Pétrole Non Conventionnel

UNCONVENTIONAL
PETROLEUM
RESOURCES
A Primer on Unconventional Oil and Gas

Exploration and Production
By
Tatyana Plaksina
© Copyright 2021 by Tatyana Plaksina – All rights reserved.
It is not legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this book in either
electronic means or printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly prohibited.
This book is dedicated to my family:
Mohammed, Leila, and Mila
iii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................... iv
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
PART I: Geological Considerations of Unconventional Resources ....................... 3
Chapter 1: Basic Definitions ....................................................................................4
Types of Unconventional Petroleum Reservoirs ............................................ 5

Petroleum Resource vs Reserve ...................................................................... 6
Unconventional Resources and Improved Technology Requirements ........... 7
Test Your Knowledge ..................................................................................... 8
Selected Bibliography ..................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Key Concepts in Reservoir Geology ....................................................10
Test Your Knowledge ................................................................................... 14

Selected Bibliography ................................................................................... 15
Chapter 3: Tight Gas Sands and Their Characteristics ..........................................16
Primary Origin of Tight Sands ...................................................................... 17

Secondary Origin of Tight Sands .................................................................. 23
Chapter 4: Deposition and Composition of Source Rocks ....................................33

Chapter 5: Unconventional Hydrocarbon: Thermal Maturity, Generation,
Migration, and Entrapment ................................................................................................39
Thermal Maturity .......................................................................................... 40

Generation of Hydrocarbon .......................................................................... 44
iv
Migration and Entrapment of Hydrocarbon .................................................. 46
PART II: Unconventional Resource Extraction: Geomechanical Considerations
and Hydraulic Fracturing .................................................................................................. 52
Chapter 6: Geologic Principles and Plate Tectonics ..............................................53
Basic Geologic Principles ............................................................................. 53

Plate Tectonics .............................................................................................. 55
Origins of Folds and Natural Fractures ......................................................... 58
Chapter 7: Stresses in the Earth .............................................................................66
What is Stress ................................................................................................ 67

Elastic Properties .......................................................................................... 70
Basic Constitutive Laws ............................................................................... 73
Chapter 8: Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing ...................................................80
Principle of Least Resistance ........................................................................ 80

Geometrical Types of Fractures .................................................................... 81
What is Hydraulic Fracturing........................................................................ 82
Typical Steps of Hydraulic Fracturing Treatment ........................................ 84
Materials and Equipment Required for Hydraulic Fracturing ...................... 85
Hydraulic Fracturing and Well Productivity Index ...................................... 86
Economic Evaluation of Hydraulic Fracturing Design ................................. 89
Fracture Models ............................................................................................ 91
Fracturing and Fluid Volume Requirements................................................. 94
v
Selected Bibliography ................................................................................. 100
Part III: Forecasting and Unconventional Reserve Estimation ........................... 101
Chapter 9: Foundations of Decline Curve Analysis (DCA) ................................102
Arps’ and Fetkovich Methods ..................................................................... 102

Modifications of Arps’ and Fetkovich Methods for Shale Wells ............... 105
Most Popular DCA Models for Shale Wells............................................... 106
Test Your Knowledge ................................................................................. 109
Chapter 10: Foundations of Rate Transient Analysis (RTA)...............................113
RTA and its Application ............................................................................. 113

Understanding Diffusivity Equation ........................................................... 115
Type Curve Shapes, Slopes and Derivates ................................................. 119
Linear Flow and Type Curves..................................................................... 126
Type Curves ................................................................................................ 128
Superposition in Time ................................................................................. 128
Test Your Knowledge ................................................................................. 129
Appendix A: Flow Regimes Overview ................................................................135

Appendix B: Optimization of Hydraulic Fracture Placement..............................138
Project Tasks ............................................................................................... 138

Pseudo-pressure Calculation ....................................................................... 139
Optimization Algorithm .............................................................................. 141
Wattenbarger Slab Model ........................................................................... 142
Matlab Code ................................................................................................ 144
vi
About the Author ................................................................................................ 150
vii
Unconventional Petroleum Resources
Introduction
Since unconventional petroleum production became economic due to advances in

