Geography Geomorphology

05/01/2019 Geomorphology
Mount Etna
Southeast flank of Mount Etna in Sicily is sliding towards the sea at a rate of several centimetres a year - likely caused by gravity pulling on Etna’s lower
underwater slopes, far from the summit
Largest active volcano in Europe and one of the world’s most frequently erupting volcanoes
Volcano with the longest record of continuous eruption
Sits on the active fault between the African plate and the Ionian microplate, which are both being subducted together beneath the Eurasian plate.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Mount Etna has been designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations
Aurora
When charged particles from the solar wind collide with air molecules above Earth’s magnetic poles, it causes the air molecules to glow, causing the auroras – the
northern and southern lights
Sun - Photosphere, Chromosphere, Corona (inner-Outer)

Sunspots are on photosphere
Soputan Volcano
Soputan - Sulawesi Island

Mt Agung - Bali
Indonesia is at the meeting point of three major continental plates – the Pacific, the Eurasian and the Indo-Australian plates – and the much smaller Philippine plate
Indonesia - 400 volcanoes, 127 are currently active (1/3 of world’s active volcanos)
Ring of Fire
Ring of Fire is a Pacific region home to over 450 volcanoes – Mt St. Helena (USA), Mt Fuji (Japan) and Mt Pinatubo (Philippines)
90% of the world’s earthquakes occur in the Ring of Fire, and 80% of the world’s largest earthquakes. The 40,0000 kilometre horse-shoe-shaped ring loops from
New Zealand to Chile, passing through the coasts of Asia and the Americas on the way.
Stretches along the Pacific Ocean coastlines, where the Pacific Plate grinds against other, smaller tectonic plates that form the Earth’s crust – such as the
Philippine Sea plate and the Cocos and Nazca Plates that line the edge of the Pacific Ocean.
Result from subduction of oceanic tectonic plates beneath lighter continental plates. The area where these tectonic plates meet is called a subduction zone.
Deepest earthquakes happen in subduction zone areas as tectonic plates scrape against each other – and the Ring of Fire has the world’s biggest concentration of
subduction zones.
As energy is released from the earth’s molten core, it forces tectonic plates to move and they crash up against each other, causing friction. The friction causes a
build-up of energy and when this energy is finally released it causes an earthquake. If this happens at sea it can cause devastating tsunamis.
Tectonic plates usually only move on average a few centimetres each year, but when an earthquake strikes, they speed up massively and can move at several
metres per second
Mount Anak Krakatau Volcano is between Java and Sumatra in the Sunda Strait
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH
Theories
Planets were formed from a cloud of material associated with a youthful, slowly rotating Sun
Otto Schmidt and Carl Weizascar revised this theory

Kant, revised by
Nebular Hypothesis
Laplace Sun was surrounded by nebula - Hydrogen + Helium + Dust
Friction and collision of particles led to formation of a disk shaped cloud and planets were
formed by process of accretion
When a wandering star approached the Sun, cigar shaped extension of material was separated from the
Binary Theory Chamberlain and
solar surface
(Wandering Star) Moulton
Jeans and Jeffreys supported
Universe is expanding - Distance between galaxies is increasing (not size of galaxies themselves
All matter existed in one place as a tiny ball - Singularity - infinite temperature, infinite density,
infinitesimally small volume
Big Bang Theory
Edwin Hubble Big Bang —> Singularity exploded (13.7 billion years ago) and some energy was converted into
Expanding Universe
matter
Rapid expansion after the Big Bang, which has slowed down since then
First atom was formed within three minutes of the Big Bang
Universe was roughly the same at any point (opposed to Big Bang)
Steady State Hoyle
Formation of Stars
5-6 billion years ago

Distribution of matter and energy not even in early universe —> Differences in gravitational forces —> Caused matter to get drawn together —> Basis
for formation of galaxies
Galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas —> large cloud called nebula
Growing Nebula forms localised clumps of gas
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Lumps grow denser leading to formation of stars
Formation of planets
All planets were formed around the same time

Rotating disc of gas and dust forms around the gas core in stars
Gas cloud starts getting condensed and matter around the core develops into small, rounded objects due to cohesion
Large bodies form by collision and gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together —> Planetesimals
Accretion of planetesimals —> Planets
Solar System - 5 billion years ago

Planets - 4.6 billion years ago
Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets
Inner Planets
Outer Planets
Atmosphere is not as dense - gravity is not strong enough due to
Thick atmosphere of Helium and Hydrogen - gravity was strong enough
small size to prevent escape of gases
due to large size to prevent escape of gases
Intense solar winds blew away gas and dust
Solar winds were much less intense due to distance from Sun
Rocky planets - made up of rocks and metals with high densities
Formation of Moon
George Darwin - Initially Earth and Moon formed a single body, then the whole mass became a dumbbell shaped body from which the moon broke off
(Material forming the moon is currently the depression occupied by Pacific Ocean
Big Splat - A large body collided into earth and blasted out a piece of earth that continues to orbit the earth as the moon (4.5 billion years ago)
Evolution of Earth
Initially, earth’s surface was rocky and hot with a thin atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium
Material in the earth’s interior started spreading based on relative densities

Heavier materials sunk to the core, while lighter materials moved towards the surface
With time, it cooled further and solidified and condensed into a smaller size
Lithosphere
Later led to development of outer surface in the form of a crust
Differentiation —> process by which earth forming material got separated into different layers
Crust > Mantle > Core —> Density increases
Loss of primordial atmosphere - Early atmosphere composed of hydrogen and helium was stripped off as a result of solar
winds
Degassing - Gases and water vapour were released from interior of the earth (water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
Atmosphere methane, ammonia), Volcanic eruptions released gases, Further decrease of temperature cause condensation of gases and
rainfall —> Collection of rain in depressions led to formation of oceans
Photosynthesis - First forms of life were marine plants, Photosynthesis released oxygen, when oceans were saturated with
oxygen, it began to flood the atmosphere
Hydrosphere Condensation —> Rainfall —> Collection in depressions —> Oceans
Origin of life = chemical reaction that generated complex organic molecules and assembled them into a self-replicating system
Biosphere
4 billion years ago
Why Geomorphology?
Geophysical phenomenon - Volcanos, Earthquakes

Internal Structure of Solar system
Evolution and composition of atmosphere
Mineral exploration
Configuration of surface of earth is due to processes operating in the interior of the earth
Sources of information about earth’s interior
Direct
Deep earth mining - Mponeng and TauTona gold mines in SA - 3.9km

Drilling - Deepest drilling - Kola, Arctic Ocean (12km)
Volcanic Eruption
Indirect Sources
Depth: Pressure, Density, Temperature increase with depth

Meteors: Born from the same nebular cloud as the earth, outer layer gets burnt due to extreme friction
Gravitation: Varies based on distance (more at poles) and mass of material (gravity anomaly - gives information about distribution of mass of material in
the interior of the earth)
Magnetic field: Geodynamo effect (distribution of magnetic materials in the earth’s crust
Earthquake
What causes magnetic field of the earth?
Inner core is solid Iron - Even though temperature is 5700C (due to disintegration of radioactive substances), crushing pressure of gravity prevents it
from becoming liquid
Outer core has Iron, Nickel and other metals - Pressure is lower here so this layer is in liquid state
Differences in temperature, pressure and composition in outer core cause convection currents in the inner core - Cold dense matter sinks, Warm and light
matter rises - Coriolis force also causes swirling whirlpools
Flow of liquid iron generates electric current, which causes a magnetic field - Self sustaining loop called a geodynamo
Spiralling caused by Coriolis force means that several magnetic fields are aligned together in roughly the same direction, which add up to produce one
vast magnetic field
Shear waves or J waves in inner core - only travels through solid medium
Inner core may share some elastic properties with gold and platinum
Earthquakes
Abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp break in crustal layer)

Temperature-pressure variations in earth’s interior —> constant change in volume and density of rocks —> underlying rock layer overcomes the friction
offered by the overlying layer —> Sudden slipping of rock formations along faults and fractures
Volcanos may cause earthquakes - such earthquakes are less intense and limited in extent compared to those caused by fracturing
Slip of rock masses adjacent to volcano produces an effect similar to fracturing
Circum-pacific belt along ocean ridges - correspondence between geographic division of volcanos and earthquakes
Rocks along a fault tend to move in different directions - friction of overlying rock strata prevents movement of rock layer
Under intense pressure, if the rock layer overcomes the friction, it moves in abrupt directions generating shockwaves
Point where energy is released - Focus/Hypocentre

Point on earth’s crust directly above the focus - epicentre
All earthquakes happen in the lithosphere (Volcanos in the asthenosphere)
Wave velocity: 5-8 km/s through the outer part of crust but travel faster with depth
Isoseismic line - Line connecting all points on surface of the earth where intensity is the same
Body waves - Released at the focus - P waves, S waves

Surface waves - Body waves reach the crust, interact with matter and create surface waves
Velocity and direction of the waves change when the medium through which they are travelling changes —> more elastic = more velocity
P waves S waves Surface Waves
Longitudinal
Transverse
Pressure on material in direction of Transverse
Vibration perpendicular to direction of wave
propagation - density differences in material
propagation - crests and trough
leading to stretching and squeezing
High frequency High frequency Low frequency
Can travel in all mediums

Only in solids Short distance from epicentre
Velocity depends on shear strength/elasticity
Recorded first on seismograph Least destructive Recorded last on seismograph
Clue about solid inner core Clue about liquid outer core Most destructive
Shadow zone: 105-145° Shadow zone: 105-180° (40% of surface)

Higher density = higher elasticity = easier to form compression and rarefaction = velocity of longitudinal waves increases
Liquids do not have shear strength, so longitudinal waves don’t pass through them
Change of direction due to both Reflection and Refraction

Reflection causes waves to bounce while refraction causes bending
Wadati-Benioff zone
Zone of seismicity corresponding with a down-going slab in a zone of subduction (convergent boundary)
Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes
Develop beneath volcanic island arcs and continental margins above active subduction zones
Shallow focus earthquakes - crustal earthquakes - depths less than 70km - smaller magnitude (MORs)
Deep focus earthquakes - Intra-plate earthquakes - 300-700 km - higher magnitude (Alpine Himalayan belt)
Volcanic earthquakes are confined to areas of active volcanos
Distribution of earthquakes
Mostly in belts coinciding with margins of tectonic plates

Pacific Ring of Fire - Volcano + Earthquakes - 70% of earthquakes
Alpine belt - Himalaya-Alps - 15%
Mid world mountain belt - Mexico - Himalayas parallel to the equator
Along oceanic ridges - Arctic, Antarctic, western Indian Ocean
Rift Valley of east Africa
Earthquake inducing human activities
Deep Mining - collapse earthquakes

Underground nuclear tests - explosion earthquakes
Reservoir induced seismicity
Groundwater extraction
Fossil fuel extraction
Impact of earthquakes
Landslides
Depressions which may form lakes
Submergence and emergence of landforms along coastal regions
Change surface drainage and underground circulation
Fires and Tsunamis
Magnitude Scale —> Richter Scale (energy released during the quake) 0-10
Intensity Scale —> Mercalli Scale (damage caused) 0-12
Tsunami
Very long wavelength water waves in oceans or seas

