The flexible tension loaded non prestressed components automatically assume
an equilibrium shape, which is most suited to transmit forces and moments.
When only flexible components (tension resistant) components are used, then,
the varitey of possible shape is reduced. Even then, the number of shapes is
very large. The flexible components in the tension-loaded structures consist of
cables, cable nets and flexible membranes. When the cables and cable nets are
used, as the flexible components in the tension-loaded structures, then, these
structures are known as cable structures and cable net structures. There are
also tensile stress pneumatic structure which are also tensile structures.
The oldest examples of tensile structures are tents and suspension bridges.
Now the tensile structures are supplemented by tensile supporting surfaces for
roof constructions made of nets and membranes or of tractive three dimensional
rope configuration. The various flexible elements have been discussed in
subsequent articles.
18.6 CABLES
A cable is a flexible element, which may be loaded in tension only. The wires,
chains, bands, and filaments are considered as cables. A cable gives a linear
supporting system. This supporting system is one dimensional, i.e., the
supporting system is large in one dimension and small in other two dimensions.
The shape of a cable depends on the load. When the cable is used to transmit
tensile forces, then, the cable assume a straight line as shown in Fig.18.6 (a).
When the cable is suspended between two fixed points and it is loaded by
uniformly distributed load along the cable length, then, the cable resumes the
catenary shape as shown in Fig.18.6 (b). When the cable is subjected to uniformly
distributed load at right angles to the curve, then, it resumes the shape of an
(a )
(c)
(b ) (d )
Fig. 18.6
arc of a circle as shown in Fig.18.6 (c). When the cable is subjected to uniformly
distributed loads along the horizontal span, then, the cable resumes the parabolic
shape as shown in Fig.18.6 (d). A cable may be subjected to different forces as
shown in Fig. 18.7, which form either coplanar system or spatial system. In the
coplanar system of forces, the cable lies in one plane. In the spatial system of
forces, the cable resumes a three dimensional curve.
Fig. 18.7
The cables may be in non-prestressed system or in prestressed system. A

structure or structural element may be considered prestressed in case the forces
or stresses act on it, when it is not loaded. It is assumed that the structural
element has no dead weight. A structure or structural element may be regarded
as non-prestressed in case no forces or stresses act on it, when it is not loaded. A
structure is considered to be not loaded, when the forces or moments or even its
dead loads are not transmitted by it.
18.7 CABLE CROSS

A cable-cross represents the simplest combination of two cables as shown in
Fig. 18.8. Two cables are connected at their intersection by a knot.
A vertical load P is applied at the knot E. The knot E descends under the
load. The cable AEB elongates and the cable CED shortens under the load. The
cable CED is compressed. But the cable CED cannot take any compression.
Therefore, in order that both the cables may share the load P, an initial tension
is needed. The initial tension is applied in the cable before the application of
load P.
When load P is applied after the application of the initial tension, then, cable
AEB is subjected to increased tension. The cable CED still remains in the tension
if it was sufficiently pretensioned. However, the cable CED is having tension

less in magnitude than before.
L1
A B
T1 T1
P
S1
E T2
S2 L2
T2 C
Fig. 18.8
The magnitude of initial tension is arbitrary adopted. The magnitude of initial

tension is kept high enough. It is ensured that each cable is subjected to sufficient
tension even in the case of most unfavourable loading.
18.8 CABLE NETS

A large number of cable crosses are combined with many number of knots to
give cable nets. In the cable nets, the cables lie in the surfaces curved in the
space. When the curvature of the cable increases, then, the load carrying capacity
of cable also increases. Therefore, the nets are laid in the directions corresponding
to the maximum surface curvature. The following two fundamental forms of
cable nets are only discussed.
1. Orthogonal cable nets 2. Axisymmetrical cable nets
18.8.1 Orthogonal Cabic Nets

When the orthogonal nets are projected in plan, then, the plan shows a
rectangular lattice. The orthogonal cable nets are shallow nets. The structure
of orthogonal net is not complicated. The orthogonal cable nets allow simple
checks to find the state of their installation. When the cable net is unloaded,
then, the cables of each family lie in the respective parallel vertical plane, i.e.,
along the parametric curves in case the cable net is represented as an ordinary
cartesian co-ordinate system.
18.8.2 Axisymmetrical Cable Nets

