EPQ Full Project Version 2

What is the reason for
Aerodynamic Lift?
A paper submitted
in fulfilment of the requirements
for the
Extended Project Qualification
By
Arunabh Bagchi
To,
SAINT OLAVE’S GRAMMAR SCHOOL
FEBRUARY 2021
What is the reason for Aerodynamic Lift? |2
Table of Contents
Table of Figures........................................................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 4
Project Proposal Form................................................................................................................................... 5
Project Activity Log.................................................................................................................................... 10
RESEARCH REVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 16
1 - Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 16
2 - Primary Research ............................................................................................................................... 16
3 - Secondary Research ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 - Educational Videos and Documentaries ..................................................................................... 17
3.2 - Background reading and articles on the internet ........................................................................ 18
4 - Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 19
NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................................................. 20
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... 21
HISTORY .................................................................................................................................................. 21
DISSERTATION ...................................................................................................................................... 22
1 – Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 22
2 – The Lift Equation .............................................................................................................................. 22
3 – Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................... 23
4 – Airfoil Characteristics ....................................................................................................................... 24
5 – Jet Propulsion .................................................................................................................................... 25
6 – Lift Generation .................................................................................................................................. 27
6.1 – Theory One: The Popular Explanation of Lift ........................................................................... 27
6.1.1 - Assumption 1: Path difference............................................................................................ 27
6.1.2 - Assumption 2: Flows leaving and joining at the same time ............................................... 27
6.1.3 - Assumption 3: Pressure variation resulting in velocity variation ........................................ 29
6.2 – Theory Two: The Venturi theory ............................................................................................... 29
6.3 – Theory Three: The Principle of Flow Turning ........................................................................... 30
6.4 – Theory Four: Lift from Shape .................................................................................................... 31
6.4.1 - Pressure fields along straight streamlines ............................................................................ 31
6.4.2 - Pressure fields across curved streamlines ............................................................................ 32
6.4.3 - Lift generation from curved airflow .................................................................................... 32
7 – Shape of airfoils and angles of attack ............................................................................................... 34
8 – Vortex Lift ........................................................................................................................................ 34
9 – Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 35
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................ 35
1 – Bernoulli’s Principle ......................................................................................................................... 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 39
1 - In Text References ............................................................................................................................. 39
2 - Other References ............................................................................................................................... 39
3 - Figure References .............................................................................................................................. 40
EVALUATION ......................................................................................................................................... 42
1 - How has the process helped me? ....................................................................................................... 42
2 - How have I improved since the HPQ? .............................................................................................. 42
3 - What obstacles did I face and how did I tackle them?....................................................................... 43
4 - What can I improve on?..................................................................................................................... 43
5 - Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 43
PRESENTATION SLIDES ...................................................................................................................... 45
Table of Figures
Figure 1 - Diagram to show the four forces on an aircraft .......................................................................... 23
Figure 2 - Diagram to show the airfoil of a commercial airliner ................................................................ 24
Figure 3 - Graph to show how lift coefficient varies with angle of attack.................................................. 24
Figure 4 - Diagram to show internal components of a turbofan engine...................................................... 25
Figure 5 - Diagram to illustrate the 10:1 bypass ratio of a turbofan engine ............................................... 25
Figure 6 - Diagram of a zero-bypass turbojet engine.................................................................................. 26
Figure 7 - Diagram to show the Venturi effect in an hourglass pipe .......................................................... 29
Figure 8 – Diagram to demonstrate how air were to be constricted if there were “walls” ......................... 30
Figure 9 - Diagram to show how the flow curves along the surfaces of the airfoil .................................... 30
Figure 10 - Diagram to show the balance of forces on a fluid element ...................................................... 31
Figure 11 - Diagram and graph to show pressure variance across a streamline ......................................... 31
Figure 12 - Diagram to show pressure variance across a curved streamline .............................................. 32
Figure 13 - Diagram to highlight curvature of streamlines in a vortex ....................................................... 32
Figure 14 - Image to show how the shape of streamlines around an airfoil ............................................... 32
Figure 15 - Diagram to show the curved flowfield around an airfoil ......................................................... 33
Figure 16 - Diagram to show flat airfoil generating lift .............................................................................. 34
Figure 17 - Simulation to show streamline pattern generated by a cambered airfoil.................................. 34
Figure 18 - Simulation to show streamline pattern generated by a thicker airfoil ...................................... 34
Figure 19 - Diagram to show vortices generated along the delta wing ....................................................... 34
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Mrs. Kemal and Mr. Birtchnell for giving me the opportunity to
write an EPQ, and for making sure that the process runs smoothly and effortlessly.
I shall be failing in my duty, if I do not put-on record that I have been helped by numerous individuals
throughout the course of the EPQ.
I greatly appreciate the excellent efforts of my supervisor Mr Jewson, in providing me the
inspiration to complete my project. Working with him was a learning experience in more ways
than one.
I sincerely thank Dr. Holger Babinsky from the University of Cambridge, for assisting me via
email when I ran into problems while tackling the nuances of his theory of lift.
I owe my caring friends for their support and warm presence.
Finally, it is difficult for me to find words to express my thankfulness to my parents, whose blessings and
words of encouragement have enabled me to complete this project.
Arunabh Bagchi
All footnotes within this document provide a short reference to the associated
resource. A full reference can be viewed in the bibliography located at the end of
this paper
Project Proposal Form

Learner Name Arunabh Bagchi Learner number 4012
Centre Name St. Olave’s Grammar School Centre Number 14285
Teacher Assessor Andrew Jewson Date 27/06/20
Unit P 301
Proposed project title What is the reason for aerodynamic lift?
Section One: Title, objective, responsibilities

Title or working title of project (in the form of a question, commission or design brief)
What is the real reason behind flight?
Project objectives (eg, what is the question you want to answer? What do you want to learn how to do? What do you
want to find out?):
For years now, the true theory of lift generation for flight has been debated upon, resulting in many
misconceptions arising, which have slipped their way into reputed websites, articles, and textbooks.
However, it seems that the mystery has finally been put to bed. Hence, I would like to dedicate the next
few months into researching the theories about lift generation, looking through fragmented earlier
explanations, finishing off with the real reason behind flight, and then presenting my findings to my
peers and educators.
Hence, I would like to:

a) Truly understand the correct theory about lift and remove any misconceptions that people may
have.
b) Expand my knowledge into new areas of Physics such as fluid dynamics.
c) Improve my time-management which will be a useful tool in the future, along with my ability
clearly reference and analyse sources.
d) Improve my essay writing skills, helping me to convey my thoughts and ideas in an informative
but concise manner.
e) Ultimately engage in a large project of this calibre, which provide an insight into a method for
potential degree-level projects at university.
If it is a group project, what will your responsibilities be?

N/A
Section Two: Reasons for choosing this project
Reasons for choosing the project (eg, links to other subjects you are studying, personal interest, future plans,
knowledge/skills you want to improve, why the topic is important):
- I would like to study Physics at university, and even as a child I have always been an inquisitive,
curious, and a rather annoying person for my constant need to know how things around me
work. This, as well as a fascination for aircraft has led me to choose this binding topic, which
explores the fundamental Physics behind one of the greatest machines ever created.
- Along my academic journey I have been exposed to many misconceptions that have negatively
impacted my learning. I would like to use this opportunity to educate anyone who may read my
project, on the pure, unadulterated truth, so that they can leave with a sense of satisfaction
and fulfilment.
Section Three: Activities and timescales

Activities to be carried out during the project (eg, research, development and analysis How long this will take:
of ideas, writing, data collection, numerical analysis, rehearsal techniques, production
meetings, production of final outcome, administration, evaluation, preparing for the
presentation, etc):
1) Completing the project proposal form and making a start to the (3 hours) – Before
project activity log. Summer Holidays (SH)
2) Research information available from sources such as: books, (going

to a local library), online interviews with Physics teachers, and
reading articles from reliable online sources. Furthermore, services (22 hours)
such as YouTube can be highly useful, and can provide a more
audio-visual representation and explanation.
3) Using this research, to write the drafts for my introduction and

research review (which will be a document analysing all sources (15 hours)
used in great detail), and also starting a bibliography, to record all
SH
sources used.
4) Create a plan for the dissertation – This will include how I will (5 hours)
organise the essay into all the subsections – such as an individual
section for basic flight principles, Bernoulli’s theorem etc…
(20 hours)
5) Write the first draft for the dissertation – this should also include a
glossary composed of technically difficult terms
(15 hours)
6) Deep development and evaluation of the research review and

dissertation, fine tuning, referencing sources in the bibliography,
taking advice from my instructor to alter word-phrasing, content (4 hours)
etc. This will culminate in another draft.
(4 hours)
7) Write the evaluation

(10 hours)
8) Edit the Dissertation, Research review, introduction, evaluation etc.
for the final draft in December
9) Preparation of the slides of a proposed “PowerPoint” presentation (7 hours)

to visually display my work during the time of my speech, and to aid
the flow of my presentation, ultimately to help the listeners
understand my project with relative ease.
(10 hours)
10) Also, using the dissertation to make a speech – this will require
particular effort, as reducing the gargantuan dissertation to a short
15 mins presentation will be difficult (5 hours)
11) Rehearsing the speech, preparing for questions, and enhancing and
GRAND TOTAL: 120
making little but important refinements to the document to make a
hours
finished project report.
Throughout the project duration, continual updating of the Project activity

Log will be required.
Milestone one: First Draft
By this milestone:
1) Research all aspects of the topic by the end of summer

2) Complete introduction and research review
3) Complete the full essay and edit it
4) Write bibliography
Target date (set by tutor-assessor): October Half term
Milestone two: Final Draft
By this milestone:
5) Fine tune all parts of the project – ensuring that the dates on the activity log are all correct as
well
6) Make sure that any added information is correctly referenced in the bibliography
7) Complete the evaluation and edit
8) Make a start in planning the presentation
Target date (set by tutor-assessor): Christmas
Section Four: Resources
What resources will you need for your research, write up and presentation (eg, libraries, books, journals, equipment,
rehearsal space, technology and equipment, venue, physical resources, finance):
At the moment I have compiled a few potential websites and other sources of information:
a) Books (Secondary)
i) “Jet Engines: Fundamentals of theory, design and operation” – Hunecke
b) Interviewing experts in the field

i) Organising an online interview with a school Physics teacher
c) Websites – Online articles, blog posts etc.