research and technology, the interest to learn more about it has grown exponentially both
in the energy industry and academia. Though a good number of industrial and academic
courses in this subject have been designed and taught in the last couple of decades, today
there is still no comprehensive and well-structured textbook that can be used to introduce
engineers and students to the wide spectrum of unconventional E&P topics. Most published
to date books contain in-depth research on certain aspects of unconventional petroleum
resources (i.e., RTA or hydraulic fracturing geomechanics) and thus, most instructors in
industry and academia have to develop their own curricula based on these fragmented
scholarly sources.
When I started teaching petroleum engineering at University of Calgary in 2016, I
was given an assignment to teach graduate course Special Problems: Unconventional Oil
and Gas Reservoir Exploitation (also cross-listed as Tight Oil and Unconventional Gas
Reservoir Exploitation undergraduate course). In my first preparation day, despite course’s
popularity among industry and university students, I discovered the unlovely truth that
there was no textbook containing all necessary and relevant information that both me as
the instructor and students could use. Within a couple of months, being a recent PhD
graduate myself, I had to lift tremendous volume of educational and research material from
several universities and research groups to come up with a complete course with all lecture
slides, 8 quizzes, 2 exams, 4 homeworks, hydraulic fracture placement optimization project
for graduate students and RTA application to shale gas reservoir for undergraduate
students. The amount of material that I processed during this preparation time was so huge,
interesting, and diverse, that I decided that once I have an opportune moment, I would write
a book. In a way, this book is my legacy to all instructors who teach and will teach
unconventional resources so that they do not have to go through the same overwhelming
experience that I went through while preparing to teach this course.
This book is structured as a textbook with ten chapters considering wide spectrum
of topics starting from geology of unconventional petroleum systems to the basics of
geomechanics leading toward hydraulic fracturing as unconventional resource production
technique and wrapping up with unconventional oil and gas production forecasting. Each
chapter has a section “Test Your Knowledge” which contains quiz questions and
homework problems that students can use to practice and apply concepts learned in the
chapter. In addition to this, the book has two appendices, one of which describes graduate
1
student project that optimizes the number of hydraulic fracture stages along a horizontal
well drilled in a shale gas reservoir. The description of the project not only contains all
relevant formulas, but also the full solution in a form of Matlab code. If you are also
interested in adopting undergraduate RTA project for your instructions, contact the author
for more detail.
This textbook does not contain keys and solutions to the questions and problems
provided after each chapter. This was done intentionally so that students can practice in
absence of readily available answers. All keys and solutions are published separately in the
book entitled “UNCONVENTIONAL PETROLEUM RESOURCES: Solution Manual”
which is also available on Amazon.
2
PART I: Geological Considerations of Unconventional

Resources
Part I will introduce you to the most essential and fundamental geological concepts
that you need to master and understand before taking more advanced coursework in
unconventional resources or entering the oil and gas industry. In Chapter 1, you will learn
about types of unconventional reservoirs, classification of petroleum resources, and high-
level overview of technology required to produce most unconventional reservoirs. In
Chapter 2, we will take a closer look at some key geological definitions such as petroleum
system, play, and prospect. Chapter 3 will introduce you to characteristics of tight and shale
sands as major resource of unconventional oil and gas. In the subsequent Chapters 4 and 5,
you will learn about deposition of unconventional source rock as well as their generation,
migration, entrapment, and thermal maturity of hydrocarbons inside these source rocks.
3
Chapter 1: Basic Definitions
To define clearly which petroleum resources should be considered conventional

and which unconventional, we need to examine the so-called resource triangle (Figure 1)
as formulated by one of unconventional resource pioneers Holditch (2013). Though
conventional petroleum resources are what the oil and gas industry was mostly developing
in the last century or so, these oil and gas reservoirs comprise only a small portion of all
petroleum resource in the subsurface.
Figure 1. The petroleum resource triangle (modified from Holditch, 2013).
Conventional oil and gas reservoirs are usually high-grade (high porosity, high
permeability) accumulations of petroleum that are relatively difficult to find, easy to
develop, comprising smaller hydrocarbon volumes, and tending to have shorter well life.
Unconventional reservoirs, on the other hand, are more abundant and easier to find with
large hydrocarbon volumes in place, thus, they occupy larger area of the resource triangle.
However, economic extraction of petroleum from these systems is hindered by high costs
of improved production technologies. Therefore, conventional petroleum reservoirs are
usually defined as oil and/or gas reservoirs that produce economic volumes of hydrocarbon
4
at economic fluid flow rates without specially designed recovery processes (such as steam
injection, polymer flooding, in-situ combustion, etc.), massive stimulation treatments, and
other expensive technologies (Holditch, 2003). Unconventional reservoirs, on the contrary,
cannot produce economic volumes of hydrocarbon at economic rate without application of
the above-mentioned techniques and/or processes.
Types of Unconventional Petroleum Reservoirs

Now that the distinction between conventional and unconventional resources (and
thus, reservoirs) has become clear, it is important to list all types of unconventional
reservoirs and formally define them. To summarize all type of unconventional reservoirs
using both fluid and rock characteristics, refer to Figure 2.
Figure 2. Types of unconventional oil and gas reservoirs.
Among unconventional oil reservoirs it is common to list tight oil reservoirs (also
shale oil or kerogen oil) and heavy oil reservoirs. Kerogen oil reservoir (or shale oil or tight
oil) is a sedimentary extra-low permeability and/or porosity rock containing kerogen, from
which oil (or kerogen oil) can be extracted by thermal recovery. Heavy oil reservoirs (or
oil sands or bitumen sands) are sedimentary consolidated or unconsolidated rocks that
contain extremely viscous petroleum fluid.
5
Among unconventional gas reservoirs tight gas, shale gas, coalbed methane, and
gas hydrates are frequently listed. Tight gas reservoirs are extra-low porosity and/or
permeability rock formations (sandstones or limestones) that contain natural gas trapped in
pore spaces and/or adsorbed on the rock surface. Tight gas reservoirs may also contain
condensates. Shale gas reservoirs are organically rich shale formations containing
significant volumes of trapped and/or adsorbed natural gas. Frequently, shale gas reservoirs
are considered a sub-type of tight gas reservoirs. Coalbed methane reservoirs are coal
seams that contain adsorbed methane absorbed onto the coal surface. And finally, gas
hydrates (or methane hydrates if only methane is present) are accumulations of natural gas
molecules that are trapped in a solid water lattice that occurs under specific temperatures
and pressures.
Substantial unconventional petroleum resources have been identified and assessed
on all inhabited continents and currently more reservoirs are being discovered and assessed.
Based on EIA estimation, production of natural gas from unconventional reservoirs and its
supply to the energy market in the US is projected to steadily increase over next several
decades (EIA, 2021).
Petroleum Resource vs Reserve

