B Y D A V I D L I V I N G S T O N E

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PLATO
and the
KABBBALAH by David Livingstone
Plato and the Kabbalah
Throughout the centuries, leading Jewish mystics and Kabbalists regarded Plato as a student of their doctrines.
Among the prominent Kabbalists of the Renaissance, for example, was Leone Ebreo, who saw Plato as dependent
on the revelation of Moses, and even as a disciple of the ancient Kabbalists. While Rabbi Yehudah Messer Leon,
criticized the Kabbalah’s similarity to Platonism, his son described Plato as a divine master. Other Kabbalists, such
as Isaac Abravanel and Rabbi Yohanan Alemanno, believed Plato to have been a disciple of Jeremiah in Egypt.
“
On the similarity of the teachings of the Greek philosophers and the Kabbalah, Rabbi Abraham Yagel
commented:
This is obvious to anyone who has read what is written on the philosophy and principles
of Democritus, and especially on Plato, the master of Aristotle, whose views are
almost those of the Sages of Israel, and who on some issues almost seems to speak
from the very mouth of the Kabbalists and in their language, without any blemish on
his lips. And why shall we not hold these views, since they are ours, inherited from
“ Zoroaster.
our ancestors by the Greeks, and down to this day great sages hold the views of Plato
and great groups of students follow him, as is well known to anyone who has served
the sage of the Academy and entered their studies, which are found in every land.1
While these claims may at first seem contrived, there is a great deal of evidence to substantiate it, and Greek
philosophy can be demonstrated to be an appropriation of the ideas of the Babylonian Magi, who in turn were
influenced by early Jewish Kabbalistic ideas.
The subject of Persian or Babylonian influences had been a contentious one in the earlier part of the twentieth
century. The subject currently continues to receive attention from several leading scholars, including Walter
Burkert, and M.L. West.
On the whole, however, the idea has yet to penetrate into mainstream circles, because of a xenophobia which
insists on the unique “genius” of the Greeks.
2 3
Ancient Babylon
Although Kabbalists make claims of a much older tradition, the
Kabbalah was incepted in Babylon, when the Jews were held there
in captivity, in the sixth century BC. A faction chose to reclaim their
former status in the Promised Land, and achieve the world domination
they believed was promised to them, through the practice of magic.
Magic is, however, is forbidden in Judaism, and therefore, not to reveal
their apostasy, they created an “interpretation” of the religion, which is
now called Kabbalah.
And, having rejected the Jewish God, their secret interpretation
involved reverence for his enemy, the dying-god of ancient fertility
rites. The dying-god was associated with the Underworld, where he
was said to sojourn in the winter, and from which he was subsequently
resurrected in spring, by his sister, the goddess. As twins, the dying-
god and the goddess were interpreted to represent dual aspects of a
single androgynous deity. Therefore, both came to be symbolized by
the planet Venus, whose original Latin name was Lucifer.
These Kabbalists, however, were confused by ancient historians with Zoroaster, holding a sphere. Detail from The
School of Athens, by Raphael.
the chief priests of the Babylonians, known as the Chaldeans, and with
the priests of the religion of Zoroaster, or Zoroastrianism, known as
Magi. The ancient cult practices of magic and sex-rites that figured in
the cult of the dying-god were incorporated by these Magi, who developed the Mysteries of Mithras, the ancient god
of the Persians.
This fact was pointed out by one of the leading scholars of the twentieth century, Franz Cumont, in Les Mages
Hellenisees, which remains to be translated into English. According to Cumont, those Magi with whom the Greeks
were most familiar were these heretical Zoroastrians, which he called Magussaeans. What I have pointed out in
my own book, The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization, is that the heretical leanings of these
Magi were derived from the principal tenets of the Kabbalah, including dualism, the worship of a dying-god and the
four elements, astrology, pantheism, numerology, and the belief in reincarnation, which were falsely attributed to
“
R. C. Zaehner commented that in many cases the Magi were sorcerers, or demon-worshipers, who were condemned
by orthodox Zoroastrians. Zaehner continues:
The practice of worshipping the demons is also referred to by Clement of Alexandria:
“the Magians”, he says, “worship angels and demons.”2 This as we have seen, is the
practice ... of the “devil-worshippers”, the third Iranian sect mentioned in the Denkart.