The axisymmetrical cable nets are different from the orthogonal nets. In the
axisymmetrical cable-nets, the cables of one family circles lie in parallel planes
in which z is constant. The cables of oihcr family lie along the meridians of a
surface of revolution. The planes of cables in the second family intersect along
z-axis. The radial cable nets are best known example of the axisymmetric cable
net. The radial cable net extends from the centre point and circular ring cables.
The cable lengths in the outer circular rings are more than those of the inner
rings. The radial cable nets may also have many possible shapes. The total
included angle of circular cables may reach 360°. This is not possible in shallow
nets. The axisymmetrical cable nets are used for the walls of circular rings.
In addition to the above the cable nets may have various shapes. The cable
nets have tetragonal meshes of regular or irregular shapes. The regular shapes
of meshes may be square as shown in Fig. 18.9 (a), parallelogram or rhombi as
shown in Fig. 18.9 (b), and rectangles also. The cable nets with hexagonal or
tetragonal meshes as shown in Fig. 18.9 (f) may be used to form any surface. In
the specially curved cable net surfaces, the angles at the cable intersections
vary.
When the cable net structures with tetragonal or hexagonal meshes are
sagging freely, then, they are not rigid in shear. The tetragonal cable nets with
tetragonal meshes may extend diagonally under monoaxial stress. The cable
(a ) (b ) (c)
(d ) (e ) (f)
Fig. 18.9
nets with hexagonal meshes may be extended easily in any direction. If it is

necessary to have cable nets which are rigid in shear, but the effect of the edge
elements, the dead weight, or the rigidity of lining is not sufficient then, the
cable nets with triangular meshes as shown in Fig. 18.9 (f) must be used. The
cable nets with uniform triangular meshes may be simply curved only. The
cable net surfaces, which are spatially curved, and have triangle meshes, then,
the cable lengths are different at least in one direction. In case, the cable triangles
as shown in Fig. 18.9 (c) or the rigid frames or panels as shown in Fig. 18.9 (d)
are inserted in the cable nets, the rigidity can also be obtained. As a combination
of octagonal, hexagonal and tetragonal meshes, many other regular net shapes
are also possible.
The uniformity in the cable net meshes facilitates their manufacture. But
the uniformity is not absolute requirement for the cable nets. The cable nets
may also be prefabricated economically with non-uniform meshes.
18.9 CABLE SYSTEMS AND NETS FORMING VERTICAL

SURFACES
Consider a cable, which is suspended from two other cables, which are fixed to
two points as shown in Fig. 18.10 (a). The weight of this third cable is transmitted
(a )
(d ) (e )
Fig. 18.10
by the two cables to two fixed points. These three cables form a vertical plane. It
gives a two dimensional supporting system. A vertical plane suspended net is
obtained by suspending several vertical cables from a supporting cable and by
interconnecting them either by girders or by cables as shown in Fig. 18.10 (b).
The cable surfaces of a suspension bridge may also be considered as a vertical
net in which a supporting cable passes over two pylons as shown in Fig. 18.10
(c) or over single polygon as shown in Fig. 18.10 (d) or (e). The roadway supports
may be suspended from special cables or directly if the point of suspension is
directly connected with the point of application of force. It is given a system of
triangles.
18.10 CABLES SUSPENDED FREELY TO FORM SURFACES

A simple curved surface is obtained by suspending cables of equal lengths at
equal distances between iwo horizontal parallel lines, as shown in Fig. 18.11
(a). In case a section of the simple curved surface is taken parallel to cables,
B D
(R igid)
S u sp e nd ed S u pp ortin g lin e s
cab le s h orizo ntal
A' B' C' D' B' D' A' C'
E levatio n A P lan C S ide vie w

