Notes on ENG 10

Text Types
 
( Text Type )
 
 Is a way of classifying and defining different types of language interaction, both
spoken and written.
 It refers to the purpose of a text and the way it is written.
 
( Text Structure )
 
 It is how you put the text together.
 
( Different types of Text )
 
 ( Recount )
 
 Tells us what happened.
 Retell or recount an event or experience or series of events.
 Example - A dairy entry.
 
 ( Narrative )
 
 Tells a story and teaches us about someone else's experience.
 Entertain, amuse, inspire, stimulate, guide, or teach by telling a story.
 Example - A fairy tale.
 
 ( Response )
 
 Used to summarize, analyze, and respond to literary text.
 It may be a review or personal response.
 Example - A review.
 
 
 ( Information Report )
 
 Used to present information about something.
 It describes an entire class of things, whether natural or made.
 Present information about a place, person, animal, or object.
 Example - A newspaper editorial.
 
  ( Poetry )
 
 A wide ranging text types and has many purposes and forms.
 Example - A poem.
 
 ( Explanation )
 
 Makes clear or why things are as they are, or how things work.
 Explain why things are as they are or how something occurs or works.
 Example - A travel article.
 
 ( Description )
 
 Details the characteristic features of a particular thing.
 Give a vivid description of the characteristics or features of something.
 Example - A biography.
 
 ( Exposition )
 
 Puts forward an argument or a particular point of view.
 Argue one side of an argument or discuss both sides of an issue.
 Example - A complaint letter.
 
 ( Discussion )
 
 Presents information and opinions about more than one side of an issue.
 Example - An issue.
 
 ( Procedure )
 
 Tells how to do something.
 Instruct someone on how to do something or how something was done.
 Example - A recipe.
 
( 2 main Text Types )
 
 ( Factual Text Type )
 
 Endeavor to inform, instruct, or persuade through the use of facts and information.
 Discussion Texts, Explanatory Texts, Procedural Texts, Persuasion Texts, Reports,
Recounts.
 
  ( Literary Text Type )
 
 Seek to entertain, enlighten, or elicit emotion through a creative use of language and
structure.
 Poetry, Narrative, Drama
 
( Tone )
 
 Is the author’s attitude toward the writing (the characters & the situation) and the
readers.
 The way feelings are expressed.
 A work of writing can have more than one tone.
 Is set by the setting, choice of vocabulary and other details.
 Is conveyed through the author's words and details.
 
 In literature an author sets the tone through words.
 The possible tones are as boundless as the number of possible emotions a human
being can have.
 Your tone can change the meaning of what you say, it depends on the context of the
story.
 
( Words that describe Tone )
 
 Humorous - Pessimistic - Angry
 Informal - Playful - Cheerful
 Sad - Clear - Serious
 Formal - Gloomy - Optimistic
 
( Mood )
 
 Is the general atmosphere created by the author’s words.
 Sometimes called "atmosphere", the overall feeling of the work.
 It is the feeling the reader gets from reading those words.
 It may be the same, or it may change from situation to situation.
 
 Writers use many devices to create mood, including images, dialogue, setting, and
plot.
 Often a writer creates a mood at the beginning of the story and continues it to the
end.
 However, sometimes the mood changes because of the plot or changes in
characters.
 
( Words that describe Mood )
 
 Suspenseful - Joyful - Depressing
 Excited - Anxious - Angry
 Sad - Tense - Lonely
 Suspicious -Frightened - Disgusted
 
 Authors set a TONE or MOOD in literature by conveying an emotion or emotions
through words.
 The way a person feels about an idea, event, or another person can be quickly
determined through facial expressions, gestures and in the tone of voice used.
 
( Author’s Purpose )
 
 ( To inform )
 
 Teach, Clarify, Explain, Share Information.
 Pay attention to definitions, explanations, illustrations, examples.
 Source of Informative Materials:
 Textbooks.
 Newspaper.
 Magazine.
 
 ( To persuade )
 
 Convince.
 Create a logical argument..
 Determine what are the arguments
 Sources of Persuasive Materials:
 Newspaper editorials.
 Political speeches.
 Advertisements.
 