Attraction of sun and moon play no role in formation of Tsunamis
Caused by tremor of earthquakes and not the earthquake itself
Earthquakes cause Tsunami if the epicentre is on ocean waters and the magnitude is sufficiently high
Can be caused by any disturbance that displaces a large mass of water from its equilibrium position
In deep sea - fast moving, low amplitude, high wavelength

In shallow sea - slow moving, high amplitude, low wavelength
Shoaling effect - As Tsunami approaches land, the waves which were imperceptible in land rise many metres high
Water from seashore gets sucked in as the wave forms

Rate of loss of energy is inversely related to its wavelength - so Tsunamis lose very little energy as wavelength is upto 500km
Amplitude in the deep sea is negligible, so ships in deep sea do not notice
Pacific Ocean experiences most Tsunamis
2004 Tsunami
Earthquake displaced the seabed off the coast of Sumatra (magnitude 9 on the Ritcher scale)
India plate went under Burma plate - sudden movement of sea floor caused earthquake and this the Tsunami
Ocean floor titled down 10-20m - huge mass of ocean water flowed in to fill that gap - seen as water receding from shores
After thrusting of Indian plate below the Burma plate, the water rushed back towards the coastlines as Tsunami
Tsunami travelled at speed of 800km/h

Indira Point - southernmost point of India got submerged
Shifted North Pole by 2.5 cm along 145 E longitude - reduced length of day by 2.6 microseconds
Altered velocity of earth rotation and Coriolis force
AN islands may have moved by 1.25 m
Waves
Water does not move, the wave train moves ahead (Wave is actually the energy) - Water particles only travel in a circle as the wave passes
Wind provides energy to waves, which is released on the shore
Slows down as it approaches the shore - friction between water and sea floor
When depth of water is less than half the wavelength, the wave breaks
Steep waves are mostly young and formed by local winds

Slow and steady waves come from faraway places
Wave train - Wind pushes the water body up and gravity pulls it downward
Actual motion of water in a wave is thus circular - No net displacement - up and forward as the wave approaches, down and back as the wave passes
Compared to wind generated waves, Tsunami waves have greater wavelength, longer periods and are much faster (10x)
STRUCTURE OF EARTH
Crust
30-50 km - Oceanic crust (5-30km) is thinner than continental crust (50-70km)

Continental crust is thicker in areas of mountain systems - Himalayas (70-100km)
0.5 -1 % of the earth’s volume
Outer covering of crust is sedimentary, below is igneous and metamorphic - Lower layer has basaltic and ultra-basic rocks
Continents - lighter silicates - low density - SiAl (Si+Al)

Oceans - heavier silicates - high density - SiMa (Si+Mg)
Moho’s discontinuity - separates crust and mantle
Mantle
83% of the earth’s volume

Extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2900 km
Outer layer is partly Simatic, Inner layer is completely Simatic and ultra-basic
Lithosphere - Crust + Uppermost part of mantle - 10-200 km - Zone of earthquakes

Asthenosphere - Upper mantle - upto 400 km - Source of magma for volcanic eruptions
Lower Mantle is solid and extends below the asthenosphere
Core
Between 2900 - 6400 km

16% of earth’s volume
Heaviest minerals and has highest density - nickel and iron (NiFe)
Zone of mixed heavy metals and silicates separates the core from the outer layers
Outer core is liquid, inner ore is solid
Seismic Discontinuities
Conrad - Upper crust and Lower crust

Moho - Lower crust and Upper Mantle
Repiti - Upper Mantle and lower Mantle
Gutenberg - Lower Mantle and Outer Core
Lehmann - Outer and Inner Core
Composition of Earth
Overall - Iron > Oxygen > Silicon

Crust - Oxygen > Silicon > Aluminium
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
Earth movements
Heat generated by radioactive elements in the earth’s interior

Movement of crustal plates due to tectogenesis
Forces generated by rotation of earth
Winds, precipitation, pressure belts
Isostasy - blocks of earth’s crust due to differences in density would rise to different levels and appear on the surface as mountains, plateaus
Tectonic - Relating to earth’s structure and large scale processes in it
Endogenic
Diastrophism, Sudden movements

Energy from within the earth - radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction, primordial heat
Generated by interaction of matter and temperature - geothermal gradients and heat flow from within with crustal thickness and strength
Exogenic
Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting, Deposition

Actions of endogenic forces results in wearing down of relief (degradation) and filling up of basins (aggradation)
Endogenic forces build up parts of the earth’s surface, exogenic forces even them out
Geomorphic Agent
Element of nature capable of acquiring and transporting earth materials can be called a geomorphic agents
When agents are mobile, they transport materials across gradients
Running water, groundwater, glaciers, winds, waves
Gravity activates all downslope movements - Without gravity there would be no erosion
Erosion - Application of kinetic energy of agent to the surface of the land along which it moves
Deposition is a consequence of erosion - coarser matter get deposited first, finer matter get deposited later
Glaciers - Erosional activity due to large mass

Winds - Erosional activity due to high velocity
Waves - Erosional activity decided by interface of hydrosphere and lithosphere
Ground water - Erosional activity decided by lithological character
Endogenetic Forces
Diastrophism
Slow bending, folding, warping (distortion) and fracturing - move, elevate or build up portions of the earth
Orogenic - Mountain forming - severe folding, affects long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust
Epeirogenic - Continent forming - upwarping of large parts of earth’s crust
Earthquakes and Volcanos - relatively minor local events
Plate tectonics - Horizontal movements of crustal plates
Diastrophic processes induce faulting and fracturing of the crust - cause PVT changes that induce metamorphism
Orogenic Epeirogenic
Mountain forming Continent forming
Tangential to earth (towards a direction on earth’s surface) Along the radius of earth
Upheavals/Depression with long wavelengths and little folding

Cratons - broad central parts of continents
Uplift - raised beaches, elevated wave cut terraces, fossiliferous beds over sea
levels
Kathiawar, Nellore and Thirunevelli coasts

Kaveripattnam, Coriga (Godavari) Korkai were all ports a few centuries
ago, but are now a few miles inland
Tensions (away from a point) - produce fissures

Subsidence -
Compression (towards a point) - produces folds
Presence of peat and lignite below sea level in Thiruneveli Sunderbans
A part of Rann of Kachch was submerged after an earthquake
Andaman and Nicobars have been isolated from Arakan Coast by
submergence of the intervening land
Parts of Gulf of Mannar and Pala Strait have been submerged in recent
times
Earthquakes
Surplus accumulated stress is released through weak zones - kinetic energy of wave motions causing vibrations on the earth surface
Earthquakes may cause subsidence or uplift
May cause change in contours, change in river courses, tsunamis, glacial surges
Volcanos
Movement of molten rock onto or towards the earth’s surface

Molten magma in the interior of the crust escapes through the crust by vents and fissures (with steam and gases - H2S, SO2, HCl, CO2)
Form of volcano depends on chemical composition and viscosity of lava
Exogenetic Forces
Exogenetic forces comes into existence due to Sun’s energy

Weathering, Erosion and Deposition is due to development of stresses in earth material
Molecular stress - loosening of bonds between grains - temperature changes, crystallisation, melting
Temperature and Precipitation induce stress
Slow and gradual process that affects in the long run due to continued fatigue
Denudational processes
Weathering - gravitational, molecular stress, Chemical actions

Mass movements - Gravitational force
Erosion - Kinetic Energy
Transportation
Denudation depends on
Vary across different regions of the world depending on temperature and pressure and other factors that affect climate
Rock type and rock structure (folds, faults, orientation, inclination)
Different rocks provide different resistances to weathering by different agents under different climates
Effects are small and slow but in the long run affect the rocks due to continued fatigue
WEATHERING
Mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition through actions of weather and climate
In-situ/On-site process
Chemical Weathering Water + air (CO2 + O2) + heat speed up all reactions
Solution
Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates and potassium are affected
Leached out in rainy regions and accumulate in dry regions
Depends on solubility in water or weak acids
CO2 produced by decaying organic matter along with soil water greatly aids in this reaction
Carbonation
Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals

CO2 dissolves in water to form a weak acid that reacts with minerals
Calcium and Magnesium carbonates dissolve in carbonic acid and are removed in a solution without leaving any residue
which leads to cave formation
Hydration
Chemical addition of water

Minerals take up water and expand - increase in volume of the mineral itself
Calcium sulphate on addition of water turns into gypsum
Clay minerals —> wetting and drying —> cracking of overlying materials
Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid and repeated hydration and help in rock fracturing
Continued repetition causes fatigue in rocks and may lead to their disintegration
Volume changes also help in physical weathering through granular disintegration and exfoliation
Oxidation and Reduction
Red soils appear red due to presence of iron oxides

Occurs when there is ready access to oxygen and water
In stagnant water or water logged ground - reducing conditions exist
Red colour of oxidised iron turns to bluish grey on reduction
Chemical weathering processes are inter related - Hydration, Carbonation and Oxidation go hand in hand
Removal of minerals/ions from the weathering environment and physical changes due to growth/movement of organisms
Burrowing/wedging - earthworms, rodents - expose new surfaces to chemical attack, assists in penetration of moisture
Human beings - ploughing, cultivation
Biological Decaying organic matter - humid acid - enhance decay and solubility
Weathering Algae - help in concentration of iron and manganese oxides
Plant roots break earth materials
Physical Weathering Forces that cause physical weathering
Gravitational forces - Overburden pressure, load and shearing stress

Expansion forces - Temperature changes, crystal growth, biological activity
Water pressure - Wetting and drying
Mostly due to thermal expansion and pressure release
Unloading
Removal of overlying rock layer —> vertical pressure release —> upper layers of rock expand causing disintegration
Fractures develop parallel to the ground surface
Form large smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes
Exfoliation
Diurnal temperature changes causes expansion and contraction of mineral grains - most effective in dry climates and high
altitudes where diurnal range of temperature is large
Surface layers of rocks expand more than rock at depth causing formation of stress within the rock —> heaving and
fracturing parallel to the ground
Expansion/Contraction and subsequent exfoliation —> Results in smooth, rounded surfaces in rocks
Tors are formed in Granite
Frost Wedging
Water that has entered fracture and pores in warm season freezes in the cold season, causing expansion and stress on the
rocks, leading them to fall apart
Most effective at high elevations in mid latitudes where freezing and melting are often repeated
Rate of freezing is important - Rapid freezing exerts higher pressure and faster disintegration
Salt Weathering
Salt in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration, crystallisation

High temperature ranges in deserts favours salt expansion
Cause splitting of individual grains within rocks - granular disintegration or granular foliation
Salt crystallisation is most effective form of salt weathering
Alternate wet and dry conditions —> salt crystal growth is favoured —> neighbouring grains are pushed aside —> heave up
overlying layers of rocks causing polygonal cracks all over the heaved surface
Mass Wasting - Under the force of gravity, products of weathering slide, roll, ow down slopes
Block Separation - Takes place in rocks with numerous joints acquired by mountain making pressure or by shrinkage due to
cooling
Shattering - Disintegration along weak zones to produce angular pieces with sharp corners
Effects of weathering
Level down irregularities of landforms and create a peneplain

Wind erosion leaves behind arc shaped rocks in arid landscape - inselberg
Differential weathering of soft strata exposes underlying hard rock masses - Common in South Indian landscape
Erosion is a mobile process, weathering is a static process
Significance of Weathering
First step in formation of soils