(a )
S u sp e nd ed D D D' D'
cab le s D'
C' C' C'
B' B' A' B'
A'
A A
S u pp ortin g lin e s
B B C o nvex d ow nw a rd
C C (R igid)
E levatio n D D
P lan
(b ) S ide vie w
D D
S u sp e nd ed C C B' A'
A' B'
cab le s C' C'
B' B B D'
C' D'
A A
D'
B B
C C
D D
E levatio n
P lan S ide vie w
(c)
Fig. 18.11
then, it represents a catenary. When the section is taken normal to the cables,
then, it forms a horizontal line.
A spatial curved surface is obtained by suspending cables of equal lengths at
equal distances between two imaginary parallel vertical planes along curves,
which are convex downward, as shown in Fig. 18.11 (b). When a section is taken
along the cables (i.e., a longitudinal section) then, the section represents a
catenary. The transverse section of the curved surfaces represents the generatrix.
This type of surface is synelastically curved surface (i.e., it has dome-shaped
curvature). It forms an inverted dome.
In case the supporting lines for suspended cables is convex upward, then, the
curved surface obtained is saddle shaped or antielastic surface as shown in Fig.
18.11 (c).
In case, the cables are of unequal lengths and these are suspended from two
horizontal parallel lines at equal distances, and the sag of the control cable is
maximum, then also, synelastically curved surface is formed. In case, the sag of
control cable is minimum, then, the antielastic curved surface is formed.
Depending on the lengths of cables and varying the sag, and manner of
suspension, the number of surfaces may bo formed. The cables may be arranged
radially to form many number of surfaces.
18.11 CABLE STRUCTURES

The simple slack cables have variable deformations. In case, these cables are
stabilized either by supporting members which are rigid in bending or by large
permanent loads in comparison with which the useful loads are negligible, then,
these cables may be used as supporting elements.
A cable may also be stabilized by using a second tension member curved in
the opposite sense. In the presence of the second cable and the necessary initial
tension, the deformations for these structures are comparatively small. These
structures are stable under arbitrary loads. These structures are known as cable
structures. The cable structures consist mainly of cables. These structures are
loaded in its plane, the analogy to other plane structures like frame-works, and
suspended structures. Figure 18.12 shows the fundamental forms of cable
structures. The upper and lower cables are connected at many points by vertical
ties and sometimes by inclined ties.
The cable structures are advantageous over single cables. The shapes of cable
structures are fixed on account of the necessary initial tension.
The cable structures are advantageous over single cables. The shapes of cable
structures are fixed on account of the necessary initial tension.
The cable structures can take up positive and negative loads. The cable
structures as shown in Fig. 18.12 (b) have both the cable joined at one point.
The cable structures as shown in Fig.18.12 (c) have inclined ties. These structures
are particularly rigid.
A cylindrical roof may be provided over a rectangular hall by arranging cable
structures by side.
(a ) (b )
(c) (d )
(e ) (f)
Fig. 18.12 The cable structures are advantages over single cable
18.12 MEMBRANES
The membranes and cable nets with triangular meshes are closely related. The
membranes can take up surface stresses in every direction. The shapes of
membranes vary widely.
18.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CABLE NETS AND

MEMBRANE SHAPES
A cable net is a surface supporting structure. It consists of one dimensional
components rigid in tension. The membranes form true surfaces. Architecturally,
the cable net surfaces and the membranes are very similar, and these are closely
related. From the statical point of view, the cable net structures are quite distinct
from the membranes. The behaviour of cable nets under the load is characterised
by the negligibly small rigidity in shear of the space between the cables. The
analysis of forces in a cable net cannot be done with the help of the membrane
theory of shells.
For hanging roofs made of concrete cast-in-situ or plate elements, the
conditions are different. The structures are rigid in shear at least as regards
applied loads. Therefore, the analysis of these structures may be done by the
known formulae of the membrane theory. The every element in cable nets with
trianguiar mesh is rigid in shear as long as no cables are slack. Therefore, the
membrane theory gives the satisfactory results in the analysis of these nets.
Each of three families of cables shares the sectional loads in accordance with
the equilibrium and deformation conditions.
18.14 PRESTRESSED TENSION LOADED STRUCTURES