With these facts in mind it will, perhaps be safe to conclude that Xerxes, in suppressing
the deava cult, caused a large-scale emigration of dissident Magians. These, after
absorbing much of Babylonian speculation, transported their beliefs to Asia Minor;
“
and from them arose the Graeco-Roman religion of Mithra.3
With the expansion of the Persian Empire in the sixth century BC, the ideas of the Kabbalistic Magi were cultivated
in different parts of the world, mainly in Egypt, and in India, where they went on to influence Buddhism, and most
importantly Greece.
Jewish Influence in Ancient Greece
There were already important hints of Jewish influence in Greece
long before the sixth century BC. However, there are no specific
references to Jews by the Greeks until the third century BC. Therefore,
Herodotus does not mention them, but discusses the “Phoenicians”
and the “Syrians” of Palestine who practiced circumcision.4 In
classical times, the Greeks recognized three great divisions among
themselves: Aeolian, Ionian, and Dorian. According to Greek
mythology, the Ionians and Dorians both derived their origin from a
foreign source, the “Phoenicians”.
An important branch of the Greeks traced themselves back to Cadmus,
the son of Phoenix, from whom the name Phoenician is derived.
The other great branch were known as the Danaans, descended
from Danaus, who came from Egypt, but who was originally believed
to have been a Phoenician. Heccataeus of Abdera, a Greek historian
of the fourth century BC, set out his view that the stories of Danaus
“
Cadmus Kills the Dragon, N. Andre and Cadmus were traditions were related to the Israelite Exodus.
Monsiau, 1754-1837.
Referring to the Egyptians he said:
The natives of the land surmised that unless they removed the foreigners their
troubles would never be resolved. At once, therefore, the aliens were driven from
the country and the most outstanding and active among them branded together and, as
some say, were cast ashore in Greece and certain other regions; their teachers were
notable men, among them being Danaus and Cadmus. But the greater number were
driven into what is now called Judea, which is not far from Egypt and at that time was
“ a Greek philosopher of the sixth century BC, equated the rites
utterly uninhabited. The colony was headed by a man called Moses.5
The Dorians, who were believed to have invaded Greece, were also believed to have been of Phoenician origin. The
Dorian Invasion, which took place in the twelfth century BC, may be connected with the devastation throughout the
Middle East wrought by the controversial Sea Peoples. Among the Sea Peoples were the Denyen, which scholars
have equated with the Israelite Tribe of Dan, as well as the Danaans. A measure of the broader impact of these
conquests is provided by the renaming of territories after various groups of Sea Peoples. After the invasion of
Cyprus, its name was changed from Alashiya to Yadanana, “the isle of the Danunians/Danaoi/Denyen.” The Sikils,
who settled at Dor, also sailed west and gave their name to Sicily, and the Sherden, gave their name to Sardinia.6
The Dorian Invasion was often termed The Return of the Heraklids, their calling themselves Heraklids being a
claim, not only of descent from Hercules, the Greek version of the Phoenician Baal. Ultimately, as related by
Herodotus, the Persians traced the ancestry of Hercules to Perseus, whom they believed to be an “Assyrian.”7 He
“
maintained:
… if we trace the ancestry of the Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, we find that the Dorian
chieftains are genuine Egyptians. This is the accepted Greek version of the genealogy of
the Spartan royal house; the Persians, however, maintain that Perseus was an Assyrian
who adopted Greek nationality; his ancestry, therefore, was not Greek; and the forebears
of Acrisius were not related to Perseus at all, but were Egyptian, which accords with the
Greek version of the story. But there is no need to pursue this subject further. How it
“ the Bacchic orgies.15
happened that Egyptians came to the Peloponnese, and what they did to make themselves