To complete the discussion about basic definitions, it is key to remind the difference
between petroleum resource and petroleum reserve and note that these terms cannot be
used interchangeably, and when one or the other is used, energy engineers, economists,
and geoscientists mean specific characteristics of hydrocarbon accumulation.
Figure 3. Classification of petroleum resources (modified from SPE (2021)).
6
Based on classification provided in Figure 3, petroleum reserves are volumes of

hydrocarbon that can be produced commercially under current economic and legal
conditions as well as government regulations from known petroleum systems from a given
date forward (SPE, 2021). Reserves are very dependent on current and future hydrocarbon
prices, drilling and completion costs, and overall state of technology. If reserves can be
produced under current economic conditions, then these are proved reserves. If reserves
can be produced commercially in foreseeable future, they are called probable and possible
reserves. If hydrocarbon cannot be produced commercially but all other criteria of reserves
are satisfied, then such petroleum accumulations are called contingent resources. And
finally, prospective resources are hydrocarbon volumes that are potentially producible
from currently undiscovered petroleum systems.
Today more countries are tapping into their unconventional resources. To provide
some examples, the US has been commercially producing shale and tight gas as well as
coalbed methane, Canada is known for significant production of heavy oil and tight gas,
Venezuela until recently was a major supplier of heavy oil in the market, Russia has been
developing heavy oil, Australia and Argentina are producing tight gas among other
countries.
Unconventional Resources and Improved Technology Requirements

Commercial production of hydrocarbon from unconventional reservoirs requires
significant improvements in technology and major effort in research and development. Let
us consider some aspects of unconventional exploration and production (E&P), namely,
reservoir characterization, drilling operations, completion, and production, and their
technological needs.
During exploration stage that includes reservoir characterization, engineers need to
perform reservoir permeability measurements (can be obtained using pre- and post-closure
minifrac analysis and wireline isolation or injection systems), identification of reservoir
lithology (can be obtained with through-casing analysis or indirectly by interpretive
algorithm), measurements of formation adsorbed gas content (can be obtained with
geothermal logging or downhole spectroscopic analysis), and identification of areas of
improved permeability due fracturing (can be obtained using wellbore imaging tools,
seismic analysis, or surface geochemistry).
During drilling stage, there are requirements for fast and low-cost drilling (can be
achieved by deploying high-pressure jet-assisted coiled-tubing drilling systems, drilling
pipes with telemetry), reduced environmental impact of drilling operations (can be
achieved using environmentally friendly drilling fluids and multilateral wells), and
7
improved horizontal well stability (can be achieved using appropriate drilling and liner
systems).
During completion stage, engineers need improved formation access (can be
achieved by laser perforation technology or hydro-jetting), improved hydraulic fracturing
treatment (can be obtained by application of fracture diagnostic tools such as microseismic,
lightweight proppants, environmentally friendly fracturing fluids, and coiled-tubing
systems for horizontal wells).
During production stage, some improvements can be achieved in artificial lift
systems (such as downhole separation and reinjection of liquid and gas, application of
smart well technology and expert systems, filtration and sequestration of fluid
contaminants) and EOR processes (such as injection of N2 or CO2, microbial enhancements
for gas generation, etc.) (Jenkins and Boyer, 2008).
Test Your Knowledge

In this section, you have a chance to test your knowledge of the material presented
above (note that more than one choice can be correct).
1. Unconventional gas reservoirs do not include
A. Bitumen
B. Tight gas
C. Coalbed methane
D. Shale gas
E. Gas hydrates
2. Unconventional reservoirs
A. Are more abundant than conventional ones
B. Require better technology and more expensive to develop than conventional
ones
C. Cumulatively contain larger volumes of hydrocarbon than conventional ones
D. Cumulatively contain smaller volumes of hydrocarbon than conventional ones
E. Can only be found in the Northern Hemisphere
3. What are the necessary conditions to categorize petroleum resource as reserve?
8
A. OPEC countries must agree that this hydrocarbon can be extracted