The non-prestresscd and prestressed tension-loaded structures differ greatly
as regards their shapes also. However, many transition forms complicate
classification. The individual cable is a one dimensional support system. The
cable nets and membranes which may be either plane or curved are two
dimensional support systems. The synelastic curved surfaces (i.e. done-shaped
curved surfaces) cannot be obtained from the prestressed cable nets and
membranes. The prestressed spatial cable nets and membrane structures are
the three dimensional support systems. The prestressed spatial cable nets and
non-prestressed tension-loaded spatial systems are subjected to slightly different
conditions.
A cable is a flexible tension loaded component. A non prestressed and unloaded
cable does not resume any definite shape in a gravity-free space. Such a cable
assumes its shape under the load only. In contrary to this, a prestressed cable
takes a straight line shape even in the weightless state. When the external
loads are not acting on the cable, then, the prestressing force is sufficient to
keep the cable along the straight line. The straight line of the cable becomes a
catenary under the action of dead weights. The cable elongates in the process,
the prestressed cable have small deformations under the dead weight as
compared with those of non-prestressed cables.
The prestressed cables appear to be straight because of barely visible
curvature. When the measured length of non-stressed cable is less than the
least distance between the points of attachment, then, the cables are prestressed.
The force acting in a cable decreases with the increase of temperature. The
force in a cable increases when the temperature decreases. In the unloaded
state, the force in the cable changes when the temperature varies.
The cables may be prestressed along different outlines and may be used to
form different surfaces. The prestressed cables may be used to form plane slender
cable nets, and various other plane prestressed forms. The prestressed cables
may be used for prestressed curved cable nets. The cable nets may also have
different types of meshes.
18.15 TENSILE-STRESS PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES

The forms of structures stabilized wholly or mainly by pressure differences of
gases, liquid, foam, or material in bulk are known as pneumatic structures. The
structural forms of pneumatic structures such as membranes are subjected to
tensile stress. The foam has been adopted as a building material in addition to
its use as insulation. The foam is made from rubber, plastics, cement, minerals,
metals or glass. When the pores of the foam are closed, then, the foam has a
pneumatic load carrying capacity. The tensile pneumatic structures are built
from light collapsible, very strong membranes. The main advantage of
pneumatically stretched membrane is its small weight. The weight of these
structures does not exceed 30 kN/m3 even with spans more than 100 m. The
container-shaped membrane is the distinct feature of the structures. The
elasticity of the materials governs the deformations of the structures under the
load to a large extent. For example, the change in shape of rubber balloon is
more than that of a glass fabric balloon.
In the pneumatic structures, the internal pressures is developed either by
inflating compressed air or by other means. The compressed air is supplied by
using large blowers. These maintain a uniform internal pressure at any height.
The temperature differences between the inside and outside of these structures
cause the air pressure to vary with the height. In the pneumatic structures, the
permanent openings may be left in case the compressed air supply is sufficient.
The movement of people inside the structure will not be interfered, even the
structure may collapse particularly if the poles or exhibition object retain the
envelope. The emergency compressors are also provided in the large pneumatic
structures if the internal pressure supply may fail. The pneumatic structures
are safer than any other structure. The larger envelopes take long time to collapse
in case of failure of compressed air supply. The compressed air leaks out very
slowly. Even large holes and tears are not dangerous. The drop in pressure is
quite rapid. The force due to weight of membrane is very small. Therefore, the
enclosed air takes number of days to escape from the large envelopes even if the
openings are large. The process of deflection is delayed or completely stopped
by wind or temperature differences. In contrary to this, this process is accelerated
by the snow loads.
The study of soap bubbles greatly helps the understanding of pneumatic
structures. A pneumatic structure may be made of any shape which may be
assumed by a soap bubble. Any envelope, forming to a scale of a soap bubble
shape may be made of slightly deformable skins, such as glass fabric or paper. A
free soap bubble assumes exactly a spherical shape in a weightless state. The
two soap bubbles of equal diameters form a twin bubble with a plane diaphragm.
The soap bubbles of unequal diameters form a twin bubble with a curved
diaphragm. Not more than four soap bubbles can be combined in direct contact
with one another. Many combinations of soap bubbles are possible. The soap
bubbles may have any infinite shape. The soap bubbles may be stretched over
the circular and non circular frames. In case the membrane weight is neglected,
then the envelope is uniformly stressed at every point and in every direction
when inflated, provided of course, that original shape is preserved by means of
correct preparation.
The pneumatic structures are also reinforced with cables. The cable reinforced
pneumatic structures are also made of various shapes.
Index
Accessories, Permissible stresses, 589