kings in that part of Greece, has been chronicled by other writers.8
It may have been on this basis that, sometime around 300 BC, Areios, King of Sparta, wrote to Jerusalem: “To
4 5
Onias High Priest, greeting. A document has come to light which shows that the Spartans and Jews are kinsmen
descended alike from Abraham.”9 Both books of Maccabees of the Apocrypha mention a link between the Spartans
and Jews. Maccabees 2 speaks of certain Jews “having embarked to go to the Lacedaemonians (Spartans), in hope
of finding protection there because of their kinship.” In Maccabees 1, “It has been found in writing concerning the
Spartans and the Jews that they are brethren and are of the family of Abraham.”10
The Mysteries of Dionysus
Contact between the Greeks and the Magi was effected through the Persian conquest of the Greek city-states of Ionia
in Asia Minor. Greek interest in Oriental teachings resulted in the production of a curious set of pseudoepigraphical
works, written in Greek, and attributed to Zoroaster, his disciple Osthanes, and to his patron Hystaspes. Osthanes,
a supposed disciple of Zoroaster, known as the “prince of the Magi”, was said to have accompanied the Persian
“
Emperor Xerxes on his campaign against Greece as his chief magus. Osthanes, mentioned Pliny, was the first
person to write a book on magic, meaning the art of the Magi, or the Kabbalah:
...and nurtured the seeds, as it were, of this monstrous art, spreading the disease to
all corners of the world on his way. However, some very thorough researchers place
another Zoroaster, who came from Proconnesus, somewhat before Osthanes’ time. One
thing is certain. Osthanes was chiefly responsible for stirring up among the Greeks
“
not merely an appetite but a mad obsession for this art.11
The influence of Mithraic cult of the Magi was adapted by the
Greeks as the cult of Dionysus, or Latin Bacchus. Heraclitus,
of the Bacchants with those of the Magi, and commented: “if it
were for Dionysus that they hold processions and sing hymns
to the shameful parts [phalli], it would be a most shameless
act; but Hades and Dionysus are the same, in whose honor
they go mad and celebrate the Bacchic rites,”12 and of the
“Nightwalkers, Magi, Bacchoi, Lenai, and the initiated,” all
these people he threatens with what happens after death: “for
the secret rites practiced among humans are celebrated in an
unholy manner.”13
The female worshippers of Bacchus, called Maenads, were
supposed to re-enact the tearing and eating of Dionysus by the
Titans, by whipping themselves into a frenzy, and tearing a live bull to pieces with their bare hands and teeth, for
“
the animal in some sense was an incarnation of the god.14 Several descriptions of the rites of the Dionysians are
available from ancient authors. Clement of Alexandria reports:
The raving Dionysus is worshipped by Bacchants with orgies, in which they celebrate
their sacred frenzy by a feast of raw flesh. Wreathed with snakes, they perform
the distribution of portions of their victims, shouting the name Eva (Eua), that Eva
through whom error entered into the world; and a consecrated snake is the emblem of
“
The legendary founder of the rites of Dionysus was known to have been Orpheus. Artapanus, a Jewish philosopher of
the third century BC, declared of Moses that, “as a grown man he was called Musaeus by the Greeks. This Musaeus
was the teacher of Orpheus.” 16 Aristobulus, another Jewish philosopher from the same century, claimed that Orpheus
was a follower of Moses, and quoted the following from an Orphic poem: “I will sing for those for whom it is lawful,
but you uninitiate, close your doors, charged under the laws of the Righteous one, for the Divine has legislated for all
alike. But you, son of the light-bearing moon, Musaeus (Moses), listen, for I proclaim the Truth.”17
Moses was of course not the source of a magic cult that was developed in Babylon in the sixth century BC. Spurious
attributions is the nature of the Kabbalah. It is interesting, however, to note that these writers at least recognized
the Jewish origin of these ideas.