i) https://www.grc.nasa.gov/
ii) https://aerospaceengineeringblog.com/how-do-wings-work/
iii) https://www.explainthatstuff.com/jetengine.html
iv) https://www.geaviation.com/commercial/engines
v) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-bernoullis-
equation
d) Videos, Lectures, and animations

i) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w78JT6azrZU
ii) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QY2pS-xXC_U
iii) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmsRw0gmOFI
iv) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjiUUJdPGX0
What your areas of research will cover?
- Firstly, I would like to discuss the basic principles behind flight, looking into the simple
Newtonian Mechanics which explains how aircraft stay in the air
- Next, I want to explore the engineering behind jet engines, as these are the machines that
produce thrust and hence lift
- Then I will look into the different theories for lift, and then finish with the one which is correct
- Other areas I may research include the significance of wing design, and impact on speed due to
type of jet engine.
Comments and agreement from tutor-assessor
Is the learner taking this project as part of the Diploma? Yes/No
If yes, which Diploma are they taking? ______________________________________________
Comments (optional):
Is project derived from work which has been/will be submitted for another qualification? Yes/No
Which qualification (title and unit)? _______________________________________________

I confirm that the project is not work which has been or will be submitted for another qualification and is
appropriate.
Agreed: (name) (date)
Comments and agreement from project proposal checker
I confirm that the project is appropriate.
Agreed: (name) (date)

W h a t i s t h e r e a s o n f o r A e r o d y n a m i c L i f t ? | 10
Project Activity Log

