Analyzing non-fiction

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1) Account (what and who?)

 What type of text? (essay, article, speech, advertisement, letter, letter to the editor, interview, …?)
 What is the medium? (where does the text appear?)
 in a newspaper (tabloid or serious paper?)
 in a magazine (for children, men, women, parents, pet-lovers, …?)
 on the Internet (company, a private organization, blog, …?)
 …?
 What is the topic/subject/theme?
 Who wrote the text? (age, education, background, political stand, occupatio n)
 To whom is the text written? (age, education, background, political stand, occupation)
 What is actually said?
 In your own words write down the chief point of view/claim (= hovedsynspunktet)
 List all the argument(s)/reason(s) the writer uses to back up his chief point of view/claim

2) Analysis/interpretation (how and why?): the very important section

 How is the text written? Use TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
 How does the writer appeal to his audience; i.e. logos, ethos, pathos?
(- for more on the modes of persuasions, turn this page over)
 List the rhetorical/stylistic features (= retoriske/sproglige træk) used in the text
(- for more on the features, turn this page over)
 Characterize the tone/style
(- see the vocabulary list on the last page – choose a couple of words for each)
 What is the effect of the language used in the text? What is the intention?
 to inform, discuss, convince, manipulate, justify, educate, entertain, prove, provoke?

3) Evaluation/criticism
 How reliable is the text?
 Do you find the text and the argument(s) reliable or unreliable? Why (not)?
 Does the text hold water if you compare it with other information on the topic?
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 (has something essential on the topic been omitted (=udeladt)?
 Were you convinced by the text? Why (not)?

Rhetorical/stylistic features

Modes of persuasion Logos: a logical appeal – it appeals to the audience’s reason. It is normally used to describe
(The appeals) facts and figures that support the speaker's topic.
(e.g. a report about 9/11 which focuses on time, place, casualties, technicalities and
possible explanations – based on facts.)
Ethos: an appeal to authority. It is how well the speaker convinces the audience that he/she
is qualified to speak on the particular subject. It can be done in many ways:
- By being a notable figure in the field in question, such as a college professor or an
executive of a company whose business is that of the subject.
- By showing impressive logos that shows the audience the speaker is
knowledgeable on the topic.

- By being a person with good moral judgement (ethics).

Pathos: an appeal to the audience’s emotions. It can be in the form of metaphor, simile, a
passionate delivery, or even a simple claim that a matter is unjust. Pathos can be
particularly powerful if used well, but most speeches do not solely rely on pathos.
(e.g. a report promoting ‘war on terror’ by showing graphic photos of 9/11 depicting blood,
chaos, people crying and the American flag.)
Figures of repetition There are numerous kinds of figures of repetition. Note the widely used figure called ”The
Rule of Three” - the repetition of three. (e.g. “How do you get to my place? Go down to
the corner, turn left, and get lost.”)

 Anaphora: the repetition of the first word(s) in successive clauses/phrases.

(e.g. ”Mad world! Mad Kings! Mad composition!” – in Shakespeare’s King John)
 Epiphora: the repetition of the last word(s) in successive clauses/phrases.
(e.g. “She’s safe, just like I promised. She’s all set to marry Norrington, just like she
promised. And you get to die for her, just like you promised.” – Jack Sparrow, The
Pirates of the Caribbean.)
 Symploce: the combination of anaphora and epiphora.
(e.g. “Much of what I say might sound bitter, but it’s the truth. Much of what I say
might sound like it’s stirring up trouble, but it’s the truth. Much of what I say might
sound like it’s hate, but it’s the truth.” – Malcolm X)
 Chiasmos: two clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structure in order
to make a larger point.
(e.g. ”Mankind must put an end to war or war will put an end to mankind.” – JFK)
Figures of contrast Antithesis/contrast: establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by
joining them together, often in parallel structure. Many texts are composed antithetically:
good vs. bad, right vs. wrong, etc.
(e.g.”To err (= fejle) is human; to forgive, divine.” – Alexander Pope )
Paradox: an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some
truth in it.
(e.g. “What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” – George Bernard Shaw)
Figures of sound Alliteration: the repetition of the same initial consonant sound.
(e.g. “"Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers …")

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 Consonance: the repetition of the same consonant sound.
(e.g. "All mammals named Sam are clammy.”)
Assonance: the repetition of the same vowel sound.
(e.g. "Let's go kick the tires and light fires big daddy." – the movie Independence Day)
Figures of speech Imagery (billedsprog): mental pictures or images used in a symbolic way.
 Similie: an explicit comparison between two different things using ‘as’/’like’.
(e.g. ”I ran like the devil”, “I am high as a kite”, “My love is like a red, red rose.”)
 Metaphor: a word or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally
applicable.
(e.g. “Love is a red rose”, “food for thought”, “Shut your trap!”)
 Personification: an inanimate object or abstraction is given human qualities or abilities.
(e.g. “Kleenex says bless you” – advert for Kleenex tissues, “The sun kissed my check.”)
Rhetorical questions: questions posed for its persuasive effect without the expectation of a
reply. They encourage the audience to think about what the (often obvious) answer to the
question must be. It reveals the attitude/feeling towards the subject matter.
(e.g. ”Can anyone look at the Bush Administration and say ‘Well done?’”)
Hyperbole: an exaggerated statement to create emphasis.
(e.g. “I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse!”
Litote: an understatement, for intensification, by denying the contrary of the thing being
affirmed.
(e.g. ”One nuclear bomb can ruin your whole day.”)
Irony and sarcasm Irony: the words say one thing but mean another/the opposite.
(e.g “I just love my English teacher!”)
Sarcasm: is a form of humor that uses sharp language intended to ridicule and wound.
(e.g. “Have you got that dress from your great grandmother?”)
Word classes Look at the different word classes in the text. What is characteristic?
Adjectives: many/few, colourful? The less adjectives, the more matter-of-factly the text
becomes.
Pronouns (stedord): the use of pronouns is an important rhetorical effect
 2nd person (singular and plural: “you”). The text addresses the audience directly. It
wants the audience to be responsible/take action.
(e.g. “Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country”
– JFK. Note the use of chiasmos).
 1st person (singular: “I”). The text becomes personal/subjective.
(e.g. ”I have a dream”)
 1st person (plural: “we”). It creates a bond between text/writer and the audience.
(e.g. “Yes, we can!” – Barack Obama).

Vocabulary list

Tone Style

(the mood created in writing/speech) (the way in which the text is written)

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aggressive sombre complicated / simple
arrogant tragic elegant
cheerful serious emotional / factual
light formal / informal
comic poetic
desperate subjective / objective
humourous
ironic
sarcastic
cynical
optimistic
pessimistic

NB! Feel free to add more words on the vocabulary list