TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Cast-in-place and Pre-cast..............................................................1

1.1 Cast-in-place..............................................................................1
1.2. Pre-cast....................................................................................7
1.3 Cast-in-place vs. Pre-cast...........................................................16

II. Floor System and Roof Slab System............................................20

2.1 Flat Slab...................................................................................24
2.2 Flat Plate..................................................................................26
2.3 Ribbed and Waffle Floor Slab.......................................................27
2.4 Lift Slab...................................................................................30
2.5 Span stress Floor System............................................................31
2.6 Slipform Method........................................................................32

III. Pre-stressed Concrete...............................................................34

3.1 Pre-tensioning...........................................................................38
3.2 Post-tensioning.........................................................................39
3.2.1 Bonded post tensioned system..............................................40
3.2.2 Unbonded post tensioned system..........................................42
3.3 Pre-tensioning vs. Post-tensioning................................................45

IV. References
 I. CAST-IN PLACE & PRE-CAST

1.1 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE

Cast-in-place concrete, also known as poured-in-place, is a concreting
technique which is undertaken in situ or in the concrete component’s
finished position. Cast-in-place concrete is the preferred choice for concrete
slabs and foundations, as well as components such as beams,
columns, walls, roofs, and so on.

Cast-in-place concrete is transported in

an unhardened state, primarily as ready-
mix, and placed in forms. Ready mixed
concreteis proportioned and mixed off
the project site.The concrete is delivered
to the site in a truck agitator (often
incorrectly called a “cement truck”) but
can also be delivered in a non-agitating
truck. Specialized paving equipment may Truck agitator for ready mixed concrete(PCA
be used to mix and spread concrete for No.69926)
pavement.

The formwork used for cast-in-place concrete defines the final shape of the
structure or product. Plywood and milled lumber are commonly used
formwork material which can be made from waste material. The formwork
can be dismantled easily and reused many times, making it an economical
option.

To prevent the concrete from bonding to the formwork, form-releasers, or

parting agents such as diesel fuel and motor oil was traditionally used.

1
CAST-IN-PLACE APPLICATIONS
Builders design CIP concrete with several unique decorative aggregates to
enhance the structure’s visual appeal, depending on the application. Most of
the time, contractors tend to use cast-in-place, or site-cast, concrete for
their:
 Basement walls: CIP concrete walls are common for
basement construction because of their structural integrity and
resistance to moisture and weather damage.

 Concrete slab foundations: Along with basement walls, CIP concrete

can also be suitable as concrete slab foundations. The horizontal
framing can protect against gravity loads and prevent buildings from
suffering from earthquake damage.

 Parking structures: Builders can construct parking structures using a

one-way CIP slab and several beams for support. The vertical framing
of the beams can lighten the structural load of the building.

 Beams: CIP beams for building structures, such as parking garages or

apartment buildings, are wide and insulated to protect the structure
against fire and weather damage.

 Columns: CIP concrete columns can ease the burden of the structural
load of your building. When mixed with colorful aggregates, they could
also improve the design of a building.

 Retaining walls: Even though site-cast concrete walls are

traditionally for the basement, the same techniques that professionals
in masonry use for below-grade walls can apply to applications that
are above grade. Constructors add steel, aluminum or wood paneling
to improve the natural insulation of the material. These walls also have
reinforcement steel bars that enhance their tensile strength.

 Roofs: A reinforced cast-in-place concrete roof can increase the

durability of a structure against weather damage, such as tornadoes,
hurricanes and earthquakes.

2
ADVANTAGES OF CAST-IN-PLACE CONSTRUCTION
 VERSATILITY It may be used to construct a wide variety of different
types of homes and buildings.

 STRENGTH This strength derives from the fact that concrete is

material that is extremely resistant to cracking and cracking does not
occur in cast place concrete. This strength and durability makes cast in
place concrete ideal for use in construction that involves heavy objects
like bridges or buildings.

 RESISTANT TO STRUCTURAL DAMAGE This is because they are

made from a material that remains solid until it freezes, the form
freezes hard and retains its shape until it melts into a liquid state.