B. Appropriate market must exist for this hydrocarbon
C. Current government regulations should allow hydrocarbon recovery
D. B&C
E. A&B
Selected Bibliography
EIA, (2021). Annual Energy Outlook 2021. Annual Energy Outlook 2021 (eia.gov).
Accessed April, 24, 2021.
Jenkins, C., and Boyer, C. (2008). Coalbed- and Shale-Gas Reservoirs. Journal of
Petroleum Technology 60: 92–99.
Holditch, S. (2003). The Increasing Role of Unconventional Reservoirs in the Future of the
Oil and Gas Business. Journal of Petroleum Technology 55 (11): 34–79.
Holditch, S. (2013). Unconventional oil and gas resource development – Let’s do it right.
Journal of Unconventioanl Oil and Gas Resources 1-2: 2-8.
SPE. (2021). petroleum-resources-classification-system-definitions (spe.org). Accessed on

April, 25, 2021.
9
Chapter 2: Key Concepts in Reservoir Geology
In this chapter, you will be introduced to some key concepts in reservoir geology
that will enable you to discuss unconventional resource development with engineers and
geologists (and geoscientists in general) using the correct terminology. To follow the
definitions, refer to Figure 4 for graphical interpretation of the concepts presented below.
Figure 4. Cross-section of a generic petroleum system containing two petroleum reservoirs

R1 and R2 (inspired by Magoon and Dow, 1994).
Almost all discovered and currently produced conventional and unconventional

petroleum systems are found in some basins. Basin is a geological depression that is filled
with sedimentary rock such as sandstone, limestone, shales, etc. As a rule, when these
sedimentary rocks are found, geologists conclude that a basin existed. Igneous,
metamorphic, or sedimentary rock that lies underneath the basin is called basement rock.
All matter above the basement rock that might include other rocks, organic matter, and
water is called basin fill. In some cases, organic and rock matter is not deposited into the
10
basin, but rather forms in-situ. Examples of such formation are carbonate deposits and coal.
Sedimentary basin fill typically includes overburden, seal, reservoir, source, and
underburden rocks or a subset of these rocks.
Petroleum system is a geologic system that includes an active source rock (a rock
in which organic matter is being converted into hydrocarbon molecules), a natural
distribution network along which fluids can migrate, and mutually related and discovered
occurrences of petroleum. If petroleum is found, it serves as a proof that a petroleum system
exists on the subsurface. A petroleum system can have one or more traps. Trap consists of
reservoir and seal rocks arranged in some trapping geometry that allows for hydrocarbon
accumulation without migration to the surface. Prospect is a potential trap that can be
evaluated via drilling and exploration to establish whether it has commercial quantities of
petroleum. Upon completion of exploration activities, the name “prospect” is dropped, and
the area is labeled as a dry hole or a producer. If one or more geologically related prospects
are found, this area is called play.
Based on the level of certainty, petroleum systems can be classified as known,
hypothetical, and speculative. For known petroleum systems the main criterion of certainty
is correlation between oil and source rock or gas and source rock. For hypothetical systems,
the above-mentioned correlation might not be present, however, there could be some
geochemical evidence that point to petroleum origin. And finally, for speculative petroleum
systems none of the evidence listed above is present, they are only deduced based on
geologic or geophysical (i.e., seismic) evidence (Magoon and Dow, 1994).
Now that all key components of petroleum systems and sedimentary basins have
been explicitly defined, consider four levels of petroleum exploration (or investigation) as
illustrated in Figure 5.
11
Figure 5. Levels of petroleum exploration and investment (modified from Magoon and Dow,
1994).
The top-most level of investigation is basin level during which wide variety of
geological aspects are evaluated. These aspects include but not limited to tectonic setting
(can be valuable for later assessment of stresses and natural fracture patterns, for example),
basin fill, and stratigraphy. The next level is petroleum system for which the geologists
evaluate the source of petroleum, its migration and generation as well as the number and
types of traps where petroleum can be found. The third level is play for which the number
of connected prospects is evaluated. The final level of investigation is prospect level at
which individual prospects are being assessed for long-term production potential.
The subsurface fluid of interest for exploration and production activities is
petroleum which can be a complex compound consisting of any of the following
components: thermogenic and biogenic natural gas (can be found in both conventional and
unconventional reservoirs), condensates, crude oils, bitumen, and heavier hydrocarbon
molecules. For a petroleum system to have a discoverable hydrocarbon accumulation, the
system needs to undergo two main processes: trap formation and hydrocarbon generation-
migration-accumulation.
12
All petroleum systems are finite (limited in space and time) and can be described
by their spatial configuration (geographical location, stratigraphy, etc.) and temporal
elements that are unique to each system. Consider Figure 6 as an example of a spatial and
temporal configuration of some generic petroleum system.
Figure 6. Burial history of a generic petroleum system showing the critical moment
(beginning of Mesozoic era) and the time of oil generation (adapted and modified from
Magoon and Dow (1994)).
Temporal aspects of a petroleum system include three main components: age,