Circular steel tank, 341 Stress-strain relationship, 735
Pressed steel lank, 364 Riveted connections, 750
Stand Pipes, 342 Tension members, 739
Aisle, 444 Amplification factor, 745
Airy’s theory, 415 Analysis of
Allowable stresses, 66 Industrial buildings, 441
Axial compression, 68 Multistorey-buildings, 496
Axial tension, 68, 74 Gravity bads, 513
Bearings, 74 Lateral loads, 502
Bending, 69 Plane frames, 838
Bolts, 75 Space frames, 844
Combination of loads, 74 Anchor bolts, 342
Rivets, 74 Chimney, 314
Shear, 74 Stand pipe, 338, 342
Aluminium-structures, 731 Arch bridges, 5, 8
Advantages, 727 Assumptions for the design of
Aluminium alloys,734 Plate girder bridges, 88
Chemical composition, 735 Truss-girder bridges, 163
Properties, 734 Base plates
Beams, 745 Chimney, 314
Columns, 746 Basic design stress, 565
Battened, 744 Bay lengths, 451
Laced, 744 Bearings, 252
Compression members, 739 Allowable stress, 265
Effective length, 743 Bearings adopted by, 264
Local buckling, 554 Railway board, 264
Permissible stresses, 589 Combined mechanical and
Disadvantages, 737 elastomeric, 254
Factor of safely, 737 Design, 284
Elastomeric, 254, 284 Classification, 4

Neoprcne bearings, 277 Clearances, 22
Pad bearings, 284 Combined highway and
Confined, 283 railway, 54
Unconfined Reinforced, 283 Comparison, 13
Unconfined unreinforced, 283 Definition,166, 548
Pot bearings, 287 Economical span, 19, 20
Functions, 252 Erection methods, 14, 16
Ferrous (mechanical bearings), 257 Foot bridges, 01
Kunckle pin bearings, 263 Highway, 01
Plate bearings, 257 Plate girder bridges, 137,139
Rocker bearings, 259 Railway, 01
Roller bearings, 261 Selection, 14
Sliding bearings, 267 Truss girder bridges, 4, 163
Spherical bearings, 265 Buckling of thin elements
Non-ferrous Local, 550, 554
(mechanical bearings), 254, 275 Post, 552
Selection of Type of bearings, 255 Bunkers
Types, 253 Analysis, 422
Bins, 409 Asymmetrical, 424
Analysis, 422 Symmetrical, 424, 428
Deep, 409 Camel back truss girder bridges, 165
Design, 427 Cantilever bridges, 5
Design critieria, 420 Cantilever method, 506
Design parameters, 419 Centrifugal force, 65
Shallow, 409 Highway bridges, 65
Bottom boom, 163 Railway bridges, 65
Bracing, 212 Checker board loading, 515, 516
Bridges, 213 Chimney, 291
Bootom lateral bracing, 212 Anchor bolts, 314
Deck type plate girder, 84 Base plate, 313
Deck type truss girder, 207 Breech opening, 298
Design, 154 Forces, 302
Through type plate girder, 86 Foundation, 315
Through type truss girder, 207 Ladder, 299
Industrial buildings, 450 Lightening conductor, 302
Longitudinal direction, 452 Lining, 295
Transverse direction, 451 Lug, 332
Multi-storey building, 496 Painter’s trolley, 341
Bridges Plates, 311
Aqueduct, 01 Riveted joints, 294
Basecule, 10 Types, 292
Bracing, 153, 207 Guyed, 292
INDEX 889
Self-supporting, 292 Proportions of truss girders, 169