 CAN BE REINFORCED TO MAKE IT STRONGER

 RESISTANT TO WATER AND MOLD
 IMPROVES THE EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT PROPERTIES
OF BUILDINGS

DISADVANTAGES OF CAST-IN-PLACE CONSTRUCTION

 LABOUR INTENSIVE
 THE FORMS Form used to cast the concrete must be strong enough to
hold the weight of the concrete being poured into it.

 COSTLY More costly than precast because it requires a high level of

labor and materials to produce and install

 DIFFICULT TO REPLACE If the formwork breaks, the cast in place

concrete will still hold its place but it will not be able to hold any
additional weight beyond its own.

 DIFFICULT TO REUSE you cannot simply take it away and reuse it in

future projects as you can with other types of building materials such
as wood.

 TAKES MORE TIME TO BUILD because you have to construct more

forms, lay rebar in the form and mix the concrete properly.

 TAKES LONGER TO DRY

3
CAST-IN-PLACE CONSTRUCTION

The general process flow with cast in site Construction starts with formwork
and Reinforcement being prepared and erected. Both form work and
reinforcement need to be in place before any concrete related activity can
begun.

Forms are structural units designed to support and mold freshly placed
concrete while it cures and strengthens. They are generally temporary
however, they are occasionally designed to be left permanently in place
within the structure as stay in place formwork.

Usually within a few days, the concrete is strong enough to support its
design load and the formwork can be removed to be used elsewhere on the
site. Re- shoring is used to replace the formwork and continue to support the
concrete while construction loads are applied to it.

BEAMWORK AND REINFORCEMENT

When all the framework and reinforcement are in place,wet concrete then is
delivered and is placed in the form work around the reinforcement. Exposed
concrete surface requiring leveling and smoothing are finished and curing
begins. During curing steps are taken to control the temperature and
moisture levels of concrete.

4
 Monolithic concrete placement is
when concrete is deposited in
one large formwork system
which is made up of several
smaller formwork systems each
corresponding to a different
concrete member.

Vibration is not used to transport

the concrete within a formwork,
but rather it is simply used to
consolidate it. Over vibration
leads to segregation of the
concrete mix, whereas under
vibration results in a
honeycombed matrix.

Concrete curing is the period of

time directly following concrete
placement, during which freshly
placed concrete strengthens and
hardens.

5
CAST-IN-PLACE STRUCTURES

CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE BUILDINGS

6
1.2 PRE-CAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete is a form of concrete that is prepared, cast and cured off-
site, usually in a controlled factory environment, using reusable molds.
Precast concrete elements can be joined to other elements to form other
elements to form a complete structure. It is typically used for structural
components such as; walls panels, beams, columns, floors, staircases,
pipes, tunnels, and so on.

The concept of precast (also known as “prefabricated”) construction includes

those buildings where most structural components are standardized and
produced in plants in a location away from the building, and then
transported to the site for assembly.

These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on mass

production to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost.
The main features of this construction process are as follows:
• The division and specialization of the human workforce
• The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually
automated, in theproduction of standard, interchangeable parts and
products

In precast concrete method concrete is made with reusable mould cured in a

controlled environment, transported to site and fixed into place. Here a
controlled environment is nothing but a precast plant.

Precast concrete members are cast and cured at a precast plant and then
transported to site and only jointing will be done at the site.

7
PRE-CAST APPLICATIONS

Reinforced concrete is usually used for structural systems due to

its strength, durability, and affordability. Precast concrete is used in the
following ways:

 To make beams, columns, floor slabs, foundations, and

other structural members for buildings.
 To make wall or cladding panels for buildings.
 To make precast pre-stressed elements for buildings.
 To make components for infrastructure projects: elements such
as bridge spans, or metro line viaducts are often precast in a casting
yard.
 To make products such as precast water tanks, septic
tanks, drainage chambers, railway sleepers, floor beams, boundary wa
lls and water pipes.
 As it can be moulded into any shape, it can also be used to create one-
off unusual forms such as boats, sculptures and so on.

PRE-CAST INSTALLATION

The on-site installation of precast components can be a high-

risk activity involving the use of heavy plant, cranes and personnel working
at height. Consideration should be given therefore
to safeguarding against risks when receiving delivery, moving, and
placing units.