Learner Name Arunabh Bagchi Learner number 4012
Centre Name St. Olave’s Grammar School Centre Number 14285
Unit Name Dissertation Unit number P 301
Teacher Assessor Andrew Jewson
Proposed project title What is the reason for aerodynamic lift?
This form should be used to record the process of your project and be submitted as evidence with the final piece of
work.
You may want to discuss:
• what you have done (eg, from one week to the next)
• if you are working in a group, what discussions you have had
• any changes that you have or will need to make to your plans
• what resources you have found or hope to find
Date Comments
After having sent out my PPF and receiving confirmation, I am now going to embark on my EPQ
14/07/2020 journey. I have already completed the HPQ and it seems that the EPQ is just a longer format of the
same fundamental project so I feel that I have some good experience under my belt to take into this
(Intro) project. I have chosen the topic of flight as aeroplanes have always fascinated me since the beginning,
yet their mechanics are somewhat contreversial. So for me, using this opportunity to learn about
something I love, as well as debunking modern myths is a complete package. At the moment I am in
the process of formulating a preliminary plan for my dissertation, to guide me on what I should be
researching. I know that I would like to start with a short introduction about the simple forces behind
flight. Then progress onto how these forces are generated by talking about jet engines and their
different types and then eventually move onto how lift is generated.
14/07/2020 Today I did some research behind the incorrect theorems of flight, through a video on YouTube by
(Research) Professor Holger Babinsky, from the University of Cambridge. He described the pitfalls in the Equal-
time argument and showed how it is flawed in real life scenarios as well, by demonstrating the flow of
air around an aerofoil in a wind tunnel. This video will also cover the supposed correct theory of
flight, and I aim to do this within the next two weeks
31/07/2020 It has been a busy few weeks for me, wrapping up school work and focussing on preparation for the
(Research) Physics Aptitude Test (for Oxford) in November. Today I continued with the video, where he starts by
showing how people wrongly apply Bernoulli’s theorem to the demonstration of a paper fluttering: The
most important idea is that Bernoulli’s theorem only works along a streamline, and not along two or
more simultaneously – and that’s due to the fact that the Bernoulli constant for each of the
streamlines is completely different, meaning that the two equations for velocity cannot be equated.
Equations can only be formulated when the principle is being applied on two points along the same
streamline.
Date Comments
02/08/20 Now he moves on the alternative theory for lift: By first modelling a single unit of air, he postulates
(Research) that the only forces acting on the unit is the air pressure, and that friction and weight can be
disregarded as their effects are negligible. Furthermore, the fluid (air) must be treated as
incompressible and steady. Through these assumptions, we can progress to the main bulk of the idea
that in a curved streamline, there must be a pressure difference, and the reason for this being
centripetal acceleration. When any object moves in a curved path, it experiences a resultant force
(since its velocity is changing). This force is towards the centre of the circular path that an object
creates when it turns. For this to occur, there must be a larger pressure on the top of our fluid unit
compared to the bottom. This will ensure that there is a ‘resultant pressure’ perpendicular to the
unit’s linear velocity, and hence a resultant force, allowing for centripetal acceleration to occur, so
the unit can follow the curved streamline. This creates a pressure gradient, with pressure getting
smaller and smaller as you get towards the centre of curvature. This also expresses how whirlpools
have regions of intense low pressure at their centres, and proves why hurricanes suck air into
centres
In the final part he moves onto talking about how this shows that the curved surface of the aerofoil at
14/08/20 the top causes a lower pressure at the top compared to at the bottom, resulting in a net force
upwards, pushing the plane into the sky. With this very principle, aeroplanes can fly, and are currently
(Research) the safest mode of transport. Although the best wing design would be an extremely curvy and lean
shape, it would have virtually no structural stability – resulting in the thick wing cross-section we see
now, which still produces considerable lift.
21/08/20 Today I did some recap of the video, and some more deep reading into other theories. My current aim
(Research) for the lift section of my dissertation, is to talk about Bernoulli’s principle and the equal-time
argument, then talk about Newton’s theory of flow turning and its interpretations, and then end with
Babinsky’s theory. Also, I thought about how planes have been designed even when the qualitative
physics is controversial. That’s due to engineers strictly using mathematical equations and modelling,
which we refer to as the technical argument. But it is the non-technical argument which is a topic of
debate – essentially, we can do the maths but we don’t know why. Here’s the article for my quick
reference. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/no-one-can-explain-why-planes-stay-in-the-air/
I also derived the Bernoulli equation, which I will include in my dissertation, but I need to find some
sort of equation editor to enable me to show my working on word.
Here’s a to-do list for the next few days: Learn about the Coanda Effect and how it causes the air to
turn, Read on particle kinetic theory at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aa2kBZAoXg0 (8:31) and
then move onto N3’s explanation
22/08/20 Today’s research entailed the Physics behind jet engines. Within my dissertation I would like to talk
(Research) about how aircraft gain linear velocity – which then ensure that lift can be generated. To summarise,
jet engines suck in air, pressurise it through a series of compressor tubes, ignfite it with fuel, and push
it out the back. The force applied to push the air back, results in an equal and opposite force acting on
the aeroplane (due to Newton’s third law), causing the plane to accelerate forwards. It is striking how
even Newton’s laws are the fundamentals of every complicated process. I also learnt that jet engines
can be classified depending on the amount of air they bypass – a high bypass ratio engine is one which
allows a large proportion of incoming air to be transported around the engine core, rather than it. This
results in the same amount of thrust but overall, the engine guzzles less fuel.
29/08/20 Research for today encompassed the understanding of the Coanda Effect. This is when a fluid flows
along the contour of a surface (i.e. sticking to the surface). This is what you see when you try to pour
(Research) a drink and the fluid runs along the side of the glass. The Coanda effect results fluid curving around
the surface of an aerofoil, allowing for lift to be generated.
02/09/20 Today I am starting on my Research review. Having completed the HPQ, I have a fairly good
understanding of the requirements of this. Although I am quite annoyed that I haven’t found any sort
primary evidence, but in my defence, there does not seem much of a basis to do an accurate
questionnaire of some sort because I don’t think many of my peers know about lift theories and
related concepts.
Date Comments
16/09/20 Today I asked Mr Jewson (who has a degree in Aeronautical Engineering) if he could give me some
insight into lift theories – this would be a great source of primary research, and I am confident in its
validity. I am also thinking of starting the first section of my dissertation, which will be on the basics
behind flight, and the functioning of jet engines.
22/09/20 Today I had a meeting with Mr Jewson to discuss my topic. I started by introducing what I had learnt
from my previous research – I explained that lift is generated due to there existing a centripetal force
on a fluid, as a result of a pressure gradient across the fluid flow. But he posed an interesting
question: Why is there a pressure gradient? He explained this by using Bernoulli’s theorem – that the
velocities decrease as you go further into the top of the wing – and hence pressure increases. It was a
really productive chat and now luckily he is now my EPQ supervisor!
27/09/20 Having had the meeting I have spent the next few days listening to the recording of our conversation
and making notes from it – the use of Bernoulli’s theorem to explain the reason why a pressure field is
formed is absolutely key and I need to ensure that I have solidified this concept.
1/10/2020 I can now add some sorely needed primary research to my research review! I also read a bit more what
the angle of attack means (the angle between the oncoming air or relative wind and a reference line
on an airfoil). Reading a bit about Concorde, it was fascinating to see that its Ogival Delta wing
required such a high angle of attack at take off and landing, and that one could observe conical
vortices forming on the edges of the wings
5/10/20 Unfortunately, I have now been swamped with exams, so doing any EPQ work may be tough – but the
search for a complete understanding of Lift continues! I also decided that I want to change my title –
before, it was rather vague and not to the point. I have now changed it to “What is the reason behind
Aerodynamic lift?”
15/10/20 Now that I have got some time to do some EPQ, I am going to make a plan for the dissertation – as I said
earlier I am going to work with the following set out:
- Start with an introduction about how flight works – i.e. in terms of forces and Newton’s laws
- Then move into a short history of flight – I want to include the Wright Brothers and their
journey to producing the first aircraft
- The next section will be on jet engines – There is no point in talking about lift generation If I
am not discussing how an aircraft actually picks up enough speed so that lift is generated then
my EPQ will seem a little fragmented
- Now moving onto the main section: First I will introduce the incorrect theories of lift, such as
the equal time argument etc. Then I will move over to what can be described as a more
complete theory of lift.
- I am also thinking of including the way wing engineers calculate the lift that a wing can
produce, and the mathematics and modelling behind it – but I will need to do a bit more
research on that.
And then finally end with a concluding statement.
20/10/20 Now I have completed all of the exams for this half term, I can now start the dissertation today. Also I
decided to email Professor Babinsky about some queries of how his theory works and surprisingly he
replied! And now I have some special lab pictures to go with my dissertation
22/10/20 By today, I have completed the introduction. I realised that it would be split up better into 3 separate
sections – my abstract, history of aviation, and then the actual introduction. I also realised that I
should focus a little on introducing some of the terminology that is required to understand this topic.
Hence I also created a section called airfoil characteristics, which explains things like angle of attack
Date Comments
24/10/20 The sections I have completed so far, are the ones on jet engine propulsion, then I have moved onto
explain the popular explanation of lift, as well as deriving Bernoulli’s equation by hand. It was quite a
challenge to stop word formatting my handwriting in the wrong way – it was also a little messy. I also
divided the equal time argument section into the 3 assumptions to help understand the reasoning
easier. I also explained the venturi theory argument. Hopefully by tomorrow I can fully complete the
dissertation, so that I can hand it in for first review.
25/10/20 Today was a rather busy day, and I worked on the EPQ dissertation from morning till night. I completed
a section of flow turning and then went onto explain an alternative theory of lift. This lift theory will
be my fourth, so I am confident that I have laid out a good argument in response to my question. I also
put in some pictures of the simulations I got from Professor Babinsky’s lab. Finally I explained what is
meant by the technical argument for lift, and showed the lift equation. I then finished by concluded
that the centripetal force argument is what I feel is the most accurate. I didn’t quite do my
bibliography, but I sent off my dissertation anyways.
02/11/20 Today I received feedback from Mr Jewson and it was extremely helpful. The main takeaways were:
- I should clearly segment my arguments for lift, and place these segments in order, ending with
what I consider to be the true explanation
- Furthermore, clearly signposting the sections of the argument in the introduction will help
the reader to absorb the content of the dissertation, ensuring that the overall message of the
project (the fact that the physical reason for lift is a controversial topic in the scientific world
and has numerous explanations) is succinctly conveyed
There were also some positives: the information was well researched and the dissertation was written
very well.
03/11/20 Today I made an action plan for what I need to do:
- Finish the research review
- Correct the Dissertation
- Do the evaluation
- Do the Bibliography
I have my university entrance exam soon so I don’t think I will have any time to do EPQ until next
week
11/11/2020 Mr Jewson and I met again this week where we discussed the comments he had made on my EPQ. He
re-iterated that academic papers must have a clear structure otherwise one can get confused about
what they are reading.
15/11/2020 Today I will work on finishing the research review. Now that I have conversed with Dr. Babinsky, I can
add the results of this to my primary research. I will also now add sections on videos, online articles,
and websites
Date Comments
18/11/20 Having now completed the research review I will now start on the improvements to my dissertation.
This will be challenging since I will need to think of a completely new structure. A proposed structure
is as follows:
1) Acknowledgements
2) Abstract
3) History
4) Introduction
5) Lift equation
6) Fundamentals
7) Air foil characteristics
8) Jet Propulsion
9) The lift theories
10) Angles of attack
11) Conclusion
12) Appendix
Bibliography
19/11/20 By today I have completely re-written the derivation of Bernoulli’s theorem, and as per Mr Jewson’s
guidance, I have placed this in the appendix. Furthermore, I have re written the introduction and spilt
it into “introduction” and “fundamentals”.
The next two weeks I have a busy period of exams and maths mocks so I will not be looking at the EPQ
until then.
06/12/20 It has been a while since I have looked at the EPQ, but today I made good progress. I made finishing
touches to the research review and then started to work on the edits to the dissertation. Firstly I
added footnotes (rather than intext citations) wherever I quoted data, and referenced them correctly
using the Harvard referencing technique. I used a website to help me with this. To make sure I kept on
top of things, I went back to another word document I had, where I pasted the links of the websites I
used and when I accessed them, made full citations, and placed them in the bibliography section.
I then moved on to fix the introduction. I clearly signposted the aim of my project and ensured that I
showed exactly what I am going to cover in the main body of the introduction. I then placed all the
classical Newtonian explanation of flight in a section called fundamentals
10/12/20 By today I have completely finished the introductory sections and now I have moved onto the rest of
the sections. I fixed some grammatical mistakes first and then proceeded to put the lift equation
section near the start, to bring in the argument of how there are two abstractions for lift. I am still
debating whether to put the first few sections underneath the introduction section but I’ll think about
that later. I also decided to label my figures and add their references to the end of the Bibliography.
13/12/20 Then I fixed my conclusion and added a bit more of personal opinion to it. I saw a couple of example
EPQs that Mrs. Kemal had kindly provided, and It was amazing and eye-opening to see how
sophisticated they were. I took a bit of inspiration and added a nice header with the page number and
the title of the project at the top.
15/12/20 Today I worked on a couple of things. Firstly, I fixed some of my title headings, adding some subtitles
and roman numerals to make the formatting look nice. Next I did a bit of enrichment worked and
checked out another video on the history of aviation and added on a bit of that to the “history
section” of the dissertation. Then I also added an acknowledgement at the start because I think it is
right to credit everyone who has helped me in this journey
Date Comments
22/12/20 This last week I gave my dissertation to my dad to look over. He has a degree in Engineering and has
done similar styled projects so I thought it we be good to take his input. He told me to change the
ordering of one of the lift sections. He also said something which Mr Jewson had said: When saying
“the pressure is lower here” I need to make It obvious what the pressure is LOWER than – i.e.
atmospheric.
29/12/20 Today I did my evaluation. To help me, I read over my HPQ evaluation and took some inspiration by
using similar headings for each paragraph:
- How has the processed helped me?
- How have I improved since the HPQ?
- What obstacles did I face and how did I tackle them?
- What can I improve on?
The evaluation turned out well and now I think I am nearing full completion of the project!
03/01/21 And finally, we are completely done! Fully proof-read and everything! Only thing left to do now is
hand the project in, and create and present the presentation, for February!
05/01/21 Today I started some work on my presentation. The structure I had in my head is that I will talk about
the actual lift generation, and then finish with an evaluation of my project. Throughout I will be using
a powerpoint to help illustrate my presentation.
07/01/21 By today I have finished the first few slides. So far I have completed the slides on the Newtonian
description of lift, followed by a slide on the lift equation. I think I won’t talk about the jet engines
because that isn’t related to my topic and I only have 20 mins to actually to do the presentation. Also
I’ve been told that my presentation (as well as Noah’s) is going to be on the 4th of February at 4pm.
15/01/21 I have now completely finished the presentation. The structure is as follows. I start by talking about
the dynamics of a plane, move onto the characteristics of an airfoil, and then talk about my four lift
theories, and then finish with my conclusion and then evaluation. I hope to have a few run throughs
over the next few days to check timing and assess if the presentation is smooth.
17/01/21 Well in reality it is taking too long. First few run throughs averaged around 26 minutes and I definitely
do not want to speak quickly because I know I will trip up on words. So I have decided to scrap the
evaluation (after consultation with Mr Jewson) and also I scrapped the Venturi theory since three
theories are good enough.
18/01/21 Finally we are down to around 20-22 minutes which is good enough. I’ve heard that you get marked
for your timing so I am being cautious…
04/02/21 The presentation was a success! I think everyone enjoyed both mine and Noah’s and it was pretty cool
because while I was talking about the present of aviation, Noah continued by showing us the possible
future. It was actually quite enjoyable and it was good fun answering the questions. Now I can finally
say that the EPQ is done. An experience I will never forget for sure. Signing off.
RESEARCH REVIEW
1 - Introduction
In order to answer my proposed question of “what is the reason for aerodynamic lift?” I have utilised a
plethora of secondary resources including videos, documentaries, textbooks and internet articles written
by world-renowned professors. This secondary research forms the bulk of my project, relying on factually
and scientifically correct information, provided by those who are accomplished in this specific field.
Along with this, primary sources such as questionnaires and surveys can be valuable - because it
describes first-hand experiences – however, it might be biased e.g. the responders of the survey may not
be in a position to know all the facts and may not comprehend the question asked of them, possibly
resulting in a randomly chosen answer. An ideal survey could have been titled: “Which of the following
options correctly describes how you think lift is generated”, allowing the person to choose which of the
known theories they have heard as being correct. This would have allowed me to see how widespread the
incorrect theories are amongst my peers and classmates. However, this is a risky option since it is very
likely that only a few will have heard of any of these theories, so I have taken the option of not carrying
this out. Fortunately, I have found a way of including primary research, in the form of Dr. Holger
Babinsky, professor of Aerodynamics at the University of Cambridge, and my supervisor Mr Jewson,
who has undoubtedly changed the course of my EPQ for the better.
For a source to be reliable and genuine: It must be relevant to my chosen topic. It must be up to date, as
recent discoveries in the field may overturn this information. Furthermore, it must be produced by a
recognised individual or organisation who is qualified and accomplished in the field, therefore making
their recounts and articles accurate and reliable. In addition, the source must be un-biased and should not
be created by an organisation who are using it to influencing people to agree with their point of view.
Above all, the data from the source must be correct, complete and shouldn’t have any obvious gaps in the
information.
2 - Primary Research
It is one thing to read articles written by esteemed professors and journalists, but another to get specialist
advice first hand. Over the course of this project I have had numerous informative discussions about the
Physics of lift generation with Mr. Jewson. Our first conversation was productive and some key points
were highlighted: While it might be ingenious to explain lift by using a centripetal force argument, I
should make it clear that the centripetal force is not actually a real force, but the result of truly real forces,
which in this case are simply pressure forces. I recorded this conversation so I could easily revisit these
important points. Furthermore, although it is reasonable to say that there is a pressure gradient across the
airfoil, I must be particularly careful in explaining the reasoning for the existence of the pressure gradient
(by using Bernoulli’s principle). He also touched upon the fact that since all the airflow originates from
the same reservoir we can apply Bernoulli’s principle to all of the different streamlines which come in
contact with the airfoil, and hence explain the differences in speed.
A stroke of good fortune meant that Mr Jewson was now my supervisor, and our second conversation was
especially important. It was pleasing to hear that my work had errors in it, mainly to do with structuring.
Mr Jewson suggested that I should clearly segment my arguments for lift, and place these segments in
order, ending with what I consider to be the true explanation. Any derivations of formulae, and
explanations of other concepts should be kept at the end, possibly in an appendix section. Furthermore,
clearly signposting the sections of the argument in the introduction will help the reader to absorb the
content of the dissertation more readily, ensuring that the overall message of the project (the fact that the
physical reason for lift is a controversial topic in the scientific world and has numerous explanations) is
succinctly conveyed.
While exploring the centripetal force argument for lift I came across what I thought was a gap in the
explanation: If the curvature of an airfoil is what generates the lift force, how can aircraft with flat wings
fly? Hence, how do paper aeroplanes fly? After much thought I thought it would be best to contact the
creator of this theory of lift, Dr Holger Babinsky. After a series of emails, he explained that “even a
straight shape (flat plate) can introduce curvature into the flowfield as long as there is an angle of attack
(it is streamline curvature that matters, not the object’s surface). However, the flow does not follow the
upper surface very well (it ‘separates’) which reduces the flow curvature above the wing and is the reason
why flat plates make poor aerofoils. A curved nose helps to keep the flow attached”. Rather helpfully, he
attached photos from his lab at Cambridge, which I have featured in my dissertation.
This primary research was imperative to the development of this project and I believe that both sources
are extremely reliable, as both mentors are highly experienced in their field. I am sure that without their
inputs I would have been left wholly adrift.
3 - Secondary Research
3.1 - Educational Videos and Documentaries
Visual texts and articles are always regarded to be one of the easiest and most comprehensive way to
absorb information, but what really helps for learning, is if it is read to you or if it is listened and
visualised at the same time. Research suggests that we only remember and understand 20% of what we
read, but a much larger 60% of what we hear, read, and see. Therefore, videos are an excellent way of
extracting information. A large proportion of my research came from numerous videos, ranging from
historical accounts of the first powered flight by the Wright Brothers, to Engineering videos that clearly
and concisely explained physical and mathematical content. As a person I enjoy learning visually since it
helps me to understand concepts faster and in a more intuitive way.
A particular YouTube channel I explored was LearnEngineering.com -
https://www.youtube.com/user/LearnEngineering . This channel allowed me to gain fundamental
understanding of the basics of flight – In layman’s terms, flight occurs due to the fine balance between the
weight of an aircraft, lift, drag and thrust generated. A change to any of these forces will therefore change
the motion of the aircraft. I am confident that this source is reliable and genuine, because this channel has
been created by Sabin Matthew, a renowned STEM educator and a previous student of one of the leading
institutes in the world for engineering, IIT Delhi, all ensuring that the information provided is valid and
scientifically correct.
A variety of other YouTube videos helped me to develop the other arguments for lift generation. One
particular video was by Douglas McLean (a retired Boeing technical fellow – so one can be inclined to
believe that any data presented will be well-founded), who conveniently explained the theory of flow
turning. It works by considering the change in direction of airflow across the top of the wing: The
curvature of the airfoil and use of angle of attack ensures that incoming air is turned down relative to the
wing. As such, the air has been accelerated (since its direction changes), implying that a force has been
exerted downwards on the air. Due to Newton’s third law, an equal an opposite force must be exerted
upwards on the wing, and this force is the lift force.
While some media looked at explaining specific lift theories, nearly all videos confirmed that the idea of
the ‘equal time argument’ was unjustified and lacked accuracy. A common opinion from all of these
sources solidifies the fact that this argument for lift is incorrect.
Khan Academy (https://www.khanacademy.org/science ) has also supplied me with some food for
thought, with twelve videos dedicated to volume flow rate, Bernoulli’s theorem, the Venturi effect,
Turbulent and Laminar flow. Although the last two points are not explored within this project, it was
enlightening to see how they tied together with other aspect of fluid dynamics. The derivation of
Bernoulli’s theorem provided was excellent and intuitive, and allowed me to grasp the idea of the
relationship between pressure and velocity. I am indebted to the teachers at Khan academy since they
have improved my basic understanding of fluid dynamics. I had no doubt about the validity of this source
as it is created by MIT and Harvard graduate Salman Khan, a Bangladeshi-American entrepreneur who
received the Microsoft Tech Award for education. He was also invited to speak at TED by Bill Gates and
was given $2 million by Google and $1.5 million by Microsoft to support the creation of more courses on
Khan Academy. Overall, this played a vital part in my research as it provided me with a brilliant visual
understanding of my project.
3.2 - Background reading and articles on the internet