 ( To entertain )
 
 Tell a story/joke.
 Not to teach or persuade.
 Pay attention to literary devices, characters, plot, figurative language.
 
 ( Share insights/topic )
 
 Share ideas.
 Sources:
 Blogs .
 Diaries.
 
( Literary Devices )
 
( Figurative Language )
 
 Language that has meaning beyond the literal meaning.
 Also known as "Figures of Speech".
 "Figures of Speech" is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using
words in a distinctive way.
 
 ( Simile )
 
 Expression comparing one thing to another using the words “like” or “as”.
 Ex. He ran like a cat, lightly and quietly.
 
 ( Metaphor )
 
 Comparison of two unlike things without using the words “like” or “as”.
 Ex. He was a statue, waiting to hear the news.
 
 ( Hyperbole )
 
 Obvious exaggeration or overstatement.
 Ex. I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.
 
 ( Personification )
 
 When a writer gives human qualities to animals or objects.
 Ex. My car drank the gasoline in one gulp.
 
 ( Onomatopoeia )
 
 A word that imitates the sound it represents.
 Ex. Crunch, zap, tick-tock, whoosh.
 
 ( Imagery )
 
 When a writer invokes the five senses.
 Ex. The smell reminded him of rotting tomatoes.
 
 ( Foreshadowing )
 
 Important hints that an author drops to prepare the reader for what is to come.
 Helps the reader anticipate the outcome.
 Ex. A pipe is going to burst, but before it does, the author writes a scene where the
family notices a small dark spot on the ceiling but ignores it.
 
  ( Alliteration )
 
 Repetition of the same consonant sound on words occurring near one another.
 Ex. Peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
 
 ( Allusion )
 
 Casual reference to a famous historical or literary figure or event.
 Ex. I was surprised his nose was not growing like Pinocchio’s.
 
 ( Paradox )
 
 Reveals something true at first seems contradictory.
 Ex. He was a brave coward.
 
 ( Symbolism )
 
 Using an object or action that means something more than its literal meaning.
 Ex. Pink- the fight against breast cancer.
 
 ( Idiom )
 
 An expression with a meaning different from the literal meaning of the words.
 Ex. I got cold feet before my speech = was scared.
 
 ( Oxymoron )
 
 Two opposite terms.
 A peaceful war.
 
 ( Euphemism )
 
 Polite word or phrase used in place of one that may be too direct, unpleasant, or
embarrassing.
 Ex. Pass away = die.
 
 ( Cliché )
 
 An expression that has lost its power or originality from overused.
 Ex. They all lived happily ever after.
 
 ( Pun )
 
 Humorous play on words, often involving double meaning.
 Ex. I really wanted a camouflage shirt, but I couldn’t find one.
 
  ( Anaphora )
 
 Deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic
effect.
 Ex. Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better.
 
( Public  Speaking  and  Its  Factors )
 

( Public Speaking )

 
 Involves delivering a speech in front of an audience in generally formal situations
or occasions.
 The speaker expresses or communicates his or her ideas with the aim of influencing
the listeners.
 The speaker does this through facial expressions, gestures, and the effective and
purposive use of words.
 
 There are important factors that make public speaking effective. They are
"Personality" and "Intelligence".
 
 ( Personality )
 
Is the totality of a person's physical, emotional, and mental qualities.
The delivery of a speech reveals the attitude, mindset, emotional maturity, and
confidence of the speaker. 
 Someone with a strong personality can hold the attention of the audience.
 
( The following questions can guide you in observing the personality of the
speaker. )
 
1. Does the speaker look neat and comfortable on stage?
 
2. Is the speaker dressed appropriately for the event?
 
3. Does his or her presence encourage you to listen and pay attention?
 
4. Does he or she reflect a good attitude?
 
5. Do his or her movement and expression reveal his or her maturity?
 
6. Do his or her expression turn you off?
 
7. Does he or she bring a friendly and pleasant mood in the venue?
 
  ( Intelligence )
 
 Affects the kind of speech that one delivers.
 It shows the important content and organization of the speech and how it is
delivered.
 
