BIOSTAT WEEK 1
Statistics
- Science dealing with the collection, organization,
 Genetics and Genomics: Heredity; genes &
analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
- Art of summarizing data so that non-statistician
can understand it.
- Tool in decision making - formulation of good
judgment
- Method or Data - any information that is
concerning to a population or sample.
Ex of Data: Interview, Questionnaire (survey), observe,
Branch of Statistics
documents or record, focus group, oral history, case
study
Uses of Statistics
 Data reduction technique – transformation of
numerical or alphabetical digital information that
is derived empirically or experimentally into a
corrected, ordered, and simplified form.
 Tool for analyzing research projects and clinical
trials
 objective appraisal and evaluation of programs
 in decision making process and policy making
Biostatistics
- Bio – life; Statistics – data,
- it is a special branch of statistics which deals
with quantitative and qualitative aspects of vital
phenomena
- Term that is used when the focus is on the
biological and health sciences instead on stats
only.
Health Statistics - data required in the planning,
administration, and evolution of health programs
Uses of Biostatistics
 Epidemiology - distribution & determinants of
health-related states and events.
- A method that is used to find the causes of
health outcomes and diseases in population
 Demography - study of human population
Terms in Biostatistics
Ex: age, gender, educ, nationality, ethnicity, &
religion
 Health Economics - functioning of health care
system and health affecting behaviors
- Branch of economics that is concerned with
issues that is related in efficiency, effectiveness,
values, and behavior in the production and
consumption of health and health care.
function
- play a role in health sciences
Genetics – study of genes and the way that certain
traits and conditions that are passed down from
one gen to other gen.
Genomics – describes the study of all a person’s
genes (genomes)
 Descriptive Statistics
– Methods of summarizing and presenting data
– Computation of measures of central tendency
and variability
– Tabulation and graphical presentation
– Facilitate understanding, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
– Devoted in summarization and description of
data, it consists of methods for organizing and
summarizing information
– Calculation of various descriptive measures –
means, measures of variation, & percentiles
– It describes the most important characteristic of
a given set of data
– Contains exact numbers
 Inferential Statistics
– Methods of arriving at conclusions and
generalizations about a target population based
on information from a sample
– Estimation of parameters and hypotheses
testing
– Consists of methods for drawing and measuring
the variability & reliability of conclusion about
population that is based from information
obtained from a sample population
– Can make prediction
– Branch of stats that is concerned with using
sample data to make an inference about a
population of data
 Population – all members of a specified group
 Sample – subset of a population
 Parameter – measure of a characteristic of a
population
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 Constant – value of a characteristic that remains
the same from person to person, from time to
time or from place to place
 Variable – characteristics takes on different
value
Types of Data
According to Source
 Primary Data – coming from the researcher
- via interview, experiment, questionnaires
 Secondary Data – comes from another source
- book, journal, newspaper, thesis, &
dissertation.
According to Functional Relationship
 Nominal - simply used as names or identifiers of
a category
- always qualitative
- does not represent any amount or quantity
Ex: Names, labels, categories,
 Ordinal - represents an ordered series of
relationships, may be qualitative or quantitative
Ex: sequence, level, order, ranks, scaling
 Interval – does not have a true-zero value
starting point
- Always quantitative
Ex: Temp (F), standardized score,
 Ratio – Modified interval level which includes
zero as a starting point
- Always quantitative

 Independent – refers to any controlling data, Nominal Named variables

- anything that can be manipulated, (treatment) Ordinal + Ordered variables
 Dependent – any data that is affected by Interval + Proportionate interval between
variables
controlling data
Ratio + Can accommodate absolute zero
Categories of Data