A source used by almost everybody in the world for a vast number of needs, the internet is said to be the
“world’s best library” and is a brilliant tool for inquisitive minds. However not all websites are as genuine
and accurate as one may think. A common mistake that users make is taking ‘wikipedia.com’ as an
accurate source for information. Although Wikipedia may be the easy option, its open-source status
allows anyone to access the specific page and change it, affecting everybody using this page. This change
may seem correct but can be outdated and/ or incorrect, which makes it unsatisfactory to use for a
research project.
Even though aircraft have interested me from a young age, an article in Scientific American titled “No
One Can Explain Why Planes Stay in the Air” propelled me to undertake the task of understanding the
true theory of lift - https://www.scientificamerican.com/page/about-scientific-american/. In this article, Ed
Regis explains that lift exists on two separate levels of abstraction – the technical and the nontechnical,
out of which only one we understand. The technical argument exists strictly as a mathematical theory,
which combined with wind tunnel and computer simulations can help us design wings, ensuring aircraft
stay in the air. It is the consequence of this hardly disagreed upon mathematical theory that air travel is
the safest mode of transport in the world. However, the non-technical (physical) theory for why lift occurs
is incomplete, because by themselves, equations and numbers are not explanations. My aim is to
investigate if such a theory of lift even exists. With regards to the source’s accuracy and reliability,
Scientific American was founded 1845, and it is the oldest continuously published magazine in the United
States, reaching more than 10 million people around the world digitally and through printed editions. I am
sure that anything published will be authoritative and admissible.
My second and most important source was an article titled “How do wings work”, by Professor Holger
Babinsky - http://www3.eng.cam.ac.uk/outreach/Project-resources/Wind-turbine/howwingswork.pdf.
This article is one of a series of articles published by the University of Cambridge to inspire students into
learning more about science related subjects. The beauty of this source is that it is well structured and it
can be understood by students with just an understanding of Physics at the high school level, while still
remaining scientifically accurate and engaging. The article begins by banishing the popular explanation of
lift (the equal-time argument), which was particularly exciting for me, since one of my initial aims in the
project proposal form was to do the same in my project. By highlighting the flaws in the argument,
Professor Babinsky showed how this popular explanation of lift does not take common sense into regard
– “Why should two air molecules at the same position at the leading edge, reach the trailing edge at the
same time? – there is no reason!”. Following this, he introduced an alternative explanation for lift,
revealing that it is the curvature of streamlines that induces lift. In the same mechanism that hurricanes
generate strong pressure gradients from the outside of their spiral to the eye, there is a flow field across
the airfoil due to the curved streamlines, causing the upper side of the airfoil to have a lower pressure than
the lower side of the airfoil, causing a net force upwards. This explanation also aims to show how
Bernoulli’s equation can be used correctly rather than incorrectly (in the popular explanation of lift).
While also aiming to explain lift, I thought it is essential to describe how commercial aircraft reach high
speeds in the first place, focussing on the jet engine. For this I used NASA Glenn Research Centre’s
official website - https://www.grc.nasa.gov - which outlined that a jet engine functions by sucking in air
with a fan, squeezing it (and pressurising it) via a series of compressors, igniting the air with fuel, and
then pushing it out the back. The force exerted on the air to blast it out the back is part of a Newton’s third
law pair and hence the same force is exerted forwards on the aircraft. This is called thrust. The website
went on to explain the differences and similarities between turboprop, turbojet, ramjet and turbofan
engines, which was useful enrichment. Just due to the fact that the article on the website has been written
by NASA specialists, It is clear that this source is accurate and valid.
4 - Conclusion
In conclusion, I believe that the research I have carried out has come from reliable and accurate sources,
fulfilling all the guidelines I had placed at the start. I am content and motivated by the fact that I have
conducted both primary and secondary research, with a variety of helpful websites, videos, recordings and
emails, providing me with a stable foundation to approach the dissertation.
NOMENCLATURE
p : Momentum
m : Mass
ME : Mass of the Earth
v : Velocity
G : Newton’s gravitational constant
c : Speed of light (vacuum)
ρ : Fluid density
U : Gravitational potential energy
T : Kinetic energy
Ein : Energy input into system
Eout : Energy output of system
F : Force
Fg : Gravitational force
d : Distance
A : Cross-sectional area
a : Acceleration
h : Horizontal distance above ground
Win : Work in
Wout : Work out
V : Volume
t : Time
CL : Lift coefficient
S : Planform area
q : Dynamic pressure
L : Lift
ABSTRACT
An infant and an adult can be differentiated by numerous obvious or obscure ways, however the art of
asking questions permeates any age barrier. To be inquisitive and imagine are not qualities that mankind
is taught, but one which we are all born with. For all, looking above into the deep sky and watching
planes fly initiates a plethora of queries, of which one of them is paramount: How does an aeroplane fly?
Driven to lead a life where one cannot be satisfied without a solution to their problems, humans set out to
find the answer to this question. However, sometime or another, someone discovered an explanation that
they believed was true, but in fact it was inherently flawed. Not just them, but soon the world accepted it:
The idea that lift is generated due to methods explained by ‘The Equal Time Argument’. Soon, it filled
students’ textbooks, and was taught to air cadets in their fighter pilot training, and not long later, people
started raising their doubts about the theory’s postulates, until it became apparent that the equal time
argument is nothing but flawed science. And now the world returns to square one. On the contrary, the
mathematics behind lift generation has always been true – equations and formula used by engineers to
calculate the value of lift are all correct and hence this is why commercial air travel is the safest way to
travel. Yet the nontechnical explanation for lift is still a topic of heated debate. In this paper, I attempt to
unearth the true explanation for lift, since understanding lift both physically and mathematically can help
us to explore newer designs for wings – which is imperative as the aviation world has now shifted to
building more efficient, environmentally friendly, and safer aircraft.
HISTORY
The notion of aviation has been present for almost two thousand years, however, the first powered flight
in a heavier-than-air machine was comparatively recent, just over 100 years ago on December 17th, 1903
in North Carolina. On this historic day, brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright were lifted into sustained
flight, 120 feet into the air for twelve seconds in what is named the Wright Flyer 1. Legend says that the
Wright brothers were awestruck by how birds angled their wings for balance and control, and emulated
that on their design creating rudders, and ‘warped wings’ 2. Eventually they created larger, and more
powerful aircraft, flying for longer and longer times. Sadly, the federal government took no notice of their
achievements, and the door was “slammed in their face” 3.
However, Europe and especially France were excited by this spectacular feat and bought many aircraft,
giving the Wright brothers the fame and fortune they deserved. Their ‘Flyer 1’ was a biplane which
turned in the air by pulling some strings to twist the shape of the wing in relation to the airstream. This
could not possibly scale to larger aircraft but it did lead to what we now call ailerons, which are moving
panels at the end of fixed wings which allow aircraft to turn.
To move from mythical stories of Daedalus and Icarus to reality is a great feat of engineering and is often
underappreciated since we take commercial aircraft for granted. Like any other pioneers, Orville and
Wilbur Wright put their lives on the line for each and every flight and it was only after hundreds of
repetitions that the final formula was deduced.
1
(www.history.com, 2009)
2
(www.history.com, 2009)
3
(www.youtube.com, 2015)
DISSERTATION
1 – Introduction
The physical reason for lift is a controversial topic in the scientific world and has numerous explanations.
I approach this problem with an aim to unearth the true theory of aerodynamic lift, if such a theory truly
exists. Over the course of this dissertation, we will explore theories of lift proposed by the likes of
Newton, Venturi and others, explaining their merits and downfalls, before providing an alternative
explanation which provides us with a more complete understanding. Throughout, I will attempt to banish
misconceptions and provide correct scientific reasoning, while also delving into related topics such as jet
engine technology and the lift equation, which should leave the reader with a rounded understanding of
flight. To end, I will revisit my findings in a conclusion, where I aim to answer the question: What is the
reason for aerodynamic lift?.
Firstly, we will investigate the two separate abstractions of lift:
2 – The Lift Equation

