JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Sonika Kushwaha and Akhilesh Kumar

Indian Biodiversity Conservation Society, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.

Abstract
India declared the Blue Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) as National Bird of
India in 1963. In India, it is given the utmost protection by its inclusion in
the Schedule I of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Indian Peafowl is the
largest among the pheasants. It belongs to the family Phasianidae and order
Galliformes. Pavo cristatus have received mention in various cultures and
*Corresponding Author: mythology. It is locally common endemic breeding resident of India, Sri
Lanka and Nepal. The preferred habitats of this pennant species are scrub-
Sonika Kushwaha jungles and forest fringes, dry deciduous and semiarid regions, agricultural
fields, along streams and near human settlements. They are omnivorous and
Email: ibcsforall@gmail.com feed on a variety of animal and plant material. WWF and other
environmental groups estimated that the population has gone down by
almost 50 percent when compared to the population at the time of
Received: 03/10/2016 independence. It has been 52 years since Peacock was declared as National
Bird but there is no census for peacocks in India that may reveal their
abundance and scarcity. Threats include, increasing poaching for feathers
Accepted: 27/11/2016 and meat, habitat destruction, mortality due to chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, poisoning by farmers to prevent crop damage and extraction of
various parts for traditional medicines. They play an important role in
regulating the ecosystem balance and are of religious importance. The
proper implication of conservation measures is the need of hour before the
emblematic National bird is listed in the threatened category of IUCN Red
List.

Keywords: India, Peafowl, National bird, Population.

1. Introduction protection by its inclusion in the Schedule I of Wildlife

India declared the Blue Peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
as National Bird of India in 1963. According to the
renowned ornithologist, Late Dr. Salim Ali, the peafowl
was recommended to the Government as National Bird
on account of its widespread distribution in the country
and also because of its longstanding association with
the life and culture of the Indian people. Somehow, this
latter aspect is taken for granted and it is generally not
appreciated that in no other country of the world the
bonds between the national bird and its people are as
ancient and intimate as in India. Majestic: For sheer
attractiveness, adorning ability and adaptability, the
Indian Peafowl is clearly unsurpassable and
incomparable. No other bird can claim such a triple 'A'
standing. Regal and resplendent, yet common and
plebian, it stands in a class of its own, a true symbol of
India in all its beauty and colorful splendor. It is rightly
the National Bird of India. Later, throughout India's
history, the peafowl has received state recognition, one
way or the other. In India, it is given the utmost
(Protection) Act, 1972. Also known as Indian Peafowl
or Common Peafowl is the largest among the pheasants.
Essentially, all Indian pheasants are terrestrial forest
dwellers, though the Indian Peafowl is known to thrive
also in the non-forest areas and even in urban places.
The Indian Peafowl prefers scrub forest for its habitat
and is distributed widely through the country; it is the
only pheasant species that is able to adjust easily to
human beings and is at home near habitations and even
in urban areas. This is another factor that has facilitated
its long and intimate association with the people in
India.
Pheasants are regarded as the most distinctive
bird family of the Himalaya, perhaps, due to their
charismatic features and also their significant role in the
high altitude ecosystem. They serve as useful indicator
of habitat/ environmental quality, as a major prey base
for predatory birds and mammals 1 and indicators of
adverse human impacts on their ecosystems. 2, 3
Pheasants are important indicator species since their

