Oil Crops for Energy

G Koçar, Ege University Solar Energy Institute, Izmir, Turkey

Ó 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Biomass has the largest potential and can only be considered as the best option for meeting the demand and insurance of
future energy/fuel supply in a sustainable manner. Plant biomass has been known for decades to be one of the most promising
renewable energy sources that can be used for production of biofuels, since it is an abundant resource, has low CO2 emissions,
and has a low cost. Biomass provides approximately 14% of the total worldwide energy needs and represents an important
contributor to the world economy. Furthermore, plant biomass can contribute to a stabilization of farmers’ incomes, and it
can maintain and improve ecological and social sustainability. Today the production of biofuels from biomass as a renewable
energy resource is quite important since it is both a clean energy resource and related to the environment, economy, agriculture,
and rural development. Moreover, the development of biofuels from energy crops has a critical role in the development of the
world economy and the reduction of global climate change (Koçar and Civaş, 2013).
Biofuels are the convenient renewable energy carrier for specific purposes, with transportation as an important application
sector. Renewable biomass is produced annually, based on photosynthesis, and is available in different forms, depending on
climatic conditions and economic situations around the world. Chemical and thermochemical methods, as well as fermentation
and biocatalysis technologies, are essential to efficiently convert biomass directly or indirectly into biofuels, with bioethanol,
biodiesel and biogas as today’s main practical players. In this context, green biotechnology, green chemistry, and white
biotechnology are to join forces to arrive at sustainable processes and fuels. The use of biofuels is quickly gaining momentum
worldwide, and it can be expected to have an ever-increasing impact on the energy and agricultural sectors in particular (Koçar
and Civaş, 2013; Koçar, 2015).
In this article, the production of biofuels from oil crops as a renewable energy resource was examined. The potential of oil crops
and biofuels as well as oil crops used for biofuel production and their conversion processes were searched.

The Potential of Biofuels

While energy requirements increase incrementally along with rapid increase in population and industrialization, fossil fuels such
as coal, gas, and oil have recently caused significant problems in terms of pollution. Their supplies have been decreasing rapidly
due to the presence of limited sources. Accordingly, studies on reusable and consistent energy resources are becoming prominent,
and governments are becoming more aware about renewables, so they are focusing on policy making, incentives, and
investments.
As seen in Fig. 1, which shows the world’s energy production, the highest proportion belongs to the oil industry.
According to Fig. 1, while opening new oil wells and new fields increasing production no longer look possible, it is clear that
a tendency is shown to nonrenewable energy resources. It is estimated that oil production is to decrease from 38.7% to
26.9%; coal production is to decrease from 27.43% to 27.03%; and gas production will increase from 21.85% to 26.22% in
a four-decade period between 1990 and 2030. Though the proportion of biofuels is low based on current total energy
production, the projected production of biofuels increasing by 3211.3% in the period of 1990–2030 shows that they will
have an important position in the policy of future energy production. With regard to the world’s energy production, as oil
production increased in proportion to 23.2%, gas production increased in proportion to 59.7%, coal production increased in
proportion to 55.7%, nuclear energy increased in proportion to 35.5%, hydroelectric energy increased in proportion to
34.6%, biofuels increased in proportion to 709.9%, and renewable energy resources increased in proportion to 339.4%
between 1990 and 2010. The year 2015 was a time during which renewable energy had the largest global capacity additions
to date. In 2015, there were several developments about renewables, including a dramatic decline in global fossil fuel prices,
a series of announcements regarding the lowest-ever prices for renewable power long-term contracts, a significant increase in
attention to energy storage, and a historic climate agreement in Paris that brought together the global community (Aytav and
Koçar, 2013).
The world started to understand the importance of renewables and investments in new energy sources. The main objective
is cost-competitive renewable technologies rather than fossil fuels. In December 2015, 195 countries attended the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’s (UNFCCC) 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris. This event’s
main aim was to limit global warming to well below 2
C. One hundred eighty-nine countries submitted their Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions (INDCs) and 147 of them mentioned renewable energy, 167 countries mentioned energy efficiency, and
some of them committed to reforming fossil fuels they use.
In 2015, hydroelectric projects’ budget rose about 5% to $285.9 billion whereas it had been $273 billion in 2014 (Table.1).
Also, wind and solar photovoltaics capacity was increased to 118 GW from 2014s 94 GW. Total added energy in 2015 from
renewables was about 147 GW, which is the largest annual increase ever. For the first time, including large hydroelectric plants,
renewables have 53.6% of the gigawatt capacity installed in 2015 (UNEP, 2016). Other forms of renewable energy, such as

Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies, Volume 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10127-7 121

122 Oil Crops for Energy

Fig. 1 World energy production (Aytav and Koçar, 2013).

wind, tidal, wave, and photovoltaics can also contribute but are intermittent and require energy storage or the use of other fuel
technologies as backup. Only bioenergy can deliver energy in the form of heat, liquid transport fuels, biorefining leading to
plant-based equivalents of important petrochemicals, and the sequestration of soil carbon that open up the possibilities of negative
carbon balances. Countries are studying, engineering, and investing in new technologies. In the total share of renewables, some
countries become prominent. Table 2 shows the top five leading countries depending on energy types. As seen in Table 2, the
top five countries for the production of biodiesel (in order) are the United States, Brazil, Germany, Argentina, and France
(REN21, 2016).
Biodiesel is an important biofuel in the world energy matrix, and the demand for biodiesel worldwide is expected to increase
significantly in the near future. A rapid expansion in production capacity is being observed, not only in developed countries like

Table 1 Comparing some renewables events between 2014 and 2015 (UNEP, 2016)