One may ask, ‘how are aeroplanes the safest mode of travel, when the physics behind how they fly is still
debated upon’. This is a valid question, but it can be answered simply: “Lift exists on two separate levels
of abstraction – the technical and the nontechnical” 4. The technical argument is one which is
mathematical, formed of equations and computer-based analysis, whereas the nontechnical argument is its
complement, providing the explanations for the solutions of mathematical modelling.
One may be puzzled to learn that the nontechnical argument is still a topic of debate – essentially, we can
do the maths but we don’t know why. So, the lives of passengers everyday are in the hands of
mathematics and CFD modelling from experimentally observing airfoils in wind tunnels. Hence,
mathematics is of great importance.
To calculate the amount of lift produced, we can use the lift equation. This equation relates the lift
produced to certain variables that are dependent on the particular scenario.
1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆
2
1
Here, ‘S’ represents the planform area of the wing – i.e. the total surface area of the wing. 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 2
2
represents the dynamic pressure acting on the wings, denoted by q. Since dynamic pressure is essentially
force per unit area, when multiplied by planform area, a quantity with the units for force is produced.
Hence this must mean that 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 (lift coefficient) has no units, and it is dimensionless. The lift coefficient
depends on angle of attack which will be explained in due course. The slope of the straight section of
figure 3 is dependent on the shape of the planform (i.e. the shape of the wing if looking at the aircraft in
plan view), and the value of the lift coefficient at angle of attack = 0, is determined by how cambered the
airfoil is. For a pilot, the only two variables in their control are the angle of attack and airspeed. So to
generate a large amount of lift, the pilot must have a high airspeed or high angle of attack (assuming that
the critical value is not breached).
To understand the nontechnical argument is the aim of this project. Let us first explore the fundamentals
of the dynamics of flight:
4
(Regis, 2020)
3 – Fundamentals
One can approach the dynamics of flight by understanding Isaac Newton’s three fundamental laws, stated
in his famous work, the ‘Philosophiae Principia Mathematica’:
I. A body travelling at constant velocity or at rest, will remain in this state unless acted upon by an
external resultant force.
II. The resultant force on a body is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum of the
body, and acts in the same direction.
Mathematically:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
o 𝐹𝐹 ∝ → 𝐹𝐹 ∝ → 𝐹𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑚 (for constant mass)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
o Defining a Newton to be the force required to cause a 1kg mass to accelerate by 1ms-2:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
o 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 → 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
III. If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts a force equal in magnitude, but
opposite in direction on object A.
These three laws help to determine the behaviour of an aircraft when it incurs the following main forces:
I. Lift – The force on an aircraft directly upwards (in
normal flight) due to the existence of lower
pressure above the wing compared to higher
pressure beneath the wing.
II. Drag – Also known as air resistance. Simply put, it
is the force in opposition to the motion of a body
moving in a fluid. For the purposes of aircraft, this
fluid is air.
III. Thrust – Defined as the force produced by an
aircraft’s engine, acting in opposition to drag and
allowing an aircraft to move forwards.
IV. Weight – This is the force exerted on an object by
the Earth. The magnitude of this force can be given Figure 1 - Diagram to show the four forces on an
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 aircraft
by the following equation: 𝐹𝐹 = 2
𝑟𝑟
It is important to note that a pair of forces apply to each cartesian plane, and for two given forces in the
same plane, they are antiparallel. i.e. weight opposes lift (vertical plane), drag opposes thrust (horizontal
plane) – in level flight
So, it is the fine balance of these forces that results in the motion of aircraft that we see around us. A
resultant (net force) forwards will produce an acceleration in the same direction, and this is what we see
when an aircraft moves down the runway. On the other hand, a resultant force of zero indicates that the
aircraft is travelling at a constant velocity (due to Newton’s first law), which can be observed during
steady flight, due to thrust balancing the drag, and weight balancing the lift force.
However, our analysis of lift focusses on a special part of the aircraft – the wing. Hence we must explore
the characteristics and features of this unique part.
4 – Airfoil Characteristics
The cross section of an aircraft’s wing is known as an aerofoil/airfoil, which can come in many shapes,
dependent on the type of aircraft. The Wright flyer is composed of two flat wings with a cross section that
is similar to a rectangle, whereas a commercial aircraft has a more swept back wings with a cross section
which is well known and is shown below. Other wing designs include the Ogival Delta wing of Concorde
– As far as etymology goes, ‘delta’ refers to the similarity between the shape of the wing and the Greek
capital letter delta (Δ), whereas ogival refers to ‘having a curved shape’. The brilliance of this wing is that
Concorde can generate sufficient lift at low speeds (where airflow across the aerofoil is slow), but it can
perform extremely efficiently at high speeds since it naturally creates very minimal drag.
Figure 2 - Diagrams to show the airfoil of a commercial airliner
In the diagram, the term ‘angle of attack’ is mentioned. This is the angle that the chord line of the airfoil
makes with a line marking the flow direction. The
angle of attack at which an airfoil is at affects how
much lift is generated. Mathematically, the lift
coefficient of a fixed-wing aircraft (a
dimensionless quantity) varies with angle of
attack. Increasing the angle of attack is generally
associated with increasing the lift coefficient.
However, the lift coefficient can only increase up
to a maximum, after which it decreases
dramatically. The critical angle of attack is known
as the angle at which maximum lift is generated.
If the angle is increased further, then the aircraft
enters a phase called stall. This is when the airfoil
cannot generate the required lift for the aircraft to
stay in the air – causing it to fall out of the sky.
For most airfoils this angle is between 15 and 20 Figure 3 - Graph to show how lift coefficient varies with
degrees. The following graph shows how the lift angle of attack
coefficient varies with angle of attack:
While drag, thrust, and weight can be explained with relative ease, lift is a controversial area of
discussion. To understand lift, one must first understand how air is brought to move over the wing at such
high speeds.
5 – Jet Propulsion
Most commercial aircraft use jet engines as their source of thrust, ultimately generating lift. In layman’s
terms, the engines are designed to move an aircraft forward at high speed, resulting in rapid airflow across
the top and bottom surfaces of the aerofoil (the wing). When the pressure underneath the wing is greater
than the pressure above, there will be a resultant force upwards, causing the plane to accelerate upwards.
The basic principle behind any type of jet engine is Newton’s Third Law of motion. The jet engine expels
hot air out of the back (by exerting a force on it) and therefore the air itself exerts a reaction force equal in
magnitude, but opposite in direction (on the engine itself). This reaction force causes the plane to move
forwards, gain speed and eventually generate the lift force on the wings. Hence, the point of a jet engine is
to produce a high-speed “jet” coming out of the engine. There are three main types of engines:
Turboprop, turbofan and turbojet. All three work on a similar fundamental mechanism:
A spinning fan is used to suck air into
the engine. This incoming air is
relatively cold, and for fuel to be
completely combusted, the air must be
hot and pressurized. Therefore, the air
first passes through a series of
compressors. These compressors have
fins which get smaller and rotate faster
as you go along the length of the
engine, forcing the air into a smaller
and smaller volume, greatly increasing
its temperature. Figure 4 - Diagram to show internal components of a turbofan engine
This hot and pressurized air is mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustion chamber, releasing a high-
speed jet of exhaust gases. These fast-moving exhaust gases are forced into the turbine, which rotates.
Some of the air into the turbine is used to spin the fan in the front, whereas the rest of it is accelerated out
the back of the engine at a greater magnitude than the air which is sucked in at the front causing a
resultant thrust force on the plane, in the forwards direction.
In the case of a turbofan engine, the initial
fan at the front is much larger than the core
of the engine (the long central part of a jet
engine where the air is compressed, ignited
and expelled from). Hence not all of the air
that is sucked in passes through the core,
with some being “bypassed” around its
sides.
The amount of air passing through the
bypass duct compared to the amount of air
passing through the core is a true measure of
the fuel efficiency of an engine and is
Figure 5 - Diagram to illustrate the 10:1 bypass ratio of a turbofan known as the bypass ratio. The bypass duct
engine
allows air to pass through the engine without
passing through the core. No extra fuel is burnt to push air around the core, since fuel is only burnt inside.
Hence more thrust can be achieved for the same amount of fuel, making an engine more efficient. I.e. the
higher the bypass-ratio, the more efficient the engine. These highly efficient turbofan engines such as the
GP7000 are known as high-bypass engines, and are used in almost all commercial jets, such as the Airbus
A380 and Boeing 747.
On the contrary, turbojet engines bypass no
air. Hence, they are known as ‘Zero-Bypass’
engines. 100 percent of sucked-in air passes
through the engine core. Zero-bypass
engines are more compact, have greater
power/weight ratios, and are actually more
efficient at supersonic speeds than turbofans.
They also allow for afterburner capabilities,
where a secondary combustion reaction
occurs, burning extra fuel to provide a burst
of power when necessary, such as during
take-off. However, a massive trade-off was
required. A gargantuan appetite for fuel.
Figure 6 - Diagram of a zero-bypass turbojet engine
The turbojet uses so much fuel because of the
critical fact that all of the thrust comes from burning fuel, unlike in a turbofan. Aircraft like Concorde had
such a large fuel consumption, that the amount of taxi fuel it used is equal to the amount of fuel a car uses
in six months. It also burned 21.25 kg 5 of fuel per mile flown, compared to a Boeing 787 Dreamliner
which uses 8.5kg 6 per mile (with its 10:1 bypass ratio turbofan engines). This all results in a per person
fuel economy of only 14 mpg 7 (miles per gallon) for Concorde, in comparison to the 787 which has a per
person fuel economy of 104 mpg 8. It also costed $18,727 for fuel for one flight of Concorde versus
$5104.54 for one flight of the 787. Concorde was simply too expensive to run. So much fuel for just one
flight carrying only 100 passengers only across the Atlantic Ocean was just impossible. Not many could
afford a one-way ticket of $7500. No passengers resulted in no profit. Concorde was a civil engineering
wonder, but the best option was to land for good.
Unfortunately, climate change has taken its toll on jet propulsion technology since “the aerospace
industry is under pressure to reduce its environmental impact” 9. As with cars, the current solution to our
environment’s growing demands is the use of electric and hybrid propulsion systems for long haul
aircraft. “Hydrogen fuel is [also] unavoidable” since carbon-free emissions are produced and engines
integrated with this technology could be more efficient, explains Professor Pericles Pilidis, who is head of
power and propulsion department at Cranfield University's Centre for Propulsion Engineering. Since it is
expected that airline traffic will continue to increase at an ever-increasing rate, with Rolls-Royce
estimating that “37,000 new passenger aircraft will be needed over the next 20 years” 10, efficiency and
cost reduction are imperative, and engine manufacturers across the globe are striving to strike the perfect
balance.
5
(Wendover Productions, 2017)
6
7
8
9
(Morris, 2020)
10
(Morris, 2020)
6 – Lift Generation
6.1 – Theory One: The Popular Explanation of Lift
The ‘Equal Transit time’ theory or so-called popular explanation of lift is one of the most widely
circulated incorrect explanations. What is rather confusing is that it draws upon areas of physics that are
correct, but joins them into an incorrect theorem. This explanation has found its way into university
textbooks and into the minds of air cadets, however it is fundamentally incorrect.
I. It is stated that for an airfoil to generate lift, its upper surface must be longer than its bottom
surface.
II. Furthermore, if two fluid particles are to pass around the airfoil, one on each side, then at the
trailing edge, they must reach at the same time.
III. Since the top surface is of a greater distance, for a fluid particle to reach the trailing edge along
the top surface at the same time as a fluid particle reaching the trailing edge along the bottom
surface, the airspeed along the top must be greater, since speed is directly proportional to distance
for constant time.
IV. Now implementing the use of Bernoulli’s equation, from which one can deduce that a higher
pressure results in a lower velocity, one can say that since the air molecules travel at higher speed
along the top compared to the bottom, the pressure above the airfoil must be lower than under it.
V. It can be similarly argued that since air molecules travel slower along the bottom of the airfoil
than the top, the pressure must be greater on the bottom than the top.
𝐹𝐹
VI. This produces a resultant pressure upwards. Since 𝑃𝑃 = there must be a resultant force upwards
𝐴𝐴
due to the pressure difference.
VII. This resultant force is lift.
6.1.1 - Assumption 1: Path difference