Enrichment and concentration of ores of iron, manganese, copper - without weathering it won’t be economically feasible to extract
Helps in Soil enrichment
Depth of weathering mantle —> Forests —> biomes and biodiversity
MASS MOVEMENTS
Transfer mass of rock debris down slopes under the direct influence of gravity (acts on bedrock and weathered material)
Weathering is NOT a pre-requisite for mass movements but it aids in mass movement (Weathering aids erosion but is not a pre-condition for erosion)
Mass movements are more active over weathered slopes
Only factor behind Mass Movements is Gravity
Not a kind of erosion, though it involves shift of materials from one place to another
Materials over slopes yield to movement only when gravity is greater than shearing force
What favours mass movements? - Unconsolidated sediments, thinly bedded rocks, faults, vertical cliffs, steep slopes, precipitation
What can cause mass movements?
Removal of support to materials by natural or artificial means

Increase in gradient/height of slopes
Addition of materials naturally or artificially
Overloading due to heavy rainfall
Saturation and lubrication of slope materials
Earthquakes or explosions
Excessive natural seepage
Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation
Slow Movements
Mostly in dry climates and low gradient of slope
On moderately steep soil covered slopes

Movement of material is extremely slow and imperceptible
Creep
Materials involved can be soil or rock debris
Soil creep, talus creep, rock creep
Slow downslope flowing soil mass/fine grained rock debris saturated with water
Solifluction
Common in temperate areas where surface melting of deeply frozen ground occurs
Rapid Movements
Mostly in humid climates and steeper slopes

Movement of water saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low angle terraces or hill sides
Earth flow Materials slump making step like terraces and leaving arcuate scarps at their heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe
In steeper slopes, even bedrock of soft sedimentary rocks or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide
No vegetation, high rainfall —> thick layers of weathered material get saturated with water and flow in definite channels
Mud flow Occur on slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanos - volcanic ash and dust turn into mud on saturation with rain
Can engulf road, bridges and houses
Narrow tracks on steep slopes in humid regions with or without vegetation

Debris Avalance
Faster than mudflow
Rapid and perceptible slide of dry matter

Landslides
Size and shape of detached mass depends on nature of discontinuities in the rock, degree of weathering and steepness of the slope
Slump Slipping of rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place
Debris Slide Rapid rolling and sliding without backward rotation
Debris Fall Free fall of earth debris from a vertical or overhanging face
Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces

Rock Slide
Very fast over steep slopes
Free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope, keeping away from the slope
Rock Fall
Rock falls occur from superficial layers of the rock (Rock slide affects materials to a substantial depth)
Debris avalanches and landslides occur frequently in Himalayas
Himalayas are tectonically active

Formed of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated deposits
Compared to Himalayas, the Nilgiris are tectonically stable, but landslides still occur
Steep slopes
Heavy amounts of rainfall over short periods
Mechanical weathering due to temperature changes is pronounced
PLATE MOVEMENTS
250 mya - Landmasses were clustered into supercontinent PANGEA, one global ocean PANTHALASSA
200 mya - Break up of Pangea began, East Gondwana and West Gondwana separated, Laurasia separated from Africa and South America
150 mya - Sea floor spreading opened up North Atlantic and Indian Oceans
65 mya - Madagascar split from Africa, Northward drift of India, Australia separated from Antarctica
Plate Tectonics - Large scale movement of lithospheric plate due to forces originating from earth’s interior
Movement of plates through geological timescales is determined by studying paleomagnetic data
Continental Drift Theory - WEGENER
Drift in two directions - effective when applied over many million years
Towards equator due to pole fleeing force, gravity and buoyancy

Westwards (Earth rotates west to east, so tidal currents move east to west)
Evidence for continental drift
Shapes of continents
Bulge of Brazil fits into Gulf of Guinea (age of rocks also match)
Caledonian and Hercynian Mountains share features with Appalachian mountains
Tillite deposits
Sedimentary Rocks formed out of deposits of glaciers
Gondwana system of sediments in India are found in 6 different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere - has a base of thick tillite indicating extensive
glaciation
Placer deposits - Placer deposits on Ghana coast are sourced from veins in Eastern Brazil
Rocks of same age across the ocean
Distribution of fossils
Presence of Glossopteris fossils in India, Australia, South Africa and Falkland Islands
Skeleton of Mesosaur only found in South Africa and Brazil
Drawbacks of Wegener’s theory
Did not account for oceans (His theory did not consider plates, only continents)
Coastlines could change - breaking of continents and plates not necessary for that
Pole shifting may happen independent of shifting of continents
Accounts for drift only after Mesozoic era
Buoyancy, Tidal Currents and Gravity are too weak to cause massive changes
Convectional Current Theory - HOLMES
Arthur Holmes - convectional currents in the mantle

Currents generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences - provide the forces that cause drift
Rising limbs meet - Oceanic Ridges, Falling limbs meet - Trenches
Mapping of Ocean floor - Sea floor spreading theory
MORs are most active in terms of volcanic eruptions

Rocks from ocean floors are much younger
Rocks equidistant from crest of MOR are similar in age and composition
Paleomagnetism
Study of the record of earth’s magnetic field in rocks and sediments

Rising magma assumes the polarity of Earth’s geomagnetic field before it solidifies
When earth’s magnetic polarity changes, change in polarity is recorded in rocks - Alternate bands of opposite polarities in the sea floor
Younger rocks have normal polarity
Ocean floor Configuration
Continental margins - Slope + Shelf + Trench - Transition between shores and deep sea basins
Abyssal Plains - Extensive plains between continental margins and mid oceanic ridges - continental sediments that move beyond the margin are
deposited
Mid-Oceanic Ridges - interconnected mountain system within the ocean, central rift system along the crest, fractionated plateau and flank zone all along
the length
Sea Floor Spreading - HESS
Convectional currents in mantle

Rising limbs meet - Ridges, New crust is formed
Falling limbs meet - Trench, Old crust goes into the mantle
Oceanic crust younger than continental crust
Sediments on oceanic floor are extremely thin
Older rocks found far from spreading zone, younger rocks found close to the spreading zone
Age of rocks increases as we move away from the spreading site and the nearest rocks have normal polarity
Age of rocks equidistant from ridge are similar in age, composition and polarity
Plate Tectonics - MORGAN
Plate Tectonics = Drift + Spreading

Tectonic plate has both continental and oceanic lithosphere
Lithosphere is broken into distinct units called plates - which float over the asthenosphere horizontally
Plate may contain both continental and oceanic crust
Movement of plates causes formation of various landforms and is cause of all earth movements
Arctic Ridge has slowest rate, East Pacific Rise has the fastest rate (determined from strips of normal and reverse magnetic polarity that run parallel to
the ridges)
Rates of plate movement by studying strips of normal and reverse magnetic fields
Slow movement of the hot, liquid mantle is the driving force behind plate movement
Evidence in support of Plate Tectonics
Paleomagnetism
Older rocks in continents and younger rocks in the ocean floor
Temperature gradient gets steeper closer to the ridges indicating upwelling of magma from the mantle
Plate boundary regions are zones of earthquake and volcanic disturbances
Pangea was a result of coming together of different continental masses as a part of the plates
Position of the Indian subcontinent is analysed using rocks from Nagpur
Plate Interactions
Divergent Sites of crust formation
Shallow Focus earthquakes
Mid Oceanic Ridges
East African Rift Valley - Divergence of African and Somali plates
Volcanos
At divergent boundaries, lava that flows out is basaltic (less viscous) and spreads out over the flow instead of forming
islands
Lava that flows out at divergent boundaries is from the asthenosphere, hence less silica
Sites of crust destruction

Fold mountains - C/C convergence
Trenches - O/O convergence, O/C convergence
Volcanic Islands - Ocean/Ocean Convergence
Volcanos - O/O convergence, O/C convergence
Continental Arc - O/C convergence
Convergent
At convergent boundaries, lava that flows out is andesitic (more viscous, more silica content) which solidifies quickly and
forms continents
i.e. Subducting plate melts while going down and also melts crust on the way up as volcanic lava - hence higher silica
content
If the crust that is melted on the way up is continental, silica content and viscosity is higher than if it is oceanic
Trench formed in O/O convergence are deeper than in O/C convergence
Two plates slide past each other

No creation/destruction of crust - only modification of existing landforms
Transform Generally perpendicular to MORs
Effect of the fault is to relieve strain
San Andreas Fault
Significance of Plate tectonics
Economically significant minerals like Copper and uranium are found more often near plate boundaries
Predict future of landmasses - North and South America will separate, Piece of land will separate from east coast of Africa, Australia will move closer to
Asia
Force for plate movement - Radioactive Decay, Residual heat
Indian Plate
North - Subduction Zone along Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the continent-continent convergence
West - Follows the Kirthar range, along the Makran coast and joins the spreading site from Red Sea rift.
East - Extends through Arakan Yoma mouqntainstowards the island arc along the java trench - eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east of Australia
South - Boundary between India and Antarctica is marked by an oceanic ridge
Comprises of continental Australia and peninsular India
India was large island situated off the Australian coast - Tethys sea separated it from the Asian continent
200 mya broke from Pangea
60 mya - During movement of Indian plate towards the Asian mass, outpouring of lava and formation of Deccan traps
40-50 mya: Collided with Asia - part of Indian landmass subjected under Asia - caused Upliftment of Himalayas (rising to this date)
Asia’s soil was softer so Indian plate subducted instead of being uplifted
The Indian plate is still moving - frequency of earthquakes in the region
CONVERGENCE OF PLATES
Ocean-Ocean convergence
Denser oceanic plate subjects below a less dense plate - Trenches are formed
As the oceanic plate subjects into the asthenosphere, rocks on continental side become metamorphosed under high temperature and pressure
At 100km depth, plates melt - Magma has lower density and is at high pressure - rises upward due to buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium -
magma flows out, sometimes violently
Continuous upward movement of magma creates volcanic eruptions at the ocean floor
Constant volcanism may create layers of rocks that project above the sea level - Volcanic Arcs
Philippine Islands - Philippine plate under Sunda plate

Indonesian Islands - Indo-Australian plate subducts below the Sunda plate
Japan-Northern Arc - Pacific plate under Eurasian - Japan Trench, Central Arch - Pacific plate under Philippines plate, Izu trench
Arcs cannot form in continent-continent convergence
Continent-Ocean convergence
Cordilleran Convergence - gives rise to extensive mountain systems

Oceanic plate (denser) subjects under the continental plate forming a trench
Melts, rises up as magma —> volcanic eruptions at the surface of the continental plate along the margin forming a chain of volcanic mountains called a
Continental Arc
Cascade Range parallel to Rockies, Western Chile Range parallel to Andes
Advancing Oceanic plates compresses the continental plate —> Andes, Rockies
As the oceanic plate subducts, sediments accumulate in the trench region —> Accretionary Wedge
Accretionary Wedge is compressed into continental margin —> Crustal shortening
With the formation of fold mountains, resistance builds up which stops convergence —> Subduction zone progresses seaward
Andes, Peru-Chile Trench —> Nazca plate subjects under South African plate (Andes are formed due to volcanism above the subduction zone)
Ojas Del Salado (Argentina-Chile border)
Rockies —> Juan De Fuca and Pacific Plate + North American plate
Subduction is less steep in Rockies than in Andes, so Rockies are formed farther inland than Andes
Continent-Continent convergence
Both plates are too light to be carried downward —> shallow subduction zones
Weld into each other along a suture zone —> Convergence comes to an end due to building up of resistance
Metamorphic rocks are formed due to stress experienced by continental crust
Magma cannot penetrate thick crust —> No volcanos
Ural and Appalachian were formed before breakup of Pangea