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
presence or absence in an area is a good indicator of the
healthiness of the bionetwork. The peacock symbolizes
glory, grace, joy, splendor, love and pride. It is believed
that the dancing peacock is an indication for off set of
rains. At the sight of dark clouds the bird outspreads its
tail and starts dancing in rhythmic fashion. The
significance of peacock is attached to cultures of India,
Far East, Ancient Persia, Greek and Christian. It
occupies a sacred position in Hindu mythology subject
of voluminous folklore as well as in Sanskrit, literature
and poetry (Thaker, 1963). Peacock has been associated
with Lord Krishna who adorns the peacock feather on
his forehead. In Hinduism, the image of the god of
thunder, rains and war, Indra, was depicted in the form
of a peacock. In south India, peacock is considered as a
'vahana' or vehilce of Lord Muruga (Fig 1). The Indian
peafowl plays an important role in the Muslim story of
creation as well (Thapar, 1998). The figure of peacock is
painted in various Islamic religious buildings.
In Christianity, the peacock was also known as
the symbol of the 'Resurrection'
(file:///G:/Review%20on%20Peacock/Peacocks/nationa
l_bird.asp.html). This role of the peacock in different
religions, folklore and mythology had traditionally acted
as a safeguard against their being killed. The Maurya
and Gupta rulers conferred special status to the species
and even reared these birds in their palace gardens.
Emperor Ashok in the second century BC forbade the
killing of peafowl for the table and some of his stone
edicts displayed the peacock prominently. The famous
Sanchi Stupa of around the same period has winged
lions and peacocks that were considered royal, hence
suitable for the Stupa (Fig 2a). During the Gupta period
in the fifth century AD, several coins depicting the
peacock were issued and it was also a favourite subject
for the art and architecture of that time (Fig 2b). This
trend continued in varying forms subsequently, even
during the medieval period when the Muslim rulers
were dominant. For instance, the Tughlak kings were so
fascinated by the peafowl feather that they adopted its
design for the state emblem and prescribed its use in
various ways, including the headgear of the soldiers.
Moreover, fans made of peacock feathers were
regularly used in the courtrooms of many rulers all
across the country, including the imperial Mughals (Fig
2c).
Male Indian Peafowl have characteristic colorful
tail feathers or train that makes the male peafowl one of
the largest flying birds in the world. The feathers of the
Blue Peafowl and both the Jungle fowl are also in
demand. Illegal trade in live birds is also a problem to
reckon with. The Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) was
once widely distributed and abundant throughout the
Indian mainland except for the Himalayan ranges and
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43
North-East India. In recent years, there has been an
increasing concern about their declining status.
2. Classification, Distribution and
Population
The pheasants are group of birds belong to the
Order Galliformes and Family Phasianidae that includes
pheasants, partridges and quails, commonly known as
‘game birds’ (Delacour, 1977). The family Phasianidae
is the largest and the most diverse assemblage
(Johnsgard, 1986). Out of 51 species of World’s
pheasants, 17 species occur in India with very little
ecological information (Fuller and Garson, 2000).
Order - Galliformes 250 species in World.
Familiy - Phasianidae 138 species in World.
Species - Pheasants 51 species in World and 17 in India.
3. Classification of Indian Peafowl
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Pavo
Species: Cristatus
Three species of peafowl are found in the World
(Dharmakumarsinhji and Lavkumar, 1981):
a) Burmese peafowl (P. muticus) from eastwards
to Sumatra (Fig 3a).
b) African peafowl/Congo peafowl (A.
congensis) in Belgian Congo and (Fig 3b).
c) Indian Peafowl or blue peafowl (Pavo
cristatus) in Indian subcontinent (Fig 3c).
The geographical ranges of P. muticus and P.
cristatus generally do not overlap. However, the
distribution range of P. muticus extends upto 1500 to
1800 m., whereas P. cristatus is restricted to low plains,
frequently less than 600 m. (Baker, 1930). The peacock
is widely distributed in the Indian sub-continent, from
the south and east of the Indus River, Jammu and
Kashmir, east Assam, south Mizoram and the whole of
the Indian peninsula (R Sabesh, 2010). The population
is very high in Rajasthan, Mathura and Chitrakoot. The
destruction of forest areas in Mathura has reduced their
population, still the mornings echo with may-awe and
ka-ann. Some districts of Uttar Pradesh like Agra,
Kanpur, Sitapur, Lucknow have good population of
peafowls while some districts are reported to have
population decline such as Jhansi and Lalitpur.
It is protected throughout the country, especially
under the Schedule-1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection
Act, 1972 and its subsequent amendment and
Appendix-1 of CITES (Dodia, 2011). Nevertheless, the
population of the bird is decreasing in India. It has also
been reported that there is no reliable estimate of the
population of peafowl available in India (Ali and –
 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Peacock: vehilce of Lord Muruga Peacock associated with Lord Krishna

Fig 1: Peacock in Indian Mythology.

Fig 2a: Peacocks in Sanchi Stupa. Fig 2b: Peacocks on coins during Gupta Period.