Consideration should be given to:

 The method and sequence of assembly and erection.

 The method of providing temporary supports.
 Structural connections and joint details.
 Tolerance
 Handling and rigging requirements.
 Site accessibility for delivery and storage.
 Crane capacity and working clearance for hoisting.
 Sample measurement to confirm the accuracy of critical dimensions.
 Visual inspection of concrete finishes for defects.
 Locations and conditions of lifting inserts for hoisting.

8
ADVANTAGES OF PRE-CAST CONSTRUCTION

Pre-casting is good at producing large numbers of identical components. As

it is done in a purpose-built pre-casting yard or factory, it
makes construction easier for the following reasons:

 The construction is done on the ground rather than height.

 It can be done inside a climate-controlled structure, eliminating
problems of rain, dust, cold, or heat.
 Specialized formwork (molds) can be built for doing many
repetitions of the same component.
 Specialized equipment can be used to make, move, and pour the
liquid concrete.
 Curing takes place in a controlled environment.

This means that the quality of precast components can be very high. Since
the components can be made beforehand, construction can be very quick. In
cast-in-situ construction, engineers have to build each set
of components after the previous set has finished, which does take time,
as concrete generally takes 28 days to reach its full strength.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-CAST CONSTRUCTION

There are a few main disadvantages of precast concrete construction:

 Since each piece is made separately, the structural frame or system is

not monolithic or continuous like regular concrete construction.
The joints between pieces create structural discontinuity. The forces of
the building will pass through these joints, so they have to be
designed to transfer these forces safely and properly. Note
that precast concrete can be used for non-structural members too.
 As the building is made of discrete components, the joints between
adjacent members have to be sealed with special sealants to make
them waterproof
 Each precast component is usually large and heavy. This means
that cranes are required to lift them in position; these cranes are
required to operate over the entire building volume. Since there will
only be a few cranes at site, the time taken by the cranes to pick up a
piece and shift it to its final position becomes critical in determining
the building schedule.

9
PRE-CAST CONSTRUCTION
The concept of precast construction includes those buildings where the
majority of structural components are standardized and produced in plants
in a location away from the building, and then transported to the site for
assembly. These components are manufactured by industrial methods
based on mass production in order to build large number of buildings in a
short time at low cost.

Depending on the load bearing structure, pre-cast systems can be divided

into the following categories:
 Large Panel Systems
 Frame Systems

Large-Panel Systems
The designation “large-panel system”
refers to multistory structures
composed of large wall andfloor
concrete panels connected in the
vertical and horizontal directions so that
the wall panels enclose appropriate
spaces for the rooms withina building.
These panels form a box-likestructure.
Both vertical and horizontal panelsresist
gravity load.

Components of a precast reinforced

concrete frame system of Seria IIS-
04

Wall panels are usually one- story

high. Horizontal floor and roof panels
spaneither as one-way or two-way
slabs. When properly joined together,
these horizontal elements act as
diaphragms that transfer the lateral
loads to the walls.

10
Dry joints are constructed by bolting
or welding together steel plates or
other steel inserts cast into the ends
of the precast panels for this purpose.
The force transfer in structures with
dry joints is accomplished at discrete
points.

Frame Systems

Precast frames can be constructed

using either linear elements or spatial
beam- column sub assemblages.
Precast beam-column sub assemblages
have the advantage that the
connecting faces between the sub
assemblages can be placed away from
the critical frame regions; however,
linear elements are generally preferred
because of the difficulties associated
with forming, handling, and erecting
spatial elements. The use of linear
elements generally means placing the
connecting faces at the beam-column
junctions. The beams can be seated on
corbels at the columns, for ease of
construction.

A large-panel concrete building

under construction (WHE
Report 55, Russian Federation)

11
PRECAST PLANKS ARE INSTALLED PREPARATION FOR CASRING
IN PLACE OF LANDING SLAB TO PRECAST
STAIRCASE

 Hoist slab place on top beam and support

 Verify level of every plank soffit at four corners and center
 Adjust level of temporary support accordingly

12
PRE-CAST STRUCTURES

13
PRE-CAST CONCRETE BUILDINGS

Sydney Opera House (Sydney, Australia)

The Sydney Opera House is a perfect example of how precast concrete can
be used for its strength as well as its versatility. At the highest point, the
structure is more than 200 feet above sea level. The roofs were constructed
using nearly 2,200 precast concrete panels. These “shells” are supported by
reinforced concrete “ribs.”