Ural - Europe/Asia collision
Appalachians - NA/Europe collision
Formation of Himalayas
Uplift of Tethys Sea (between Laurasia and Gondwanaland) syncline in different phases due to collision of Indian and Eurasian plates
Northward movement of Indian plate caused compression —> Folding of sediments
When Indian plate plunged below the Eurasian plate, these sediments were folded and uplifted
Tibetan plateau was formed by upthrusting of the Eurasian plate
Uplift happened in 3 phases —> 3 parallel ranges of the Himalayas (great Himalayas, middle Himalayas and Shiwaliks)
Curved shape of Himalayas convex to the south - maximum pushing happened at the syntaxial bends
Fossils in Tibet plateau and Shiwaliks are similar —> Indicates similar climate in both regions in the past
Due to uplifting, gravel lakes in Tibet are dessicated
Himalayas are still rising - not yet at isostatic equilibrium
Continent-Arc convergence
Continental plate pushes the island arc towards the oceanic crust
Trench on the ocean side of the island arc
Ultimately the continental margin is firmly welded against the island arc
New Guinea
Plate Interactions
Divergence - MOR, Rift Valley, Block Mountains
Convergence - Fold Mountains, Trenches, Island Arcs, Continental Arcs, Volcanos
OROGENY
Process by which section of earth is folded and deformed by lateral compression to form a mountain range
Peak/Ridge - local folding and faulting

Range - Series of ridges, which originated in the same time period and underwent the same processes
Mountain System - Group of ranges - Rockies and Appalachian
Mountain Chain - Contains mountains systems which differ in size and periods of formation
Cordillera - ridges, ranges, chains and systems
Based on period of Orogeny
Pre-Cambrian - Laurentian and Algoman mountains

Caledonian - Late Silurian, early Devonian - Appalachian, Aravallis, Mahadeo
Hercynian - Carboniferous, Permian - Vosges, Black Forest, Altai, Tien Shan
Alpine - Rockies, Himalayas, Andes, Alps, Pontic, Elbrus, Taurus, Zagros (mountains radiating from the Pamir knot)
Based on mode of origin
Tectonic - Fold (Himalayas, Rockies, Andes), Block (Vosges, Black Forest, Vindhya, Satpura), Volcanic (Cascade, Kenya, Kilimanjaro)
Residual - remains of old fold mountains - Aravallis, Urals
Fold Mountains
Very old fold mountains - Appalachians, Ural, Great Dividing Range, Pennines
Old fold mountains - Aravalli
Alpine/Young fold mountains - Tertiary period - Rockies, Andes, Alps, Himalayas
Presence of fossils - sedimentary rocks of these folded mountains were formed after accumulation and consolidation of silts and sediments in a marine
environment
Granite intrusions on a massive scale
Rich mineral sources - Tin, Copper, Gold
Block Mountains
Large blocks of earth are broken and displaced vertically

Uplifted blocks - Horst, Lowered blocks - Graben
Great African Rift Valley, Rhine Valley, Vosges Mountains, Black Forest
Tension - Normal Fault - HW down
Compression - Reverse Fault - HW up
Tension may cause central block to be let down - Graben/Rift Valley - East African Rift Valley system
Faulted edges are very steep
Large scale block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression
Volcanic Mountains
Fall around the vent in successive layers - forming a cone

Mountains of accumulation - molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust, mud
Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt. Merapi (Sumatra), Mt. Kilimanjaro
Residual Mountains
Mountains of denudation
Mt. Monadnocks (USA)
May evolve from plateaus which have been dissected by rivers into hills and valleys
In highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia and Deccan plateau, downcutting streams have eroded the uplands into mountains of denudation
Important Mountain Ranges
Longest continental mountain range in the world

Highest mountain range outside Asia
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina

Highest peak - Aconcagua
Fold Mountain
Andes South America Highest volcano - Ojas Del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border
O/C convergence
Subduction of oceanic crust under the South American plate —> accretionary wedge
folded and compressed to form fold mountains
Western rim of South American plate compressed due to subduction of Nazca plate and
Antarctic plate
Highest peak - Mt. Elbert

Western North Fold Mountain
Rockies
America O/C convergence
Subduction zone is less steep compared to Andes, hence they are formed further inland
Third longest terrestrial mountain range

Great Dividing
Eastern Australia Rifting Separated Australia and Zealandia
Range
Now Tasman Sea between them
Coast of the Arctic Ocean to the Ural river

Rich deposits of coal, metals and precious stones
Formed by collision of Laurasia and Kazhaksthania (late Carboniferous to early Triassic)
Europe - Asia Fold Mountain
Ural Not as much post-orogenic collapse as other ranges such as Appalachians and Caledonides
border C/C convergence
- for its age, the elevation of the Urals are very high
Highest peak - Narodnaya
Separate Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara desert

Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Atlas NW Africa Fold Mountain Highest peak - Toubkal (Morocco)
Formed due to collision of African and North American plates
Remnants of Atlas are found in Appalachians
Eastern North
Appalachian Fold Mountain One of the major mineral bases of USA
America
Separate Indian subcontinent from Tibetan plateau

Highest mountain range with highest peaks
Convergence of Indian plate and Eurasian plate - Arakan Yoma highlands and
Andaman/Nicobar were also formed as a result of this collision
Karakoram and Hindu Kush to the NW
Peak of Mt Everest has marine limestone from the Tethys Sea
Himalayas played an important part in formation of Gobi and Taklamakan deserts and in
Fold Mountains the tropical climate of India
Himalayas Asia
C/C covergence
Highest peak - Mt. Everest
Tilicho Lake - on Annapurna is one of the highest lakes
Highest peaks
Hindu Kush - Tirich Mir
Pamir - Ismail Samani
Tian Shan - Jenigsh Chokusu
Convergence of African and Eurasian plates

Fold Mountains Rise of marine sedimentary rocks
Alps Southern Europe
C/C convergence Affect the climate of Europe
Highest Peak - Mt. Blanc
Archaen - Aravalli, satpura, eastern ghats
Proterozoic - Vindhyas
Highest Peaks by Continent
Asia - Mt. Everest

Europe - Mt. Elbrus
Africa - Mt. Kilimanjaro
South America - Mt. Aconcagua
North America - Mt. McKinley
Australia - Mt. Kosciuszko
Oceania - Puncak Jaya
Antarctica - Vinson Massif
Why are the world’s highest mountains near the equator?
High latitude - snow lines are lower in altitude - greater erosional activity by snow and glacier
Roughly, mountains don’t rise >1500m above the snowline
In the lower latitudes, atmosphere is warm and snowlike is ~5500m, meaning the peaks can rise till 7000m
DIVERGENCE OF PLATES
Formation of Seas
The process of formation of ocean basins begins with creation of crust due to diverging boundaries (zone of rising magma and movement of horizontal limbs
away from each others at the lithosphere)
Degassing of earth’s interior —> Rainfall when the earth’s temperature came down —> Water accumulated in basins —> Formed oceans over time
Rising limbs of magma create a mantle plume —> Upwarping of lithosphere —> Faulting —> Formation of Rift Valley —> Formation of a narrow sea (Red
Sea is at this stage) —> intense outpouring of basaltic magma accentuates sea floor spreading —> Formation of an ocean (MORs, active crust formation)
Narmada and Tapi rift valleys were formed due to bending of northern part of Indian plate during formation of Himalayas (not formed due to diverging plate
boundaries)
Rift Valley Lakes
If the rift valleys form deep within continents, rains accumulate forming rift lakes - Lake Baikal (largest freshwater lake by volume), Lake Tanganyika in the
Albertine Rift, Lake Superior (largest freshwater lake by Surface Area)
African Rift Valley
Started developing 20-25 mya

Runs from Northern Syria to Central Mozambique in East Africa
African Rift Valley - Nubian plate, Somali plate
Western Rift - Albertine, Eastern Rift - Gregory
Prior to lifting, flood basalt volcanism caused upliftment of Ethiopian, Somalian and East African plateaus
Beta Valley (Lebanon), Jordan river, Dead Sea, Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea
Active and Dormant volcanos - Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya
Volcanism
Vent in earth’s crust from which explosive burst of gases, volcanic ashes and magma erupt
Volcanic Fissure - Linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity - Vent is a few metres wide and many kilometres
long
Chemical reactions of radioactive substances + residual heat (heat captured at the centre of earth (captured at the time of formation of earth)
Huge temperature difference between inner layer and outer layer of earth (differential amount of radioactivity) - Convectional currents in outer core and
mantle - create convergent and divergent boundaries
Divergent boundary - Magma escapes through fault zones - may be facilitated by earthquakes
Convergent boundary - Subduction of denser plate creates magma at high pressure which will escape to the surface - magma and gases escape with high
velocity as the pressure is released through eruptions
Acidic lava - Andesitic - Viscous - high melting point - high % of silica - low density - light coloured - explosive
Basic lava - Basaltic - Fluid - lower melting point - low % of silica - high density - dark coloured - form extensive sheets
Composite Volcano Shield Volcano
Destructive plate margin Constructive plate margin
Deccan
Steep sides - alternate layers of ash and lava Wide base and gently sloping sides
Acidic, Sticky lava, doesn’t flow far Basic, fluid lava, flows a long way
Magma mixed with sea water rises up through cracks in earth’s crust Magma rises up from the mantle
Creates new landforms - islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains

Volcanic ash and dust are fertile for orchards
Volcanic rocks yield fertile soil upon weathering
Steep volcano slopes are useful for forestry operations
Bring mineral resources to the crust - e.g. Kimberlite rock of SA
Springs and geysers in vicinity of active volcanos
Heat of earth’s interior - geothermal energy - Puga valley (Ladakh), Manikaran (HP)
Geyser Hot water spring
Pressurised water needs a specific plumbing system through which it

Highly pressurised water flows through the vent and condenses at the surface
can be ejected
Silicate deposits at mouth give distinct colours Colourful due to presence of cyanobacteria
Found in very few regions

Iceland, Yellowstone national park
Much more common than geysers
Geysers may be short-lived as change to conditions causes it to die
out
Crater like structure at mouth Crater like structure at mouth
Volcanic Activity
Volcanos in the sea are much more violent than terrestrial volcanos
Only 10-20% volcanic activity is terrestrial
Most volcanic activity is along converging plate margins and mid-oceanic ridges
Pacific Ring of Fire
Has 2/3 of the world’s active volcanos

~ 100 in Philippines, 70 in Indonesia, 40 in Andes, 35 in Japan
Atlantic Coast
fewer volcanos but many dormant or extinct volcanos - St. Helena, Cape Verde, Canary Islands
Iceland and Azores are active volcanos
Africa
Mt. Kilimajaro and Mt. Kenya re both extinct

Mt. Cameroon - Only active volcano of West Africa
West Indies
Lesser Antilles are primarily volcanic islands

Mt. Pelee had violent explosions in recent times
Mediterranean
Vesuvius (Lighthouse of the Mediterranean)

Largely the result of convergence between Eurasian plate and north moving African plate
No volcanos in Australia
Regions of high seismic activity are associated with regions of volcanic activity
70% earthquakes happen in circum-Pacific belt
20% in Mediterranean-Himalaya belt
Volcanos in India
No volcanos in Himalayan region

