Evolution and Extraterrestrials

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bubbles - possible precursors to cells  
 each cell's interior differs from the exterior
 molecules w/ hydrophobic regions spontaneoulsy form bubbles in water
 edges of early oceans exposed to methane, simple organic molecules, and radiation
 primary abiogenesis - theory developed by Alexander Oparin
 early cells evolved in conditions very different from current conditions
 protobionts - early bubblelike structures that separated their contents from the environment
 idea became popular after the Urey-Miller experiment
 Lerman's bubble hypothesis - shows how organic molecules became more complex
 underwater volcanoes release gases in bubbles
 gases in bubbles react to form simple organic molecules
 bubbles pop and release contents into the air once they reach the surface
 UV rays and energy sources make the simple organic molecules form more complex
molecules
 complex molecules fall back into the water and become in enclosed in bubbles
 other names for bubbles - microspheres, protocells, protobionts, micelles, liposomes,
coacervates (depending on what the bubbles contain)
 coacervates - lipid bubbles that form an outer 2-layer boundary; can grow by adding more
lipid molecules from the environment; can divide by pinching in 2 like bacteria
 microspheres carrying out metabolic reactions survive longer than those w/o protein or
lipids inside
 bubbles better able to use the molecules/energy from the early oceans and produce
offspring w/ similar characteristics would live longer
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 protein microspheres - could possibly have a genetic system, do not form in water (able to
form on dry land though)
 discovery of RNA enzymes >> support for idea that RNA molecules (not lipid/protein
bubbles) were 1st lifeforms
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microfossils - fossilized form of microscopic life  

 about 1-2 micrometers in diameter
 single-celled, lacked outer appendages, similar to present-day bacteria
 prokaryotes - lack nucleus (found in eukaryotes); very simple organic body plan
 earliest records go back 2.5 billion years
 1st eukaryotes appeared 1.5 billion years ago
archaebacteria - "ancient ones"; live in environments similar to that of early earth  
 simplest organisms
 methanogens - produce methane, can't live in presence of oxygen (grows anaerobically); have
DNA, lipid cell membrane, cell wall, metabolism based on ATP
 lack of peptidoglycan in their cell walls (found in other prokaryotes)
 uses strange lipid not found in any other organisms
 extreme halophiles - "salt lovers"; live in very salty environments, like the Dead Sea
 extreme thermophiles - "heat lovers"; live near volcanic vents; could be successors of earliest
organisms due to ability to live w/ high heat
 DNA shows that it split from other life 2 billion years ago
bacteria - 2nd major prokaryote group; larger group than archaebacteria  
  have very strong cell walls
 account for the majority of prokaryotes living today
 some can use light as energy (photosynthetic)
 cyanobacteria - aka blue-green algae; played important role in increasing the amount of
oxygen/ozone in the atmosphere
eukaryotes - 1st microfossils different from prokaryotes  
 all organisms other than prokarotes
 may go back 2.7 billions years, but fossil evidence only goes back 1.5 billion years
 have internal membranes and thicker cell walls
 early forms were as large as 60 micrometers in diameter
 possess internal structure called the nucleus (possibly evolved from the endoplasmic
reticulum that isolated the nucleus)
 endosymbiotic bacteria - bacteria that live in other cells and perform functions for it
 theory of endosymbiosis - claims that bacteria living inside larger bacteria eventually evolved
into mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other cellular parts
 developed sexual reproduction, able to frequently recombine genes
multicellularity - promoted diversity  
 started when eukaryotic cells started living in colonies
 colonies began working as a single unit
 allows for specialization, giving specific tasks to certain cells
6 kingoms  
 Bacteria - prokaryotic organisms w/ peptidoglycan cell wall
 Archaebacteria - prokaryotes w/o peptidoglycan in cell wall
 Protista - eukaryotic, unicellular (except for certain types of algae); can be
photosynthetic/heterotrophic
 Fungi - eukaryotic, multicellular (except for yeast), heterotrophic; have chitin cell walls
 Plantae - eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic
 Animalia - eukaryotic, multicellular, motile, heterotrophic
extraterrestrial life?  
 at least 10% of all stars can have planetary systems
 highly unlikely that earth is the only planet w/ life
 Mars meteorite - oldest rock known to science (4.5 billion years old); contained small
patches similar to microfossils and bacteria (but many times smaller)
 Europa - Jupiter's moon; most likely known place for extraterrestrial life due to liquid ocean
under icy surface

