FLUID MECHANICS and HYDRAULICS represents that branch of applied mechanics

that deals with the laws controlling the behavior of fluids and water in the state of rest and motion.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1. Weight (W) : is the earth’s gravitational pull upon a body, (N).

2. Mass (M) : in the quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given body , (kg).
The relationship between the weight and the mass of a body is,

and W = Mg

3. Specific Weight () or Unit Weight (w) : is the force exerted by the earth’s gravity (g)
upon a unit volume of a substance. Also, the fluid of a unit volume of fluid.

 = g (N / m3) ;  = (N / m3) ; = (N / m3)

4. Mass Density () : of a substance is defined as the mass of the substance contained in a
unit volume.

= (kg / m3) ; =

5. Specific Gravity (s.g.) or Relative Density ( r.d.) of a substance is the ratio of its mass
density to that of water at standard temperature of 4 0 C and atmospheric pressure.

s.g =

6. Viscosity (), dynamic or absolute, is the property of a fluid, which by virtue of cohesion
and interaction between fluid molecules offers resistance to shear deformation.

= (N sec/ m2 )

where ;  = shearing stress

dV = the variation in velocity along a traverse direction dx

7. Kinematic Viscosity (), it is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to mass density.

(m2 / sec)
8. Capillary, it is a phenomena which deflects the liquid surface when it comes in contact with
a solid surface which is due to the intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces. It is the
depression “h” of the liquid in the tube.

9. Surface Tension, it is the attraction between molecules forming an imaginary film capable
of resisting tension at the interface between two liquids.

10. Adhesion, it is the property of a liquid that enables to stick to other body.

11. Cohesion, it is the ability of the fluid to resist tension.

12. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (E), it is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit volume.

Properties of Water

At 40 C
a. Density
a.1 Fresh water :  = 1000 kg/m3
a.2 Salt water :  = 1030 kg/m3
b. Specific Weight
b.1 Fresh water :  = 9810 N/m3
b.2 Salt water :  = 10,000N/m3
c. Specific Gravity : s.g. =1
Types of Pressure

a. Atmospheric or Barometric Pressure, patm

It is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on every surface with which it comes in
contact.
Under normal condition, at sea level
patm = 101.36 kPa
patm = 760 mm of mercury
patm = 10.3o m of water
b. Gage or Relative Pressure, pgage
It is the pressure measured by means of gages above or below the atmospheric level
At sea level ; pgage = 0
c. Absolute Pressure , pabs
It is the intensity of pressure measured above absolute zero.
At sea level :
pabs = 101.36 kPa
pabs = patm + pgage
d. Vacuum, it pertains to space having pressure less than atmospheric pressure.
e. Absolute Zero, it is the temperature at which the liquid possesses miniumal energy equal
to – 273.150 C.

UNIT PRESSURE

Variation of Pressure With Depth in a Fluid

“ In a homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any two points is the
product of the specific weight, , of the fluid and the difference in the elevations of the two points,
h.”

w.s.

h1

h2

h = h2 –h1

The difference in pressure equation is : p2 – p1 =  h

Note :
1. If h = 0, p1 = p2
2. If point 1 lies on the fluid surface and assuming an atmospheric pressure p atm, then p1 = patm.
Hence , the intensity of pressure at point 2 is p 2 = patm +  h, or the pressure at point 2
becomes absolute pressure.
pabs = patm +  h

If  h equals pgage then, pabs = patm + pgage

Pascal’s Law

1. Law of Pascal in Fluid Statics

“ At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions.”
p 1 = p2 = p3

p3
p1

p2
2. Transmission of Pressure Applied on a Hydraulic Press (Jack)

“ The pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally an undiminished
to every other point in the liquid.”

p2 = p 1 +  h
 P1

1 w.s. P2

h 2 w.s.