Barren Island became active again in 1991 - had gone through a mild solfataras stage as evidenced by sublimation of sulphur on walls of crater
Narcondam - probably extinct - crater wall is completely destroyed
Fumaroles - Before a volcano goes extinct it goes through a phase of waning during which steam, hot gases and vapours are exhaled
Active Dormant Extinct
Eruption has not occurred recently

Erupt fairly frequently Eruption in historic times
Long periods of repose
Mt. St. Helena - USA

Mt. Merapi - Indonesia
Mt. Cameroon - West Africa
Mt. Kenya, Mt. Kilimanjaro - Africa
Ojas Del Salado - Chile/Argentina Border Vesuvius - Italy
Papa - Myanmar
Cotopaxi - Ecuador Krakatoa - indonesia
Chimborajo - Ecuador (Andes)
Iceland Narcondam - Andaman
Aconcagua - Chile/Argentina border
Azores
Mt. Etna - Italy
Stromboli - Italy
Volcanic Rocks
Plutonic Rocks - Cooling of magma below the surface - Granite

Volcanic Rocks - Cooling of magma above the surface - Basalt
Extrusive Landforms Intrusive Landforms
Conical vent - Andesitic lava - Violent eruption

Fissure vent - Basaltic lava - Not violent Batholiths
Large rock masses formed by cooling down and solidification of magma

within the earth
Appear on surface after denudation removes the overlying materials
Granitic bodies
Forms the core of mountains
Mid-Oceanic Ridges Laccolith
System 70,000 km long that stretches through all the oceans Dome shaped intrusive body - connected by a pipe-like conduit from
Central portion of ridge experiences frequent eruptions below
Lava is basaltic in nature - responsible for sea-floor spreading Granite dome hills of Karnataka are laccoliths or batholiths
Composite Volcanic Landforms - Stratovolcanos Lapolith
Andesitic lava + Pyroclastic material accumulates in the vicinity of Portion of magma may tend to move in a horizontal direction when it
vent openings - formation of layers finds a weak plane
E.g. Mt. Stromboli, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji develops a saucer shape, concave to the sky
Shield Volcanic Landforms

Phacolith
Explosive if water gets into the vent
Mostly made up of lava - very fluid when erupted
Wavy mass of intrusive rocks
Not steep
Conduit to source beneath in form of magma chambers
Made up of basalt
E.g. Mauna Loa (Hawaii)
Flood basalt/Lava Plateaus Sill
Thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures - spreads over a Solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth
large flat area Thin deposits - Sheet
E.g. Deccan traps, Icelandic Shield, Snake plateau, Canadian Shield Thick deposits - Sill
Caldera
Dyke
Most explosive of earth’s volcanos - when they erupt, they collapse
onto themselves
Magma chamber is huge and in close vicinity When lava solidifies perpendicular to the ground
After the eruption of magma has ceased, the crater turns into a lake Found in Western Maharashtra
at a later time - called a 'caldera'
E.g. Lonar lake, Krakatoa lake
Cinder Cone
Conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments - volcanic clinkers,

cinders, ash
Types of Volcanism
Exhalative Effusive Explosive Subaqueous
Discharge of material in gaseous Igneous rocks poured out as lava and Fragmentation and ejection of solid
Takes place below the surface of
form - Steam, fumes, HCl, CO2, later solidified material through vent (pyroclastic
earth
CO, H2, N2 sediments)
Tephra - Fragmented ejects

Ash - Finest sand sized Tephra
Blocks - Boulder sized solid ejects
Forms pillow lava - found in
Basaltic lava, poor in Silica, flows Bombs - Lumps of lava thrown
May escape through vents Karnataka belonging to Pre-
large distances Tuff - Layers of volcanic dust and
Cambrian period
ashes
Lappilli - Gravel sized particles in
molten or solid state
Sulphur Dioxide - Acid rain and air

pollution downwind Highly viscous lavas at lesser
Indicates waning towards
Deccan Traps Large volcanos that release sulphur depths develop glassy margins on
extinction
aerosols - Global dimming, ozone pillows
depletion
Landforms - Sinter mounds, cones

of precipitated material, mud Landforms - Columnar basalt Volcanic product - Hypoclastite
volcanos
Types of Eruption
Outpouring of basaltic lava - single flow spreads
Hawaiian Eruption Little gas or tephra
Basalt plateaus of Iceland
Stromboli Eruption Viscous lava ejected upward in a fountain like fashion from a lava lake in the crater
Explosive eruption
Molten Lava which fills the crater solidifies and is explosively ejected
Vulcanian Eruption Cloud of dark tephra, bombs, blocks, papilla
Volcano is dormant for decades or centuries
Minor lava flow
Very viscous, gas rich acidic lava flowing violently over the crater rim
Pelean Eruption
Spreads downslope instead of being carried skyward
Icelandic Eruption Molten basaltic lava along parallel fissures
Hotspot Volcanism
Not at margins but in interior parts of lithospheric plates

Region within the Earth’s mantle from where heat rises in the form of convection currents - Mantle Plume
Heat facilitates melting of rock at the base of lithosphere - melted magma pushes through cracks in the crust to form volcanos
Attached to tectonic plate, the volcano moves and is cut off from the hotspot
New and active volcano develops over the hotspot - cycle of volcanism - volcanic arc
Volcanic activity at hotspots can create submarine mountains - seamounts - on reaching the surface create chains if islands like Hawaii
Reunion Hotspot
Currently under Reunion island

Active for over 66 million years
Created the Deccan basaltic plateau - created a rift that separated Indian plate from Seychelles plateau
As the Indian plate drifted north, it continued forming volcanic islands and undersea plateaus
Lakshadweep, Maldives, Chagos archipelago - atolls resting on former volcanos that submerged
Hotspot was quiet from 45-10 mya, recently became active again to form Mascarene, Mauritius, Reunion, Rodrigues
VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY INDEX (VEI)
Relative measure of the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions.

Devised by Chris Newhall of the United States Geological Survey
Value is determined by volume of products, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations.
The indices of VEI range from VEI 0 (non-explosive eruptions) to VEI 8 (most explosive eruptions recorded).
The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora (in present day Indonesia) had VEI 7. The ash erupted and dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures. It
was called as “Year without a summer” in 1816 that observed extreme weather events and harvest failures in many areas.
ROCKS
Igneous - Condensation of magma (plutonic/volcanic)

Sedimentary - Deposition of fragments of rocks
Metamorphic rocks - rocks undergoing crystallisation
Most common minerals in rocks - Feldspar and Quartz
Mineral
Naturally occurring organic/inorganic substance

Orderly atomic structure
Definite chemical composition and physical properties
Can be composed of one or more elements
Source of all minerals is the magma (not organic minerals like coal, petroleum and natural gas)
Rock
Aggregate of one or more minerals

No definite composition of mineral constituents
Characteristics of minerals
External Crystal Form - decided by internal arrangement of molecules (cuboid, octahedron, hexagonal etc.)
Cleavage - Tendency to break in different directions, result of internal arrangement
Fracture - When internal arrangement is so complex there are no planes of molecules and crystal breaks in irregular manner instead of planes of
cleavage
Colour - Characteristic colour decided by molecular arrangement or presence of impurities
Streak - Colour of ground powder which may be same as the mineral or a different colour
Transparency - If light can pass through
Structure - Particular arrangement of individual crystals
Hardness - Talc < Gypsum < Calcite < Fluorite < Apatite < Feldspar < Quartz < Topaz < Corundum < Diamond (Moh’s scale)
Specific gravity
Silicon and Oxygen found in all feldspar

Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Aluminium are found in specific feldspar variety
Feldspar
50% of earth’s crust is feldspar
Ceramics and glass making
Constituent of sand and granite

Contains silica
Quartz
Insoluble and hard
Used in radio and radar
Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Silica

Pyroxene 10% of earth’s crust
Found in meteorites
Aluminium, Calcium, Silica, Iron, Magnesium

7% of earth’s crust
Amphibole
Used in asbestos industry
Hornblende is another form of amphibole
Potassium, Aluminium, Magnesium, Iron, Silica

4% of earth’s crust
Mica
Found in igneous and metamorphic rocks
Used in electrical instruments
Magnesium, Iron, Silica

Olivine
Mostly found in basaltic rocks
ROCKS
Igneous Rocks
Primary rocks - form out of magma and lava from interior of the earth
Unfossiliferous - Origin under high temperatures
Magma cools slowly at great depths - large grains

Magma cools fast on surface - small and smooth grains
Plutonic Volcanic
Intrusive (seen on surface after denudation) Extrusive
Cool slowly - Large grains Cool rapidly - small, fine grains
Acidic Basic
Less dense, Light in colour Dense, Dark in colour
Granite Basalt
Acidic Rocks Basic Rocks
High silica content ~ 80% Poor silica content ~ 40%

Excess silica - acidic magma cools fast Low silica - cools slowly
High volcanic mountains - Mt. Fuji Lava plateaus - Deccan traps
Less content of heavy minerals - less dense, light Presence of heavy elements - dense, dark
Hard, compact, massive, resistant to weathering Weathered relatively easily
Granite, Quartz, Feldspar Basalt, Gabbro, Dolerite
Hypabyssal/Dyke/Intermediate rocks - Intermediate position between deep seated plutonic bodies and surface lava flows, Semi-crystalline
Associated with metal ores and minerals - Iron, Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Chromite, Manganese
Amygdalas - Almond shaped bubbles in basalt formed due to escape of gases - filled with minerals
Granite is used as building material
Sedimentary Rocks
Eroded and weathered deposits compact and form sedimentary rocks - Lithification
Number of layers of differing thickness
Sometimes the layers of deposits retain their characteristics even after lithification
Cover 75% of earth’s crust but only 5% by volume
Tillite - Ice deposited sedimentary rocks
Loess - Wind deposited sediments
Fossils
Generally porous and allow water to pass through
Indo-gangetic plain and coastal plains are of sedimentary origin - loam and clay
Important minerals - hematite iron ore, phosphates, coal, petroleum

Decay of tiny marine organisms produces petroleum - found in suitable structures only
Sedimentary rocks yield the richest soils
Bauxite, Tin, Manganese derived from other rocks, but found in gravels and sand carried by water
Mechanically formed Organically formed Chemically formed
Remains of plants and animals are buried under

sediments and due to heat and pressure from Water containing minerals evaporates at mouth of
Agents - Water, Wind, Ocean currents
overlying layers, composition undergoes a springs or salt lakes
change
Arenaceous - sandy, big particles, hard and not Grades of coal depend on concentration of
weathered easily, porous - Sandstone organic matter and amount of pressure Stalacites and Stalagmites
Argillaceous - clayey, small particles, soft and Limestone formed from shells and skeletons of When water containing limestone evaporates
easily weathered, non-porous - Shale dead marine animals
Sandstone, Limestone, Shale Coal, Limestone Chert, Limestone, Halite, Potash
Depending on calcium/coal content - calcareous,

carbonaceous
Peat and Lignite - Brown Coal - 45% carbon

Bituminous - 60% carbon
Metamorphic Rocks
Under the action of PVT changes

Consolidated rocks undergo reorganisation and recrystallisation of materials within the same rocks
Rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with crustal rocks
Foliation/Lineation - Due to reorganisation some grains get arranged in lines
Banding - Minerals of different groups are arranged in alternating thin and thick layers
Gneissoid, Slate, Schist, Marble, Quartzite
Causes
Orogenic forces - Folding, Warping, Crumpling and high temperatures