Types of Variables True Equal Or Cate

Scale Example
Zero Interval der gory
 Qualitative - descriptions or labels to distinguish Marital
one group from another status, sex,
- Uses categories or attributes that can Nominal x x x /
gender,
distinguish non numeric characteristics ethnicity
- Ex: gender, marital status, eye color, address, Student
ethnicity, religion, etc. Ordinal x x / / grade, NFL
 Quantitative - can be measured and ordered rankings
according to quantity or amount and expressed Temp (F),
numerically Interval x / / / SAT scored,
� - Consist numbers that represents counts or IQ, Year
measurement Age,
Ex: height, weight, temperature, no. of years, etc Ratio / / / / height,
weight
Types:
 Discrete can assume a finite or
countable number of values Data Processing
Ex: no. children, no. of students
 Systematic procedure to ensure that the
 Continuous can assume an infinity or
information/data gathered are complete, consistent,
other possible value that corresponding
and suitable for analysis.
to a point on a line interval.
 Data Analysis Steps:
Ex: Weight, decimal, temp that can in
1. Identify the problem
principle be measured arbitrarily,
2. Collect data
accurately.
3. Presentation of data
Scale of Measurement of Variables 4. Analysis of data
5. Interpretation of data
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Data Processing Flowchart
Data Coding
- Conversion of verbal/written information into
numbers which can be more easily encoded,
counted and tabulated.
- Assigning numerals or other symbols to answers,
so responses can be put into a limited category.
Codes – it is the rules for interpreting, classifying, and
recording data in the coding process.
Types of Codes
 Field Code - actual value or information given by
the respondent
 Bracket Code - recorded as range of values
rather than actual values.
 Factual Code - codes are assigned to a list of
categories of a given variable.
 Pattern Code - applicable for questions with
multiple response.
Rules in Code Construction
 Number of rules must be kept to minimum (<8)
 Codes should be exhaustive and mutually
exclusive
 Adopt coding convention for questions with
similar answer
Category codes - should be only few or around
10% or less of the responses should fall into the
other category.
- Should be assigned for critical issues even if no
one has mentioned them, data should be coded
to retain as much detail as possible.
Coding Problems
 No response
 Not applicable questions
Coding Manual
 A document which contains a record of all codes
assigned to the responses to all questions in the
data collection forms
 Minimum information that must be included in a
coding manual
 Variable name – variables must consist
of one string only and consisting of
letters (when useful), numbers and
underscore
- Spaces are not allowed
- enter it at a top of each column
- Long enough to be meaningful, short
enough to be easy to read
 Variable description/label of a variable
such as textual description, or reference
to the question number of the item
arises from the questionnaire.
- Include descriptive variable label for
each variable in the file
- Important for statisticians to
understand the contents for each data
item, as well as for the researchers as
the table will facilitate in understanding
output of the statistical analysis.
 Coding instructions
Code book – contains coding instructions
and necessary information about
variables in a data set.
It generally contains column no., record
no., variable no., variable mean,
question no., instruction for coding.
Note: In coding manual, you can add additional
information in subsequent column
Data Encoding - Entering the data/responses in a
spreadsheet
 MS Excel
 MS Access
 Epi Info
Data Editing
 Inspection and correction of any errors or
inconsistencies in the information collected
- During data collection, encoding, before data
analysis
 Process of examining the collected raw data to
detect errors/omissions, and to correct them asap.
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Types of Editing
I. Field Editing
 Reviewing the accomplished data collection forms
 Decoding of abbreviations or special symbols
 Making callbacks/messages for verification
/clarification of incomplete answers
 Raw files
II. Central Editing
 Checking of inconsistencies and incorrect entries
after receiving the questionnaire from the field
 Checking of encoded data
 Computerized, consolidated, summarized

Importance of Data Editing

 Make corrections as early as possible

 Reduce non-response or incomplete answers
 Eliminate inconsistencies, incorrect info.
 Make the entries clear, legible & comprehensive
 Prepare data for analysis

What to check when editing data?

 Check for duplicate entries

 Check the totals of each variable if the same as
with the sample size
 For qualitative data, check if categories are
consistent with what is specified in the coding
manual
 For quantitative data, check the minimum and
maximum if they are logical given the possible
values of variable