Fluid

MANOMETRY

Manometry is a pressure-measuring technique by means of tubes usually shape in the form of

U’s and utilizing the principles of hydrostatics.
Types of Manometer

1.Open Manometer (Piezometer) : it is used to measure the pressure with the use of gage
fluid.
2. Differential manometer : it is used to measure pressure difference between two points.
3. Single Tube Manometer : it is also an open manometer but with a reservoir on one of the
leg for the purpose of measuring the pressure from the height of liquid from the other leg
having smaller cross-sectional area .
4. Micromanometer : it is also differential manometer where in a reservoir of large cross is
imtroduce to both leg sfor the puprors

HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVE SURFACE

hc B’ Fv B

c.g. Curve surface AB

e
FH C.P.

A’ A
Vertical projection of
curve surface AB

a. “The horizontal component of the total hydrostatic force on any curve surface is equal to
the total force on the vertical projection of the curve surface. The location of the force is
thru the center of pressure of the projected surface”.

FH=hcA

where: A = area of the projected curve surface

h c = vertical distance of the center of gravity of the projected
surface to the water surface.

b. “ The vertical component of the total hydrostatic force on any curve surface is equal to
the weight of the entire water column, real or imaginary, above the surface extending
vertically to the surface. The location of the force is thru the centroid of the water
column”.

FV=V

where : V = volume of the real or imaginary water column from the

curve surface up to the free water surface.
 DAM

Dam is a large structure constructed across waterways to:

a. control the flow or rise of water level;
b. store water during rainy days;
c. irrigate farmlands;
d. generate electric power;
e. supply industrial and public water necessities; and
f. create lakes for recreations.

Types of dams
1. Hollow gravity buttres dam 4. Arch dam
2. Earth-fill dam 5. Rock-fill dam
3. Gravity dam

Stability of a Dam:

In order for a dam to be stable:

1. There must be no overturning of the dam about the toe;
2. There must be no crushing of the masonry or foundation;
3. There must be no tension at the base;
4. There must be no sliding on the base.

Factor of Safety on the dam:

1. Against Overturning

F.S. = R.M. / O.T.M. ----------ranges from 2 to 3

2. Against Sliding

F.S. =  RV / FH ------ordinarily equal to 1.50 but if with uplift is equal

to 1.20
where :
R.M. = retaining or righting moment
O.T.M. = overturning moment
 = coefficient of sliding friction
RV = net vertical force at the base
FH = net sliding force

Hydrostatic Uplift Force:

In the case of pervious foundation, water percolates underside of the dam and saturates
the foundation causing a buoyant effect on the base. The distribution of pressure due to this uplift
force is not completely known, as there are many factors to consider. So assumptions are usually
made, and the worst condition that may occur is where the pressure is distributed linearly from a
full hydrostatic force at the heel to a full hydrostatic force at the toe.

Heel Toe

U
Pressure distribution at the base of a dam:

1. Resultant vertical force coinciding at the middle of the base.

heel toe

x = B/2
RV
B

RV = p B (1)
p = RV / B(1) ------------uniform pressure

2. Resultant vertical force is at the middle third near the toe.

B/3 B/3 B/3

heel toe

p
x = B/3

RV
B

RV = ½ p B(1)
p = 2 RV / B(1) ----- the intensity of pressure at the toe is twice the
average pressure at the base.

3. Resultant vertical force is within the middle third.

B/3 B/3 B/3

heel toe

pmin pmax

B/2 e x
B
R

p max = RV / B(1) [1 + 6e/B]

e = B/2 - x
p min = RV / B (1) [ 1 – 6e/B]

4. Resultant vertical force is outside the middle third.

B–3x x
heel toe

p min pmax

x
RV
B

RV = ½(3 x ) pmax(1)

Pmax = 2RV / 3 x (1)

HOOP TENSION IN CIRCULAR TANK AND PIPE

The circumferential stress or hoop tension in tank of circular cross-section is determined
by applying the rule for horizontal component of pressure against a curved surface.