s Characteristics/Origin
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qualities of life - originated in early waters containing cyanide, methane, hydrocarbons, etc  
 movement - not necessary for life, nor possessed only by the living
 sensitivity - all living things respond to stimulus, but not all types of stimuli produce
responses
 death - all living things die, but unless you can prove something is alive, then you can't kill
it
 complexity - all living things are complex (but so are some nonliving things); can't define
life by itself
 fundamental properties of life - cellular organization, sensitivity, growth (metabolism),
development, reproduction, regulation, homeostasis
 heredity - mechanism to improve the organism  
 genetic system w/ DNA allows for adaptation/evolution over time
 able to change and keep the new effects of the change
 viruses, microspheres aren't life because they can't reproduce/change by themselves
 evolution/heredity - essential to life; definition of life
hypotheses about the origin of life  
 special creation - oldest hypothesis; divine force placing life on earth
 panspermia (extraterrestrial origin) - meteors/cosmic dust brought organic molecules to
earth; water on Europa, fossils on Mars indicate evidence of extraterrestrial life
 spontaneous origin - accepted by most scientists; life developed from inanimate objects as
molecules became more complex
 earliest fossils date back 2.5 billion years
 special creation hypothesis isn't testable
earth's conditions when life appeared  
 very likely that 1st organisms lived at very high temperatures
 atmosphere - mostly CO2 and N2, w/ some water vapor, H2S, NH3, CH4
 reducing atmosphere - availability of hydrogen allows organic molecules to form more easily
 lack of oxygen allowed amino acids to last longer (normally would react w/ sugar and form
CO2 in oxygen environment)
 atmosphere didn't change until organisms used photosynthesis to give off oxygen
 some claim that CO2 was locked up in the atmosphere, and lack of oxygen (and
consequently ozone) would've allowed the UV rays to kill all early organisms
areas where life first originated - little agreement over where life first formed  
 ocean's edge - where bubbles form
 under frozen ocean - similar to ocean on Europa; unlikely that frozen oceans existed on hot,
early earth
 deep in earth's crust - supported by Gunter Wachtershauser; volcanic activity recombined
gases into life's building blocks; attempts to reproduce this effect used chemical
concentrations far above those found during this time period
 within clay - surfaces have postive charges to attract organic molecules and exclude water
(silicate surface chemistry)
 deep-sea vents - metal sulfides from vents attracted negatively charged biological molecules;
supported by genomics (claim that early prokaryotes are closely related to the
archaebacteria living on deep-sea vents)
Miller-Urey experiment - tried to reproduce conditions of early oceans in reducing atmosphere  
 started the new field of prebiotic chemistry
 placed an atmosphere rich in hydrogen and devoid of oxygen over liquid water at slightly
below 100° C and used sparks to simulate lightning
 within a week, 15% of the carbon originally in methane formed simple carbon compounds
(which later formed more complex molecules, including amino acids)
 over 30 different carbon compounds could be created
chemical evolution - disagreement over whether RNA originated before or after proteins  
 RNA supporters
 RNA required for molecules to form consistently
 ribozymes - RNA molecules acting as enzymes (replacing role of proteins)
 protein supporters
 w/o enzymes, nothing could replicate
 RNA nucleotides - too complex to form spontaneously
 Julius Rebek - created synthetic nucleotide-like molecules that can replicate and make
"mistakes" (mutations)
 PNA (protein-nucleic acid)
 came before RNA
 basis for early life
 simple enough to form spontaneously and self-replicate