( Here are some guide questions that can help assess the speaker's
intelligence. )
 
1. Does the speaker demonstrate good judgement?
 
2. Is the speech appropriate for the occasion?
 
3. Do his or her remarks show empathy?
 
4. Does he or she handle complicated or delicate topics like religion, race, and
sexuality with care and rationality.
 
5. Does the speaker explain his or her arguments clearly?
 
6. Does he or she support them with facts and details?
 
7. Does the speaker use language appropriate to the audience?
 
8. Are his or her details and points interesting and profound?
 
9. Does he or she have a good sense of humor?
 
10. Does he or she make you listen more?
 
( 10 Tips for Effective Public Speaking )
 
 Nervousness is normal. Practice and prepare!
 Know your audience. Your speech is about them, not you.
 Organize your material in the most effective manner to attain your purpose.
 Watch for feedback and adapt to it.
 Let your personality to come through.
 Use humor, tell stories, and use effective language.
 Don't read unless you have to. Work from an outline.
 Use your voice and hands effectively. Omit nervous gestures.
 Grab attention at the beginning, and close with a dynamic end.
 Use audiovisuals aids wisely
 
  Good communication is never perfect, and nobody expects you to be perfect.
 However, putting in the requisite time to prepare will help you deliver a better
speech.
 You may not be able to shake your nerves entirely, but you can learn to minimize
them.
 
( Transitions )
 
 Are words and phrases that show the relationship between ideas.
 These words signal changes and should alert the reader to those changes.
 Transitions help us make connections, or move across ideas smoothly
 
 ( Words that show time )
 
 First - Then - Next - Before - During - Previously
 
 ( Words that show addition )
 
 And - Also - In Addition - First of All - Another - Finally
 
 ( Words that show contrast )
 
 But - However - In Contrast - Instead - Despite - In Contrast
 
 ( Words that show comparison )
 
 Like - As - Similarly - Likewise - Equally - In the Same Way
 
 ( Words that show illustration )
 
 For Example - For Instance - Such as - To be Specific - To Illustrate - Specifically
 
 ( Words that show location )
 
 Nearby - Ahead - Inside - Outside - Above - Beneath
 
 ( Words that show cause and effect )
 
 Thus - If & Then - As a Result - Therefore - So - Because
 
 ( Words that summarize and conclude )
 
 In Summary - In Conclusion - Ultimately - All in All - To Sum Up - In Other Words
 
  ( Words that emphasize and clarify )
 
 Clearly - Obviously - In Fact - Evidently - Certainly - Undoubtedly
 
( Reflexive Pronouns )
 
 Reflexive sounds like reflection, the image in the mirror that bounces back at you.
 Tells us that whoever performs the action in a sentence is also the one on the
receiving end of that action.
 Can be used as the direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition in a
sentence.
 Ends with –self and –selves and refers to the subject of the sentence.
 The action of the verb returns to the subject.
 
 
( Sentences with a Reflexive Pronoun )
 
 Participants push themselves to the limits.
 I saw myself in my dreams.
 The puppy saw itself in the mirror.
 Alison still does not trust herself.
 
 Know When not to Use Reflexive Pronouns.
 Do not use reflexive pronouns instead of subject or object pronouns.
 
 And Recognize the Reflexives That Don't Actually Exist.
 There are several nonexistent reflexive pronouns that people commonly use, such as
hisself, ourself, theirself, themself, and theirselves.
 
( Intensive Pronouns )
 
 Intensive is like intense, something intense is very strong.
 Emphasizes a preceding noun, which is often, but not always, the noun immediately
before the pronoun.
 Look exactly the same as reflexive pronouns, but they are only used for emphasis.
 Uses a reflexive pronoun to add emphasis to the subject of the sentence.
 
( Sentences with an Intensive Pronoun )
 
 Did you yourself make the cake?
 I myself am tired of doing homework.
 My sister made the bread herself.
 The queen gave the knight the award herself.
 
  They can be removed from a sentence without affecting its meaning.
 The same is not true of reflexive pronouns, which do cause a change in meaning
when removed from a sentence.
 
 The way to identify an intensive pronoun is to remove it from the sentence, if it’s an
intensive pronoun, the sentence will still make sense.
 If the sentence no longer makes sense, it’s a reflexive pronoun.
 