BOUYANCY

Archimedes Principle:

“ Any body submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid”

F1
h1
1
j
h2

2
2

F2

Consider an elementary prism along the vertical axis with cross-sectional area dA.
 FV = 0 (Where F2 > F1)

F2 – F1 = FB
 h2 dA -  h1 dA = FB
 (h2 – h1) dA = FB
but: (h2 – h1) dA = volume of the prism
Hence:

FB =  V

where : FB = buoyant force

V = volume of the submerged body
 = unit weight of the fluid

STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY

M
W
W


G
G
D
BO
BO B’O
FB
B x
FB
B S
(a) Upright Position
(b) Tilted position

Notations :

FB = buoyant force
M = metacenter
MG = metacentric height
G = center of gravity of the floating body
BO = center of buoyancy of the body in upright position
B’O = new center of buoyancy of the body in the tilted position
 = angle of tilt
D = depth of floatation

In the tilted position:

MG = MBO + GBO

1. If G is below BO : MG = MBO + GBO

2. If G is above BO : MG = MBO - GBO

where :
a. For any given section : MBO = I / V
I = moment of inertia of the water line section.
V = volume of the submerged portion of the body.
b. For rectangular section : MBO = B2 / 12D [ 1 + tan2  / 2 ]

TRANSLATION AND ROTATION OF LIQUID MASSES

Relative Equilibrium: It is a condition where in a liquid is assumed to be in equilibrium and at
rest with respect to the vessel containing it, but it is neither in equilibrium nor at rest with respect
to the earth.

I. Translation of Liquid Mass:

1. Horizontal Motion
a
a=0 M’
M  O N
N’

(a) uniform motion (b) accelerated motion

a) Liquid masses moving horizontally with uniform motion, i.e., with zero acceleration,
maintain a horizontal surface.

b) Liquid masses moving horizontally with constant acceleration “a” have their surfaces
inclined,
tan  = a / g
where : a = constant acceleration of the vessel
g = acceleration due to gravity
Note:
(1) Without spillage of liquid in the vessel, the new water surface M’N’ will
exactly bisect the original water surface MN. That is, the volume of
liquid originally occupying NON’ will be displaced to occupy MOM’.
(2) The unit pressure at any point below the water surface is p = h.

2. Vertical Motion
The unit pressure at any point in the liquid at
depth h is :

(a) upward acceleration

p=h(1+a/g)

(b) downward acceleration

p=h(1-a/g)

II. Rotation of Liquid Mass

1. Vessel with Free Liquid Surface (Open)

“ Any point in the surface of the liquid, subjected to a velocity about its vertical
axis, will rise above the vertex of the paraboloid, a height equal to the velocity
head of that point”.

h = V2 / 2g
 If V = wr = linear velocity

then : h = w2r2 / 2g

where : w = angular velocity

r = radius of rotation
h = height to which the liquid will rise

Note : (a) If m = n, no liquid will be spilled out of the vessel.

(b) The volume of the paraboloid AOB is one-half of the volume of the
circumscribing cylinder ABCD.

V=½r2h

(c) The pressure at any point below the liquid surface is, p =  h

2. Closed Vessels

(a) When the vessel is filled with liquid an subjected to pressure at the top.

h= 2
/ 2g

a. When the vessel is partially filled with liquid and is not subjected to pressure
at the top.

Air y

h Air
h Air h Air

h<2y h=2y h>2y

(c) When the vessel is filled with liquid and subjected to pressure at the top.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

Types of Flow

1. Laminar Flow: refers to that flow which is void of eddies, that is, the path of individual
particle does not cross or intersect.

2. Turbulent Flow: refers to that flow where the pathlines are irregular curves which
continually cross each other forming a complex network of intersecting pathlines.

3. Steady Flow: of any fluid exists if the velocity at a point remains constant with respect to
time.
V / t = 0 (constant velocity, zero acceleration)

4. Unsteady Flow: of any fluid exists if the velocity changes either in magnitude or in
direction with respect to time.

V / t = 0 (accelerating)

5. Uniform Flow: the flow is said to be uniform if at a given instant the velocity remains
constant with respect to distance along a streamline.

V / s = 0

6. Non – Uniform Flow: the flow is said to be non-uniform if the velocity changes from one
point to point along a streamline.

V / s = 0

7. Continuous Flow: refers to a flow where in the amount of fluid passing every section of
the flowing stream per unit of time is the same.