Jubilee Church (Rome)

Made to resemble the sails of a ship, the arcs of the Jubilee Church in Rome
are made from precast concrete. Titanium dioxide was added to keep the
church white and designed in such a way to make the building itself more
energy efficient.
According to the maker of the precast concrete, when ultraviolet rays
interact with the titanium dioxide, a reaction occurs that breaks
down pollution in the air.

14
School of Economics and Business, Diego Portales University
(Huechuraba,Chile)
The two buildings share a courtyard but are also linked by subterranean
tunnels. The precast exterior walls are meant to age with time (and last a
lifetime) and a rooftop garden was added to help the building become one
with the landscape.

Villa Saitan (Kyoto, Japan)

The precast pieces were put together to mimic a tree, its leaves, roots, and
bulb. There are 11 units in the complex, but the facade creates the illusion
of a single residence.
With such extravagant curves, the precast pieces needed to be expertly
created and placed together. The high-quality expertise shown by the
architects and the casters really shine through on a project like this. It’s
another example of concrete being used for both strength and beauty.

15
1.3 CAST-IN-PLACE VS. PRE-CAST

16
CAST-IN-PLACE VS. PRE-CAST

Perhaps the best way to see just how great precast concrete is to highlight
the differences between precast and site cast concrete directly. Here are
some key aspects between the two methods placed side-by-side.

Quality control: Because precast concrete is mixed, poured and cured in a

factory, ideal conditions and exacting measurements can be maintained
throughout the process. Unfortunately, the logistics of site casting make
this far more challenging. You are subject to the humidity and temperature
of the day you are doing the casting. You have to do the work using far less
precise tools. The result is an inferior quality product even under the most
ideal conditions.

Labor efficiency: Precast is much more labor efficient. Because work is

done in a factory, the effort is maximized through the use of tools and
machinery that simply isn’t available on the job site. Therefore, with site
casting, work that might be done with machines has to be instead performed
by hand. This is much more labor intensive, thus increasing labor costs and
making the process more costly.
Additionally, because machines aren’t involved, the labor needed for on-site
casting needs to be skilled rather than unskilled. Thus, not only are more
labor hours required, but those labor hours are more costly.

Curing conditions: Because curing conditions can be controlled in a

factory, they can be accelerated without sacrificing strength or quality. That
simply isn’t the case on site. While you can do certain things to accelerate
curing on site, they are difficult and generally not worth the logistical hassle
and costs. Furthermore, they run the risk of lower quality concrete, as
delicate variables are hard to account for. If you need accelerated curing,
precast is the only way to move forward confidently.

17
Full strength: Because concrete gains strength over time, it isn’t fully
strong immediately after drying. However, with precast concrete, that
hardening process takes place before arriving on the job site. That’s not the
case with site cast concrete. Before you can raise the concrete into place,
you have to wait for site cast concrete to harden fully. This can delay
construction and increase costs. It is much more time and cost efficient to
have fully hardened concrete slabs ready to be placed the moment they
arrive.
Furthermore, because precast receives a strength test during quality control
inspections in the factory, you do not need to conduct strength tests on
site. Strength tests are extremely crucial for ensuring that your building is
safe, so if you are doing on site casting, then this is a step that cannot be
skipped.

Cast ahead of time: With precast concrete, you can do the casting of your
materials ahead of time, holding them until they are needed. Unfortunately,
overlapping tasks and improving efficiency is all but impossible with site cast
concrete. Because of the amount of space and labor required for on-site
casting, you generally have to stop construction while you wait for your
materials to be ready. This is a costly way to stand around and wait.

Weather: An unexpected rain storm can grind construction work to a halt if

it occurs when you are doing site casting. Thankfully, this simply isn’t a
problem when it comes to precast solutions. If it is raining when your
precast slabs arrive on site, you can lift them into place just as you would
during a sunny day.