critical moment, and preservation time. The age of the petroleum system is the duration of
the generation-migration-accumulation process. In Figure 6 you can approximate the age
of the provided generic petroleum system as from the end of Paleozoic era to today which
is about 300 million years. The critical moment in the petroleum system’s lifecycle is
approximate time when the active phase of generation-migration-accumulation process
begins. In Figure 6, the critical moment for the system is around 250-260 Ma. As a rule,
the geologists attempt to map and create cross-sectional views at the critical moment to
represent geographic and stratigraphic extent of the petroleum system. Upon completion
of the generation-migration-accumulation process, the petroleum system enters
preservation time that is counted until the present day (Figure 7). During preservation
phase the system does not necessarily stay static. Frequently, the petroleum system can go
through changes including remigration of hydrocarbon, breaking of the seal that might
cause physical and/or biological degradation (i.e., hydrocarbon escapes to the surface
where it gets destroyed by microbial activity) or destruction (i.e., due to tectonic activity).
13
Figure 7. A typical event chart of an arbitrary petroleum system showing duration of each
event and all temporal components (generation-migration-accumulation process, critical
moment, and preservation time). Adapted and modified from Magoon (1995).
Spatial aspects of the petroleum system include geography and stratigraphy of the
system. Geographic extent of the petroleum system is the geographic area over which the
system exists at the critical time. Stratigraphic extent is a set of lithological units that
describe all essential components (i.e., reservoir, seal, etc.) of the petroleum system.
Test Your Knowledge

above (note that more than one choice can be correct).
1. Essential elements of the petroleum system include
A. reservoir rock
B. basement rock
C. overburden rock
D. underburden rock
E. seal rock
2. Which of the following statements are true?
A. A play is usually larger than a prospect

B. A prospect is usually larger than a play
C. A prospect can include several petroleum systems
D. A petroleum system never has more than one reservoir
E. None of the above
14
3. Basin fill can consist of

A. oil
B. gas
C. sedimentary rocks
D. brine
E. all of the above
4. Critical moment of the petroleum systems is the time when

A. reservoir rock was deposited
B. seawater level rose
C. oil was completely converted into gas
D. the generation-migration-accumulation of hydrocarbon happened
E. none of the above
Selected Bibliography
Magoon, L. (1995). The play that complements the petroleum system – a new exploration
equation. Oil and Gas Journal 93 (40): 85-87.
Magoon, L. and Dow, W. (1994). The Petroleum System – From Source to Trap: AAPG
Memoir 60: 3-24.
15
Chapter 3: Tight Gas Sands and Their Characteristics
While unconventional resources include many types of oil and gas reservoirs (as
discussed in Chapter 1 and shown in Figure 8), tight gas sands, which also include shale
gas reservoirs as a subset, are the most highly sought-after unconventional petroleum
resources. In this book, most of the discussion will be focused on this type of
unconventional reservoirs, their characteristics, and exploitation. In this chapter, you will
learn how properties of tight gas sands are governed by their origin or deposition history.
Figure 8. Schematic juxtaposition of conventional vs. unconventional gas and oil reservoirs.
Unlike sandstone reservoirs (see sandstone in shoreface in Figure 9), tight (low and
extra-low permeability) sands (see distal turbidite cross-section in Figure 9) have very
small pore throats which result in two features highly undesirable for production purposes:
high capillary displacement pressure and poor connection between adjacent pores. Both
characteristics create substantial technical difficulties in tight sand gas production (well
16
productivity is low) that can be alleviated by some massive reservoir stimulation treatment
such as hydraulic fracturing (a way to increase well productivity).
Figure 9. Change of pore throat size for an arbitrary petroleum system with clean well-
sorted sandstone in shoreface, poorly sorted sandstone in turbidite, and tight organically
rich shaly sand in distal turbidite.
Tight gas sands usually have one of two possible origins: primary origin due to
deposition of the petroleum system or secondary origin due diagenetic changes of the
system. Tight reservoirs resulting from the primary origin can be well-sorted fine-grained
sands and silts or poorly sorted sands of various size distribution. Diagenetic changes
(chemical or physical alterations that occur during transformation of sediments into a
sedimentary rock) responsible for the secondary origin of tight sands include cementation,
compaction, dissolution, and fracturing. Let us now discuss each origin in more detail.
Primary Origin of Tight Sands