Q1 = Q2 =Q3 =…..Qn

Forms of Energy:

1. Kinetic Energy: the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. The kinetic
energy of a unit weight of a liquid mass is called the velocity head.

Velocity Head = V2 / 2g
2. Pressure Energy: is the energy due to pressure to which the stream is being subjected.
It is measured by pressure head.

Pressure Head = p / 

3. Elevation Energy: also known as potential energy, is the ability of a liquid mass to do
work by virtue of its elevation or position with respect to an arbitrary datum. The elevation
energy of a unit weight of liquid mass is called the elevation head.

Elevation Head = Z

V2 / 2g

p/
E

Datum Plane

The total energy with respect to a datum plane is:

E = V2/2g + p/ + Z

Power: it is defined as the rate of doing work. It is mathematically expressed as,

 P=QE
where :
P = power in Watts (N.m / Sec)
Q = discharge in m3 / sec
 = unit weight of fluid, N/m3
E = total head in m

Efficiency of motor pump / turbine:

Efficiency = Po / PI (expressed as percent)

Po = power output
PI = power input

Energy Theorem: (Bernoulli’s Theorem)

In general: “ In any two points along a stream line in an ideal fluid in steady flow, the
sum of the kinetic energy per unit volume, the pressure energy per unit volume and the
potential energy per unit volume have the same value”.

2 V2
p2 , A2

Z2

V1

1
p1 , A1
Z1
Datum Plane

Energy Equation: V12 / 2g + p1/  + Z1 = V22 / 2g + p2/  + Z2

Laws of Energy Conservation:

1. Neglecting friction, the total head or the total amount of energy per unit weight of the fluid
is the same at any point in the path of flow.

Considering losses and gains: V12 / 2g + p1/  + Z1 = V22 / 2g + p2/  + Z2

2. With continuous steady flow, the total head or the total amount of energy at any point in
the path of flow is equal to the total head at any downstream point plus the loss of head
between these two points.

Considering losses : V12 / 2g + p1/  + Z1 = V22 / 2g + p2/  + Z2 + HL (1-2)

3. With the presence of a pump between point 1 and 2.

Considering losses and gains; V12/2g + p1/ + Z1+ H.A.= V22/2g + p2/ + Z +HL (1-2)
where :
H.A. = added energy due to pump

4. With the presence of a turbine between point 1 and 2.

Considering losses and gains: V12/2g + p1/ + Z1+ = V22/2g + p2/ + Z + H.E.+HL (1-2)
where:
H.E. = extracted energy from the turbine.

FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

( Immediate Application of the Energy Equation)
1. Venturi-Meter: It is an instrument for measuring discharge through pipes. It consist of a
short tube connected to an approach pipe at the inlet and ends up in a cylindrical section
called the throat.

V12/ 2g
V22/2g
P1 / 
P2 / 
1
2
Inlet
Z1 Throat

Datum Plane

Neglecting Losses : V12 / 2g + p1/  + Z1 = V22 / 2g + p2/  + Z2

2. Nozzle : It is a converging tube attached to the end of a pipe or a hose which serve to
increase the velocity of the issuing jet.

Z2
1
Z1

Datum Plane

Considering Losses: V12 / 2g + p1/  + Z1 = V22 / 2g + p2/  + Z2 + HN

where : HN = V12 / 2g [ 1/Cv2 –1 ] = head loss in nozzle

CV = coefficient of velocity

3. Pitot Tube : It is a L-shaped vent tube with both ends open used for measuring the
velocity of liquids.
 FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

Pipes are closed conduit through which liquid or gasses flow. In hydraulics, pipes are commonly
called as conduits of circular cross-section, which flow full. Conduits flowing partially full are
considered open channel.

Reynold’s Number

Recent research in flow analysis has shown that fluid is dependent upon many factors
such as the force of gravity, viscosity, surface tension and elasticity. A criterion of the relative
effect of gravitational and viscous forces on fluid is known as the Reynold’s Number which is
given by

R e = VD /  = VD / g
or: R e = VD / 
where :
D = pipe internal diameter (m)
V = mean velocity (m/sec)
 = mass density (kg/m3)
 = dynamic viscosity ( Pa-sec)
 = Kinematic viscosity (m2/sec)
 = specific weight of fluid
g = pull of gravity

For values of Re less than 2000 flow is certain to be laminar. Between 2000 and 3000 the
flow is unstable and may be either laminar or turbulent or may alternate from one to the other.
Above 3000 the flow is predominantly turbulent.