Pythagoras
The great exponent of the Orphic tradition in ancient Greek philosophy
was Pythagoras. According to F. M. Cornford, “whether or not we accept
the hypothesis of direct influence from Persia on the Ionian Greeks in the
sixth century, any student of Orphic and Pythagorean thought cannot fail
to see that the similarities between it and Persian religion are so close as
to warrant our regarding them as expressions of the same view of life, and
using the one system to interpret the other.”18
Though Pythagoras was born on the island of Samos, his father was a
“Phoenician” from Tyre.19 It was apparently following a suggestion by
Thales that Pythagoras had traveled to Egypt, at which point, according to
Apuleius, in his Apology, he was captured by the Persians and taken back
to Babylon along with other prisoners. In Babylon, maintained Porphyry,
Pythagoras was taught by Zaratas, a disciple of Zoroaster, and initiated into
the highest esoteric mysteries of the Zoroastrians.20
According to Iamblichus, Pythagoras traveled to Phoenicia, where “he
conversed with the prophets who were descendants of Moschus (Moses) the
physiologist, and with many others, as well as with the local hierophants.21
Of his ideas, maintained Hermippus, a Greek writer who lived about 200
BC, “Pythagoras practiced and taught these in imitation of the beliefs of
Pythagoras
the Jews and the Thracians, which he had appropriated to himself.”22
Josephus also believed in Pythagoras’ affinity for Jewish ideas: “Now it is plain that he did not only know our
doctrines, but was in very great measure a follower and admirer of them… For it is very truly affirmed of this
Pythagoras, that he took a great many of the laws of the Jews into his own philosophy.”23
Plato
As Bertrand Russell outlines, in the History of Western Philosophy, “from Pythagoras, Orphic elements entered
into the philosophy of Plato, and from Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious.”24 In
antiquity, the reputation of Plato’s purported connection with the Magi was widespread. Therefore, according to
Momigliano, in Alien Wisdom, “it was Plato who made Persian wisdom thoroughly fashionable, though the exact
“
place of Plato in the story is ambiguous and paradoxical.”25 According to Aristobulus, a third century BC Jewish
philosopher:
It is evident that Plato imitated our legislation and that he had investigated thoroughly
each of the elements in it. For it had been translated by others before Demetrius
Phalereus, before the conquests of Alexander and the Persians. The parts concerning
the exodus of the Hebrews, our fellow countrymen, out of Egypt, the fame of all
things that happened to them, the conquest of the land, and the detailed account of
the entire legislation (were translated). So it is very clear that the philosopher
“ the heart of philosophy. Those who study astronomy are
mentioned above took many things (from it). For he was very learned, as was Pythagoras,
who transferred many of our doctrines and integrated them into his own beliefs.26
6 7
The man considered responsible for introducing Magian tenets to Plato was one of his friends, an Ionian
mathematician and astronomer, Eudoxus of Cnidus, who seems to have acted as head of the Academy during
Plato’s absence. Eudoxus is said to have traveled to Babylon and Egypt, studying at Heliopolis, where he learned
“
the priestly wisdom and astrology. According to Pliny, Eudoxus “wished magic to be recognized as the most noble
and useful of the schools of philosophy.”27 In the opinion of Jaeger:
Our material unfortunately does not permit us to evaluate to its full extent the
tremendous influences exercised upon the Platonists by this man. They are connected
in part with the Academy’s admiration for Chaldean and “Syrian” astronomy, from whose
empirical acquaintance with the heavens it had obtained its reckoning of the times of
revolution and its knowledge of the seven planets… In part, again, these tendencies
are connected with the appeal of the religious dualism of the Parsees, which seemed
to lend support to the dualistic metaphysics of Plato’s old age. The bad world-soul
that opposes the good one in the Laws is a tribute to Zarathustra, to whom Plato was
attracted because of the mathematical phase that his idea-theory finally assumed,
and because of the intensified dualism involved therein. From that time onward the
“
Academy was keenly interested in Zarathustra and the teaching of the Magi.28
In the Laws, Plato proposed that the citizens be divided into twelve tribes, each to be named for one of the twelve
gods, and that the focus of the state religion be a joint cult of Apollo and the Sun-god Helios.29 Not only are the
stars described as “the gods in heaven,” the Sun and moon as “great gods,” but Plato insists that prayer and sacrifice
“
should be rendered to them by all. E. R. Dodds, who is skeptical of the extent of Magian influence on Plato’s
thought, is willing to concede that:
…the proposals of the Laws do seem to give the heavenly bodies a religious importance
which they lacked in ordinary Greek cult, though there may have been partial precedents
in Pythagorean thought and usage. And in the Epinomis, which I am inclined to regard
either as Plato’s own work or as put together by his Nachlass (unpublished works), we
meet with something that is certainly Oriental, and is frankly presented as such, the
“
proposal for public worship of the planets.30
The Epinomis, either a work of Plato, or his pupil Philip of Opus, is clearly influenced by the Magi. But the ideas we
find in the book are not reflected in orthodox Zoroastrianism,
but in the heterodox teachings of the Magussaeans, which
are identical to those of the Kabbalah. As for the myths of
the popular gods, Zeus and Hera and the rest, claims the
work, man must accept their accounts as reliable, but the
best and greatest of the gods, are the “visible gods”, the stars
and the seven planets.