2014 2015

Investment
New investment (annual) in renewable power and fuels Billion USD 273 285.9
Power
Renewable power capacity (total, not including hydro GW 665 785
Renewable power capacity (total, including hydro) GW 1701 1849
Hydropower capacity GW 1036 1064
Biopower capacity GW 101 106
Biopower generation (annual) TWh 429 464
Geothermal power capacity GW 12.9 13.2
Solar PV capacity GW 177 227
Concentrating solar thermal power capacity GW 4.3 4.8
Wind power capacity GW 370 433
Heat
Solar hot water capacity GWth 409 435
Transport
Ethanol production (annual) Billion liters 94.5 98.3
Biodiesel production (annual) Billion liters 30.4 30.1
 Oil Crops for Energy 123

Table 2 Top countries for renewables (REN21, 2016)

1 2 3 4 5

Geothermal power capacity Turkey United States Mexico Kenya Germany

Japan
Hydropower capacity China Brazil Turkey India Vietnam
Solar PV capacity China Japan United States United Kingdom India
Concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) capacity Morocco South Africa United States – –
Wind power capacity China US Germany Brazil India
Solar water heating capacity China Turkey Brazil India United States
Biodiesel production United States Brazil Germany Argentina France
Fuel ethanol production United States Brazil China Canada Thailand

Fig. 2 World biodiesel producer leaders and annual production amounts in 2015 (Statista, 2016).

Germany, Italy, France, and the United States, but also in developing countries like Brazil, Argentina, Indonesia, and Malaysia
(Koçar and Civaş, 2013).
As seen in Table 2, United States and Brazil were the two dominant producers of biodiesel in 2015. The United States produced
4.8 billion liters, and Brazil produced 4.1 billion liters (Fig. 2). Based on the 2020 world biodiesel projection, this amount is
estimated to reach up to 41.9 billion liters (Aytav and Koçar, 2013).

Worldwide Biodiesel Production and Policies

Oil crops (e.g., rapeseed, linseed, field mustard, hemp, sunflower, safflower, castor oil, olive, palm, coconut, and groundnut) can be
used directly as heating fuels or refined to transport biofuels such as biodiesel esters.
The first use of vegetable oils as a diesel fuel oil dates back many years. Rudolph Diesel, the inventor of the diesel engine,
used peanut oil as fuel oil in the 1900s. The first official document about the fuel oil known as biodiesel was a study with a pat-
ent number of 422.87, carried out by G. Chavanne from Brussels University on August 31, 1937. In this study, biodiesel was
defined as palm oil ethyl ester, and a catalyst transesterification method was used. This new fuel was used on commercial
vehicles working between Brussels and Leuven in the summer of 1938. The only difference between using biodiesel and
petrodiesel was thought to be the viscosity. In order to decrease viscosity, studies were carried out on sunflower methyl ester.
These fuel oils were used as emergency fuel oil during the Second World War; then ethyl or methyl ester were named “biodiesel”
in an article published in1988 and this term gained worldwide prominence. However, the abundant existence of petroleum fuel
oil, its cheapness, and the high cost of alternative motor fuels such as vegetable oil vis-à-vis petroleum products decreased the
competitive capacity with oil and enabled the engines to develop a way to work with oil products.
Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel made by animal or vegetable oil through a chemical reaction called transesterification.
Chemically, it can be defined as a mono-alkyl ester of long-chain fatty acids. Biodiesel can be produced from many raw materials.
Vegetable oils (like colza, soya, cotton, safflower, palm, and sunflower), animal oils (generally tallow), waste oils (used frying oil)
and microalgae oils are among them. As for transgenic (genetically modified) agricultural products, which are just raw materials
produced for the need of fuel oil. Choosing raw materials mostly depends on geography (Koçar, 2015). The choice of feedstock
is based on variables such as the oil yield, local availability, cost, and government support. Feedstocks with higher oil yields are
preferable in the biodiesel industry because they can reduce the production cost (Meira et al., 2015). Some studies about the fuels
derived from algae are quoted since the 1980s. For example, during the Second World War, German scientists tried to extract algae
fatty material in an attempt to solve the energy crisis at that time. Nevertheless, it is known that research on microalgae production is
124 Oil Crops for Energy