Head Losses in Pipe Flow:

1. Major Loss , hf : This is a continuous loss due to friction between the pipe wall and the
fluid.
a. Laminar Flow: (Re < 2000)

Hagen-Poiseuille Equation: h f = (64/Re)(L/D)(V2/2g)

b. Turbulent Flow: (Re > 3000)

b.1 Darcy-Weisbach Equation

h f = f (L/D)(V2/2g) ----------------- loss in terms of velocity

h f = 0.0826 f LQ2 /D5 -------------loss in terms of discharge

b.2 Manning-Chezy Equation

h f = 6.35 n2 LV2/ D4/3 --------------loss in terms of velocity

h f = 10.3 n2 LQ2/ D16/3 ------------loss in terms of discharge

where:
h f = friction loss
f = 64 /Re = friction factor
n = roughness coeeficient
L = pipe length in meters
D = Pipe diameter in meters

2. Minor Losses, H: These are losses due to local disturbances affecting the velocity and
flow direction.

a. Head loss due to sudden contraction of the pipe section, hC.

b. Head loss due to sudden enlargement of the pipe section, he
 c. Head loss due to obstruction caused by gates or valves, ho.
d. Head loss due to pipe bend, hb.

H = K V2 /2g

Pipe System (Total Pipe Losses in Series and Parallel Pipes)

1. Pipes in Series

Q1 Q2 Q3

pipe 1 pipe 3
pipe 2

Total head loss: HL = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

Discharge: Q1 = Q2 = Q3

2. Pipes in Parallel
Q2
pipe 2

Q1 Q3 Q5

pipe 1 pipe 3 pipe 5

Q4

pipe 4

Head losses : h f2 = h f3 = hf4

Total head loss : HL = h f 1 + h f 2 + h f 5
HL = h f 1 + h f 3 + h f 5
HL = h f 1 + h f 4 + h f 5
Discharge: Q1 = Q5 and Q 1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4

3. Pipes in Series and Parallel

Q3
( 2 ) Q2 ( (3)
Q1 Q4 Q5

(1) (4) (5)

Head losses : h f4 = h f2 + h f3
Total head loss : HL = h f 1 + h f 4 + h f 5
HL = h f 1 + h f 2 + h f 3 + h f 5
Discharge: Q1 = Q5
Q2 = Q3
Q1 = Q2 + Q4

4. Branching Pipes ( Three-Reservoir Problem)

4.1 If reservoir A will supply B and C : (a) Q1 = Q2 + Q3 ; (b) HL(A-B) = hf1 + hf2
(c) HL(B-C) = hf3 – hf2
4.2 If reservoir A and B will supply C : (a) Q1 + Q2 = Q3 ; (b) HL(A-B) = hf1 - hf2
(c) HL(B-C) = hf2 + hf3

Energy Gradient
A

Piezometer B
Q1 (1)
(2)
Q2
Junction (3)
Q3 C

ORIFICES, TUBES and WEIRS

Orifice – it is an opening in a closed perimeter of regular form such as square, rectangle or
triangular through which fluid flows. The purpose of orifice is to measure or control flow of fluid.

Tube – also an opening but with prolong sides through which fluid flows and whose length is at
least three times diameter.

Weir – it is a structure built-across an open channel for the purpose of measuring fluid flow.
Generally, weirs are classified according to their shape, in particular are, suppressed and
contracted rectangular weir, triangular or V-notch weir and trapezoidal weir.