Fig 2c: Peacocks in Mughal Architecture.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
Fig 3a: Burmese Peafowl (P.
( muticus) https://s-
media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals
mg.com/originals.
Fig 3c: Indian Peafowl or blue peafowl (Pavo cristatus).
Ripley, 1989; Choudhury and Sathyakumar, 2007).
Ornithologists believe that the population of peacocks is
more
re than 100,000. WWF and other environmental
groups estimate that the population has gone down by
almost 50 percent when compared to the population at
the time of independence. However, it is difficult to
determine how many peacocks have been lost over the
years because of the non-availability
availability of data as a
nationwide census of the bird has not been done (R
Sabesh, 2010). Though global population trends have
not been quantified there is evidence of population
decline (Del Hoyo et al.,, 1994). A census of Indian
peafowl population throughout its distribution range is
essential to assess the present population status of our
National Bird.
4. Morphological Features
The male Indian peafowl, commonly known as
the peacock, is one of the most beautiful and
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45
Fig 3b: African peafowl/Congo peafowl (A.
(
congensis) wikipedia.
recognizable
zable birds in the World.
W They are large and
brightly coloured, with a distinctive crest and an
ornamental train. Combined with a large wingspan, this
makes the peacock one of the largest flying birds in the
world. The train is formed by 100 to 150 highly
specialized upper tail-coverts.
coverts. Each of these feathers
sports an ornamental ocellus or eye-spot and has long
disintegrated barbs, giving the feathers a loose, fluffy
look (Fig 4a).. The female lacks the train, with a
greenish lower neck and dull brown plumage. The
"train" is in reality made up of the enormously
elongated upper tail coverts (Fig 4b). The tail itself is
brown and short as in the peahen. The colors result not
from any green or blue pigments but from the micro-
micro
structure of the feathers and the resulting
r optical
phenomena (Blau, 2004). In northern India, these begin
to develop each February and are moulted at the end of
August (Sharma, 1974). The moult of the flight feathers
may be spread out across the year (Marien,
(Marien 1951). The -
59
 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
Fig 4a: Identifying features of Male Peafowl.
Fig 4b: Identifying features of Female Peafowl.
fan-shaped crest on the head is made of feathers with
bare black shafts and tipped with bluish-green webbing.
A white stripe above the eye and a crescent shaped
white patch below the eye are formed by bare white
skin. The sides of the head have iridescent greenish blue
feathers. The back has scaly bronze-green feathers with
black and copper markings. The scapular and the wings
are buff and barred in black, the primaries are chestnut
and the secondaries are black. The thighs are buff
coloured. The male has a spur on the leg above the hind
toe (Whistler, 1949; Blanford, 1898). The female, male,
sub-adults can be identified by observing the neck
colour and tail feathers (Fig 4c).
5. Behaviour and Ecology
5.1 Behavior
Their loud calls make them easy to detect, and in
forest areas often indicate the presence of a predator
(Gurjar et al., 2013). Peacock is probably the oldest
known ornamental bird. “Muster” is a particular term
used for flock of peafowls (Irving and Simon, 1961;
Grzimek, 1972). Group formation has been observed in
many bird species and the possible causes and functions
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46
of grouping have gained much attention over the years
(Caraco et al., 1980). Arcese et al. (1995) described the
muster composition of Blue Peafowl (Table 1).
It roosts on trees and also uses tall buildings
where trees are scarce. It generally prefers a habitat
mosaic of scrub and open areas, with adequate sites for
dust bathing and lekking, a phenomenon where males
are known to congregate in open areas for displaying to
attract females (Yasmin and Yahya, 1996). Several
males may congregate at a lek site and these males are
often closely related. Males at lek appear to maintain
small territories next to each other and they allow
females to visit them and make no attempt to guard
harems (Petrie et al., 1999). Dancing is not the exclusive
behavior of the peacocks. The juveniles when 8-10
months old are also observed dancing (Fig 6a and b).
The dancing is not related to the breeding season or the
onset of rainfall.
Dust bathing is critical as this bird has to
condition its feathers and remove feather-degrading
bacteria and other external parasites. It is likely that the
availability of such habitats partly explains the relatively
high abundance of this species in semi arid and flood
plains.
In the fourth week of August or beginning of
September, Peacock plumes began to loosen and swing
suspended. Because the loose plumes cause irritation,
Peacocks remove them with their bills. They often
preen their train of plumes, plucking out the loose ones.
The rate of molt is very slow in the first week, i.e., three
to six plumes per day. Molting increased in the second
week to 6-21 feathers per day and this continue through
the fourth week. During the fifth and sixth week, the
rate slow down to two to four plumes per day. In the
eighth week, the small plumes remaining are molted
irregularly (Fig 7a and b). Plumes developed and grew
in size in February when some courtship dance and
display began to occur. Plumes attained full size in
April before the beginning of the rut and continued to
grow until August, the height of the breeding season.
The relationship between the commencement of molt
and the end of the breeding season has also been
observed in many other birds, i.e., males lose brilliant-
colored feathers or color after the breeding season
(Sharma, 1974). Peafowl prefer varied deciduous
forests, cultivated lands and being close to villages (Fig
8). They are very common in most areas of their natural
range. Peafowl forage on the ground for food, they
return to the same watering hole each day at dusk
before roosting in a tree for the night
(http://www.seaworld.org/animalinfo/animalbytes/anim
alia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/cran
iata/aves/galliformes/indian-peafowl.htm).
 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Female around 95 cm (37 in) in length . Peahen has a

rufous-brown head with a crest as in the male
but the tips are chestnut edged with green.

Male length from bill to tail of 100 to 115 cm (39

to 45 in) and to the end of a fully grown train
as much as 195 to 225 cm (77 to 89 in).