The first incorrect statement with the above explanation is that lifting airfoils must satisfy the condition
that their upper surfaces are longer than the bottom. This is not true. Consider the ogival delta wing of
Concorde – Its surface is almost flat, meaning that both top and bottom surfaces are of the same length.
Furthermore, imagine a paper aeroplane. The simplest model of a paper aeroplane consists of a long
narrow delta wing which if constructed carefully, is completely flat. Another way to approach this issue is
to think of a sail boat. A sail is like a wing. The wind points in the direction of the sail and passes over the
airfoil and generates a lift force in the forwards direction. Yet both sides of a sail are of the same length.
The streamlines travel the same distance so how could there be a pressure difference? Lastly, imagine a
very obvious scenario. If an aircraft is to have the longer side of its wing on the top, then how could it fly
upside down, as seen in stunt shows and dogfights? If it were to do this, then the longer side of the wing
will be on the lower side of the of the aircraft, meaning that a lift force would be generated in the
downwards direction – but a stunt plane can still stay up in the sky even when the equal time argument
predicts a downwards acceleration.
6.1.2 - Assumption 2: Flows leaving and joining at the same time

The second idea is that two fluid particles leaving the leading edge at the same time reach the trailing
edge at the same time. However, this seems strange. Consider a thought experiment: if you and a friend
started walking around a building at the same time, there is nothing dictating that both of you will join at
the other side at the same time. Furthermore, using computational fluid dynamics techniques, we find that
the flow speed on the upper surface is much larger than required for the two molecules on either side to
meet up at all (so it doesn’t even meet the requirements of the notion proposed by the equal-time
argument). Hence this theory tries to provide us with a value for velocity “based on a non-physical
assumption that the molecules do indeed meet at the trailing edge of the airfoil.
The diagrams to follow

are pictures taken inside
a wind tunnel. Here, a
pulse of smoke is sent
across the airfoil, and
the lines of smoke are
known as streamlines
(streams of particles). It
can be clearly seen that
the following
streamlines leave the
leading edge of the
airfoil at the same time.
The air particles along

the upper surface of the
airfoil do indeed travel
faster, but are already
halfway along the
length of the airfoil
compared to the air
particles at the bottom.
From the last diagram

we can clearly see that
the streamlines along
the upper surface of the
airfoil reach the trailing
age before the
streamlines along the
bottom surface. This
experiment is
conclusive evidence
that the equal time
argument is incorrect.
6.1.3 - Assumption 3: Pressure variation resulting in velocity variation

This part of the argument is correct. Assuming that the reservoir of air from which streamlines form is all
at the same static pressure, a greater velocity (than the bottom) on the upper surface does result in a lower
pressure on the top (compared to the bottom), and a smaller velocity on the bottom does result in a higher
pressure than the top. The difference in pressure does indeed provide a lift force. This is because
Bernoulli’s equation is mathematically correct. The problem with the Equal Transit theory is that it
attempts to provide us with the velocity difference based on the non-physical assumption that two fluid
molecules leaving the leading edge will reach the trailing edge at the same time.
6.2 – Theory Two: The Venturi theory

Although Giovanni Battista Venturi’s principle of the effect of constriction on fluid flow is true, it is not
correctly used to determine how airfoils produce lift.
Venturi’s principle states that when a fluid moving through a pipe reaches a constriction (narrowing) then
the velocity of the flow must decrease at this constriction, with a corresponding drop in pressure. 11 Why is
this the case?
By the ‘Principle of Continuity’ the rate of flow cannot decrease in an isolated system. I.e. the mass of
fluid per unit time entering a junction, must be equal to the mass per unit time leaving the junction. If this
were not the case, then the law of conservation of mass will be violated.
Let the cross sectional area of the wide section be A1
, the cross sectional area of the narrow section be A2,
the velocity of the fluid in the wide section be v1, and
the velocity of the fluid in the narrow section be v2.
The volume of fluid entering constriction per second
= A1v1. The volume of fluid leaving constriction per
second = A2v2
To obey principle of continuity, A1v1 = A2v2, so Av =
k, where k is an arbitrary constant. By this
relationship we can see that area is inversely
proportional to velocity, so a decrease in area will
Figure 7 - Diagram to show the Venturi effect in an 1
hourglass pipe result in an increase in velocity. Since 𝑇𝑇 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 2, an
2
increase in velocity must result in an increase in
kinetic energy (T), but law of conservation of energy states that energy in a closed system must be
conserved. Thus the fluid’s energy density (hence pressure) must decrease proportionally.
It is important to note that the Venturi effect can just as well be explained using Bernoulli’s theorem,
which states that the pressure of a fluid is inversely proportional to its velocity.
Certain people believe that the Venturi effect can be applied to airfoils, to explain why they produce lift.
11
(Akshay Chavan, 2018)
The curve of the airfoil causes a mass

of air above to be constricted and
squeezed along the top. However
below, the air is not constricted. As a
result, air moves faster along the top,
and slower along the bottom.
This however is not true. In an
external flow there are no “walls” to
constrict the fluid between the upper
surface of the airfoil. i.e. the external
flow is not a nozzle. Its other flaws are Figure 8 – Diagram to demonstrate how air were to be constricted if there
similar to the equal time argument, were “walls”
since this theory also does not show
how an aircraft can fly upside down, nor does it suggest how a flat airfoil can produce lift .
Again, this is a scenario of a correct physical theory being used in the wrong circumstances to produce
incorrect results.
6.3 – Theory Three: The Principle of Flow Turning

One of the more accepted theories of lift is known as the theory of flow turning, and like most complex
physics phenomena, it can be explained using bare bones fundamental ideas.
Consider the following airfoil placed
in a laminar flow. The streamlines in
the diagram show how air would travel
around the airfoil. In this case the
aircraft is moving towards the left and
the air to the right. Air approaches the
leading edge and splits into two
distinct paths.
Air molecules either travel along the
upper surface of the airfoil, or along
Figure 9 - Diagram to show how the flow curves along the surfaces of the the bottom surface. It is intuitive to see
airfoil why the air molecules would be forced
down along the lower surface since they have nowhere else to go, however it is less obvious to observe
that the air particles follow the cambered (curved) upper surface of the airfoil. This intriguing
phenomenon is known as the Coandă effect.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement, and velocity is a vector, so it has a magnitude
and a direction. As the fluid flows across both surfaces, it is turned downwards. The direction of motion
has changed so therefore so has velocity. Since acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity,
the air is accelerated downwards. And since Force is = mass x acceleration the airfoil has applied a force
on the air to push it downwards. But from Newton’s third law which states that if object A exerts a force
on object B, then object B exerts a force equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction on object A, the air
must exert a force on the airfoil, but in the opposite direction.
This opposite direction is upwards. This upwards force is what is known as lift. This method is a perfectly
plausible method for explaining lift, however it has its limitations: Firstly, flow turning does not explain
the differences in velocities above and below the airfoil. Secondly, after careful discussion with Professor
Babinsky, he concludes that “if you look at a streamline that starts at a certain height far ahead of the
wing, then you can show that this turns upwards before the wing, then turns sharply to leave the wing in a
downward direction and then turns again to return to horizontal. The final ‘height’ is the same as where it
came from (and this is quite different from the picture that many people often draw when they describe
flow turning)”
6.4 – Theory Four: Lift from Shape