Chord members Span, 4
Bottom, 162 Effective length
Top, 162 Aluminium compression members, 742
Circular girder, 355 Compression members, 172
Circular tanks, 343 Light gauge compression
Clearances members, 545
Broad gauge, 23 Elastic plastic bending of beams, 613
Highways, 23 Elevated circular tank, 343
Metre gauge, 23 Accessories, 346
Collapse, 635 Forces, 347
Complete, 557 Stresses, 348
Partial, 635 Types, 336
Over complete, 635 End bearings, 252
Collapse loads, 633 Endurance limits, 80
Continuous beams, 650 Equivalent uniformly distributed
Portal frames, 229, 654 loads, 35, 36
Standard cases of beams, 635 Erection
Combination of loads, 67 Effects, 66
Combined mechanism, 653 Methods for bridges, 15
Combined stress, 75 Extra-ordinary loads, 33
Comparison of fixed and movable Factor of safety (Aluminium), 737
bridges, 13 Fatigue, 77
Component parts of truss bridges, 163 Fixed bridges, 10
Compression members Floating swing bridges, 13
Aluminium, 733 Floor beams, 84, 96
Bridges, 171 Floor construction, 446
Light gauge steel members, 565 Fluctuation of stresses, 76
Continuous span bridges, 5 Form factor, 556
Crane columns, 449 Fuller’s formula, 88, 171
Crane gantry girder, 448, 461 Gable column, 461
Cross-frames, 154 Gable rafter, 468
Cross-girder, 168 Gable wind girder, 461
Dead load, 33 Gantary girder, 468
Deck type bridges, 9 Gantary girder sections, 449
Plate girder, 84 Girt, 461, 545
Truss girder, 167 Half through type bridges, 9
Dimensions of rolling stock, 26, 138 Heighway bridges, 01
Broad gauge, 34 Plate girder bridges, 124
Metre gauge, 26 Truss girder bridges, 4
Ductility of steel, 600 Horizontal truss effect, 139
Economical Plate Girder bridges, 139
Depth of plate girder, 82 Truss girder bridges, 211
Hudson’s formula, 170 Internal gusset plates, 155

I-beam bridges, 4 Janssen’s theory, 410, 411
Idealized stress-strain diagram, 601 Joint mechanism, 632
Impact load, 55 Kinematic method, 633
Highway bridges, 57 Kinematic theorem, 633, 636
Railway bridges, 55 Knee braces, 445, 453
Beams, 641 Light gauge steel members, 545
Gable, 632 Basic design stress, 565
Joint, 633 Beams, 572
Panel or sway, 632, 655 Deflection, 578
Industrial buildings, 441 Laterally supported, 575
Analysis, 456 Laterally unsupported, 575
Bents, 456 Bending, 575
Bracings, 452 Columns, 565
Crane gantary girder, 468 Combined stress, 472, 857
Floor construction, 446 Connections, 585
Heating, 447 Effective length of compression
Lighting, 447 members, 565
Partition walls, 447 Form factor, 556
Roof system, 446 Local buckling, 556
Stair-case, 447 Multiple stiffened elements, 548
Structural frame work, 444 Post buckling, 552
Wall construction, 446 Stiffened elements, 554
Ventilating, 447 Tension members, 571
Influence line for stresses in frames, 761 Types of cross-sections, 547
Baltimore trusses with, 791 Unsiiffened elements, 548, 557
Sub-struts, 791, 806 Web crippling, 576
Sub-ties, 798 Loads, 32
Braced cantilever with Dead loads, 33
Suspended span, 828 Equivalent uniformly distribution, 36
K-truss with Impact loads, 55
Inclined chord, 819 Lateral loads, 59
Parallel chord, 762, 772 Highway bridges, 57
Pettit or Pennsylvania Struss Railway bridges, 55
Sub-struts, 791 Wind loads, 58
Sub-ties, 798 Load factor, 628
Pratt-truss with, 762 Loads on towers, 699
Inclined chord, 819 Longitudinal force, 59
Parallel chord, 762 Highway bridges, 57
Warren truss with, 772 Railway bridges, 55
Curved chord, 777 Longitudinal girder, 83
Parallel chord, 772, 789 Lower bounded theorem, 632
Intermediate stiffeners, 106 Mast, 696
INDEX 891
Margin of safety, 629 Plastic analysis and design, 600