Male (2 The long train feathers (and tarsal spurs) of

years old) the male develop only after the second year
of life.

Male (4 Fully developed trains are found in birds

years old) older than four years.

Fig 4c: Identifying features of male, female and subadults.

Table 1: Muster composition of blue peafowl (following Arcese et al., 1995).

S. Type of Muster Characteristic

No
1. All Male muster (AM) All individuals in the muster included adult males (Fig 5a)
2. All Female muster (AF) All individuals in the muster included adult females (Fig 5b)
3. Male-Female mixed muster (MF Mxd) Muster included adult male(s) and adult female(s)
4. Female-Sub adult mixed muster Muster included adult female(s) and sub adults.
(FSu Mxd)
5. Female-Chicks mixed muster Muster included adult female and chick(s). (Fig 5c)
(FC Mxd)
6. Male-Female-Sub adult mixed Muster included adult male(s), adult female(s) and muster (Fig
(MFSu Mxd) Sub adults. 5d)

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Fig 5a: All Male (AM) Muster. Fig 5b: All Female (AF) Muster.

Fig 5c: Female-Chicks mixed Muster (FC Fig 5d: Male-Female-Sub adult mixed (MFSu
Mxd). Mxd) Sub adults.

Juvenile peacock Juvenile peahen

Fig 6a-b: Dancing Juveniles (8-10 months old).

Plume type

Large plumes with ocelli Medium-sized plumes Plumes without ocelli Plumes on the upper rump

Fig 7a: Order of plume molting.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
Fig 7b: Adult male during the molting period of
feathers.
It has been reported that in such mass roosting they
break up into small’ groups in the morning with a male
and harem of three to five females (Ali and Ripley,
1978), After leaving the roosting areas the birds move
into forest clearings, cultivated fields, or other areas for
foraging in the early morning hours. In the mid day they
spent their timer under shady trees often very close to
the water sources, where the birds drink and preen at
length (Fig 9).
Late in the afternoon, they forage a second time,
and return for another drink at dusk before going to
roost in the evening (Ali and Ripley, 1978).
5.1.1 Feeding Behaviour
Peafowl is omnivorous, feeds on everything
from grain and green crops to insects, small reptiles and
small mammals (Johansingh and Murali, 1980;
Sathyanarayana, 2005). They forage in agricultural
fields, parks, and forest outskirts in pair or small
clusters (Fig 10). Berries and drupes of plants such as
Carissa, Lantana, Zizyphus and wild figs (Ficus) are
apparently favoured foods of peafowl (Dilger and
Wallen, 1966; Ali and Ripley, 1987; Johansgard, 1986).
According to the study of Chopra and Kumar (2014)
feed on flowers/leaves/fruits parts of Brassica
compestris (flowers, leaves), Trifolium alexandarium
(flowers, leaves), Triticum aestivum (flowers, leaves,
fruits), Oryza sativa (flowers, leaves, fruits),
Chenopodium album (flowers, leaves, fruits),
Parthenium histerophoresus (flowers, leaves), Pisum
sativum (flowers, leaves, fruits), Cicer arientum
(flowers, leaves, fruits), Pyrus pyrifolia (flowers, fruits),
Ficus benghalensis (flowers, fruits), Ficus rumphii
(flowers, fruits) in Saraswati plantation wildlife
sanctuary (SPWS), Bir Sonti Reserve Forest (BSRF),
and Jhrouli Kalan village (JKAL). They feed on insects
and on remains of the snake bodies as well.
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Earlier also, Johansingh and Murali (1980) has
also recorded that peafowls feed on plant materials such
as leaves, grass seeds and flower parts, cotton fruits,
Acacia seeds, Cyperus rhizomes, standing cereal crops
and various insects (termites, grasshoppers, ants and
beetles) in cultivated fields, adjoining Acacia plantation
and fallow lands. Drisdelle (2007) has also been
reported that due to omnivorous nature, blue peafowl,
they eat snakes and keep these venomous animals away
from human communities. Indian peafowl can both be
advantageous and detrimental for the crops, on one
hand, functions as a biocontrol by feeding on harmful
pests and on other hand it turns out to be a pest on
crops.
5.2 Breeding Biology
The peak season in southern India is April to
May, and June in northern India. Peacocks
are polygamous. They have a lek like mating system,
where males defend small and clumped territories in
their breeding season (Hillgarth, 1984; Rands et al.,
1984; Loyau et al., 2007).
Several males may congregate at a lek site and
these males are often closely related (Petrie et al.,
1999). Males at lek appear to maintain small territories
next to each other and they allow females to visit them
and make no attempt to guard harems. The male
peafowl display their magnificent trains and use loud
calls to attract a harem of three to five females. The
wings are held half open and drooped and it periodically
vibrates the long feathers producing a ruffling sound.
The cock faces the hen initially and struts and prances
around and sometimes turns around to display the tail
(Ali and Ripley, 1980). Males may display even in the
absence of females (Fig 11). When a male is displaying,
females do not appear to show any interest and usually
continue their foraging (Johnsingh, 1978). Females do
not appear to favour specific males (Rands et al., 1984).
The females most often mate with the males who have
the most eyespots on their fans and the largest displays.
Males may also freeze over food to invite a female in a
form of courtship feeding (Stokes et al., 1971). After
mating, the female makes a nest by scraping out a
hollow in the ground in a concealed area lined with
leaves, sticks and other debris. Nests are sometimes
placed on buildings (Vyas, 1994) and in earlier times
have been recorded using the disused nest platforms of
the white-rumped vultures. When the nests are
continuously preyed by the predators, the peahen is
reported to lay egg on appropriate trees in exceptional
cases (Rajeshwar Prasad and Narayan Singh). They lay
three to six buff white eggs in the nest. The peahen lays
one egg in one day. The female alone incubates the
 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