Lava inflow - Molten magmatic material inside the earth’s crust brings surrounding rocks under influence of high P-Tand causes changes
Geodynamic forces like plate tectonics
Thermal metamorphism - hot magma, hot gases, vapours, liquids, geothermal heat - magmatic intrusion - materials of rock chemically alter and recrystallise
Contact metamorphism - rocks come in contact with hot intruding lava and rocks recrystallise under high temperatures
Regional metamorphism - rocks undergo recrystallisation due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing (high T/P)
Dynamic metamorphism - breaking and crushing without any appreciable chemical changes
Peak of Mount Everest has metamorphosed limestone due to magmatic intrusion causing thermal metamorphism
Rock Cycle
Rock forming minerals
Feldspar - Half the crust is composed of feldspar - Alumino-silicates

Quartz - Silicon + Oxygen - hexagonal crystalline structure
Bauxite - Hydrous oxide of aluminium
Cinnabar - Mercury Sulphide
Dolomite - Double Carbonate of Magnesium and Calcium - used in cement, Iron and steel industries
Gypsum - Hydrous calcium sulphate
Haematite - Red Iron ore Fe2O3
Magnetite - Black Iron ore Fe3O4
LANDFORMS
Landforms - Small to medium sized tracts to parcels of the earth’s surface (related landforms make up a landscape)
Each geomorphic agent produces its own assemblage of landforms - Study of landform reveals the agents and processes responsible
Change in climate and vertical/horizontal movements of landmasses - change intensity of processes or the processes themselves
Stability of Sea, Tectonic stability of landmasses, Climate —> influence the evolution of landforms
Erosional Depositional
V shaped valley, Waterfalls and rapids, Gorge, Canyon, Delta, Braided Channel, Flood plains, Point bars, Levees, Alluvial
Running Water
Plunge Pools, Ox bow Lakes, Potholes Fans
Swallow Hole, Sink Hole, Collapse Sinks (Doline), Trench

Ground Water Stalactite, Stalagmite, Pillars
(Uvala), Caves, Lapies
Cirque, Horns, Tarn Lakes, U shaped valley, Fjords, Arete,

Glacier Eskers, Drumlins, Outwash plains, Till, Moraines
Hanging Valleys
Sea stacks, Wave cut terrace, Sea Cliff, Sea Arch, Sea Cave,
Waves Barrier, Bar, Spit, Beaches, Beach Dunes, lagoons
Sea Stacks
Pediment, Pediplains, Inselberg, Deflation hollows,

Wind Sand Dunes - Parabolic, Barchan, Longitudinal, Transverse, Seif
Deflation caves, Mushroom rocks
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
Most important geomorphic agent in humid regions which receive heavy rainfall
Physical phases - Erosion, transportation, deposition
Components of running water
Overland flow as sheet - sheer friction of flowing water removes materials in direction of flow forming small and narrow rills —> gullies —> valleys
Linear flow as streams and rivers
Erosion Action
Abrasion - solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down
Attrition - River load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the process
Downcutting - Erosion in vertical direction
Lateral Erosion - Erosion in horizontal direction
Corrosion - Chemical action leads to weathering
Valley - depression through which river flows throughout its course

Different stages of erosional cycle, the valley acquires different profiles
Erosional landforms are mostly formed in the youth stage when river flows over steep gradients
Due to erosion, steep gradients turn gentle and rivers lose their velocity, causing active deposition
Gentler the gradient, greater the deposition —> downward cutting reduces, lateral erosion dominates
Headward Erosion - Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes origin to move back from direction of stream flow, causes stream channel to
lengthen

Fast flowing, high energy with rapid headward erosion - Despite the hardness of the rock over which they may flow
Poor integration
V shaped valleys, Waterfalls, Rapids, Gorges and Canyons
Youth
No flood plains or very thin floodplains
Meanders may entrench themselves into uplands
Waterfalls and rapids where local hard rock bodies are exposed
Lower Energy
Good integration
Lateral erosion is more prominent and the valley floor flattens out
Monadnocks - Divides between drainage basins are lowered until they are almost completely flattened leaving a lowland of
Mature faint relief with some low resistant remnants called Monadnocks
Peneplain - plain formed due to stream erosion
Waterfalls and Rapids disappear
Erosion on outside of bends, deposition on inside of bends
Looping Meanders
Sediments are deposited as velocity of river slows down

Braided islands divide the river into multiple narrow channels
Old Age
Natural levees, oxbow lakes
Most of the landscape is close to the sea level
Erosional Landforms
Rill —> Gullies —> Valleys
V shaped Valley
Valleys
Gorge - Deep valley with very steep to straight sides, form in hard rocks
Canyon - Steep step like side slopes, mostly in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks
Meander loops develop over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages of development of streams and get entrenched into rocks
Entrenched Meanders due to erosion or upliftment of land around them
Give an indication of the status of the original land surface over which the stream developed
River Terraces Surfaces marking old valley floors or floodplain levels - maybe bedrock surfaces without any alluvial cover, or alluvial terraces
consisting of stream deposits
Stepped benches along the river course
Vertical erosion by the stream into its own floodplain
Paired terraces - River terraces on same elevation on either side of the river
Unpaired terraces - River terraces on different elevations on both sides - where water column changes are not uniform along both
the banks
River terraces may be formed due to
Receding water after a peak flow

Change in hydrological regime due to climate change
Tectonic upliftment of land
Sea level changes in case of rivers close to the sea
Mostly in youth stage

Waterfall
Relative resistance of rocks, relative difference in topographic reliefs, fall in sea level, earth movements
Fragments of rocks and boulders act as drilling tools when caught in water eddies and drill the rock beds of the valley
Once a shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders collect and get rotated by flowing water which expands the dimensions of
the depressions
Pot Holes
Plunge Pools - formed at the foot of waterfalls due to sheer impact of falling water and rotation of boulders, they help in deepening
the valleys
Incised water worn channel, common in semi-arid areas - formed when water from overland flows down a slopped is concentrated
into rills
Gulley/Rill
Ravines - Chambal Valley
Chos - Punjab
Curve or loop in the course of a river channel
Forms due to
Propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work laterally over banks
Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks with many irregularities
Coriolis force acting on water
Meander
Slight irregularities —> Small curvatures —> Meanders
Outer bend - Erosion - Cut off side - Concave

Inner bend - Deposition - Slip off side - Convex
Meander is a type of channel pattern, not a landform
Depositon on outer bend to an extent that inner ends of a loop get close enough to be disconnected
Many ox-bow lakes to the north of the present course of Ganga (formed due to southward shifting of course)
Ox-bow lake
Undulating featureless plain (with some low lying residuals rocks called monadnocks)
Peneplain
Considered end product of an erosional cycle
Drainage Patterns
Describes the shape of a river course as it completes its erosional cycle

Reflects the structure of basal rocks, cracks/joints, tectonic irregularity
Dendritic Trellis
Resemble branches of a tree Short subsequent tributaries meet the main river at right angles
Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Kaveri, Krishna Differential erosion through soft rock
Seine river system (France)
Radial
Tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and flow down
in all directions
Amarkantak plateau (Mahanadi, Son, Wardha), Mt. Kilimanjaro
Centripetal
In a low lying basin streams converge from all sides
E.g. Stream of Ladakh and Tibet

Baghmati and its tributaries
Annular
While draining down radially, some streams develop subsequent

tributaries which follow a circular drainage around the summit
Rectangular Angular
Main stream bends at right angles and tributaries bend at right angles Tributaries join the main river at acute angles
E.g. Colorado Common in Himalayan foothills
Depositional Forms
Influenced by stream velocity and volume of river load

More erosion in source catchment areas = More sediment load = More deposition
When the river leaves the mountain and enters lowlands, it sheds coarse materials at the foothills which acquire the shape of
continuous conical fans
The streams shift their positions across the fan forming many distributaries
Alluvial Fans Appear throughout the Himalayan foothills in the North Indian plains
Low cones with gentle slope in humid areas

High cones with steep slope in arid and semi-arid areas
Floodplains
Narrow linear ridges of low height on both sides of a river

When water spills over the bank during flooding, the velocity of water comes down and large sized and high specific gravity
materials get dumped in immediate vicinity as ridges
Levees
Slope gently away from the river
Natural protection against floods
Breach of levee causes floods in Huang Ho river
Point Bars Sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank
Found on convex side of meanders
Mixed sizes of sediments
If there is more than one ridge, narrow elongated depressions are found between the point bars
Coarser material are deposited first

Fine sized matter like sand, silt and clay are carried farther by relatively slow moving waters in gentler channels - deposited over
the bed and on the banks when the river floods
Floodplains
Active floodplain - River bed made of river deposits
Inactive floodplain - Flood plain above the bank (Flood Deposits + Channel Deposits)
Flood deposits of spilled waters carry relatively finer materials like silt and clay
Load bearing capacity of river is reduced as it enters a sea or lake

Clay particles carried in suspension coagulate in presence of salt water
Finest particles are carried farthest
Alluvial deposits near the mouth where the river deposits more material than can be carried away
Divides into distributaries which may further divide and join to form a network (as the delta grows, the distributaries increase in
length
Similar to alluvial fans but form at the mouth of a river
Fan shaped - Light depositions, shallow shifting distributaries, fan shaped profile - Nile, Ganga, Indus
Bird’s Foot - Limestone sediments don’t allow downward seepage, distributaries flow over projections of these deposits, Less
Delta number of distributaries - Mississippi
Estuaries - Mouth of river appears submerged, maybe due to rise in sea level, mud bars, marshes and plains develop in it when
sediments deposit, ideal for fisheries and ports (provide access to deep water if protected from tides) - Hudson
Cuspate - Pointed delta along strong coasts, very few or no distributaries - Tiber
Lobate - Formed if river water is as dense as sea water (precipitation or coagulation of sediments occur before the delta can
elongate)
High destructive delta - Sediment delivered by river is reworked by wave/currents before being deposited - Nile and Rhone
Formation of central bar due to due to selective deposition of coarser material

Increases lateral erosion on the banks
More and more materials get deposited forming islands and lateral bars, developing separate channels for water flow
Braided Channel Deposition and lateral erosion are essential for formation of a braided pattern
When discharge is less and load is more, channel bars and islands of sand, gravel and pebbles develop and water flow is divided
into multiple channels - rejoin and divide repeatedly to form a braided pattern
GROUNDWATER
Landscape formed from dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone, dolomite and gypsum
Presence of soluble rocks at surface/sub-surface level. Rocks should be dense, highly jointed and thinly bedded
After going down vertically to some depth, the water under the ground flows through bedding planes, joints or the materials themselves
Underground drainage systems with sinkholes, caves etc.
Physical or mechanical removal of materials by moving groundwater is insignificant in developing landforms