ORIFICES:

A. Flow Coefficients:

1. Coefficient of Velocity : It is the ratio between the actual and mean velocity ,V a and the
theoretical velocity ,Vt.

CV = ----------average value ranges from 0.96 to 0.99

2. Coefficient of Contraction : It is the ratio of the cross-sectional area at the vena-

contracta, a, to the area of the orifice, Ao .
Cc= ----------- average value ranges from 0.61 to 0.63
3. Coefficient of Discharge : It is the ratio of the actual discharge, Qa and the theoritical
discharge, Qt. Also, it is the product of the coefficient of contraction and the coefficient of
velocity.

C= ----------average value ranges from 0.60 to 0.62

or, C =

Velocity of Discharge, V t : The velocity of discharge through an orifice is given by the

equation.

Vt =

Actual Discharge, Qa : The actual discharge is given by the equation.

Qa = = ( Cc Ao )( Cv Vt ) = Ao Cc Cv Vt
Q a = Ao C

where : H = total head causing flow

Head Loss in an Orifice, HL: HL =

HL = H – Cv2 H

B. Flow Through Orifice:

1. Coordinate Method of Jet Velocity

a. Inclined Velocity

Viy Vi

 X
O Vix y

x
Vf

Working equations from rectilinear motion

a. V f = V i + a t
b. V f 2 = V i 2 + 2 a s
c. S = V i ( t ) + ½ a t 2

b. Horizontal Velocity

V i = Vix
 y
V iy = 0

From: S=Vi(t)+½at2
x = Vix ( t )
y=½gt2

(c) Relationship of Vi and the coordinates x and y.

Vi =

C. Discharge under a Falling or Rising Head

Constant Qi
L.S. ( t = 0 )
dh

h1 L.S. ( t = t )
h2 h

Qo
Q i = inflow
Q o = outflow or discharge

The general equation of time “t” to reduce the head from h 1 to h 2 is :

dt = =

where :
A s = area of the liquid surface at any head “h”

Case I. When Q i = 0, the surface drops and the volume decreases or < 0.

The rate of change in the volume of the contained liquid is the outflow, Q o.

- Q o = - C Ao
f the time in the interval h2 < h < h1 is required, then

t=-

t=

Case II. When Qi Qo at time t = 0.

Two related sub-cases under this condition:

a. Qi < Qo : The liquid surface drops as in the first case.

t=

b. Qi > Qo : The liquid surface rises and the volume increase or > 0.

t =
WEIRS

W.S. Crest

H Nappe

Va
P
Weir Plate

Channel bed
Profile

Common Weir Formula for Discharge:

1. Rectangular Suppressed Weir ( L = W )

w.s.

L
Crest

Section BOTH END CONTRACTION

Francis’ Equation:
a. Without velocity of approach

Q a = 1.84 L H 3/2

b. With velocity of approach, Va

Q a = 1.84 L [ ( H + h v ) 3/2 – h v3/2 ]

where : h v = Va2 / 2g -----------velocity head

Other Weir Formula: Qa =
where : C’ = coefficient of discharge

2. Rectangular Contracted Weir

w.s.

Crest

0.1H L’ 0.1H

a. For one end contraction: Q a = 1.84 L’ H 3/2 = 1.84 ( L – 0.1 H ) H 3/2

b. For two end contraction : Q a = 1.84 L’ H 3/2 = 1.84 ( L – 0.2 H ) H 3/2

where : H = head of water

3. Triangular Weir
L
w.s.
 H a. Q a = 5/2

 where C’ = discharge coefficient

b. Q a = 1.4 tan
c. For 900 V – notch weir :
Q a = 1.4

4. Trapezoidal Weir
w.s.
H Qa= C’ L + C” tan

/2 /2 where C’and C”are coefficient of discharge

L For Cippolletti Weir ( tan = )

Qa = 1.859 L H 3/2

FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

Open Channel – a term used to define all natural streams and artificial canals having surfaces
exposed to the pressure of the atmosphere Also, all forms of closed conduits that flow partially full
are categorized as open channels.

Classification of channels
1. Artificial : which include irrigation canals, sewers etc.
2. Natural : which include rivers, brooks, estuaries, etc.