eggs, which hatch in 28-30 days. The eggs of peafowl hen (Rajeshwar Prasad and Narayan Singh). Males have
have also been seen incubated by other birds such as no part in incubating or raising the chicks. However, an

Outskirts of Forests Agricultural fields

Rocky hills Human habitation

Fig 8: Peacocks in various habitats.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Fig 9: Peacocks spent the mid day in shade near source of water.

Fig 10: Foraging Peafowls.

Fig 11: Male peacock performing mating dance to entice a nearby peahen.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
unusual instance of a male incubating a clutch of eggs
has been reported (Shivrajkumar, 1957). When the
precocial chicks hatch, they are well developed and able
to leave the nest within a few hours to follow the
female, and are able to feed themselves from birth
(Whistler, 1949). Downy young may sometimes climb
on their mothers' back and the female may carry them in
flight to a safe tree branch (Singh, 1964). By four weeks
the chicks begin to grow their crests and by two months
they resemble the females but are about half their size.
Peafowl are mature at two to three years of age (Fig 12
a-d). Males develop their brilliant plumage and
magnificent trains by the age of three but younger males
will practice fan spreading and courtship displays.
Lifespan for Indian peafowl is about 20 years in the
wild and up to 30 years in captivity.
5.3 Roosting Behaviour
Trivedi and Johnsingh (1996) reported that the
roost of Indian Blue Peafowl gives us lot of
management strategies to safe guard the trees in the
relevant habitats. But information on the roost selection
is a vital component in the overall habitat selection
process. However, very limited information is available
on the roost study of Indian Blue Peafowl. Ali and
Ripley (1983) have reported that large birds need tall
trees and small birds need small trees for roosting.
Roosting site selection plays a pivotal role in the nesting
success of any species. Judicious selection of the
roosting site enhances the survival of birds, by virtue of
reduced heat loss, information sharing, accountability of
population and better production from predators (Gadgil
1972; Tast and Rassi, 1973; Gadgil and Ali, 1975;
Gyllin et al., 1977). The roost comprises of adult males,
females, sub-adults. The height of roost tree, roost
height, canopy cover and habitat plays a vital role in
choosing the roost trees by Peafowl (Gadgil and Ali,
1975). According to Bergmann (1980) and Johansgaurd
(1986), blue peafowl (Pavo cristatus) has been
observed on the tall trees for roosting, and nesting under
dense bushes with open areas having feeding grounds.
According to Baker and Inglis (1930) peafowls
preferably roost on high, open trees so that they could
get vision from all all directions; and they generally
select the tallest trees for roosting in forests in order to
protect themselves from the tree-climbing, night
predators such as the leopard and other cats. Johnsingh
and Murali (1980) found five banyan trees (Ficus
bengalensis) served as the roosting site for about 100
birds. Roosting of the peafowls is very closely related
with the sunset but temperature has no relation with
roosting (Navatheekannan, 1984). According to the
observations of Chopra and Kumar in 2012, peafowl
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roost in their habitats during their inactive period (i.e.,
noon and in late evening hours) on dominant tree
species. They reported 13 species of trees for roosting,
namely, Acacia nilotica, Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus
hybrid, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus rumphii, Syzygium
cumini, Zizyphus mauritiana, Tectona grandis, Pyrus
pyrifolia, Pyrus cummunis, Mangifera indica, Psidium
guajava, Populus populous. Dodia (2011) has reported
that among 14 trees species (Azadiracta indica, Ficus
bengalensis, Eucalyptus, Cocos nucifera, Prosopsis
juliflora, Mangifera indica, Ziziphus mauritina, Syzium
cumini, Ficus teseila, Manikara haexandra, Terminalia
catappa, Casuariana equisetafolia, Samanaea saman,
Adansonnia digitate) peafowl roosted mainly on
Azadiracta indica, Ficus bengalensis, Eucalyptus and
Cocos nucifera in Gujarat state of India. The peafowls
select Ficus bengalensis, Madhuca indica, Cocus
nucifera, Acacia sp. Albizia lebbeck and Palm tree in
Trichy district of Tamilnadu. The peafowl preferred the
primary and secondary branches for roosting (K.
Kalaiselvan* and N. Ramesh, 2014). The Peafowl in
districts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are seen
roosting on large and old Sheesam trees, peepal trees,
chirol, Gulmohar, Neem, imli, etc. (Fig 13). They are
also seen resting on human constructed buildings during
the day time (Fig 14). Roosting site may enhance the
survival of birds, by virtue of reduced heat loss,
information sharing and better protection from
predators (Gadgil and Ali, 1975).
6. Threats
After Fifty two magnificent years (2015), after
being named the National Bird of India, the
mesmerizing peacock faces negligence regarding field
surveys and scientific research in Indian subcontinent.
When talking about Experts, peacocks are considered
least endangered species, hence uncared for. The
peafowls are facing various threats that are resulting in
population decline.
a) The veracity about Peacocks is loss and
destruction of habitats due to urban sprawl that
result in shrinking of the natural habitats.
b) Jackal (Canis aureus), feral dogs, python
(Python molurus) and Common Indian Monitor
Lizard (Varanus bengalensis) are the common
predators (Fig 15).
c) The poaching of Peacock, unthinkable in the past
is a common practice today. While the young
ones are mainly trapped for flesh, male peacocks
are killed for their feathers (Fig 16).
d) Previously, the law permitted the collection of
shed feathers, but once the feathers have been
used in crafts it is difficult to say whether they –
 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Fig 12a: A few days old Chick