Mechanism, 630 Applicability of theory, 602
Beam, 631 Bending of beams, 610
Combined, 653 Collapse loads, 635, 650
Gable, 632 Design of beams, 686
Independent, 631 Fundamental conditions, 630
Joint, 632 Kinematic theorem, 633
Members Load factor, 628
Main members, 163 Margin of safety, 600, 601, 629
Sub-members, 163 Machanism, 533
Secondary members, 163 Moment curvature relationsship, 625
Membranes, 884 Moment of a section, 611
Mill buildings, 441, 443 Shape factor, 618
Moment curvature relationship, 625 Static theorem, 632
Moment resistant connections, 500, 506, Uniqueness theorem, 634
513 Plate bearings, 257
Movable bridges, 10 Plate girder bridges, 82
Bascule bridges, 11 Bracing, 85
Floating swing bridges, 10, 13 Deck type, 85
Rolling bridges, 12 Econmical depth, 88
Swing bridges, 10 Highways, 122
Transporting bridges, 13 Railways, 96
Types, 14 Self-weight, 87
Vertical lift bridges, 12 Stiffeners, 106
Multiple stiffened elements, 548 Through type, 96
Multi-storey buildings, 500 Types of floors, 82
Bracing, 500 Wind effect, 139
Method of analysis, 498 Wind load, 137
Number of assumptions, 498 Pneumatic structures, 870
Normal loads, 33 Portal bracing, 227
Net area of tension flange, 90 Analysis, 229
Occasional loads, 33 Assumptions, 229
Open floor system, 83 Types, 283
Open Web girder bridges, 163 Portal method, 504
Orthotropic Penels and bridges, 871 Pressed steel tanks, 364, 367
Over bridges, 10 Accessories, 371
Over complete collapse, 635 Capacity, 367
Over turning effect, 139 Staging, 312
Plate girder bridges, 139 Stays, 367
Truss girder bridges, 208 Types, 336
Parallel chord truss girder bridges, 165 Primary column buckling, 554
Perfectly plastic materials, 603 Principle of virtual work, 634
Permissible stresses Chimney, 306 Racking force, 59
Rail bearer, 83 Horizontal, 109

Railway bridges Intermediate, 109
Plate girder bridges, 96 Vertical, 107
Truss girder bridges, 163 Stresses
Rectangular tanks, 336 Allowable stresses, 67
Region of yield or plasticity, 615 Relief, 67
Relief stresses, 675, 8 Secondary, 66
Riveted bridges, 9 Shear, 74
Rocker bearings, 259 Stresses in
Roller bearings, 261 Columns, 359
Rolling bridges, 12 Conical bottom, 350
Secondary members, 163 Elevated circular tank, 348
Secondary moments, 861 Spherical bottom, 349
Secondary stresses, 66, 857 Stand pipes, 338
Changes of angles, 858 Stringers, 96
Deflection angles, 860 Tanks, 335
Seismic force, 66 Circular, 343
Self-weight Pressed, 364
Fuller’s formula, 88, 171 Rectangular, 336
Hundson’s formula, 170 Stand pipes, 338
Plate girder bridges, 83 Types, 336
Truss girder bridges, 163 Temperature effects, 66
Shape factor, 618 Tension coefficients, 837
Silos Tension members in bridges, 177
Simply supported bridges, 5 Tension structures, 877
Solid floor system, 83 Through type bridges, 9
Space frames Plate girder, 9, 82
Analysis, 837 Truss girder, 163
Tension coefficients, 837 Top boom, 163
Special structures, 870 Top chord, 165
Stacks, 291 Top lateral bracing, 211
Staging for Towers, 696
Circular tank, 347 Transporting bridges, 13
Pressed steel tank, 364 Transverse bents, 446, 451
Stand piper, 338 Trestles, 694, 708
Stresses, 306 Stresses due to
Static method, 636 Horizontal loads, 711
Static theorem, 632 Vertical loads, 709
Stiffened elements, 548 Truss girder bridges
Compression elements, 557 Camel back, 165
Stiffners, 106 Components parts, 167
Bearings, 107 Deck type, 84, 167
Connections, 109 Economic proportions, 169
INDEX 893
Parallel chord, 165 Rectangular tanks, 336