Types of Flow in Open Channel

1. Uniform Flow
2. Non-Uniform Flow

A. Uniform Flow Condition in Open Channel

hf
V12/2g
w.s. V22/2g

d1
d2

A
Z1
Z2
(1) (2)

Open Channel Formula:

1. Manning’s Equation
V= R 2/3 S 1/2
2. Chezy’s Equation
V =C
where, according to Kutter:
 C =

and, according to Bazin:

C =

where:
n and m = roughness coefficient
V = mean velocity
S = slope of the energy gradient
R= = hydraulic radius
A = cross – sectional area of channel
P = wetted perimeter

Optimum Channel Section : The optimum open channel section or section with the greatest
hydraulic efficiency ( also the most advantageous or most economical section ) is the one which,
for a given area (A), slope (S), and roughness coefficient (n) will provide the greatest discharge.
Moreover, this section is the one having the smallest wetted perimeter.

1. Rectangular section

w.s.
Properties of Efficiency:

d a). b = 2d
b). R =
b

2. Trapezoidal Section

x Properties
of Efficiency w.s. 1. If side
slope is not given: a)
 = 300 b)
R= S   S c)
b=S
d) x = 2S
b 2) If side slope is
given: R=

3. Triangular Section

L
Property
of Efficiency:

L =2d d

4. Semi-circular Section
D
w.s.

Property of Efficiency:

d d=

5. Circular Section

Critical depth of flow: d =

94%D
Section Properties:
1. Area with
in the waterline section
D d A=
2. Wetted perimeter
P=

Note:
1. Of all open channel cross-section, having a given area, the semi-circle has the
smallest wetted perimeter.
2. Of all trapezoidal section, for a given area, the half hexagon has the smallest
wetted perimeter.

B. Non-Uniform Flow Condition in Open Channel

Critical depth of flow, dc ,

A critical depth is the depth of flow for which a maximum discharge is attained. It
can be expressed in the following equation.

a. in terms of discharge, q: dc =

where: q = discharge per meter length of channel bed

b. in terms of a total head, Es: dc= Es
Hydraulic Jump

A hydraulic jump is an abrupt rise in water surface, which results from retarding water
flowing at lower stage. The change is from a depth less than the critical depth to one greater than
the critical. However, due to the loss of head in the jump, the total energy after the jump is less
than the alternate stage before the jump.

Energy Gradient
hf

V2
dc d2
V1 d1

(1) (2)

The relationship of discharge, q, (per meter strip of the channel)

and the depth of flow in the hydraulic jump is given by the equation:

HYDRODYNAMICS ( Reversed Effective Force)

The fundamental basis of hydrodynamics are the three laws of Newton:

1. Law of Inertia: A body at rest or in a uniform motion along a straight line will remain in
that state unless impelled by an external force to change that state.
2. Law of Acceleration : A body acted upon by an unbalance force will have an
acceleration directly proportional to the force acting it.

From: F= = = =

If : M1 = = mass impinging per unit of time

Then : F= = force exerted by an object on the fluid.

3. Law of Reaction: To every action, there is always an opposite and equal reaction.

Hence, the force exerted by the fluid against the object is,

F =

Forces exerted by a Jet in Open Channel:

V2 =V
1. On curved stationary surface.
Fy

V1 =V Fx 
Px

Py

Fx = M1 ( V - Vcos )
Fx = M1V ( 1 - cos ) = force exerted by the fluid on the object along the X-direction
Fy = -M1 V sin = force exerted by the fluid on the object along the Y-direction

Px = M1V ( cos - 1) = force exerted by the object on the fluid along the X-direction
Py = M1 V sin = force exerted by the object on the fluid along the Y-direction

2. On flat stationary surface.

 Fy = 0

V = V1 V2 = 0
Px
V Fx

Fy = 0
Fx = M1V ( 1 – cos 900 ) = M1 V

3. On jet deflected through 1800.

Fy = 0
Fx = M1V ( 1 – 1800 ) = 2 M1V

4. On moving object in the same direction as the jet.

Fy = -M1 ( V – v ) sin

Fx = M1 ( V – v ) (1-cos )

where :  = angle to which the jet makes with the horizontal axis
v = velocity of the object in the same direction as the jet
V = velocity of the jet