Landforms are formed due to solution and deposition, mostly in specific kinds of rocks (limestones/dolomites) - KARST Topography
Erosional Landforms
Solution Sink - Opening more or less circular at the top and funnel shaped towards the bottom, formed due to solution
action
Collapse Sink (Dolines) - If the bottom of a sink hold forms the roof of a cave, it might collapse leaving a large hole
opening into a cave
Solution Sinks are more common than Collapse Sinks
Shallow pools - Formed when sinkholes are covered up with soil mantle
Sink Holes
Valley sinks (Uvalas) - Sink holes and dollies join to form trenches or Valley sinks
Lapies - Irregular feature formed due to limestone being eaten away leaving grooves and ridges (Differential solution along
parallel to sub-parallel joints
Sometimes, surface runoff goes down swallow and sink holes and flows as underground streams to re-emerge at a distance
downstream through a cave opening
Form where there are alternating beds of rocks with limestone/dolomite in between
Water percolates down through materials or through cracks and joints and moves horizontally
Caves
Limestone dissolves along these bedding planes and long and narrow to wide gaps are formed (caves)
Caves might open at both ends to form tunnels
Cavern - Underground cave formed by water action

Arch - Formed when part of cavern collapses
Karst Window - Number of adjacent sink holes collapse to create an open, broad area
Sinking Creeks - Creeks through which water goes into the bed
Bogas - Sinking creeks whose tops are open
Depositional Landforms
Stalactite and Stalagmite - Water with limestone in solution seeps through roof, on evaporation a small deposit of limestone is left on the roof
(stalactite), the remaining portion of the drop falls to the floor (stalagmite)
Stalactite and Stalagmite may eventually fuse to form columns and pillars
MARINE/WAVE LANDFORMS
Sea waves + winds + Currents + Tides + Storms

Depends on - size/strength of waves, slope, height of shore between LT and HT, shape of coast, composition of rocks, depth of water
Wave pressure compresses air trapped in rock fissures and joints forcing it to expand and rupture the rocks along weak points
Waves use rock debris as agents of erosion
Solvent action of waves is more pronounced in case of soluble rocks
West Coast - High, rocky retreating coast - erosional features dominate

East coast - Low sedimentary coast - depositional features dominate
Erosional Landforms
Initially, erosional features dominate and there is barely any deposition

Highly indented coastline with extension of water into land
High Rocky Coasts Hill sides drop off sharply into the water
Waves break with great force against the land shaping the hill sides into cliffs
Narrow, deep indentations carved due to headward erosion through weak vertical planes by waves
Chasms
With time, lateral erosion of chasm mouth widens it into a bay
When sea waves strike against a cliff, the cliff gets eroded and retreats coastward
Wave-cut platform
The waves level out the shore region to form a horizontal plane (wave-cut-platform)
Sea Cliff Along high rocky coasts, waves break with great force against the land, shaping hill sides into cliffs
Sea Caves Differential erosion through a rock having layers of varying resistance
Sea Arch Natural opening eroded out of a cliff
Portion of sea arch collapses

Stack
Retreat of the cliff leaves remnants of rocks standing standing isolated
Hanging Valleys Fluvial erosion of a stream at the shore does not match retreat of the sea, river appears to be hanging over the sea
Formed behind the beach from sand lifted from over the beach
Sand Dune
Formed as long ridges parallel to the coastline
Blow Holes Burst of water through a small hole in a sea cave due to compression of air in the cave by strong waves
Depositional Landforms
Materials which fall off from the sea cliff due to erosion, break into smaller fragments, become rounded and get deposited
offshore
Wave built terrace
After a considerable period of cliff development and retreat, when the coastline turns somewhat smooth, a wave built terrace is
formed
Temporary covering of rock debris on or along a wave cut platform

As erosion along the coast takes place, a good supply of material becomes available to longshore currents and waves to deposit
them as beaches along the shore
Beach
Along low sedimentary coasts, coastal plains and deltas are formed due to sediments carried from land by rivers and streams
Land slopes gently into the water - marshes and swamps are formed
Shingle beaches - contain excessively small pebbles and cobbles
Bar Currents and tides deposit rock debris along the coast at a distance from the shoreline
Overwater depositions are called barriers
Water body enclosed by bars

Lagoon Lagoons turn into swamps, swamps into coastal plains
Maintenance depends on steady supply of depositional material
Deposition with a end connected to headland and other end open into the sea
Spit Short spit with end curved towards the land is a hook
Formation similar to Bar/Barrier
Tombolo Bar that connects islands to each other
Boundary between coast and shore

Modified by rise/fall of sea level, susidence/upliftment of land
Coastlines of emergence
Uplift of land/Lowering of sea level

Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes
Coromandel coast on east and Kerala coast on the west
Coastline of submergence
Subsidence of land or rise of sea level

Konkan Coast (Maharashtra and Goa)
Ria - Region is dissected by streams into system of valleys and divides, submergence produces a highly irregular
shoreline - SW Ireland
Fjord - Coastlines eroded by glacial action and valley glacier troughs have been excavated below sea level, coasts have
long and narrow inlets with very steep sides - Norway
Coastline Dalmatian - Submergence of mountain ridges with alternate trough and crest which were parallel to the shore -
Yugoslavia
Drowned lowland - low and free from indentations, formed by submergence of a low lying area, bars run parallel to the
shore and enclose lagoons - Baltic Coast
Neutral Coastline
No involvement of land or sea level changes

Alluvial fan shaped coastline, Delta coastline, Volcanic coastline, Coral reef coastline
Compound Coastline
Combination of types
E.g. Coastlines of Norway and Sweden
Fault Coastlines
Submergence of a downthrown block along a fault, so that the uplifted block has its steep side towards the sea
Sediments Budget: Offshore bar — Barriers — Beaches — Beach Dunes — Mangroves (Storm waves coming from sea encounter land forms in this order as
they move towards land)
GLACIAL LANDFORMS
Types of glaciers
Continental glaciers - Antarctica and Greenland

Ice caps - Cover of snow on mountains from which valley or mountain glaciers originate
Piedmont Glaciers - Form a continuous ice sheet at the base of mountains
Valley Glaciers - Alpine glaciers - found in Himalayas
Siachen (72km) - largest glacier in India
Glacier contains rock debris which act as erosional agents
Glacial Erosional Landforms
Erosion is caused due to friction caused by sheer weight of the glacier moving due to gravity
Material plucked from land by the glaciers get dragged along the floors or sides of the valley and cause abrasion
Most common landform in glaciated mountains
Hollow basin cut into mountain ridge by accumulated ice, while moving down the slope - deep, long and wide troughs or basins
Cirque
with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head and sides
Tarn Lake When ice melts, cirque may form a tarn lake
Glacial trough Originally stream cut valley, modified by glacial action
U shaped, since glacial mass is large and movement is slow, erosional activity is uniform - broad floors and relatively smooth,
steep sides
Fjords - Glacial troughs filled wth sea water near shorelines (high latitudes) are called Fjords
Smaller tributaries cannot cut as deeply and remain hanging above the main valley
Hanging Valley
Valley cut out by smaller tributary joins into the valley cut out by large glacier
Arete Steep sided summit, glacial activities from two sides
Formed by headward erosion of cirque walls - high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks
If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, horns are formed
Horn Divide between side walls/headwalls get narrow due to progressive erosion and turn into serrated/saw-toothed ridges
called Aretes
Matterhorn in Alps and Mt. Everest in Himalayas are horns
Glacial Depositional Forms
Glacial Till - unassorted coarse and fine debris deposited by melting glaciers
Streams form by melting ice at the bottom, sides or base of glacier
When glacier reaches its lowest point and melts, leaves behind stratified deposition material consisting of rock debris, clay,
sand, gravel
Outwash deposits
Outwash deposits are glaciologist-fluvial deposits
Outwash deposits are roughly stratified and assorted compared to Till deposits
Plains at foot of mountains or beyond the continental ice

Outwash plains Covered with glaciologist fluvial deposits in form of broad, flat alluvial plains which may join to form outwash plains (gravel, silt,
sand and clay)
Formed when water flows on the surface of the ice, seeps down along the margins or moves through holes in the ice (flow of
Esker water with ice as its banks) and coarse materials like boulders and rocks settle in the valley beneath the glacier
After the ice melts, these are found as a sinuous ridge called Esker
Kame Broken ridges or unassorted deposits looking like a hump in the outwash plain
Inverted boat shaped deposition of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand
Drumlin Long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement
Stoss end faces the glacier and gets blunted due to pushing by blunted ice, Tail end is away from the glacier
Kettle Holes Deposited material in a till planets depressed locally and forms a basin
Long ridges of deposits of glacial till

Terminal Moraine - long ridges of debris deposited at the end of glacier
Lateral Moraine - Along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys due to galcio-fluvial deposits pushing up materials to the side
of glaciers
Moraine Lateral and Terminal Moraines may join to form a horseshoe shaped ridge
Ground moraine - Valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over the valley floors - vary greatly in
thickness and surface topography and are called ground moraines
Medial Moraine - Moraine in the middle of the glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines. Imperfectly formed compared to
lateral moraines and may not be distinguishable from ground moraines
Glacial Cycle of Erosion

Inward cutting activity of ice in a cirque
Youth Aretes and Horns start to form
Hanging valleys are not as prominent
Maturity Hanging Valleys start emerging
U shaped valleys mark start of Old Age

Old Age
Outwash plains with features like askers, drumlins, kames
ARID LANDFORMS
Desert rocks are highly weathered (chemically and mechanically) due to diurnal temperature changes
Wind and Rains help remove weathered materials easily
Water eroded Landforms
Though rain is scarce in deserts, it comes down torrentially in a short period of time
Narrow and shallow channels cut into soil by erosive action of flowing water
Rill —> Gully —> Ravine —> Valley
Rill
In arid regions, occasional heavy rain produces rills and channels which erodes weal sedimentary formations
Leads to formation of Badland Topography - Chambal Ravines
Bolson Intermontane basins in dry regions

Temporary lakes when small streams flow into bolsons and water is accumulated
Playas Due to deposition of sediments from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms at the centre of the basin
Salinas - After evaporation of water, salt covered playas (Alkali flats)
Gently inclined rock cut surface at the foot of a mountain

Form due to erosion of mountain front through lateral erosion and sheet flooding
Pediment is similar to Alluvial fan, but alluvial fan is a depositional form
Pediment and Once pediments are formed with a steep wash slope followed by a cliff or free face over it, steep wash slope and free face retreat
Pediplains backwards —> parallel retreat of slopes by backwasting
Pediplains by wind, Peneplains by Running Water
Inselberg - Backwasting leads to reduction of mountain to a remnant called Inselberg (similar to monadnocks in plains)
Bajadas Moderately sloping depositional plains between pediments and playas
Wind eroded Landforms
Deflation - removing, lifting, carrying away dry, unsorted dust particles - causes depressions called blow-outs
Abrasion - Wind loaded with sand grains erodes rocks by grinding against its walls
Attrition - Wear and tear of particles while they are being transported
Hollows formed by removal of particles by wind - few metres to few hundred kms
Deflation hollows
Impact and abrasion of wind blown sand —> blow outs —> become wider and deeper to form caves
Erosion product of rock-outcrops resembles a mushroom

Mushroom Rocks
May be due to erosion, weathering, glacial action or sudden disturbance
Rocky outgrowth in an otherwise level plain

Inselberg
Formed by backwasting of pediments
Demoiselles Rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result of differential erosion of soft and hard rocks
Table shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas when resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks
Zeugen
around it
Yardang Ridge of rock formed by action of wind, parallel to prevailing wind direction
Powerful winds continuously abrade stone lattices, creating holes. Holes go deeper to form windows, when the window widens,
Wind Bridges
it forms an arch like bridge
Wind deposited Landforms
Formed when wind carries and sorts material