That science which makes men most wise, it maintains, is
astronomy, in other words, astrology, for it proffers man with
knowledge of numbers. Because, without the knowledge
of number, it claims, man cannot attain to a knowledge of
virtue. Therefore, the study of the stars and planets is at
the wisest and most happy, and it is they who are to be the
guardians of the ideal state. These doctrines have their
origin among the Chaldeans, who, as Philo of Alexandria
Sun-god Helios and his chariot
explains, “especially cultivated astronomy and ascribed
everything to the movements of the stars, assumed that cosmic phenomena are regulated by forces contained in
numbers and mathematical proportions.”31
Though Plato may not have written the Epinomis, we should expect that he at least would not have denied the origin his Republic with a vision of the afterlife recounted by Er, the son of Armenius, who died in a war but returned to
of his new-found religion, which the author acknowledges as belonging originally to the Egyptians and the Syrians, life to act as a messenger from the other world. He described a heaven and hell where souls are either rewarded or

“
“from when the knowledge has reached to all countries, including our own, after having been tested by thousands punished, and a cosmic vision of the universe, controlled by the Spindle of Necessity and her daughters, the three
of years and time without end.” Though, the work apologizes: Fates, where the Sirens’ song echoed the harmony of the seven spheres.

And let us note that whatever Greeks acquire from foreigners is finally turned by them Colotes, a philosopher of the third century BC, accused Plato of plagiarism, maintaining that he substituted Er’s

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into something nobler; and moreover the same thing must be borne in mind regarding
our present statements – that although it is hard to discover everything of this kind
beyond dispute, there is hope, both strong and noble, that a really nobler and juster
respect than is in the combined repute and worship came from foreigners will be paid
to all these gods by the Greeks, who have the benefit of their various education, their
prophecies from Delphi, and the whole system of worship under their laws.32
“
name for that of Zoroaster. Clement of Alexandria and Proclus quote from a work entitled On Nature, attributed
to Zoroaster, in which he is equated with Er.34 Quoting the opening of the work, Clement mentions:
Zoroaster, then, writes: “These things I wrote, I Zoroaster, the son of Armenius, a
Pamphylian by birth: having died in battle, and been in Hades, I learned them of the

However, the great exposition of Kabbalistic thought in the Greek language is the Timaeus, where Plato treated
its common themes of Time, triads, pantheism, astrology, and the four elements. Plato posits the existence of
three distinct realities, as in the ancient pagan trinity, which he
identifies with a father, a mother, and their offspring. These are:
the model or archetype of creation; the space or receptacle in
which creation was placed; and creation itself. Each is considered
a living being, or a god.