Chick. Fig 12b: 3 months old Chicks
Chic with
peahen.

Fig 12c: 4 months old Chicks with Fig 12d: Sub-adults

adults with female.
female
female.
female

Fig 11 and 12: Various stages in breeding cycle of peafowl.

peafowl

Fig 13: Peafowls roosting on large trees.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Fig 14: Peafowls resting on man-made constructions.

Fig.15: Common predators of Peafowls (Feral dog and Python).

Fig 16: Male peacocks are killed for their feathers.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

Table 2: Peafowl drugs used in traditional treatment by tribes in India (Bagde and Jain, 2013; Katewa and Galav,
2006; Vyas et al., 2009; Mahawar and Jaroli, 2007).

S.No Part of Disease Treatment Place

Peacock
1. Legs Ear problem Leg of peacock boiled in oil and used for Tribes of Nandurbar
ear problem district of Maharastra
2 Feather Cough Ash of feathers Tribes of Nandurbar
district of Maharastra
3. Flesh and fat Contracted limbs Fat content of visceral organs is melted over Tribes of Thirunelveli,
small flame and applied externally on Nilgris, Coimbatore and
contracted limbs Erode districts of Tamil
Nadu.
4 Feather Hiccups 10 gm Ash of feathers+ 10 gm Piper Tribes of Thirunelveli,
longum+ 10 gm Cuminum cyminum Nilgris, Coimbatore and
Thrice a day Erode districts of Tamil
Nadu.
5. Feather Headache Feather ash mixed with coconut oil Attappadi Hills of
Palghat District in
Kerela
6. Flesh Tonic, pus and wound X Tamil Nadu, Kerela,
Andra Pradesh,
Karanataka
7. Bones Tonic, pus and wound X Tamil Nadu, Kerela,
AndraPradesh,
Karanataka
8. Feather Cough, asthma and other milk of goat and ash of peacock feathers Pench National Park of
respiratory diseases Chhindwara District of
Madhya Pradesh
9. Feathers Sexual X Sangola in Solapur
impotence district (Maharastra)
10 Feathers To get male child Ash of upper rounded portion of 10 peacock Shekhawati region of
feathers is divided into 5 parts. In each part, Rajasthan
5 seeds of Diplocylos palmatus and jaggery
are mixed, and bolus each of 20 gm is
prepared. One bolus with cow milk daily
early morning is given for 5 days.