As it was highlighted in the previous section, the primary origin of tight sands can
be due to the depositional system. Depositional system (do not confuse with the petroleum
system) is a three-dimensional stratigraphic unit consisting of a continuous set of process-
related sedimentary facies (Fisher and McGowen, 1967). And facies is a stratigraphic body
that is dissimilar to its surrounding strata in its properties and characteristics that originate
17
from the depositional environment. Also, sedimentary facies control reservoir geometry
(three-dimensional shape of the reservoir), orientation (i.e., dipping structure), and quality
(this term includes several factors including total organic content or TOC, thermal
maturity, volume of hydrocarbon in place, effective porosity, intrinsic permeability, oil,
gas, and water saturations, and reservoir thickness).
Depositional systems that form petroleum reservoirs of interest for petroleum
engineers are predominantly either clastic or carbonate. Clastic depositional systems on
land, form when sediments (clastics) are transported and deposited by wind and flowing
water (rarely moving solids such as glaciers), and in marine environment, form by transport
and deposition of sediments by tides, waves, and currents. Figure 10 schematically shows
some of clastic depositional systems including those on land such as alluvial fan, fluvial,
and deltaic systems and those in marine environment such as turbidites. Most famous
examples of deltaic depositional systems are Mississippi river delta, Niger river delta, and
Nile River delta.
Figure 10. Types of clastic depositional systems (modified after Nichols, 1999).
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Sediments in various clastic depositional systems might convert into various types
of rocks depending on predominant size of particles (or grains). Consider Figure 11 for
more detail on sizes of clastic sediments and names of corresponding rocks. While
conventional petroleum reservoirs found in clastic depositional systems are usually in
sandstones (from coarse to fine grain size), unconventional reservoirs are usually found in
mudstones (siltstones and shales). It id important to note that rocks of various types can
form in various clastic depositional systems depending on sediment transportation velocity
(by water or wind). For example, in a fluvial system it is possible to find a coarse sand bar
(where water velocity was relatively high and only large particles could precipitate and
later form sandstone) and a mudstone (where water velocity was significantly reduced to
almost standing water in which even fine particles could precipitate).
Figure 11. Table of clastic sediment particles with corresponding rock names (modified
from Blatt, 1982).
Now that we have briefly discussed the effect of clastic depositional environment
on the type of sedimentary rock, let us zoom into a small representative volume of such
rock and define all constituents from both geologist and engineer points of view. These
definitions will pave the way toward understanding how quality of the reservoir (mostly
represented by porosity and permeability) changes depending on rock composition at such
fine scale. According to Figure 12, geologists resolve four main components inside
representative rock volume: framework (includes sand or silt size detrital1 particles), matrix
1
Detrital is a geological term referring to rock particles derived from erosion or weathering of pre-
existing rocks. Sometimes detrital and clastic are used interchangeably, but some scholars insist that detrital
particle should refer to weathered rocks, while clastic particles – to those derived from mechanical breakage.
19
(clay size detrital particles), cement (solid material that precipitates after deposition of the
rock and during burial process during which this material fills the pore space and replaces
framework particles), and pore space (void space between and inside any of the above-
mentioned components). Unlike geologists, engineers do not resolve solid matter of the
rock into framework, matrix, and cement. Instead, they group all these components and
refer to all of them as matrix. Thus, for engineers a representative rock volume has only
two significant components: matrix and pore space.
Figure 12. Representative volume of a clastic rock with all components.
Volume of pore space or porosity of the rock is one of the main rock properties that
controls quality of the reservoir and defines its storage capacity (ability to hold water,
organic matter, or petroleum fluid). However, not all pore space or porosity is due to
deposition of the rock matrix (engineering definition of the matrix). To distinguish porosity
due to various processes that the rock undergoes, scientists introduce primary and
secondary porosity similarly to primary and secondary origins of tight sands. Primary
porosity can be intergranular (void space between framework particles) and/or micropores
(small pore spaces that can occur inside framework detrital or authigenic2 particles).
2
Authigenic material is material or mineral that grows inside the rock rather than being deposited
or transported. Some examples of authigenic include quartz, chlorite, and cements.
20
Secondary porosity is porosity due to some chemical or mechanical changes inside the rock
and could be due to dissolution (some degree of dissolution of framework particles or
cement), fractures (breaking of the rock due to stresses), or micropores.
Primary porosity as well as permeability that affect reservoir quality is controlled
by facies and, thus, depositional environments in which the rock forms. For example, rocks
formed in high water energy areas (i.e., river channels) will tend to have higher porosity,
permeability, and therefore, reservoir quality, unlike rocks formed in low water energy
areas such as floodplains (Figure 13).
Figure 13. Facies control over permeability, porosity, and, thus, reservoir quality in a
generic fluvial system with a river channel, levees, and floodplains (modified from Galloway
and Hobday, 1983).
Velocity of particle deposition and transportation also affects grain sorting and
arrangement (packing of grains inside some small control volume). Consider Figure 14 to
observe how porosity changes depending on grain arrangement (it can be as high as 47.6%
21
to as low as 27% for one-size particles) and sorting (presence of two particle sizes takes
porosity from 47.6% to 14% and can be much lower for a wider distribution of grains).
Figure 14. Porosity depends on grain arrangement and sorting (presence of more than one
particle size).
Another type of depositional systems is carbonate systems. Carbonates are

