MUSHROOM TOXINS

Mushrooms are higher fungi which are commonly known as bracket fungi
because they contain the mycelia are which are interwoven with individual
clamp connections as a result of which they produce strong rhizomorph which
actually produce beautiful fruit bodies or sporocarp, commonly known as spore
bearing structures. These can be edible, non-edible or poisonous.
Amanita has edible as well as poisonous mushrooms.
It is very difficult to understand whether a mushroom is poisonous or edible.
1. Agaricus (button mushroom) – Edible
2. Pleurotus ostreatus– oyster mushroom-Edible
3. Coprinus – non edible but not poisonous; Exhibits autodigestion

Parts of Mushroom Sporocarp

1. Stalk - long or short
2. Cap - upper part is leathery which is the
pilus lower part is gill which contains the
spores
3. They may belong to ascomycetes group-
may have ascus or ascospore.
4. Normally the mycelia grow below the soil,
undergoes interweaving and produce the
fructification easily.

Mushrooms can induce different types of toxicity. It can be hepatotoxic as seen

in case of Amanitin which is produced by Amanita. It can be gastro-intestinal
disorder causing mushroom like the Amanita rubescens which commonly
produces the phallotoxin. It can produce renal disorder by orellanine which is
produced by the Cortinarius. It can be protoplasmic poison produced by the
Gyromitra esculenta producing Gyromitrin. It can be neurotoxic like muscaria
produced by Amanita muscaria. Or sometimes, it is not toxic alone. It will be
toxic when it is consumed along with alcohol like we see in case of coprine
produced by Coprinus and which is also producing an allied compound
disulfiram.
This is the sporocarp of Amanita phalloides which is producing hepatotoxic
toxin, commonly called α-amanitin. α-amanitin is a complex polypeptide which
is having outer and the inner loop which is joined by two amino acids namely it
is joined by the outer and inner loop through tryptophan and cysteine joining.
this particular toxin can be hepatotoxic. We can observe the controlled liver
where the liver cells or hepatocytes are intact but, as gradually the consumption
of this particular α-amanitin increases, there will be gradual damages in the
hepatocytes and this will be coming out as necrotic lesions. so, this
hepatotoxicity can induce severe diseases like liver cirrhosis or even sometimes
it can induce liver cancer. at the same time, it is also causing a very important
phenomenon which is blocking the DNA replication. By blocking an enzyme
RNA polymerase, it is joining to this leucine subunit and thereby it will
ultimately prevent the synthesis of RNA primer and will stop the DNA
replication process. so that is also equally toxic. and sometimes, it can be so
poisonous, that the person can die within a period of 10 days and commonly the
only symptom is trace amount of α-amanitin, can be detected in the urine.

Phallotoxin
Phallotoxin is produced by the sporocarp of this Amanita rubescens. it is
actually a polypeptide, somewhat having a similar structure that is the
heptapeptide which is more or less circular in outline and this particular circular
compound is not a single one because there are large number of side chains.
These side chains will actually produce tryptathionine. This compound is not
properly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, as a result of which they will call
gastrointestinal irritation and which will ultimately cause gastric ulcer or similar
symptoms.

Orellanine
Cortinarius orellanus produces a toxin
which is commonly called orellanine.
Orellanine, chemically, is a bipyridine
which is normally inactive, but when
consumed, it becomes active. This is
the conversion into active form and this
active compound will cause severe
toxicity. It will generate reactive
oxygen species as a result of which
different tissues are damaged and at the same time it will be trapping different
heavy metals or light metals like aluminium. So, sometimes aluminium trapping
will also bring about aluminium toxicity. Normally when it is in the soil, it will
also remove phosphorus, as a result of which phosphate is not available to other
soil borne organisms. At the same time, it may inhibit the electron transport
across the membrane of living cells.