We have encountered both incorrect and incomplete explanations of lift, but could this be one which
unifies all concepts and sheds light on all the doubts?
To first approach this problem we must state our assumptions, which also apply to any other lift theory
mentioned in this paper.
I. A fluid can be treated as incompressible if a force does not change the density of the fluid to a
considerable degree. Even though air is compressible e.g. when pumping into a bicycle tyre, for
theoretical and experimental purposes we can neglect this behaviour.
II. We can also assume that the only forces acting on a fluid (air) particle are due to pressure.
Gravity is negligible and air is essentially frictionless, so that may be neglected as well.
III. Finally, one can assume that at sub-sonic speeds, the flow is steady and not turbulent. So, the
flow field does not change quickly with time.
6.4.1 - Pressure fields along straight streamlines

First the idea of pressure gradients must be understood.
Consider a fluid element with six faces (a cube). If the fluid
element were travelling along a straight streamline at a constant
velocity, then this must mean that there must be no net force
acting on it, and no acceleration. The only forces that we
consider on a fluid element in this scenario are forces due to
pressure. No acceleration therefore means that the pressure
forces on each face of the cube all add up to zero. But if there
was any imbalance of pressure, then there will definitely be a
𝐹𝐹 Figure 10 - Diagram to show the balance
resultant force as 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴 and therefore an acceleration. of forces on a fluid element
For arguments sake, let us assume that there is a varying pressure

field across the streamline, and that pressure decreases from left to
right. As a result, the pressure on the left-hand side of the cube
will be greater than on the right-hand side. This means there is a
resultant force acting towards the right – causing the fluid element
to accelerate in that direction. From this we can conclude, that if
pressure drops along a streamline, the velocity will increase, and
if the pressure increases along the streamline, the velocity drops.
This is in accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem which states that
decreasing pressure results in increasing velocity.
Figure 11 - Diagram and graph to show
pressure variance across a streamline
This result is extremely important. It shows that there is a connection between the level of pressure and
flow velocty. They are intimately connected.
6.4.2 - Pressure fields across curved streamlines

The logic used for straight streamlines can be extended to curved streamlines. Consider a fluid element
travelling along a curved streamline, with radius of curvature equal to R. If the fluid element is travelling
at a constant speed v, then there must be no pressure gradient along the curved streamline. However, the
element exhibits circular motion (it is a curved
streamline). Hence its direction of motion and velocity
is changing – hence the fluid element must be
accelerating, and an acceleration can only occur if
there is a net force inward from somewhere. The
forces providing the inward acceleration must be real
forces. We have neglected all forces apart from
pressure forces, so the only possible forces that could
result in a net force inward are from pressure
Figure 12 - Diagram to show pressure variance across
differences. This must mean that the pressure on the a curved streamline
inside of the element ‘Pinside’ is less than the pressure on
the outside ‘Poutside’.
This can be used to explain why a vortex have such low pressure at their centre: Vortices are composed of
many concentric streamlines. Consider any given streamline in the diagram – denoted by S1. A fluid
element is following a curved path meaning that there must be some real forces acting on it to curve in
such fashion. These real forces are in the form of
pressure forces, so the pressure on the outside of the
fluid element must be greater than on the inside. Now
take the streamline which encircles the one we have
already discussed – denoted by S2.
A fluid element following this streamline must also have
a lower pressure on the inside compared to the outside.
But the ‘inside’ region of S2 is essentially the ‘outside’
region of S1. So, if the ‘outside’ region of S2 has a
greater pressure than the ‘inside’ region of S2, then by
Figure 13 - Diagram to highlight curvature of deduction, the ‘outside’ region of S1 has a greater
streamlines in a vortex pressure than the ‘inside’ region of S2.
This must mean that for concentric circular streamlines, the pressure increases as you go from the centre
of the circle, and hence decreases as you go from outside to inside. This means the inside of a vortex is at
an extremely low pressure. This explains why tornados can suck objects into their centres.
6.4.3 - Lift generation from curved airflow

Observe figure 13, which shows the streamlines above and below an airfoil.
You can easily see that the streamlines near the upper and lower surface are
curved, but as you move out, the streamlines straighten. In the image they
straighten rapidly, but in free flight the streamlines will become straighter at
a greater distance from the airfoil.
Figure 14 - Image to show how the shape of
streamlines around an airfoil
We can redraw this diagram in terms of a sketch and understand why this airfoil produces lift. Far above
the airfoil the pressure is atmospheric. We can assume that there are no hydrostatic pressure gradients
involved since the heights we are considering are only metres apart. Where the pressure is atmospheric,
there are straight streamlines, and we have already discussed that for a particle travelling along a straight
streamline at constant speed, the pressure forces on all sides are the same. So the pressure either side of
the streamlines is the same. However as we move from the top towards the upper surface of the airfoil,
there is a degree of curvature in the streamlines due to air following the curved upper surface of the wing.
As we move down, we observe convex curvature. This must mean that for a given streamline, there is a
higher pressure on the outside compared to the inside. We can assume that the curved streamlines are
roughly concentric, hence using our knowledge of vorticies, as we go towards the centre of curvature (i.e.
towards a point on the upper surface of the airfoil) the pressure must decrease. Hence the pressure of
upper surface is lower than atmospheric pressure (simply due to the curvature of airflow).
Now consider the lower surface, which in this case also has a convex curvature. Starting far below the
airfoil, the air pressure is atmospheric. Now as we move up towards the lower surface of the airfoil, we
move from the inside of the curvature to the outside. We know that for convex curvature, the pressure on
the lower side of a streamline will be smaller than on the upper surface. So if we move from down to up
(across the streamlines), the pressure increases bit by bit until we reach the bottom of the airfoil. At this
point, using our reasoning, the pressure will be greater than atmospheric.
Figure 15 - Diagram to
show the curved flowfield
around an airfoil
We have now concluded that the pressure below the airfoil is greater than the pressure above the airfoil.
Returning to Newton’s second law, there is a resultant pressure upwards acting on the surface area of the
wing, meaning that there is a resultant force upwards (due to pressure differences).
This resultant force is lift. It is certainly spectacular that simply placing a shape in a moving flow causes
the shape to rise.
This explanation fixes all the problems with all the other explanations.
I. It explains the reason for faster air travel above the wing, as observed by the wind tunnel
simulations.
a. Since all of the air is from a common resevoir, we can apply Bernoulli’s equation to show
that lower pressure air above the wing generates faster moving air than beneath the wing,
since when relative velocity is greater, the relative pressure is lower
II. It allows us to understand why planes can fly upside down.
a. When the plane is upside down it would produce a lift force downwards if it flew
normally. However by adjusting the angle of attack, air can be forced to curve the
opposite way and produce a lift force upwards
III. Finally it explains how even flat wings can generate a lift force.
a. For a flat wing to generate lift, it
must be aimed at a high angle of
attack. The high angle of attack
leads to a low pressure pocket to
form on the upper side, so the air
flows over the flat airfoil as if it
were flowing over a conventional Figure 16 - Diagram to show flat airfoil generating lift
airfoil. What the air ‘sees’ is
different to what we see.
7 – Shape of airfoils and angles of attack

From the explanation of lift that we have proposed, we can understand the difference between the lift
generated by different-shaped airfoils.
This diagram shows a heavily cambered airfoil, since it is curved
both on the top and the bottom. At the top, the streamline curves in
way that produces a low pressure region at the top. The high degree
of curvature on the lower side of the airfoil also has a positive
cumumlative effect on the lift produced, since it results in a region
of high pressure. As we have discussed, this produces a lift force
upwards. One may say that since this airfoil produces lift so well,
why are wings usually not shaped like this – that’s because space is
required to house the fuel tanks and most of all, a thicker wing cross
section is more likely to withstand the stress forces during flight.
Figure 17 - Simulation to show streamline
pattern generated by a cambered airfoil Airfoils that are used in commercial flight are shown below.
An example of a typical aircraft airfoil is shown in figure 18. This
is thicker and has greater structural integrity. It has the size to hold
the other parts that make up the wing, namely flaps, spoilers and
most importantly the fuel tanks and some hydraulics.
However the lower surface of the wing has a conave shape which
means the air there has a low pressure as well as the top surface.
However, lift can still be generated because the magnitude of the
curvature at rhe top is greater and the airfoil can generate lift from
simply being at an an appropriate angle of attack. Figure 18 - Simulation to show streamline
pattern generated by a thicker airfoil
8 – Vortex Lift
Sometimes, particular aircraft can generate extra lift from other
methods. One method is called vortex lift. Highly swept wings with
sharp edges (like delta wings) generate swirling three-dimensional
columns of air called vorticies. These columns are parallel to the
leading edge of the wing and gets trapped here by airflow. Since a
vortex is a region of high low pressure, air flows near the wing and gets
sucked down to produce a force on the wing upwards.
Figure 19 - Diagram to show vortices
generated along the delta wing
9 – Conclusion
The question of aerodynamic lift generation is certainly a topic that fluid dynamicists and engineers
dream about solving completely. As a student I am merely scratching the surface of this deep and
complex topic and I hope to further my understanding at university, aiming to study physics. I felt it was
very important to address the myths surrounding lift generation and to emphasise the shocking fact that
the equal time argument is shown to RAF air cadets, and can be seen in older textbooks. Often it is the
easiest and trivial explanations that make sense, but are often wrong. Common sense, which is a useful
tool, can be applied to show that the equal time argument is a fallacy, since nothing governs the idea that
two particles leaving the leading edge of the wing must join at the same time at the trailing edge. Another
gripe of many scientists and academics is that people often combine correct physics principles with
incorrect scenarios, so when students learn that the combination of ideas is wrong, they assume every
fragment is apocryphal. Bernoulli’s principle and Venturi’s theory are both perfectly correct ideas in their
own rights, but they cannot be used in any scenario without understanding exactly what the physical
conditions are.
In this document, we have explored four theories of lift, and through scientific reasoning we have
analysed each theory’s merits and shortcomings. From my research, I believe that the strongest argument
for lift is the idea of circular motion requiring a pressure difference on either side of the wing. This theory
clearly comes up as a winner where the other theories come short. It can explain why aircraft can fly
upside down, why air travels faster above the airfoil, and most of all it includes the idea of air pressures
which theories like flow turning do not include. On the contrary, this explanation is only sufficient for
sub-sonic travel, and as the world progresses into a new age of aviation where aircraft travel faster, flow
turning might provide a more complete understanding. To summarise, I am in full agreement with the fact
that the world of fluid dynamics is mind-bending, complex, yet beautifully intricate. Maybe one day, the
ongoing debate will be resolved, and the world will be introduced to an aviator’s ‘theory of everything’.
APPENDIX
1 – Bernoulli’s Principle
The Bernoulli principle or the Bernoulli equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation
of energy for fluids. The qualitative behaviour that is usually observed due to this principle is called the
Bernoulli Effect. Proposed by Daniel Bernoulli (born 8th February 1700) he is commemorated not only for
his achievements in aerodynamics, but in also developing the early kinetic theory of gases. The following
is a proof of Bernoulli’s equation
Where: 𝑷𝑷 = static pressure of the fluid at cross section
𝝆𝝆 = density of the flowing liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = velocity of fluid flow at cross section
h = elevation head of the centre of the cross section with respect to a datum
Consider the following pipe:

Here, Bernoulli’s constant is denoted by 𝒌𝒌𝑩𝑩 . In layman’s terms, kinetic energy plus potential energy is
some positive constant. From this we can deduce that an increase in velocity must result in fluid pressure
decreasing. This ties into the equal time argument which uses the same argument (incorrectly) to explain
lift.
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1QEj09Pe6k [Accessed 21 Aug. 2020].
[7] Wassertec - Ozone Generators. (n.d.). Explanation of the Venturi Effect - Wassertec, Cape Town.
[online] Available at: https://www.wassertec.co.za/explanation-venturi-effect-applications/ [Accessed 22
Aug. 2020].
[8] LearnEngineering (n.d.). Why is the top flow faster over an Airfoil ? - YouTube. [online]
www.youtube.com. Available at: https://youtube.com/watch?v=VEe7NxB5Vo8 [Accessed 26 Aug.
2020].
[9] LearnEngineering (n.d.). Why is the top flow faster over an Airfoil ? - YouTube. [online]
www.youtube.com. Available at: https://youtube.com/watch?v=VEe7NxB5Vo8 [Accessed 26 Aug.
2020].
[10-15] Babinsky, H. (n.d.). How do wings work - Common misconception on lift - YouTube. [online]
Aug. 2020].
[16] Regis, E. (2020). No One Can Explain Why Planes Stay in the Air. Scientific American. [online]
Available at: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/no-one-can-explain-why-planes-stay-in-the-air/
[17], [18] Babinsky, H. (n.d.). How do wings work - Common misconception on lift - YouTube. [online]
Aug. 2020].
[19] ] heritage-concorde. (2016). Concorde wing. [online] Available at:
https://www.heritageconcorde.com/the-wing [Accessed 26 Aug 2020].
EVALUATION
As I approach the climax of my full project, I feel it is imperative to reflect upon my performance,
critically reviewing the points on which I can improve on, but also acknowledging how this process has
helped me in becoming a much better-rounded person. There have been highs and lows throughout this
fantastic journey, but overall it has been a brilliant learning experience, which I will profoundly
recommend to all my younger peers.
1 - How has the process helped me?

First and foremost, I believe that the EPQ has provided my with a new and extensive pallet of skills
which will also help me in the long-run.
It has certainly taught me how to evaluate sources to a great extent, so that in the future when I perform
research, I will be cautious about which websites I view and extract information from; such as wikipedia,
which is infamous for being quick and accesible but sometimes misinforming people, as information may
be incorrect or out of date. Furthermore, it has improved my essay writing skills, helping me to convey
my thoughts and ideas in an informative but concise manner, emphasising the key points, and then
backing it up with evidence. The EPQ has also rejuvinated my time-management skills, allowing me to
profit from the time I have, which is an important skill to have in university, where I will have to rely on
managing my free time and studies well.
Parts of my EPQ will coincide with my university modules on introductory fluid dynamics, and this
research project will give me a headstart in the topic since the extensiveness of my research will help me
understand the concepts throroughly.
I think most of all, I have learnt in great detail about something which has interested me for a long time,
and it is not merely relative to me, but to everyone on this Earth, since it is flight which will allow us
complete intercontinental travel faster and save time. How planes fly is certainly one of the questions that
most people have been intrigued by, and I feel I have done my best to answer it as fully as possible.
2 - How have I improved since the HPQ?

In February of 2019 I completed the Higher Project Qualification (level 2), which was essentially a
smaller version of the EPQ, however, it required the same basic skills. Now, having finished the EPQ, I
feel like I have significantly improved.: This year I emphasised the importance of primary research. This
type of research is particularly useful, since I know how it has been collected (as I have done it myself)
and hence I am confident in its validity. Firstly, I had series of thoughtful and informative discussions
with my Physics teacher and supervisor about the alternative lift theory, and he helped me read between
the lines of the argument. Furthermore, he assisted me in structuring the project such that it can be easily
understood by a reader, with an emphasis on signposting the argument in the introduction. Secondly, to
my delight, Professor Holger Babinsky of the University of Cambridge replied to email about a question I
had about his lift theory. I was confused because, what I thought was that the curve of an airfoil is what
generates the lift – so how can paper aeroplanes (With flat wings) fly as they have flat wings? He
explained that what we see is not what the air sees: Angling the airfoil at the correct angle will cause the
air to follow a curved streamline, and it is the curved streamline which generates the lift. His help was
invaluable and allowed me to gain a complete understanding of the topic.
I had struggled to get any primary resources for my HPQ, and I am content that I achieved it this time.
Furthermore, I have written my project activity log in greater detail, as well as the dissertation and the
research review, so in conclusion I have seen vast improvement since the HPQ.
3 - What obstacles did I face and how did I tackle them?

I believe that although the process was largely successful, there were some obstacles which inhibited my
progress throughout the journey.
Firstly, as a year 13 student, I had to tackle the onslaught of University entrance exams, interviews and
revision for mocks, as well as the EPQ. Initially I did underestimate the workload and I struggled with
timing. However, I quickly solved this by creating a schedule which incorporated time for all the
activities, dedicating my time appropriately when I came back from school and during the holidays.
Last year when I did the HPQ, when I got to writing the dissertation, I had forgotten most of my research
and the key details. For the EPQ, I made sure to make detailed notes which I kept in a separate folder, so
that when I got to my dissertation I could easily recall the research. However, there were still a few things
I forgot and I had to research a little while writing, but in the end, it all worked out fine, and I think doing
a bit of research while writing the dissertation is good because some of the concepts stay in your mind,
ready to be written in the form of words.
Lastly, a problem I had is that I often lost the flow of reasoning in my project. The dissertation although
well-researched, was lacking the punch, simply due to the fact that my sections were unnecessarily
jumbled around, and I ended up leaving one of the most important points of the dissertation (that there are
two abstractions of lift) till the end. Mr Jewson helped me out with this and helped me set out a clear
structure, with the arguments structured one after the other in a clear list.
4 - What can I improve on?

Although I am proud of my work, there are still opportunities where I can improve my project. I would
have planned a research schedule at the beginning of the summer holidays, so that I wouldn’t have to do
last minute research while writing the dissertation. I also wished I had done a bit of CFD modelling
myself, to show what results I had achieved, rather than use secondary data.
I believe I could have extended the dissertation a little further. It would have been nice to not just
investigate man-made flight, but also how animals in nature, like birds, are capable of flying. This really
interests me and I think I will definitely invest some of my free time to learn more about this. I strongly
believe that the more inspiration we take from nature, the more efficient and effective our flying machines
will be.
5 - Conclusion
In conclusion, I feel extremely proud of the work I have done, and I am excited to give my presentation in
February. I would like to thank Mr Jewson for giving up his time to assist me in understanding the
physics behind my topic. I also give my sincere thanks to Mrs. Kemal and Mr. Birtchnell, who have
mentored all of us for the last few months, given us useful feedback, and helped us in times of need and I
would like to thank them for giving me this superlative opportunity of the EPQ. It was a brilliant
experience, which I would recommend to everyone in the years below.
“The important thing is not to stop questioning.

Curiosity has its own reason for existing.”
Albert Einstein
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What is the reason for

Extended Project Qualification

Project Proposal Form

Centre Name St. Olave’s Grammar School Centre Number 14285

Teacher Assessor Andrew Jewson Date 27/06/20

Proposed project title What is the reason for aerodynamic lift?

Section One: Title, objective, responsibilities

What is the real reason behind flight?

Hence, I would like to:

If it is a group project, what will your responsibilities be?

Section Three: Activities and timescales

2) Research information available from sources such as: books, (going

3) Using this research, to write the drafts for my introduction and

6) Deep development and evaluation of the research review and

7) Write the evaluation

9) Preparation of the slides of a proposed “PowerPoint” presentation (7 hours)

Throughout the project duration, continual updating of the Project activity

Milestone one: First Draft

1) Research all aspects of the topic by the end of summer

Target date (set by tutor-assessor): October Half term

Milestone two: Final Draft

Target date (set by tutor-assessor): Christmas

Section Four: Resources

b) Interviewing experts in the field

c) Websites – Online articles, blog posts etc.

d) Videos, Lectures, and animations

What your areas of research will cover?

Comments and agreement from tutor-assessor

Is the learner taking this project as part of the Diploma? Yes/No

If yes, which Diploma are they taking? ______________________________________________

Which qualification (title and unit)? _______________________________________________

Agreed: (name) (date)

Comments and agreement from project proposal checker

I confirm that the project is appropriate.

Agreed: (name) (date)

Project Activity Log

Centre Name St. Olave’s Grammar School Centre Number 14285

Unit Name Dissertation Unit number P 301

Teacher Assessor Andrew Jewson

Proposed project title What is the reason for aerodynamic lift?

3.2 - Background reading and articles on the internet

2 – The Lift Equation

Figure 2 - Diagrams to show the airfoil of a commercial airliner

6.1.1 - Assumption 1: Path difference

6.1.2 - Assumption 2: Flows leaving and joining at the same time

The diagrams to follow

The air particles along

From the last diagram

6.1.3 - Assumption 3: Pressure variation resulting in velocity variation

6.2 – Theory Two: The Venturi theory

The curve of the airfoil causes a mass

6.3 – Theory Three: The Principle of Flow Turning

6.4 – Theory Four: Lift from Shape

6.4.1 - Pressure fields along straight streamlines

For arguments sake, let us assume that there is a varying pressure

6.4.2 - Pressure fields across curved streamlines

6.4.3 - Lift generation from curved airflow

7 – Shape of airfoils and angles of attack

Consider the following pipe:

Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)

1 - How has the process helped me?

2 - How have I improved since the HPQ?

3 - What obstacles did I face and how did I tackle them?

4 - What can I improve on?