18
Insulation: Because precast concrete is factory made, certain elements can
be incorporated within the concrete that cannot be added to site cast
concrete. Added insulation is one of the most common elements. By adding
additional insulation materials within the concrete slab, you can save both
labor and architectural design space when constructing a building. Rather
than hanging and lining the interior of your building with insulation, the slabs
that you lift into place with have the insulating power of traditional concrete
with additional hung insulation.
As more builders are chasing green ratings for their building, both for the
good PR and the energy savings over the life of the building, precast
concrete offers a distinct advantage.

Specialized reinforcement: Finally, just as specialized insulation can be

added to precast concrete, specialized structural reinforcements can be
added as well. For certain projects, this is crucial, as it allows the panel to
bear loads at a thickness that simply isn’t possible with traditional poured
concrete. By decreasing the amount of material needed to make a building
structurally sound, you are saving money while being less taxing on the
resources available.
Furthermore, specialized high strength concrete requires exacting conditions
for both mixing and curing. These conditions cannot be controlled on site.
However, because factory construction allows for heightened environmental
control, you can use specialty high strength concrete for your construction.

19
 II. FLOOR SYSTEM AND ROOF SLAB SYSTEM

Reinforced concrete structural systems can be formed into virtually any

geometry to meet any requirement. Regardless of the geometry,
standardized floor and roof systems are available that provide cost-effective
solutions in typical situations. The most common types are classified as one-
way systems and two-way systems. Examined later are the structural
members that make up these types of systems.

ONE-WAY SYSTEMS

A one-way reinforced
concrete floor or roof
system consists of members
that have the main flexural
reinforcement running in one
direction. In other words,
reactions from supported
loads are transferred primarily
in one direction. Because they
are primarily subjected to the
effects from bending (and the
accompanying shear),
members in one-way systems FIGURE 1 One-way slab system
are commonly referred to
as flexural members.

Members in a one-way system are usually horizontal but can be provided at

a slope if needed. Sloped members are commonly used at the roof level to
accommodate drainage requirements.

Illustrated in Fig. 1 is a one-way slab system. The load that is supported by

the slabs is transferred to the beams that span perpendicular to the slabs.

The beams, in turn, transfer the loads to the girders, and the girders
transfer the loads to the columns.

20
Main flexural reinforcement for
the one-way slabs is placed in
the direction parallel to load
transfer, which is the short
direction. Similarly, the main
flexural reinforcement for the
beams and girders is placed
parallel to the length of these
members. Concrete for the
slabs, beams, and girders is
cast at the same time after the
forms have been set and the
reinforcement has been placed FIGURE 2 Standard one-way joist system
in the formwork. This concrete
is also integrated with columns.

In addition, reinforcing bars are extended into adjoining members. Like all
cast-in-place systems, this clearly illustrates the monolithic nature of
reinforced concrete structural members.

A standard one-way joist system is depicted in Fig. 2. The one-way slab

transfers the load to the joists, which transfer the loads to the column-line
beams (or, girders). This system utilizes standard forms where the clear
spacing between the ribs is 30 in. or less. Because of its relatively heavy
weight and associated costs, this system is not used as often as it was in the
past.

Similar to the standard one-way

joist system is the wide-module
joist system shown in Fig. 3.
The clear spacing of the ribs is
typically 53 or 66 in., which,
according to the Code,
technically makes these
members beams instead of
joists. Load transfer follows the
same path as that of the FIGURE 3 Wide module joist system
standard joist system.

21
TWO-WAY SYSTEMS

As the name suggests, two-way floor and roof systems transfer the
supported loads in two directions. Flexural reinforcement must be provided
in both directions.

A two-way beam supported

slab system is illustrated in Fig.
4. The slab transfers the load in
two orthogonal directions to the
column-line beams, which, in
turn, transfer the loads to the
columns. Like a standard one-
way joist system, this system is
not utilized as often as it once
was because of cost.

FIGURE 4 Two-way beam supported slab system

A flat plate system is shown

in Fig. 5. This popular system,
which is frequently used in
residential buildings, consists of
a slab supported by columns.