scarce and few technologies have been developed. In general, the biodiesel feedstocks can be divided into the following three main
categories:
l First generation feedstocks: edible vegetable oils (rapeseed, soybean, peanut, sunflower, palm, and coconut oil).
l Second generation feedstocks:
(a) nonedible vegetable oils (Jatropha, Karana, manual, neem, waste or fried oil etc.)
(b) Animal fats: tallow, yellow grease, chicken fat, and byproducts of fish oil.
l Third generation feedstocks: microalgal oil, fungi oil etc.
The major difference between various oil feedstocks is the types of fatty acids attached in the triacylglycerols (TAG), which determine
degree of saturation/unsaturation and molecular structure. All these factors, in turn, affect production processes, quality, and costs
of the biodiesel products. The transesterification of oil to biodiesel is a stepwise reaction of TAG with an alcohol (mostly methanol)
to form esters and glycerol in the presence of a catalyst. The transesterification reaction is the most common technology of biodiesel
production that proceeds with a catalyst or without any catalyst by using short-chain aliphatic alcohols. Generally, in the absence of
a catalyst, transesterification reaction is very slow. The most important operating conditions that influence the transesterification
process are reaction temperature, reaction time, pressure, ratio of alcohol to oil, concentration, and type of catalyst, mixing intensity,
and feedstock. The type of catalysis can be homogeneous or heterogeneous respectively if the catalyst remains in the same (liquid)
phase to that of the reactants during transesterification or if the catalyst remains in a different phase (solid, immiscible liquid, or
gaseous). Transesterification reaction is usually conducted at 55–80
C, and atmospheric pressure in a batch or continuous mode
(Koçar, 2015; Meira et al., 2015).
Biodiesel is used as fuel oil in a pure form pure and dieselþbiodiesel mixtures. These fuels are the following: B5; 5%
biodiesel þ 95% diesel; B20: 20% biodiesel þ 80% diesel; B50: 50% biodiesel þ 50% diesel; B100: 100% biodiesel (Aytav and
Koçar, 2013; Koçar, 2015). The most common biodiesel blended products are B2 (2% biodiesel and 98% diesel), B5, and
B20. Biofuel production for transportation will exhibit the most rapid growth, fostered by government support. Most countries
in the world, especially the United States and EU countries, support various forms of biofuel production; thus production
increases every year. Biodiesel blending targets for selected countries are given in Table 3 (Koçar and Civaş, 2013). The basic
biodiesel producers of the world supply their energy needs from biofuels in amounts that increase with every passing year.
However various oils have been used in these countries as raw materials for biodiesel production owing to their availability.
As seen in Table 3, while the United States uses soybean as the raw material in biodiesel production, developing countries
such as Indonesia and Malaysia prefer palm and jatropha oil. Also rapeseed is the most common oil crop in the EU, where
biodiesel is still the main biofuel in transport. The share of biodiesel in total transportation fuel demand is expected to rise
from 5.75% to 10% between 2010 and 2020 in the EU. The use of biofuel, which was 28.5 billion liters in 2012, was expected
to reach up to 136.5 billion liters in 2022 in the United States.
Biodiesels are characterized by their viscosity, density, cetane number, cloud and pour points, distillation range, flash point, ash
content, sulfur content, carbon residue, acid value, copper corrosion, and higher heating value. These parameters are all specified
through the biodiesel standard, ASTM D 6751. This standard identifies the parameters that the pure biodiesel (B100) must meet
before being used as a pure fuel or being blended with petroleum-based diesel fuel. The biggest advantage of using biodiesel is
that it is environmentally friendly, which is advantageous over gasoline and petroleum diesel; other factors are its portability, ready
availability, renewability, higher combustion efficiency, lower sulfur and aromatic content, higher cetane number, and higher
biodegradability. Also, using biodiesel is economically beneficial because of potential amounts and it can reduce importation of
fuel oil amounts from abroad (Koçar, 2015).

Table 3 Biodiesel blending targets for selected countries (Koçar and Civaş, 2013)

Country Feedstock Blending targets

Brazil Castor seed 25% blending ratio of ethanol with gasoline (E25) in 2007; 2% blend of biodiesel with
diesel (B2) in early 2008, 5% by 2013
Canada Animal fat, vegetable oils 5% ethanol content in gasoline by 2010; 2% biodiesel in diesel by 2012
China Used and imported vegetable oils, Five provinces use 10% ethanol blend with gasoline; five more provinces targeted for
jatropha expanded use
EU Rapeseed, sunflower, soybeans 5.75% biofuel share of transportation fuel by 2010, 10% by 2020
India Jatropha, imported palm oil 10% blending of ethanol in gasoline by late 2008, 5% biodiesel blend by 2012
Indonesia Palm oil, jatropha 10% biofuel by 2010
Malaysia Palm oil 5% biodiesel blend used in public vehicles; government plans to mandate B5 in diesel-
consuming vehicles and in industries in the near future
Thailand Palm oil, used vegetable oil Plans call for E10 consumption to double by 2011 through the use of price incentives;
palm oil production will be increased to replace 10% of total diesel demand by 2012
United States Soybeans, other oilseeds, animal fats, Use of 28.5 billion liters of biofuels by 2012; proposals to raise renewable fuel standard
recycled fats, and oil to 136.5 billion liters (mostly from corn and cellulose) by 2022
 Oil Crops for Energy 125

Oil Crops

Oil crops have always been an important segment in the world0 s agriculture. Vegetable oils, which are made from renewable
resources, have become very popular recently due to their environmental benefits. Vegetable oils can be added into the diesel
fuel without any phase separation and replaced a fraction of the petroleum distillates. Vegetable oil-based fuels are more
expensive than petroleum-based fuels, but with recent increases in oil prices and decreases in availability, there is renewed
interest in employing vegetable oils in conventional diesel engines (Aytav and Koçar, 2013). Commonly, it is accepted that
biodiesel raw materials include the oils from soybeans, canola, corn, rapeseed, and palm. New plant oils under consideration
include mustard seed, peanut, sunflower, and cottonseed. More than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identified, of which
only soybean, palm, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, rapeseed, and peanut oils are considered potential alternative fuels for
diesel engines. The oil species that can be used in biodiesel production are summarized in Table 4 (Koçar and Civaş, 2013).
Currently, more than 95% of the world’s biodiesel has been mainly produced from edible oils obtained from vegetable such
as rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, and palm. Besides competing with food, production of biodiesel from edible oils can cause
serious ecological imbalances due to clearing of forests for planting. As a result, nonedible oils or second generation raw materials
are becoming more attractive for the production of biodiesel (Meira et al., 2015).
Vegetable oils mainly contain triglycerides (90%–98%) and small amounts of mono- and di-glycerides. Triglycerides contain
three fatty acid molecules and a glycerol molecule. They contain significant amounts of oxygen. The fatty acids vary in their carbon
chain length and number of double bonds present in their molecular structure. Vegetable oils contain free fatty acids (FFAs)
(generally 1%–5%), phospholipids, phosphatides, carotenes, tocopherols, sulfur compounds, and traces of water. Commonly
found fatty acids in vegetable oils are stearic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid (Koçar, 2015; Meira et al., 2015).
Table 5 shows the potential biodiesel yield from triglyceride feedstocks. When the potential biodiesel yields from triglyceride
feedstocks in Table 5 are examined, it is seen that palm oil has the highest biodiesel yield per area (1500–2500 L/acre) as compared
to other oilseeds (e.g., 420–490 L/acre for rapeseed and 150–210 L/acre for soybean).
The increase in biodiesel production affects the cultivation of the oily seed necessary for raw material and causes it to increase
every passing year. The oily seed production of the world is depicted in Fig. 3. As can be seen in Fig. 3, global oil crop production
reached approximately 1023 billion tons (soybean production was 308 million tons and palm oil was 274 million tons) in the
2014/15 marketing year.
Oil crops are well distributed throughout the world. In general, some of the selected oil crops for biofuel production can be
summarized by dividing them into the following three main categories:

Table 4 Oil species for biodiesel production (Koçar and Civaş, 2013)

Group Source of oil

Major oil Coconut, corn, cotton seed, canola, olive, peanut, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower
Nut oils Almond, cashew, hazelnut, macadamia, pecan, pistachio, and walnut
Other edible oils Amaranth, apricot, argan, artichoke, avocado, babassu, bay laurel, beech nut, ben, Borneo tallow nut, carob pod, cohune,
coriander seed, false flax, grape seed, hemp, kapok seed, lallemantia, lemon seed, macauba fruit, meadow foam, mustard,
hibiscus, perilla seed, pequi, pine nut, poppy seed, prune kernel, quinoa, ramtil, rice bran, tallow, camellia, thistle, and
wheat germ
Inedible oils Algae, babassu tree, copaiba, honge, jatropha or ratanjyote, jojoba, karanja, mahua, milk bush
Other oils Castor, radish, and tung

Table 5 Potential biodiesel yield from triglyceride feedstock (Koçar and Civaş, 2013)

Source Potential annual yield (L/acre)

Corn 68–76
Cotton 133–171
Soybean 152–208
Mustard 227–531
Camelina 227–246
Safflower 303–322
Sunflower 284–398
Canola 417–550
Rapeseed 417–493
Jatropha 531–758
Coconut 948–1137
Palm oil 1516–2464
126 Oil Crops for Energy

Fig. 3 Global oil crops production (FAOSTAT, 2016). *Note: Sesame seed, oilseeds nes, linseed, castor oil seed, tallow tree seed, safflower seed,
melon seed, mustard seed, karite nuts (shea nuts), tung nuts, kapok fruit, poppy seed, hemp seed, jojoba seed.

Major Edible Oilseed Crops

Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is a weed of the Brassicaceae family (formerly Cruciferae). Taxonomically, Brassica is a diverse genus within
the Cruciferae family containing over 100 species. Brassica carinata (Ethiopian mustard) is an annual oil crop with a tetraploid genome
derived from the two species, Brassica oleracea and Brassica nigra. It is considered as an alternative oil crop for biodiesel production in
semi-arid regions of Spain, California, and Italy due to its superior agronomic performance. These regions are characterized by
unfavorable environmental growth conditions for Brassica napus, which is the most common rapeseed cultivar in continental
Europe. Rapeseed oil is known as “canola,” whose name was derived from “Canadian oil, low acid” in 1978. Native rapeseed
was inedible because it contains erucic acid, which is toxic to humans, and glucosinolates, which give the oil an unpleasant flavor.
Canadian scientists, in the late 1970s, developed cultivars from Brassica napus and Brassica rapa (campestris) without the undesirable
characteristics. Rapeseed seed contains 38%–45% oil (Meira et al., 2015). Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is the most cultivated energy
crop in Europe grown for the biofuel, food, and fodder industry. Rapeseed0 s high oil yield is attributed to its high cellulosic content
and, consequently, rapeseed is at the moment the first option for biodiesel production, while it may be the only at the moment that
can be used without prior treatment as liquid biofuel.
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), which belongs to the Composites family is cultivated in several parts of the world due to its
adaptability to different environmental conditions. It is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant, usually with many
long sharp spines on the leaves. The plants are 30–150 cm tall with globular flower heads and, commonly, brilliant yellow, orange,
or red flowers that bloom in July. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15–20 seeds per head
(Koçar and Civaş, 2013). Good pollination by insects is needed to obtain high seed yield up to 3 t/ha with a maximum of 50%
oil (linoleic and oleic acids) (El Bassam, 2012). Safflower seed oil was chemically treated by the transesterification reaction in
a methyl alcohol environment with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to produce biodiesel. The produced biodiesel was blended with
diesel fuel by 5% (B5), 20% (B20) and 50% (B50) volumetrically.
Soybean (Glycine max) is a perennial crop of the Leguminosae family. Soybean is an annual crop having 3 months of harvesting
(Meira et al., 2015). Soybean is the most important source of protein and oil worldwide. It is widely cultivated in a number of
countries, with the major producers being the United States (33%), Brazil (27%), Argentina (21%), and China (7%). The protein
is primarily used as feed, with some food applications, while the oil is more broadly incorporated into food, feed, and some
industrial applications. Soybean is one of the main raw materials used for biodiesel production (Koçar and Civaş, 2013). A
disadvantage of soybeans as feedstock for biodiesel production is its low seed oil content (18%–21%) compared to other oilseeds
(Meira et al., 2015). In Brazil, soybean is responsible for over 80% of all biodiesel produced. In Argentina it represents 100%, in the
United States it is about 74%, and in the European Union it is 16%. Therefore, soybean is a promising source for biodiesel
production. As the demand for soybean oil and protein increases, the improvement of soybean quality and production through
genetic breeding has become an important issue (Koçar and Civaş, 2013).
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an annual crop of the Asteraceae family, having a high oil yield at 774 kg/ha and 40%–47% of
oil content. The major producers of sunflower oil are Ukraine, Russia, Argentina, and the EU. The percentage of biodiesel produced
from sunflower oil in Brazil is only 0.04%.
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a perennial plant of the Leguminosae family. Worldwide, peanut occupies the fourth place in
importance of all oilseed crops due to its high nutritional value, and it is an important food crop in Brazil. Peanut presents
40%–60% oil and yields 788 kg/ha. It was reported that the contribution of peanut oil to the production of biodiesel in Brazil
was of only about 0.1% in 2010 (Meira et al., 2015).
 Oil Crops for Energy 127