( Subject - Reflexive/Intensive Pronoun )
 
 I - Myself
 You - Yourself
 He - Himself
 She - Herself
 It - Itself
 We - Ourselves
 You (plural) - Yourselves
 They - Themselves
 
( Modal Verbs )
 
 Is a type of auxiliary or helping verb that is used to express ability, possibility,
permission, or obligation.
 Include can, must, may, might, will, would, should.
 
 ( Can )
 
 To express ability        
 I can speak a little Russian.
 
 To request permission        
 Can I open the window?
 
 ( May )
 
 To express possibility.
 I may be home late.
 
 To request permission.        
 May I sit down, please?
 
 ( Must )
 
 To express obligation.        
 I must go now.
 
  To express strong belief.        
 She must be over 90 years old.
 
 ( Will )
 
 To make promises, offers and requests.
 Will you carry this for me, please?
 
 ( Should )
 
 To give advice.
 You should stop smoking.
 
 ( Would )
 
 To request or offer.        
 Would you like a cup of tea?
 
 In if-sentences.
 If I were you, I would say sorry.
 
 Modal verbs are unlike other verbs.
 They do not change their form (spelling) and they have no infinitive or participle
(past/present).
 The modals "must" and "can" need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability
in the different tenses.
 They do not need an additional auxiliary in negatives or questions.
 
( Intensifiers )
 
 Adverb intensifiers or just intensifiers can be used to emphasize verbs.
 
 ( Categorically )
 
 In every manner, without reserve.
 I categorically don't want to spend any time doing that homework.
 
 ( Deeply )
 
 Strongly, with much feeling.
 She deeply feels the need to treat others with respect.
 
 ( Enthusiastically )
 
 With great joy.
 The children played soccer enthusiastically. 
  ( Freely )
 
 Without hesitation.
 You can find local newspapers freely available all over town.
 
 ( Fully )
 
 Completely, without any doubt.
 He was fully clothed and wore a light jacket.
 
 ( Honestly )
 
 Truly believing.
 Alice does her work quickly and honestly.
 
 ( Positively )
 
 Without any doubt.
 He was being positively rude.
 
 ( Readily )
 
 Without hesitation.
 You'll find that many people readily accept low pay due to current levels of
unemployment.
 
 ( Sincerely )
 
 With best wishes.
 I can sincerely recommend John for the job.
 
 ( Strongly )
 
 With conviction.
 She strongly presents her point of view.
 
 ( Totally )
 
 Without any doubt.
 He's totally sure he's ready to take the test.
 
 ( Utterly )
 
 Without any doubt.
 Drake thinks it's utterly useless to spend any more time on the project.
 
  Be very careful with your use of intensifiers.
 These are strong words, and they make a strong impression.
 When used carefully, these adverbs can really underline something you feel strongly
about.
 However, if used too often, the intensifiers can begin to sound rather aggressive.
 It's best to use these words with great care, and only when you really want to make
a point.
 
( Verb Collocations )
 
 These are generally used with specific verbs to create emphatic expressions.
 Intensifier + verb combinations.
 "Collocations" are words that are always or often used together.
 
( Intensifier + Verb Collocations = Emphatic Expression )
 
 We "categorically deny" any involvement in the scandal.
 
 I "deeply regret" the loss of your loved one.
 
 I "enthusiastically endorse" the local cancer society.
 
 We "freely appreciate" the current difficulties in this market.
 
 I "fully recognize" your need to improve your career.
 
 I "honestly believe" he is telling the truth.
 
 We'd like to "positively encourage" you to buy this stock.
 
 Our company "readily endorses" his run for office.
 
 I "sincerely hope" you are able to find employment soon.
 
 I'd like to "strongly recommend" you visit an employment specialist.
 
 They "totally reject" any compromise in these negotiations.
 
 I'm afraid I "utterly refuse" to believe anything he says.
 
( Features of Persuasive Texts )
 
 ( Rhetorical Question )
 
 A question that does not require a direct answer.
 It is usually intended to start a discourse or discussion.
  ( Opinion )
 
 A writer's view about something which is often introduced by "I think, I believe"
etc.
 
 ( Expert Opinion )
 
 A judgement about something given by an expert on the subject.
 
 ( Direct Address )
 
 Speaking directly to the reader through noun or the pronoun "you".
 It gets more focused attention from the reader.
 