Muscarine
It is commonly called Omphalotus. Omphalotus is a mushroom which produces
a toxin called muscarine. It is also produced by Inocybe, it is also produced by
Lactarius, it is also produced by Boletus and as the name suggests, muscarine is
also produced by Amanita muscaria. It is chemically a quaternary amine. So, it
is an amino compound having a five-membered ring. Most importantly it will
cross the blood-brain barrier. That means from blood it will get into the
cerebrospinal fluid causing neurotoxicity. What type of neurotoxicity? Actually,
it will mimic a very important compound call acetylcholine which is a
neurotransmitter and because it mimics, it will bind with the same receptor
(cholinergic receptors) and at the same time it is not degraded by acetylcholine
esterase. So, it will continue to stay there and it will impose toxicity by causing
muscular contraction and this muscular contraction will bring about tremor, will
bring about different muscular disorder and if it is happening in delicate organs,
very important organs like heart may be affected and the person may die of
heart failure. But this compound muscarine may also have some medicinal uses.
It can be used to treat a problem of enlarged colon which is commonly called
the Megacolon. This megacolon can be reduced by muscarine treatment it can
also be used in the treatment of Glaucoma. The ocular pressure in the inner
chamber increases as a result of which the eye becomes like a tunnel. So, it is
called a tunnel vision. So, in the treatment of tunnel vision, it is used. It can also
be used in the treatment of Xerostomia or dry mouth syndrome and at the same
time, a person whose urination is not regular, it will bring about the contraction
of the muscles in the urinary bladder and thereby will induce urination and as a
result of which this is a very useful drug. But muscarine will have some side
effects. It should not be given in persons who are suffering from chronic
obstructive pulmonary disorder. already the bronchus or the trachea is showing
constriction. So, air passage is not normal. So, giving muscarine can be
detrimental to those persons who are suffering from COPD. And it is also
contraindicated in persona having gastric ulcer. It has been shown that this
gastric lesion will increase with the consumption of Muscarine.
Gyromitrin
Gyromitrin, which is commonly obtained from the mushroom called Gyrometra
esculenta. This Gyrometra esculenta commonly called the false Morel because
it looks like a very important and the delicate mushroom called Morchella
which is called the true Morel and true Morel is actually a very costly
mushroom because of its delicacy. But this False Morel will produce a toxin of
Gyromitrin. This Gyromitrin actually is a linear organic compound which is
having a conversion. It will be converted readily to a toxic compound methyl
hydrazine and this monomethyl hydrazine will ultimately block the activity of a
very important vitamin called pyridoxin or pyridoxal phosphate. This pyridoxal
phosphate is very important in amino acid metabolism. At the same time, it can
actually block different activities where pyridoxal phosphate is involved. It will
block the amino acid metabolism, glucose metabolism or serotonin pathway.