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a perennial plant of the Arecaceae family. It is native to West Africa where it was growing wild and
was later developed into an agricultural crop. It is a tropical perennial plant and grows well in lowland with humid climates and
therefore can be cultivated easily in Malaysia. The tree, which is unbranched and single-stemmed, can grow up to 20–30 m tall. The
flowers are produced in dense clusters where each individual flower is small with three sepals and three petals. The leaves are pinnate
and can reach between 3 and 5 m long (Koçar and Civaş, 2013). It begins to produce fruits at 3 years of age. The peak productivity is
of 25 t/ha with 8 years of age and remains producing until the 17th year, when production begins to decline slightly up to 25 years.
Although palm oil has a high productive level, it has low oil content (20%–22%).
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a perennial species of the Arecaceae family widely distributed in tropic areas. The coconut tree takes
approximately 7 years to start producing and the harvesting cycle varies from 45- to 60- or 90-day periods. The desiccated coconut
endosperm has 58%–65% of oil content, and oil yield is 1481 kg/ha. As coconut oil has high content of FFA (12.8%) for it to be
used as a feedstock to produce biodiesel, a two-step process, in general, is needed. In the first step, the FFA level of the coconut oil is
reduced to 0.6% by acid-catalyzed esterification. In the second step, triglycerides in the product from the first step are transesterified
with methanol by using an alkaline catalyst to produce methyl esters and glycerol. The viscosity of biodiesel coconut (2.937 mm2/s)
is very close to that of diesel (3.068 mm2/s) and lower than those of other biodiesels, such as soybean (4.08 mm2/s), rapeseed
(4.5 mm2/s), and rubber seed (5.81 mm2/s) (Meira et al., 2015). Increasing attention is being given to the use of coconut oil for
energy generation, either mixed with or as a substitute for diesel.
Babassu (Attalea speciosa) is a perennial species of the Arecaceae family. The babassu palm takes about 12 years to start
production and the first bunch takes 9 months to mature. After this period, babassu can be harvested throughout the year. There
are no commercial plantations of babassu palms in Brazil, and the actual production of babassu comes from spontaneous babassu
palm trees in forests. The oil extraction is manual, and there is little knowledge about crop management. The fruit endocarp has
about 60% of oil, and the production of oil is approximately 120 kg of oil/ha (Meira et al., 2015).

Minor Edible Oilseed Crops

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is an herbaceous annual plant of the Malvaceae family that is harvested 3 months/year (Meira et al.,
2015). The cotton plant grows mainly in China, the United States, and Europe. Crude cotton seed oil contains several types of
nonglyceride materials, such as gossypol, phospholipids, sterols, resins, carbohydrates, and related pigments. Cotton seed oil
has a density that ranges from 0.917 to 0.933 g/cm3. The seed contains 17–25 wt.% oil. The fatty acid composition of cotton
seed oil is mainly linoleic (55.2%–55.5%), palmitic (11.67%–20.1%), and oleic acids (19.2%–23.26%) (Ashraful et al., 2014).
Despite its low oil content, cotton was chosen as a candidate for biodiesel production in Brazil because of its low price (Meira
et al., 2015).
Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is an annual plant of the Pedaliaceae. It is an important oilseed crop cultivated in many parts of the
world. Sesame is grown mainly in India and China and also in Myanmar, Sudan, and Mexico with a total annual production of oil
of around 800,000 tons. Its seed is composed of 50%–52% oil, 17%–19% protein, and 16%–18% carbohydrate. Fatty acid
compositions of the oil are mostly oleic (32.7%–53.9%), linoleic (39.3%–59%), palmitic (8.3%–10.9%), and stearic
(3.4%–6.0%) acids. It is a fast-growing crop whose oilseed can be utilized for biodiesel production through transesterification
process. Sesame oil has emerged as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production (Koçar and Civaş, 2013; El Bassam, 2012).
Camelina (Camelina sativa) is a flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. It is native to Europe and to Central Asian areas. This
plant is cultivated as oilseed crop mainly in Europe and in North America. The yields obtained have been 1.5–3 t/ha for the
spring varieties and about 3–4 t/ha for winter varieties. The oil (30%–40%of the grain) is interesting for its high rate of gondoic
acid (up to 19%) and antioxidizing agents (El Bassam, 2012). The oilseed crop Camelina sativa (camelina) has lower production
costs than oilseed rape in some climates. For this reason, the production of biodiesel-grade methyl ester from camelina oil was
evaluated.
Thistle (Silybum marianum) is a wild annual plant of the Compositae family. It is widely cultivated in China and mild
climaticregions of Asia. Milk thistle seeds contain 46% oil, which is primarily linoleic acid and the oil content has low FFA
(0.68%) (Meira et al., 2015). The oil could be a new potential nonedible feedstock for biodiesel production.
Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba) is a short herbaceous plant in the Limnanthaceae family adapted to growth in marshes and a cool
climate. It is native to Northern California, Southern Oregon, and Western Canada. Meadowfoam seeds contain about 30% oil, of
which 95% is constituted by mono-unsaturated long-chain fatty acids showing high stability to heat and air (El Bassam, 2012).