When winds slow or die down, grains will begin to settle depending on sizes of grains and their critical velocity
Depositional features on a small scale formed by saltation (transport of hard particles over an uneven surface in a turbulent flow
Ripple Marks
of air/water)
Heaps or mounds of sand that vary in length and width
Longitudinal - Supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant, long ridges but low in height
Transverse - Wind direction is constant and source of sand is an elongated feature perpendicular to wind
Barchan - Crescent shaped - wings opposite to direction of wind
Sand Dunes
Seif - Similar to Barchan but has only one wing
Parabolic - U shaped and much longer and narrower than Barchans - wings in direction of wind, formed when sandy
surfaces are partially covered with vegetation
Star - High central peak, radially extending three or more arms
Loess Wind blown dust and silt blanket the land

Found in Northern China, Great Plains of NA, Central Europe, Russia
Thickest loess deposits near Missouri and along the Yellow river in China
Extremely fertile - full of minerals and drains water very well, easily tilled and broken up for plating seeds
LAKES
Endorheic lakes - Lakes without any outlet, gain water by rainfall, lost water by evaporation/underground seepage
Canada, Finland and Siberia contain most of the lakes
Most lakes are freshwater and are found in higher latitudes of N hemisphere
Lakes are temporary features - eventually eliminated by process of silting up and draining
Temporary Lakes - Evaporation > Precipitation, Formed by filling up of depressions, small lakes of deserts
Permanent Lakes - Evaporation < Precipitation
Saline Lakes
Form where there is no natural outlet or where the water evaporates rapidly and the drainage surface of the water table has a higher than normal salt content
Aral Sea, Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake (Utah)
Common in arid regions
Lakes formed by earth movement
Warping, subsidence, bending and fracturing of earth’s crust - large and deep lakes
Tectonic Lakes
Lake Titicaca (border of Peru and Bolivia, highest navigable lake), Lake Caspian
Deep, narrow and elongated - formed due to subsidence of a block (rifting) and water filling up the cavity
Rift Valley Lakes Floors are often below sea level
African Rift Valley - Tanganyika, Nyasa, Malawi, Victoria, Albert, Dead Sea (world’s lowest lake), Rudolf
Lakes formed by glaciation
Tarns When ice melts in a cirque
Rock-hollow Advance and retreat of glacier can scrape hollows in the surface - ice-sheets scoop out hollows where water then accumulates
lakes Over 35000 glacial lakes in Finland
Morainic Glaciers deposit morainic debris across a valley and lakes are formed when water accumulates behind the barrier
Lakes formed by volcanic activity
During an explosion, top of the cone may be blown off leaving behind a natural hollow
Crater Lakes Maybe enlarged by subsidence into Caldera
E.g. Krakatoa
Lakes formed by erosion
Action of rainwater on soluble limestone creates hollows - lakes may form when the hollows are clogged with debris
Karst Lakes
Collapse of limestone roofs may expose lakes that were once underground
Wind creates hollows in deserts - reaches ground water which seeps out forming small, shallow lakes
Wind deflated lakes
Excessive evaporation leads to formation of playas - e.g. Salt Lake, Utah
Lakes formed by deposition
Ox bow lakes
River Deposits
Occur on flood plains of Lower Mississippi and Lower Ganges
Marine deposits Lagoons - Chilika
Barrier lakes Due to damming of water - Outer Himalayas and Dehradun
Barriers like concrete dams across river valleys

Man-made
Lake Mead over Hoover Dam
Importance of Lakes
Communication - cheap/convenient for heavy/bulky goods (Great Lakes-St.Lawrence Waterway)

Agriculture and Industry - Wheat farms, Iron and Steel, Gobind Sagar Lake (reservoir of Bhakra Nangal Dam)
Water Storage - Kolleru lake
Hydel Power Generation - Hirakud
Regulate river flows - flood control
Climate moderation
Fisheries - Sturgeon in Caspian, trout in Great Lakes
Minerals - esp. in salt lakes, Borax is being mined in salt lakes of Mojave desert
Tourism
Biodiversity
Important Lakes
Deepest lake in the world

Baikal Largest by volume
Second longest
Longest lake
Second largest by volume
Tanganyika
Second deepest
Tanzania, Burundi, Zambia, Congo
Between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan

Aral Sea
Shrinking since 1960s after rivers that fed it were diverted for Soviet irrigation projects
W —> E, Largest —> Smallest: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Eerie, Ontario

Superior is the largest continental lake by area
Michigan is the largest lake by area situated entirely within one country (USA)
Connect to Atlantic Ocean through St. Lawrence river
Major water transport corridor
Great Lakes
North America
Jordan, Palestine, Israel

Dead Sea
Earth’s lowest elevation on land
Series of Lakes in the Rift Valley - Tanganyika, Malawi, Nayasa, Albert, Rudolf, Victoria
African Great Lakes
Victoria - 2nd largest freshwater lake
Highest lake - Crate lake of Ojas Del Salado

Highest navigable lake - Lake Titicaca
PLATEAUS
Flat topped table land

Take up a third of earth’s land
Four major landform - Plateau, Mountain, Plain, Hill
Valleys form when rivers cut across plateaus - Columbia plateau (between Cascade and Rocky Mountains) is cut by Columbia river
Outliers - Smaller raised sections formed due to erosion of plateau
Rich in mineral deposits - mining areas

East African plateau - Gold and Diamond, Katanga - Copper, West Australian (Kimberly) - Diamonds, Chottanagpur - Iron, Managanese, Coal
Generally not good for agriculture - hard rocks cannot form fertile soil, not easy to dig canals and tanks
Deccan plateau has good cotton growing soils called regur, Loess plateau in China has fertile soils
Hundru falls (Subarnarekha), Jog Falls, Angel falls - Waterfalls on plateaus with Hydel power potential
Tourist attractions - Grand Canyon
Formation of Plateaus
Thermal Expansion
Lithosphere underlying a broad area is heated rapidly - upwelling of hot material in the underlying asthenosphere
Warming and thermal expansion of upper most mantle causes uplift of the overlying surface
Plateaus of East Africa and Ethiopia
Crustal Shortening
Thickens the crust - formation of high plateaus
Lie between major mountain belts and mostly in arid climates
Volcanism
Extensive lava flows and volcanic ash bury the existing terrain
Deccan Traps, Laurentian plateau, Canadian Shield, Siberian traps
These eruptions mostly occurred in Cenozoic and Mesozoic
Mostly associated with hotspots
Dissected Plateaus - Upward movement of earth’s crust, uplift due to slow collision of tectonic plates - Colorado Plateau, Tibetan Plateau
Volcanic Plateau - Small volcanic eruptions that build up over time, form a plateau from resulting lava flows - Columbia, Deccan
Intermontane Plateaus - Highest, bordered by mountains - Tibetan plateau
Continental plateaus - Bordered on all sides by plains or seas, away from mountains
Important Plateaus
Highest and largest - Roof of the world

Formed due to collision of Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates
Tibetan
South - Himalaya, NE - Kunlun, West - Karakoram
River Columbia and Snake meet here

Columbia-Snake Bordered by Rockies and Cascade mountains
Volcanic eruptions and coating of basaltic lava
Largest plateau in America

Divided by Colorado river and Grand Canyon
Colorado
Intermontane plateau
Ground water under positive pressure which leads to presence of Artesian wells
Bordered by Western and Eastern Ghats

Deccan Deccan traps -largest volcanic feature on earth
Chhotanagpur - Mica, Iron Ore, Golconda - Diamond, Gold
North Australia
Kimberley Volcanic eruption
Diamond, Gold, Lead, Zinc
Congo
Katanga
Copper (also Tin, uranium, Zinc)
Mascarene Between Seychelles and Mauritius - in the sea
Eastern Canada - part of Canadian Shield

Laurentian
High quality Iron ore
World’s biggest silver mine - Chihuahua

Mexican
Also copper and silver
Piedmont Plateau in south Argentina

Patagonian Rain shadow desert plateau
Important for sheep rearing
Between two Andes ranges

Bolivian (Altiplano)
Important Tin reserve
Massif Central France - important for grapes cultivation
Most of Turkey
Between Pontiac and Taurus
Anatolia
Euphrates, Tigris - important rivers
Angora goats
Ahaggar Algeria
Potwar Northern Pakistan
Iberian Middle of Spain - Lava plateau - rich in Iron
Bavarian South Germany
China
Loess Plateau
Formed from fine particles brought by wind - productive loamy soil
Marble occurs in parts of Rajasthan and near Narmada Valley

Graphite - Odisha and Andhra Pradesh

Geography Geomorphology

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Geography Geomorphology

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05/01/2019 Geomorphology

Sun - Photosphere, Chromosphere, Corona (inner-Outer)

Soputan - Sulawesi Island

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH

Otto Schmidt and Carl Weizascar revised this theory

5-6 billion years ago

All planets were formed around the same time

Solar System - 5 billion years ago

Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets

Material in the earth’s interior started spreading based on relative densities

Hydrosphere Condensation —> Rainfall —> Collection in depressions —> Oceans

Geophysical phenomenon - Volcanos, Earthquakes

Sources of information about earth’s interior

Deep earth mining - Mponeng and TauTona gold mines in SA - 3.9km

Depth: Pressure, Density, Temperature increase with depth

What causes magnetic ﬁeld of the earth?

Abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp break in crustal layer)

Point where energy is released - Focus/Hypocentre

All earthquakes happen in the lithosphere (Volcanos in the asthenosphere)

Body waves - Released at the focus - P waves, S waves

P waves S waves Surface Waves

High frequency High frequency Low frequency

Can travel in all mediums

Recorded ﬁrst on seismograph Least destructive Recorded last on seismograph

Shadow zone: 105-145° Shadow zone: 105-180° (40% of surface)

Change of direction due to both Reﬂection and Refraction

Mostly in belts coinciding with margins of tectonic plates

Earthquake inducing human activities

Deep Mining - collapse earthquakes

Very long wavelength water waves in oceans or seas

In deep sea - fast moving, low amplitude, high wavelength

Water from seashore gets sucked in as the wave forms

Paciﬁc Ocean experiences most Tsunamis

Tsunami travelled at speed of 800km/h

Steep waves are mostly young and formed by local winds

30-50 km - Oceanic crust (5-30km) is thinner than continental crust (50-70km)

Continents - lighter silicates - low density - SiAl (Si+Al)

Moho’s discontinuity - separates crust and mantle

83% of the earth’s volume

Lithosphere - Crust + Uppermost part of mantle - 10-200 km - Zone of earthquakes

Between 2900 - 6400 km

Conrad - Upper crust and Lower crust

Overall - Iron > Oxygen > Silicon

Heat generated by radioactive elements in the earth’s interior

Diastrophism, Sudden movements

Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting, Deposition

Glaciers - Erosional activity due to large mass

Upheavals/Depression with long wavelengths and little folding

Kathiawar, Nellore and Thirunevelli coasts

Tensions (away from a point) - produce ﬁssures

Movement of molten rock onto or towards the earth’s surface

Exogenetic forces comes into existence due to Sun’s energy

Weathering - gravitational, molecular stress, Chemical actions

Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals

Chemical addition of water

Oxidation and Reduction

Red soils appear red due to presence of iron oxides

Physical Weathering Forces that cause physical weathering

Gravitational forces - Overburden pressure, load and shearing stress

Mostly due to thermal expansion and pressure release

Salt in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration, crystallisation

Level down irregularities of landforms and create a peneplain

Erosion is a mobile process, weathering is a static process