Portal bracing, 227 Stand pipes, 338
Self-weight, 170 Types, 336
Sub-divided panels, 166 Web members, 163
Sway bracing, 249 Welded bridges, 9
Through type, 167 Wind effect
Types, 167 Plate girder bridges, 137
Upper bound theorem, 633 Truss girder bridges, 207
Under bridges, 10 Wind load, 58
Uniqueness theorem, 634 Plate girder bridges, 137
Unstiffened elements, 557 Truss girder bridges, 207
Allowable axial load, 565 Wind pressure
Vertical lift bridges, 12 Chimney, 291
Vertical stiffeners, 107 Wind stresses in columns of tanks, 267
Wall construction (industrial Yield point, 601
building), 450 Lower, 599
Water tanks, 335 Upper, 599
Circular tanks, 347 Yield moment, 618
Pressed steel tanks, 364 Yield stress, 599

Design of Steel Structure Vol 2

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Design of Steel Structure Vol 2

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DESIGN OF STEEL

STANDARD BOOK HOUSE

First Published : 1971

Unit of Thermodynamic Temperature (degree Kelvin, K)

PART 1 DESIGN OF STEEL BRIDGES

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 3–32

CHAPTER 2. LOADS AND STRESSES 33–81

2.8.2 Highway Bridge 65

CHAPTER 3. DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES 82–162

3.11.4 Horizontal Stiffeners 109

CHAPTER 4. DESIGN OF TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES 163–251

4.23 Sway Bracing 249

CHAPTER 5. DESIGN OF END BEARINGS FOR STEEL BRIDGES

PART 2 DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER

CHAPTER 6. DESIGN OF STEEL AND OTHER STRUCTURES 291–334

Multiple Choice Questions 334

CHAPTER 7. DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 335–408

7.21 Stays in Pressed Steel Tanks 367

CHAPTER 8. DESIGN OF STEEL BUNKERS AND SILOS 409–440

CHAPTER 9. DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 441–495

9.15.2 Columns Fixed at the Base 457

CHAPTER 10. DESIGN OF MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS 496–544

CHAPTER 11. DESIGN OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL MEMBERS 545–598

11.6.1 Crushing Failure of Columns 554

CHAPTER 12. PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STEEL

12.5.1 Single Member Carrying Axial Tension 604

12.22.1 Continuous Beam Subjected to Concentrated Loads 650

CHAPTER 13. DESIGN OF STEEL TOWERS, TRESTLES AND MASTS

CHAPTER 14. DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 733–760

14.13 Combined Compression and Bending 744

PART 3 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 15. INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES

15.2.2 Influence Line Diagram for L3 L4 (Bottom Chord Member) 764

15.2.3 Influence Line Diagram for U3U4 (Vertical Member) 765

15.3.2 Influence Line Diagram for L1 L2 769

15.3.3 Influence Line Diagram for U1U2 770

15.3.4 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U2U2 771

15.4.2 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in Member L1L2

15.8.7 Influence Line Diagram for Stress in U4 L4 804

CHAPTER 16. ANALYSIS OF SPACE FRAMES 837–855

CHAPTER 17. ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY STRESSES 856–869

CHAPTER 18. SPECIAL STRUCTURES 870–

2. Loads and Stresses

3. Design of Plate Girder Bridges

4. Design of Truss Girder Bridges

5. Design of End Bearings for Steel Bridges

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BRIDGES

(b ) P late g ird er bridg e

(c) Tru ss g ird e r bridg e

Fig. 1.2 Simply supported span bridges

Fig. 1.3 Continuous span bridges

type of loadings. The reactions cannot be determined from the principles of

Fig. 1.4 Cantilever bridges

The suspended span is supported at both ends on mechanical hinges. In general,

(a ) S o lid rib arch b rid ge

(b ) B ra ced rib a rch b rd ge

(c) S p an drel bra ced a rch b rid ge

(d ) Tied arch b rid ge

(e ) Tied arch b rid ge

Fig. 1.5 Arch bridges

Fig. 1.6 Rigid frame bridges

5. The steel bridges are classified according to the level of crossing of

1.3 MOVABLE BRIDGES

1.3.1 Swing Bridge