The formwork that is required is

the simplest of all floor and roof
systems. Because the underside
of the slab is flat, it is commonly
used as the ceiling of the space
below; this results in significant
cost savings. FIGURE 5 Flat plate system

22
Similar to the flat plate system is
the flat slab system (Fig. 6).
Drop panels are provided around
the columns to increase moment
and shear capacity of the slab.
They also help to decrease slab
deflection. Column capitals or
brackets are sometimes provided
at the top of columns.

FIGURE 6 Flat slab system.

The two-way system depicted

in Fig. 7 is referred to as a two-
way joist system or a waffle slab
system. This system consists of
rows of concrete joists at right
angles to each other, which are
formed by standard metal domes.
Solid concrete heads are provided
at the columns for shear
strength. Such systems provide a
viable solution in cases where
heavy loads need to be supported
on long spans. FIGURE 7 Two-way joist system

23
2.1 FLAT SLAB
Flat slab is a reinforced concrete
slab supported directly by concrete
columns without the use of beams.
Flat slab is defined as one sided or
two-sided support system with
sheer load of the slab being
concentrated on the supporting
columns and a square slab called
‘drop panels’.
flat slab construction with drop panel and column head

Flat Slabs are considered suitable for most of the construction and for
asymmetrical column layouts like floors with curved shapes and ramps etc.
The advantages of applying flat slabs are many like depth solution, flat
soffit and flexibility in design layout. Even though building flat slabs can be
an expensive affair but gives immense freedomto architects and engineers
the luxury of designing.

This form of construction has become less popular in recent years because
of the limit on economical spans of about 9.5 m for reinforced slabs and
about 12 m for prestressed slabs. Reinforced flat slabs may need to be
sensibly pre-cambered (not overdone) to control deflection.
The plan dimensions of the drop panels are a minimum of 1/3 of the span in
the direction under consideration, usually rounded to the nearest 100 mm.
The overall depth of the drop panel is typically taken as 1.75 to 2 times the
depth of the slab, again rounded to suit timber sizes or the nearest 25 mm.

The principal features of a flat slab floor are a flat soffit,

simple formwork and easy construction. The economical span ‘L’ of a
reinforced concrete flat slab is approximately D x 28 for simply supported, D
x 32 for an end span and D x 36 for an interior span. Prestressing the slab
increases the economical span to D x 35, D x 40 and D x 45 respectively,
where D is the depth of the slab excluding the drop panel.

24
VARIOUS FLAT SLAB SYSTEMS

 Simple flat slab

 Flat slab with drop panels
 Flat slab with column heads
 Flat slab with both drop panels and column heads

ADVANTAGES

 Simple formwork
 No beams—simplifying under-floor services outside the drops
 Minimum structural depth
 Usually does not require shear reinforcement at the columns.

DISADVANTAGES

 Medium spans
 Generally not suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions
 Drop panels may interfere with larger mechanical ducting
 Vertical penetrations need to avoid area around columns
 For reinforced flat slabs, deflection at the middle strip may be critical.

25
2.2 FLAT PLATE
A flat plate is a one- or two-way
system usually supported directly on
columns or load bearing walls. The
principal feature of the flat plate floor
is a uniform or near-uniform thickness
with a flat soffit which requires only
simple formwork and is easy to
construct.
The floor allows great flexibility for
locating horizontal services above a
suspended ceiling or in a bulkhead. The
economical span of a flat plate for low to Flat plate floor system
medium loads is usually limited by the need to control long-
term deflection and may need to be sensibly pre-cambered (not overdone)
or prestressed.

An economical span for a reinforced flat

plate is of the order of 6 to 8 m and
for prestressed flat plates is in the
range of 8 to 12 m. The span ‘L’ of a
reinforced concrete flat-plate is
approximately D x 28 for simply
supported, D x 30 for an end span of a
continuous system, to D x 32 for
internal continuous spans.
The economical span of a flat plate can
be extended by prestressing to
approximately D x 30, D x 37 and D x Flat plate construction
40 respectively, where D is the depth
of slab.