 ( Repetition of Words or Phrases )
 
 Help to emphasize key points become memorable.
 
 ( Triples )
 
 Made up of 3 standard unit of items ( Health, Safety, and Well-Being are all nouns )
 Can also be adjectives.
 
 ( Fact )
 
 A piece of information that is proven to be true and is used as evidence.
 
 ( Statistics )
 
 A collection of quantitative data which are usually represented as percentage.
 
 ( Imperative )
 
 A sentence used to demand the readers to act or to do something about the issue.
 
( 3 Persuasive Appeals )
 
 ( Logos )
 
 Or "Logical Appeal".
 Is persuading by appealing to one's logical side through reason.
 Often through facts, statistics, charts, and graphs.
 

 ( Ethos )
 
 Or "Credibility Appeal".
 Is persuading by establishing that the persuader is trustworthy.
 Often through showing where one's information came from, or by using an expert
or testimonial.
 
 ( Pathos )
 
 Often the most effective appeal.
 Or "Emotional Appeal".
 Is persuading by appealing to one's emotions and by creating an emotional response
such as sadness or happiness.
 
 It is important to note that good persuaders keep in mind the target audience when
using Logos, Ethos, and Pathos. Also called "Audience Awareness".
 It is important to use a balance of all 3 persuasive appeals, this will keep your
audience engaged while keeping their trust in you.
 
( Elements of Persuasive Argument )
 
 ( Clear Position )
 
 State your position clearly.
 Let people know exactly what it is that your talking about.
 
 ( Specific Audience )
 
 You need to know who your talking to so you'll know who to address.
 
 ( Convincing Reasons )
 
 Give them important or valid reasons that would make them agree with you.
 
 ( Rebuttal to your Argument )
 
 There are some people who would argue against you.
 Make sure to know and point out their faulty reasonings.
 

( Persuasive Devices )
 
 Use Repetitions.
 Use Exaggerations.
 Use Exclamations.
 Use Emotive Language.
 Use Triples.
 Use Rhetorical Questions.
 Include Anecdotes.
 Speak Directly to the Reader.
 Imperatives.
 
( Writing Process )
 
 An important method to follow while working on a writing project.
 It can help you organize your work into separate tasks, thereby making writing
more manageable.
 
( 5 main steps in the Writing Process )
 
 ( Pre-Writing )
 
 One of the most important steps.
 The writer completes several tasks that lay the groundwork for writing.
 Consider the purpose and goals for writing.
 Brainstorm ideas.
 Use graphic organizers to connect ideas.
 Organize ideas in a logical structure.
 You will have a solid structure that has a clear goal supported by many well-
organized ideas, if you use the pre-writing step effectively.
 
 ( Drafting )
 
 The writer uses the ideas and information organized during the pre-writing step to
write a first draft.
 Producing content is the main focus during the drafting stage.
 The writer begins taking all the information gathered and putting it into written
form.
 Spelling and grammar mistakes are not a focus during this stage. This types of
errors will be fixed later in the writing process.
 Use the drafting phase to get all of your ideas on the page so you can begin to get
things in order.
 
 By the time you have finished drafting, your work should have a clear framework
that includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
 
 ( Revising )
 
 Means to "See Again".
 The writer looks at the work for the second time and makes changes, improvements,
and additions.
 You should focus on improving organization, word choice, and sentence variety.
 A good tip is to read your writing aloud. This can help you hear when something
doesn't sound right.
 
 ( Editing )
 
 The writer proof-reads the work, correcting any errors.
 Some common types to look for when editing involves spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, grammar and usage.
 This is the time where you want to make everything perfect word by word.
 Editing is extremely important. All well-edited piece is easier for readers to
understand, and error-free writing always reflects well on the author.
 
 ( Publishing )
 
 The final step in the Writing Process.
 The writer creates the final draft during this step.
 This is the writer's finished product and best work, which should include all
corrections and improvements made during the revising and editing steps.
 Final published work should be typed, not handwritten. This makes the work easier
to read which is important as publishing a piece of writing means you're releasing it
for others to read.
 
 Whatever you would write, all writers should follow the 5 steps of the writing
process.