11 Feathers Asthma Crown of feather burned and Jalore and Barmer

And T.B. remaining ash mixed with honey districts, Rajasthan
to make paste used orally
12 Leg Ear infection Peacock's leg is rubbed with water and this Baran district,
essenced water is used in ear infection Rajasthan

are shed or harvested ones.
e) Export, import and internal trade of the peacock
have been banned under the Wildlife Protection
Act. Only shed feathers are allowed to be used
for the small scale industry. Another problem in
detecting violators is that most peacocks are
killed outside protected areas; hence several
poaching cases go unnoticed or unreported
(Sabesh, 2010).
f) A cause for concern is that most of the peacocks,
according to wildlife experts, are killed during
the mating season. Wildlife experts opine that it
is easy to kill a male peacock during the mating
season, when it dances in an open area and can
be easily targeted. We can well imagine how
threatened the peacock species would be when
the male birds are killed just before mating.

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758

g) Because Peacock plumes have decorative,
domestic, religious, and commercial value, they
are collected on a large scale. Village boys
collect molted plumes found scattered in fields,
farms, on roofs of houses, etc. They sell these
plumes to a retail buyer who visits the villages
periodically. The buyer transports bundles of
hundreds of feathers on donkeys and sells them
to a wholesale dealer. The dealer sorts plumes
according to sizes and prepares bundles of 200
each. Bundles of sorted plumes are sold to a
large-scale wholesale dealer who sells them to
wholesale buyers in various states of India. A
large quantity of plumes is exported. Indra
Kumar Sharma (1973). This has to be realized
that if selectively males are removed for feather
trade, then it might lead even to the complex
problem of skewed sex ratio of the peafowl
population.

Summary of information:
Population 60 PAs reported the peafowl population to be increasing
32 PAs stable and
5 PAs decreasing
remaining consider their population to be unknown
Crop depredation 7 PAs reported high crop depredation
55 PAs reported occasional crop depredation
42 PAs reported no crop depredation
Feather collection Most PAs was reported to be occasional or non existent
Very few PAs reported poaching/trade

h) It is also easier to hunt peacocks because they
roost in the same tree every night. It is shocking
that some of the hunters do not want the feathers
to be smeared with blood; hence they first trap
the bird, break its legs, harvest its tail feathers
and then kill it.
i) Adult peacocks living near human habitations
are sometimes hunted by domestic dogs (R
Sabesh, 2010). Chicks are somewhat more prone
to predation than adult birds. Adults living near
human habitations are also sometimes hunted by
domestic dogs (Gurjar R L et al., 2013).
j) According to data emerged during the study by
TRAFFIC in 2008 Agra was the centre of the
trade in peacock tail feathers in India, with an
entire community (Harries, Kanjars and Khatkis)
involved in this trade. Peacock feathers were
however on sale in every location surveyed. It
was estimated that around 20 million peacock
tail feathers were in trade annually in the areas
surveyed. This study concluded that the trade in
tail feathers of Indian Peafowl in India was not a
threat to the species. However, there was a need
to undertake detailed investigation into the
poaching of the species for meat and others.
k) Sometimes death is caused due to accidental
exposure to pesticides but sometimes mass
poisoning is also done in order to kill and collect
feathers from the dead birds. Mass poisoning
becomes easier due to the territorial nature of
Indian Peafowl (Mazumdar S, 2006).
l) Intentional poisoning is also done by the farmers
to protect the crop damage by the peafowls.
m) Several tribes in Indian States are using various
parts of peafowl to prepare traditional medicines
(Table 2).
n) While the species is becoming locally extinct
from several parts of its former range due to
habitat conversion and changes in the cropping
pattern (Imam, 2005), poaching, and pesticide
related issues, there is no estimate of the size of
surviving populations and the rate of loss from
the entire country.
7. Management of Threats in India
The status assessment based on questionnaire
survey with a well thought-out questionnaire in
Protected and unprotected areas including adjoining
reserve forests and agricultural landscapes. In 2004, the
Endangered Species Management Department of the
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) initiated gathering
information on the status of the Indian Peafowl.
a) Since 2006, the Institute has also sent
questionnaires to 350 District Collectors and 1,470
NGOs, NGIs and other professional research
organizations. However, in spite of the fact that
peafowl are perhaps equally encountered in the
non forested landscapes of the country, so far only
106 (6%) have responded. Very few NGOs have
provided information in a systematic manner.
b) The WII plans to intensify the nation-wide
information gathering on the status of Indian
Peafowl through networking with a wider level of
institutions and organizations as well as initiating
a major research project on the biology, ecology