sedimentary rocks with calcite, aragonite, and dolomite as their main mineral components
that occur in shallow and deep marine environments. Examples of carbonate rocks are
limestone, dolomite, and chalk. Carbonates can be clastic (formed by weathering and
transportation of carbonate particles), but more frequently these rocks are formed as a result
of activity of marine organisms (i.e., algae and corals) or precipitation. Consider Figure
15 as a generic example of carbonate depositional systems. In this barrier shoreline there
are high and low water energy areas where high- and low-quality reservoir rocks can be
deposited. Specifically, low-energy areas where lower quality reservoirs can be deposited
are shelf silts, back-barrier marsh, and lagoon, and high-water energy areas where higher
quality rock can be formed are barrier island facies and shoreface sands.
In summary, quality of a reservoir (conventional or unconventional) is a strong
function of porosity and permeability that are affected by facies. Now let us consider
factors that affect primary and secondary porosity and permeability and that will serve as
a bridge toward the further discussion about the secondary origin of tight sands. As it was
mentioned above, primary porosity depends on shape of particles (sphericity or angularity),
their packing (arrangement inside a representative volume), and sorting (distribution of
grain sizes). Secondary (or diagenesis related porosity) depends on presence and type of
cementing materials inside pore spaces, compaction or presence of overburden stress, and
post-depositional rock alterations such as vugs3, dissolution, and natural fractures. Primary
3
Vug is a large pore space or cavity inside the rock that can be lined with minerals.
22
permeability is affected by particle size, shape, and sorting. Secondary permeability (due
to diagenetic changes) depends on compaction, rock-fluid interactions (i.e., cementation
and dissolution), fractures, and formation damage. Thus, reservoir porosity and
permeability, and thus, quality are strongly affected by history of deposition and alteration
of the rock. Note that for siliciclastic rocks porosity and permeability tend to have a much
stronger relationship than for carbonates.
Figure 15. Barrier shoreline depositional environment as an example of occurrence of

carbonate systems (modified after Blatt, 1982).
Secondary Origin of Tight Sands

In the discussion about factors affecting porosity and permeability, we already
mentioned diagenesis4 as the main reason for occurrence of secondary porosity and
4
Diagenesis is alteration of sediments into a sedimentary rock of chemical, physical, or biological
nature that can occur even at relatively low temperatures and pressures and results in mineralogical and/or
23
permeability. Diagenesis is also secondary origin of tight gas sands. Diagenesis includes
the following processes: cementation, compaction, dissolution as well as formation of vugs
and fractures.
To describe rock changes due to diagenesis that affect reservoir quality, it is
common to use the concept of total porosity and effective porosity. Total porosity defines
all available void space inside a rock sample and can be expressed as
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜑𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
while effective porosity describes only interconnected pore space through which geofluid
can move from inlet to outlet omitting all disconnected due to diagenesis pore spaces and
can be expressed as
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜑𝐸 = .
𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Thus, for very clean sands and poorly cemented materials immediately after deposition
total porosity can be almost the same as effective porosity. However, precipitation of
cement inside siliciclastic rocks and in carbonates total porosity is usually much higher
than effective porosity. This high contrast between total and effective porosities in highly
cemented sands and carbonates, which make up many unconventional reservoirs, explains
why production from these formations requires some stimulation treatment for commercial
hydrocarbon extraction. Treatments like hydraulic fracturing target those isolated pore
volumes and connect them to the wellbore for more efficient drainage of the reservoir.
Cementation is one the major porosity, permeability, and thus, reservoir quality
alternating factors. Among most common cementing materials that can come in clay size
particles, there are quartz, calcite, dolomite, siderite, anhydrite, kaolinite, chlorite, illite,
orthoclase, albite, hematite, halite, barite, celestite, and zeolite (in the order from more
abundant to less abundant). Figure 16 illustrates how significant clay content (i.e.,
kaolinite) can occupy intergranular pore space and reduce porosity (as well as permeability,
and therefore, reservoir quality) by creating microporosity with high irreducible water
saturation5.
textural changes inside the original rock. During diagenesis sediments might be cemented by precipitated
minerals and rock grains or fossils might be replaced by other minerals (i.e., dolomitization).
5
Irreducible water saturation Swi is the lowest water saturation than can be achieved during
displacement of water by oil or gas.
24
Figure 16. Generic example of electron micrograph of a shaly sand with significant
reduction of porosity (and thus, reservoir quality) due to kaolinite clay occupying
intergranular pore space and creating microporosity with irreducible water saturation.
Consider Figure 17 for a compositional comparison between a generic shale rock