Thereby, the neurotransmitter pathway will be blocked. at the same time, it may
produce histamine which actually can bring about allergic reaction and this
particular toxin can also inactivate a very important enzyme which is called
diamine oxidase. This diamine oxidase is actually produced in different
individuals including pregnant women. So, this diamine oxidase will be blocked
in case there is Gyromitrin toxicity. So, what happens is this will ultimately
inhibit the metabolism of histamine because it will block the enzyme
histaminase and the diamine oxidase is the same name as a result of histamine
will accumulate and there will be toxaemic condition, there will be different
muscular irregularity, there will be trophoblastic disease, but most importantly,
there will be severe allergic reaction and this severity can be so severe
sometimes, that there will be abortion at times.
Coprine
Coprinus is a non-edible mushroom but it is not a deadly
toxic mushroom because it produces a particular toxin,
coprine. This is the coprine which is produced from an
amino acid Glutamine. So, glutamine is converted
within the body and sometimes, it may generate a
closely related compound, disulfiram. Now, what
happens is, it will actually block the different
metabolic pathway. Primarily, it may block the
metabolism of ethyl alcohol. It will ultimately block
the acetaldehyde to acetic
acid conversion as a result
of which ethyl alcohol is
not properly metabolized in the liver. At the same
time, it can block the dopamine, it can block the
neurotransmitter pathway. So, ultimately it will
actually block the neurotransmission and if
consumed with cocaine, it can be detrimental, it can
be a killer combination. This disulfiram is also
blocking extrapyramidal cells of the brain and this extrapyramidal cell, if being
blocked, they will ultimately result in loss of
Precision and decision-making. So, there will
be some sort of change in the personality. So,
this is the very important usage of this
particular disulfiram derived from coprine,
Ethanol which is converted to acetaldehyde by
alcohol dehydrogenase, is being converted to
acetic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenase. Now,
this particular disulfiram will block this
enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase, as a result of
which, there will be accumulation of acetaldehyde in the system, in the blood, in
the liver and the person will have a giddy feeling and he will not be alright. So,
this particular reaction is being used by people in those persons who are
addicted to alcohol. So that person who is consuming this drug disulfiram, will
not feel like taking alcohol any more. And so, it is treated in this way that
alcoholics can actually become non-alcoholic with gradual consumption of
disulfiram. At the same time, it can also be used to treat problems of Melanoma
or problems of immune related diseases.
Ibotenic Acid
Ibotenic acid is produced by Amanita gemnata. Ibotenic acid is an organic
compound which is very close to Muscimol. Actually, they are hydroxy
disoxosol derivative of acetic acid. And this particular compound of Ibotenic
acid and Muscimol will have definite problem related to the brain. It can cause
lesion to the brain. At the same time, it can be blocking the receptors. And
naturally the combinational toxicity of these two, that is Muscimol and Ibotenic
acid, is not good for a person. There will be severe brain lesions which be there
when we consume this type of toxin. It can also be used as a particular drug
which will induce a lesion and thereby if we want to test some antioxidant
compound it can be used in research, that means a lesion is created in an animal
and antioxidant therapy is given to remove the lesion.

Psilocybin
Another important mushroom, Psilocybe azurescens which is producing a
particular toxin called psilocybin.
Psilocybin is actually chemically
a tryptamine. This tryptamine
which is commonly having an
indoor ring, with an ethylamine
side chain, and this particular
tryptamine is produced from
tryptophan which is an essential
amino acid. Tryptophan is
converted to tryptamine. Then it
is converted to that
dimethyltryptamine and then to
psilocin and then to psilocybin.
So very often Psilocybin, when it
gets into our body, it will
produce the more active Psilocin.
And this psilocin, whenever it is
produced, it can act as a drug
which is common to LSD or it
will be a phosphatase inhibitor. It
will actually damage the neural
system in such a way that several
important receptors are blocked
and sometimes we call it a stand still phenomenon that will make a person
totally off from the time perception; he will not understand what time it is, he
will not feel any change and it will be a standstill sort of phenomenon because
of this psilocin activity. It is not alone. Sometimes psilocin may be converted to
different other toxic compounds like the glucuronides or the indole compounds
and these are also having equal toxicity which ultimately, will result in neural
dis-function. Now this particular area of the brain which is affected by the
psilocin or psilocybin is the dorsolateral or the orbitofrontal lobe of the
forebrain and this is commonly representing the prefrontal cortex or the
prefrontal receptor and because of this this person will often actually feel like
that he is away from the world and thereby this will have some sort of spiritual
implication. Very often psilocybin is also given to a person to induce
psychedelic effect. Yet, it will actually have some important changes in the
brain perception. These are the serotonin receptors which are commonly
blocked by psilocin, as a result of which the normal serotonin will not go in.
When serotonin receptors are not functioning, the person will gradually lose the
perception.

Arabinitol
The Arabinitol or arabitol, which is not only
produced from mushroom, it is commonly
produced from Hydnum. At the same time, it is
also produced from yeast like fungi but these are
actually alcohol derivative of arabinose. So, in
human body, sometimes arabinitol is
metabolized to xylulose or to ribulose which are
common sugar involved in different biological
activity. But when it is accumulated in intact
form, it will cause gastro-irritation and this gastric irritation, when it increases
up to a certain level, it will also stimulate the parasympathetic stimulation, as a
result of which, there will be change in the neural perception.