Nonedible Oilseed Crops

Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) is a small tree from the Euphorbiaceae family, and it grows 5–7 m in height. Jatropha thrives in arid, semi-
arid, and tropical areas with an annual rainfall of 1000–1500 mm. The jatropha plant is native to the United States, Brazil, Bolivia,
Argentina, Mexico, Africa, Paraguay, and India (Ashraful et al., 2014). The jatropha seed contains 20–60 wt.% oil and oil yield is
1200 to 1500 kg/ha (Ashraful et al., 2014; Meira et al., 2015). Jatropha produces seeds after 12 months, reaches maximum
productivity by 5 years, and can live for 30–50 years. Jatropha oil contains mainly unsaturated constituents, such as linoleic
(31.4%–43.2%) and oleic acids (34.3%–44.7%), and some unsaturated species, such as stearic (7.1%–7.4%) and palmitic acids
(13.6%–15.1%) (Ashraful et al., 2014). Jatropha seeds are used for making biodiesel fuel in the Philippines and in Brazil, where
it grows naturally and in plantations in the southeast, north, and northeast of Brazil. Jatropha oil is being promoted as an easily
128 Oil Crops for Energy

grown biofuel crop in hundreds of projects throughout India and other developing countries (Aytav and Koçar, 2013). Once the
seeds have been pressed, the remaining cake can be used as the feed in digesters to produce biogas for cooking and in engines,
or as fertilizer and sometimes even as animal fodder. The whole seed (with oil) can also be used in digesters to produce biogas
(Koçar and Civaş, 2013).
Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) is a tree from the Simmondsiaceae family. It is native to the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of
California, Arizona, and Mexico. Jojoba has been grown commercially for its oil, a liquid wax ester, extracted from the seed. The
plant has been used to combat and prevent desertification in some parts of India. The jojoba tree grows to a height of 1–2 m,
and it has a broad and dense crown. The leaves are oval in shape, approximately 2–4 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad; they are a thick,
waxy glaucous grayish green. The seed contains approximately 40–50 wt.% oil with a fatty acid composition of 43.5%–66% oleic
acid and 25.2%–34.4% linoleic acid (Ashraful et al., 2014).
Linseed or Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is an annual oil crop of the Linaceae family that is grown either for its fiber (fiber flax)
or for its oil (oilseed flax). It grows in countries such as India, Canada, Argentina, and some parts of Europe (Ashraful et al.,
2014). It is known to be a very versatile crop with fluctuating yields (1.5–3.5 t/ha) due to frequent difficulties with early sowing,
late ripening, difficult seed desiccation after rain, and risks of sprouting before harvest. Nutrient needs are limited. Its economic
effectiveness is low (El Bassam, 2012). Linseed contains 35–45 wt.% oil and is high in unsaturated constituents, such as linoleic
(13.29%–14.93%), oleic (20.17%–24.05%), and linolenic acids (46.10%–51.12%). Other fatty acids found in linseed oil include
saturated species such as stearic (5.47%–5.63%) and palmitic (5.85%–6.21%) acids (Ashraful et al., 2014). It could be difficult for
traditional flax to be used in biodiesel production because the high content of linolenic acid makes the oil relatively unstable.
However, some special cultivars of flax could provide a more viable alternative.
Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) is a medium-sized green tree from the Legumnosae family. It grows approximately 15–25 m in height.
Flowering starts three to four years after plantation, and it matures 4–7 years after. Recently, karanja has been recognized as an
invaluable source of oil. A single tree is said to yield 9–90 kg of seeds. Several researchers have discovered the large variability of
oil content in karanja seed oil. The seed contains approximately 25–40 wt.% oil (Koçar and Civaş, 2013; Ashraful et al., 2014).
Karanja can grow in humid as well as subtropical environments with annual rainfall ranging between 500 and 2500 mm, with
ability to grow on marginal land (Meira et al., 2015). Therefore, it mainly grows in Southeast Asia and has been successfully
introduced in humid tropical regions of the world and part of China, the United States, and Australia. Karanja oil mainly contains
oleic acid (44.5%–71.3%), followed by linoleic (10.8%–18.3%) and stearic acids (2.4%–8.9%) (Ashraful et al., 2014).
Castor bean (Ricinus communis) is an annual crop from the Euphorbiaceae family native to Africa that is harvested during
3 months/year. Castor bean is a plant well adapted to semiarid regions or places with long dry periods. It is produced in the
northeast of Brazil. The castor bean seed has approximately 39.6%–59.5% of oil, but the yield is only 470 kg of oil/ha. Castor
oil has the disadvantage of its high viscosity, because it is composed mainly (90%) of ricinoleic fatty acid that has a hydroxyl group.
The viscosity of castor bean biodiesel becomes one problem because the high viscosity results in an incomplete burning of biodiesel.
However, biodiesel–diesel blends of up to 40% are within specifications (Meira et al., 2015).
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is a tree from the Euphorbiaceae family and originates from Brazil. It is a forest-based tree largely
produced in Malaysia, India, Thailand, and Indonesia. In the wild, plant height can reach up to 34 m. The tree requires heavy rainfall
and non-frost climate conditions. Rubber seed contains 50–60 wt.% oil, and its kernel contains 40–50 wt.% of brown oil. Rubber
seed oil is high in unsaturated constituents, such as 39.6%–40.5% linoleic acid, 17%–24.6% oleic acid, and 16.3%–26% linolenic
acid.
Polanga (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a large- or medium-sized green tree from the Clusiaceae family. It grows in deep soil or on
exposed sea sand. The rainfall requirement of the polanga seed is 750–5000 mm/year. The tree has multiple origins, such as
Southeast Asia, India, East Africa, and Australia. Its growth rate is 1 m in height, and it yields approximately 100–200 fruits/kg.
Oil yield per unit area is approximately 2000 kg/ha. The seed has a high oil content of 65–75 wt.%. The oil is thick and nutty
smelling, and it contains mainly unsaturated fatty acids, that is, approximately 34.09%–37.57% oleic acid and 26.33%–38.26%
linoleic acid. Saturated acids, such as stearic (12.95%–19.96%) and palmitic (12.01%–14.6%) acids, can also be found in this
oil (Ashraful et al., 2014).
Sea mango (Cerbera odollam) is a tree of the Apocynaceae family that is known as “suicide tree” because of its toxic content in the
seed containing active glycosides cerberin, cerberoside, and odollin. Cerbera odollam seeds contain about 54% oil, indicating that it
can be a promising feedstock for biodiesel production (Meira et al., 2015).
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) belongs to the Solanaceae family, and it is cultivated in several areas worldwide, such as
Turkey, Macedonia, North America, South America, India, and Russia. The tree is commonly grown for leaf collection. The
physical and chemical properties of tobacco oil are comparable with those of other vegetable oils, and tobacco is considered
a new potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The seed contains approximately 35–49 wt.% oil with fatty acid composition
of 69.49%–75.58% of linoleic acid (Ashraful et al., 2014).
Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a tree of the Calophyllaceae family. Its oil has been used as a medicine, lamp oil, hair grease,
cosmetic, and in the fabrication of soap. Recently, Calophyllum inophyllum has been proposed as an alternative source of biodiesel.
The yield of Calophyllum inophyllum oil is higher than 4 t/ha. The oil content of seed kernel is in the range of 40%–73%. However, the
acid values of crude oil are high, in the range of 40 mg KOH/g oil, so it is not possible to perform the direct transesterification
reaction. Therefore, to produce biodiesel, the FFA must be converted to esters using acid catalytic esterification before attempting
alkaline catalytic esterification (Meira et al., 2015).
 Oil Crops for Energy 129