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 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
and approaches of community based conservation
initiatives.
c) In this connection, it is noteworthy that as part of
the nation-wide campaign Save the National Bird,
WPA-India had put forward certain proposals,
including a rapid survey to assess the current
status of the species, to the National Board for
Wildlife headed by the Prime Minister. In its
meeting held on 19 June 2006, the Board approved
a rapid survey to assess the current status of the
species and periodic monitoring and proper
protection measures (BC Choudhury and S
Sathyakumar, 2008).
d) The Ministry of Environment and Forests is under
the process of banning trade in peacock feathers. It
has been brought to the Ministry’s attention that
the demand for the tail feathers is more than the
supply, thus leading to the rampant poaching and
killing of the birds for the purpose of obtaining
their feathers. Hence the Ministry proposes to
amend sections 43(3)(a) and 44 of the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 which deals with the transfer
and sale of the tail feathers of peacocks. Currently,
the Act prohibits the killing of peacocks as well as
the export of tail feathers or articles made from
them. But, the Act allows domestic trade in
feathers or articles under the assumption that these
are naturally shed. Following the amendment,
section 43(3)(a) and section 44 will no longer
exempt those possessing a certificate of ownership
for peacocks from transferring or selling the tail
feather and articles or trophies made from them (R
Sabesh, 2010).
e) In 2013, the Central Government banned the use
of peacock feather in handicrafts and jewellery.
f) The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has been
recently amended by the cabinet to make trade of
body parts of peacocks an offence equivalent to
punishment for killing other non-endangered
species. A person caught selling or purchasing
peacock feathers or trophies could be jailed for up
to two years under the amended law although
having peacock feathers by citizens will not be a
crime.
g) Karnataka has two peacock sanctuaries, one
at Adichunchanagiri and another at Bankapura
fort called Bankapur Peacock sanctuary in Haveri
District. The peacock sanctuary in Bankapur is the
only second sanctuary in the country that is
exclusively engaged in the conservation and
breeding of peacocks ("Peacock Paradise"). The
Government of India declared Bankapura as a
peacock sanctuary on June 9, 2006. This sanctuary
is situated on 139 acres of land. The sanctuary is
located on the cattle breeding farm which was set
Journal of Wildlife Research | October-December, 2016 | Vol 4 | Issue 4 | Pages 42-59
© 2016 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
57
up in 1919 after the First World War. According to
a rough estimate, there are more than 1,000
peacocks and peahen in the sanctuary. Also,
minimal human intervention has helped in the
breeding of these birds.
h) Morachi Chincholi on Pune - Ahmednagar Road,
the name itself declares that the village belongs to
the Peafowl. Over generations, people of this
village have provided sanctuary to a large number
of Peafowl. Early each morning, the Peafowl
descend from the lofty tamarind trees in the village
and roam the lanes of the village to be fed by the
people, before retreating to the shade for the
hottest portion of the day. Their food includes
Grains, Insects, small Reptiles, small Mammals,
Berries, Drupes, Wild Figs and some cultivated
Crops.
i) Morena District in Madhya Pradesh gets its name
due to abundance of peafowl population. The
people are concerned and the peafowl lives in
harmony with the humans.
j) Todi village in Moth Block of Jhansi district in
Uttar Pradesh adores the peafowl. They provide
water and grains for the peafowl that do not cause
any harm to their crops. The villagers protect them
from hunters and instruct the younger generation
to take care of the peafowl and their chicks.
8. Recommendations for Improved
Conservational Actions
It is imperative to understand the changes in
habitat and population status of these birds on a
constant basis. The conservation priorities required
include:-
a) Mapping the habitat and distribution of peafowl
throughout the country.
b) Temporal analysis of change in their habitat, and
c) Identification of “high risk areas” and potential
sites for their conservation.
The volume of trade needs to be enumerated to analyze
the adverse affects of the peafowl population so as to
take proper conservation action. If any illegality is
found, strict enforcement action should be taken and, if
required necessary policy change need to be done.
Maintenance of habitat that is ideal for peafowl. The
roosting trees should be protected and plantation of the
same should be encouraged. Crops like maize, peas,
jowar and horse gram can be grown for the peafowl in
areas where population have declined drastically.
8.1 Awareness Drive
Since the nests are located in protected areas as
well as inhabited human settlements, it is essential to
motivate the villagers as well as forest officials to
 Kushwaha and Kumar… A Review on Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Linnaeus, 1758
monitor the sites. Awareness and education
programmes for localites especially the youths, to
encourage them to contribute in peafowl conservation.
Local community plays a key role in conservation of
any species. To promote the conservation of National
Bird and their habitats outside core protected areas by
establishing Peacock Management Areas (PMAs).
Community-based conservation (CBC) through local
level community participation should be devised and
implemented to prevent poaching and poisoning of
peafowl. Volunteers who are ready to monitor the site
should be appointed at each vulture colony, and inform
the forest office and the organizations/NGOs working in
that region, about any dead vulture found. This way we
can investigate the reason of death. Any further delay
regarding their conservation may lead to the extinction
of Nature’s Cleaners.
8.2 Further Research Work
Further research work is suggested to establish at
least a baseline data for population estimation,
ecological studies, and parasitological, hematological,
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