(unconventional reservoir rock) and a generic sandstone (conventional reservoir rock).
Although all shale rocks differ from one another and have a wide variety of mineralogical
compositions, they are as a type of rock very distinct from sandstones in their high clay
content that creates a number of drilling and production challenges.
Figure 17. Detrital mineral composition of generic shale and sandstone formations
(modified from Blatt, 1982).
25
Because of high clay content, shaly sands and shales can be identified on well logs
by high gamma ray reading in comparison to a clean sand formation. In addition to this,
shales and tight sands that are unconventional gas reservoirs, also have high resistivity (due
to presence of hydrocarbon), low bulk density (due to gas phase), and low photoelectric
index. These four basic well logging responses observed together is a strong indication of
occurrence of shale or tight gas sand.
Presence of clay in unconventional reservoirs can have various effects on
completion and production depending on its occurrence. Specifically, clays can be
dispersed, laminated, or structural. Schematic Figure 18 shows the difference between
these three types of clay occurrence and their effect on effective porosity. Let us consider
each type of clay occurrence and observe how they effect reservoir quality.
Figure 18. Effect of clay occurrence on effective porosity (modified after Frost and Fertl,
1981).
26
Dispersed clay is also known as pore-filling clay or cement and the most common
type of clay. This type of clay forms in-situ and can have vastly different mineral
composition even for nearby shale formations. Dispersed clay may reduce porosity and
permeability (and thus, reservoir quality), but magnitude of such reduction is a function of
type of minerals inside this clay. Some minerals will have more detrimental effects than
others.
Clay laminations are microlayers of clay that alternate with sand layers. This type
of clay reduces porosity and permeability, but such reduction can be more pronounced in
certain direction. For example, clay laminations might significantly reduce (or reduce to
zero) vertical permeability inside an unconventional reservoir, but horizontal permeability
might not be affected at all. Clay laminations are also very common and need proper
characterization for better stimulation treatment design. Geologists frequently assume that
if nearby shaly formations have clay laminations, their orientation and intensity should be
similar.
Structural clay is clay that replaces matrix grains (i.e., feldspar) or occurs as
individual detrital grains. This type of clay might not affect negative either porosity or
permeability, however, it depends on clay mineral composition. Structural clay
composition might differ significantly from one formation to another even if they are in
close proximity.
Cementation is one of diagenetic changes that is responsible for secondary origin
of tight sands and their reduced porosity. In addition to cementation, unconventional
reservoirs can undergo mechanical and chemical alterations. Among chemical changes,
pressure solution is the most common one (Figure 19). During pressure solution styolites6
are formed. Among mechanical changes to the rock, there are grain rearrangement (i.e.,
packing), breakage of brittle grains, and compaction of ductile particles also shown in
Figure 19.
6
Styolites are serrated surfaces on rock grains, on which mineral material has been removed by
pressure solution, and thus, the total volume of the rock has been reduced.
27
Figure 19. Types of compaction and its mechanics inside a sedimentary rock (modified from
Jonas and McBride, 1977).
To finish the discussion about the secondary origin of tight gas sands, let us briefly
mention that other types of diagenetic changes include dissolution, vugs, and fractures.
Dissolution of framework particles (i.e., feldspar in sandstone) and cement as well as vugs
can enhance porosity (and permeability in case of enhancement of effective porosity).
Fractures (will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters) depending on lithology
may improve permeability (act as conduits in a brittle rock) or not (act as barriers in a
ductile rock).
Test Your Knowledge

above (note that more than one choice might be correct).
1. Answer this conceptual question about reservoir quality. Reservoir #1 has very small
well-sorted grains. Reservoir #2 has angular grains of different sizes. Which reservoir is
more likely to have higher quality (assuming that their TOC, rock composition, thickness,
fluid saturations, and volumes of hydrocarbon in place are the same) and why?
2. Calculate effective porosity (φE) and total porosity (φtotal) of the provided hypothetical
porous medium (5x20 grid blocks). (Note that white is rock matrix and black is pore space)
28

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UNCONVENTIONAL

A Primer on Unconventional Oil and Gas

Types of Unconventional Petroleum Reservoirs ............................................ 5

Test Your Knowledge ................................................................................... 14

Primary Origin of Tight Sands ...................................................................... 17

Test Your Knowledge ................................................................................... 37

Thermal Maturity .......................................................................................... 40

Basic Geologic Principles ............................................................................. 53

What is Stress ................................................................................................ 67

Principle of Least Resistance ........................................................................ 80

Arps’ and Fetkovich Methods ..................................................................... 102

RTA and its Application ............................................................................. 113

Selected Bibliography ................................................................................. 137

Project Tasks ............................................................................................... 138

Since unconventional petroleum production became economic due to advances in

PART I: Geological Considerations of Unconventional

Chapter 1: Basic Definitions

To define clearly which petroleum resources should be considered conventional

Figure 1. The petroleum resource triangle (modified from Holditch, 2013).

Types of Unconventional Petroleum Reservoirs

Figure 2. Types of unconventional oil and gas reservoirs.

Petroleum Resource vs Reserve

Figure 3. Classification of petroleum resources (modified from SPE (2021)).

Based on classification provided in Figure 3, petroleum reserves are volumes of

Unconventional Resources and Improved Technology Requirements

Test Your Knowledge

3. What are the necessary conditions to categorize petroleum resource as reserve?

A. OPEC countries must agree that this hydrocarbon can be extracted

SPE. (2021). petroleum-resources-classification-system-definitions (spe.org). Accessed on

Chapter 2: Key Concepts in Reservoir Geology

Figure 4. Cross-section of a generic petroleum system containing two petroleum reservoirs

Almost all discovered and currently produced conventional and unconventional

Temporal aspects of a petroleum system include three main components: age,

Test Your Knowledge

2. Which of the following statements are true?

A. A play is usually larger than a prospect

3. Basin fill can consist of

4. Critical moment of the petroleum systems is the time when

Chapter 3: Tight Gas Sands and Their Characteristics

Primary Origin of Tight Sands

Figure 12. Representative volume of a clastic rock with all components.

Another type of depositional systems is carbonate systems. Carbonates are

Figure 15. Barrier shoreline depositional environment as an example of occurrence of

Secondary Origin of Tight Sands

Consider Figure 17 for a compositional comparison between a generic shale rock

Test Your Knowledge

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