Crambe (Crambe abyssinica) is a multibranched annual plant from the Brassicaceae family. It is believed to be a native of the
Mediterranean area. It has been grown in tropical and subtropical Africa, the Near East, Central and West Asia, Europe, United
States, and South America. Although it is relatively drought-tolerant, the best yields have been obtained in moist areas. The sowing
density is about 10 kg seeds per hectare. The crop requires 90–100 days from planting to maturity. The oil has been shown to consist
of 55%–60% erucic acid. The oilseed crop contains an inedible oil used for industrial products (El Bassam, 2012).
Croton (Croton megalocarpus) is a tree of the Euphorbiaceae family native to East Africa. The oil content of its seed is of 40%–45%
and the yield is 5–10 t of seeds/ha/year (Meira et al., 2015). Croton is also used for firewood and charcoal. Croton is an indigenous,
multi-purpose, agroforestry species with wide climatic adaptability. For this reason, the potential for production, processing and
utilization of croton seeds for biofuels is enormous.
Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) is a large-sized evergreen or semi-evergreen tree from the Sapotaceae family. Mahua is a forest-
based tree largely produced in India. It is cultivated in warm and humid regions for its oleaginous seeds (producing 20–200 kg
of seeds annually per tree, depending on maturity), flowers, and wood. The mahua tree starts producing seeds 10 years after
plantation and continues to do so up to 60 years. Tree growth is approximately 20 m in height, and its seed has an oil content
of 35–50 wt.%. Mahua oil contains approximately 41%–51% oleic acid. Other fatty acids are also present in the oil, such as stearic
(20.0%–25.1%), palmitic (16.0%–28.2%), and linoleic acids (8.9%–18.3%) (Ashraful et al., 2014). It has also been used as
biodiesel.
Ilama (Annona diversifolia) is a tree of the Annonaceae family. It is a native plant of southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, and El
Salvador. The seeds contain about 21% oil with an acid value of 0.66 mg KOH/g, which is suitable for alkali-catalyzed transester-
ification (Meira et al., 2015). Based on the chemical and physical properties determined, ilama oil could be used for biodiesel
production as an alternative fuel in conventional diesel engines.
Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a medium-sized evergreen tree from the Meliaceae family. The tree grows 12–18 m in height. The
neem tree can grow in all kinds of soil, including saline, clay, dry, shallow, alkaline, and stony soils, and even in highly calcareous
soil. Neem grows in several Asian countries, such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Burma,
and in the tropical regions of Australia. Normally, neem thrives in areas with subarid to subhumid conditions and with an annual
rainfall of 400–1200 mm. It reaches a maximum productivity of 15 years, with a life span of approximately 150–200 years. Neem
seed contains 20–30 wt.% oil, and its kernels contain 40%–50% brown oil. Neem oil has high-unsaturated constituents, such as
linoleic acid (6%–16%) and oleic (25%–54%) acid, and saturated oil like stearic acid (9%–24%) (Ashraful et al., 2014). Neem
oil has potential as an alternative energy source.
Xanthium (Xanthium sibiricum Patr) is an annual herb from the Asteraceae family. It is native to the Americas and East Asia.
Xanthium has very good environmental adaptability and thus has plenty of wild resources. Its seeds contain approximately 42%
(w/w) of oil with very low acid value (1.38 mg KOH/g), which is suitable for direct alkali-catalyzed transesterification without
pretreatment. Xanthium sibiricum Patr oil, a nonedible oil, was determined for the first time to produce biodiesel.
Mango (Mangifera indica) is a tree of the Anacardiaceae family, native to South Asia. It is found in the wild in Bangladesh, India,
and Pakistan where it is indigenous and cultivated varieties have been introduced to other warm regions of the world. Its seed
contains 50% oil with about 20% FFAs, so it is not possible to perform the direct transesterification reaction (Meira et al., 2015).
Calendula (Calendula officinalis) belongs to the Asteraceae family. It is native to southwestern Asia, Western Europe, Macaronesia,
and the Mediterranean. Calendula is a biennial, but it is generally cultivated as an annual plant. The yield varies from 1.5 to 2.5 t/ha
of seeds. The seed of calendula contains 14%–22% oil of which 55%–60% is the very reactive C18:3 calendic fatty acid, a useful
industrial feedstock. This oil displays important viscosity with a high refraction index.
Rain daisy (Dimorphotheca pluvialis) is an annual endemic from the Asteraceae family. It is native to South Africa and Namibia. It
suffers from weak resistance to cold. Its seed oil is probably best used in relation to its high hydroxyl fatty acid (C18:2-OH) content.
This acid is unstable and easily dehydrates to a mixture of conjugated 18:3 acids (El Bassam, 2012).
Bigflower bladderpod (Lesquerella grandiflora) and Gordon’s bladderpod (Lesquerella gordonii) belong to the Brassicaceae family.
These species mostly thrive in dry and arid habitats usually mixed with sparse vegetation. Their seeds contain 25%–35% of oil with
55% of lesquerolic acid (C20:1-OH) (El Bassam, 2012). It has been identified as very promising species for the production of
lubricants, engine oils, waxes, and coatings and a source of natural estolides with valuable application in the automobile and
biofuel industries.