gods.” This Zoroaster, Plato says, having been placed on the funeral pyre, rose again
to life in twelve days. He alludes perchance to the resurrection, or perchance to the
fact that the path for souls to ascension lies through the twelve signs of the zodiac;
and he himself says, that the descending pathway to birth is the same. In the same way
we are to understand the twelve labours of Hercules, after which the soul obtains
“
release from this entire world.35
Ultimately, as Numenius of Apamea remarked, in the late second century AD, “what is Plato, but Moses speaking
in Attic Greek.”36

The universe is suffused with a spirit, the agent of cosmic

sympathy, called the “World-Soul”. The universe, the stars
and planets, are all living gods, and the reflection of the more
perfect model. The revolutions of the astral bodies are regulated 1 Mazref la-Hokhmah, chap. 25, quoted from Idel, “Jewish Kabbalah and Platonism in the Middle Ages and Renaissance”,
according to the Perfect Year, known as the Platonic Great Year, Neoplatonism and Jewish Though, p. 336.
and derived from the Babylonian Great Year, when the Sun, the 2 Stromata, III. 6. 48.
Moon, the planets and the fixed stars will have returned to their 3 Zurvan, A Zoroastrian Dilemma, p. 19
point of departure. The souls of men originate among the stars. 4 The Histories, II:104
5 Diodorus Siculus. XL: 3.2
Those that live well after death return to their native star, but 6 Stager. “Forging an Identity”, The Oxford History of the Biblical World, p. 157
those that live otherwise are reincarnated as women, or for those 7 Bernal, Black Athena, p. 113.
who persist in wrongdoing, return into the bodies of animals. 8 Histories, VI: 54
9 Bernal. Black Athena, p. 110
The purpose of life, according to the Timaeus, is to study astrology, or in other words, Kabbalah. Ultimately, 10 Baigent. Leigh and Lincoln, Holy Blood, Holy Grail, p. 277
according to Plato, man must learn the laws of the revolutions of the spheres, that he may, guided by the revolutions 11 Pliny, Natural History, XXX: 8

“
that are found within himself, tame the irrational feelings that are due to his soul’s contamination with matter, or the 12 Clement. Protreptic, 34.5, quoted fr. A Presocratics Reader, p. 39
13 Clement. Protreptic, 22.2, quoted fr. A Presocratics Reader, p. 39
four elements: 14 Russell. The History of Western Philosophy, p. 37
15 Clement of Alexandria. Exhortation to the Greeks, 2.12
There is of course only one way to look after anything and that is to give it its proper 16 Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica, 9.27 .1-37
food and motions. And the motions are akin to the divine in us are the thoughts and
revolutions of the universe. We should each therefore attend to these motions and by
learning about the harmonious circuits of the universe repair the damage done at birth
to the circuits in our head, and so restore understanding and what is understood to their
original likeness to each other. When that is done we shall have achieved the goal set us
“ 17 Eusebius. 13.13.3-8
18 From Religion to Philosophy, p.176
19 Porphyry. The Life of Pythagoras, 1
20 The Life of Pythagoras, 12
21 The Life of Pythagoras, 3
by the gods, the life that is best for this present time and for all time to come.33 22 Against Apion, 1.163-65
23 Josephus. Flavius Josephus Against Apion, p. 614
It is in the Republic that Plato articulates the need for a totalitarian state to be governed by philosopher-kings. These 24 Russell. The History of Western Philosophy, p.49
elite leaders are to be instructed in Kabbalistic teachings as described in the Timeaus. These ideas he explains in 25 Alien Wisdom, p. 142
26 Eusebius. 13.12.1f.
last chapter of the Republic in what is called the Myth of Er. 27 Natural History, XXX: 3
28 Aristotle, quoted from Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism, p. 259
Most common to the tales or motifs borrowed from the Magi were those dealing with visits to the Underworld, like 29 E. R. Dodds. The Greeks and the Irrational, p. 221
the mystic vision of the Jewish Kabbalists which they called “descent to the Merkabah”. Similarly, Plato concluded 30 The Greeks and the Irrational, p. 233 n. 70
31 De Abrahamo: 68-71

8 9
32 987d-988a
33 Timaeus 90
34 Proclus, In Rem Publicam Platonis, quoted from Bidez & Cumont, Les Mages Hellenisees, t. II, p. 159.
35 Stromata, Book V, Chap 14.
36 Timaeus, vi, 136.
37 Eusebius, Preparation for the Gospel, IX: VI, p. 411a.

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