Sustainable Oil Crop Production for Energy

“Sustainability” refers to improving social, economic, and environmental conditions while preserving existing situations. However,
supplying most of the energy needs through nonrenewable fossil fuels has become a threat for both the energy demand and the
sustainable development in the future. Fossil fuels affect all countries negatively because of economic and environmental problems
and rapidly depleting resources for energy have created the need to revise energy policies. For this reason, countries have started to
explore sustainable and renewable resources in their future policies. Sustainable energy is the need of the 21st century, not because
of the numerous environmental and political reasons, but because it is necessary to human civilization’s energy future. Sustainable
energy is generally grouped into renewable energy, energy conservation, and sustainable transport disciplines. Economic fluctuation
and environmental damages depending on the oil need, which increases day by day, increases the importance of biomass energy.
Biomass energy is not a transition fuel as it has often been portrayed, but it is a fuel that will continue to be the prime source of
130 Oil Crops for Energy

energy for many people for the foreseeable future. There are several reasons for biofuels to be considered as relevant technologies by
both developing and developed countries. They include energy security reasons, environmental concerns, foreign exchange savings,
and socioeconomic issues related to the rural sector. Interest in biofuels is rapidly growing because of energy security, diversity, and
sustainability benefits. (Koçar, 2015; Aytav and Koçar, 2013).
Vegetable oils have been used in human and animal nutrition and to a lesser extent for nonedible applications, such as
lubricants and detergents. Recently, however, due to high energy prices and a greater awareness of the environmental consequences
of fossil fuels, plant oils have increasingly been used for the production of biodiesel, a renewable liquid fuel consisting of fatty acid
methyl or ethyl esters (Koçar and Civaş, 2013; Aytav and Koçar, 2013). The ideal vegetable oil for biodiesel must be readily
available, its plants should be easy to cultivate, and its composition must include a high percentage of monounsaturated fatty acids
(C16:1, C18:1), a low proportion of polyunsaturated acids (C18:2, C18:3), and a controlled amount of saturated fatty acids (C16:0,
C18:0) (Ashraful et al, 2014). As mentioned previously, major edible oil crops are most commonly used to produce biodiesel.
However, this is creating a competition with the food and feed applications. During the last few years, the production of biodiesel
from edible lipids has been blamed for raising the cost of food products. Therefore, there is an increase in attention for other
resources that are not creating ethical problems. On the other hand, various alternative crops including minor edible oil have
suitable fatty acid compositions for use in biodiesel applications but are not expected to find large-scale application due to their
high price and/or limited availability (Koçar and Civaş, 2013; Ashraful et al., 2014; Meira et al., 2015). The vegetable oil fuels
were not acceptable because they were more expensive than petroleum fuels.
Nonedible oils or second-generation raw materials are more attractive for the production of biodiesel and guaranteed as
sustainable feedstock for biodiesel. In general, nonedible oil plants that are not competing with the food applications can be
cultivated in nonarable lands, and the oils are relatively cheap, available, and offer similar fuel yields and quality (Koçar, 2015;
Meira et al., 2015). Algae oil has also a great potential to be a widespread feedstock in the future.
To meet strong demand growth in the New Policies Scenario, the bioenergy supply chain cannot rely solely on one source but a
combination of different biomass feedstocks including both food and nonfood crops. Widespread development of the second- and
third-generation technologies will require lower costs achieved via further technological progress and a continual policy support.
The transition toward next generation biofuels will offer medium to long-term solutions to the depletion of fossil fuels and global
climate change.

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