ADVANTAGES
 Simple formwork and suitable for direct fix or sprayed ceiling
 No beams—simplifying under-floor services
 Minimum structural depth and reduced floor-to floor height
DISADVANTAGES
 Medium spans
 Limited lateral load capacity as part of a moment frame
 May need shear heads or shear reinforcement at the columns or larger
columns for shear
 Long-term deflection may be controlling factor
 May not be suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions
 May not be suitable for heavy loads.

26
2.3 RIBBED AND WAFFLED FLOOR SLAB

Ribbed and waffle slabs provide a lighter and stiffer slab than an
equivalent flat slab, reducing the extent of foundations. They provide a
very good form of construction where slab vibration is an issue, such as
laboratories and hospitals.

Ribbed slabs are made up of wide band beams running between columns
with narrowribs spanning the orthogonal direction. Normally the ribs and
the beams are the samedepth. A thin topping slab completes the system.

Waffle slabs tend to be deeper than the equivalent ribbed slab. Waffle
slabs have a thin topping slab and narrow ribs spanning in both directions
between column heads or band beams. The column heads or band beams
are the same depth as the ribs.

27
Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are usually supported directly
by columns.They are either one-way spanning systems known as ribbed slab
or a two-way ribbed system known as a waffle slab. This form of
construction is not very common because of the formwork costs and the low
fire rating. A 120-mm-thick slab with a minimum rib thickness of 125 mm
for continuous ribs is required to achieve a 2-hour fire rating. A rib thickness
of greater than 125 mm is usually required to accommodate tensile and
shear reinforcement. Ribbed slabs are suitable for medium to heavy loads,
can span reasonable distances, are very stiff and particularly suitable where
the soffit is exposed.

Waffle Slab Construction Ribbed slab Construction

Slab depths typically vary from 75 to 125 mm and rib widths from 125 to
200 mm. Rib spacing of 600 to 1500 mm can be used. The overall depth of
the floor typically varies from 300 to 600 mm with overall spans of up to 15
m if reinforced, longer if post-tensioned. The use of ribs to the soffit of the
slab reduces the quantity of concrete and reinforcement and also the weight
of the floor. The saving of materials will be offset by the complication in
formwork and placing of reinforcement. However, formwork complication is
minimised by use of standard, modular, reusable formwork, usually made
from polypropylene or fibreglass and with tapered sides to allow stripping.

For ribs at 1200-mm centres (to suit standard forms) the economical
reinforced concrete floor span ‘L’ is approximately D x 15 for a single span
and D x 22 for a multi-span, where D is the overall floor depth. The one-way
ribs are typically designed as T-beams, often spanning in the long direction.
A solid drop panel is required at the columns and loadbearing walls for shear
and moment resistance.

28
USES AND APPLICATIONS
 Savings on weight and materials Long spans
 Attractive soffit appearance if exposed
 Economical when reusable formwork pans used
 Vertical penetrations between ribs are easy.
 Soft ground conditions. Extra bored piers or screw piers are
required so that the system is supported on strong ground.
 Sloping sites. Waffle slabs are built on flat sites. On sloping blocks, the
ground has to be made level first by digging some of it out or filling
some of it in. Problems arise when some of the dirt dug out is used as
uncontrolled fill onthe low side of the block. All houses, even waffle
slabs, need firm, even support to all parts of the slab.
 Highly reactive and extremely reactive clay sites. These sites need stiff
footingsystems to span over the swelling and shrinking soils. Concrete
beams get stronger and stiffer when the depth of the concrete beams
increases but waffle pod void formers tend to max out at 375mm deep
(so providing 475mmdeep beams and ribs with a 100mm slab). Some
designers try to achieve extra slab stiffness by adding more steel
reinforcement. This works but the design process becomes more
complicated.
 Cyclonic areas and high wind areas. High winds generate a lot of
pressure onroofs which result in some very concentrated forces in
modern trussed roofs. On a regular sized 200m2 house, some truss
uplift forces are as high as 5 tonnes. In a waffle slab, these forces
need to be resisted only by the weight of the footing system because
there is no skin friction with the ground. 5 tonnes of concrete is about
2 cubic meters of concrete. That’s a lot more concrete than is available
to resist forces at the truss reaction point.

ADVANTAGES

 Savings on weight and materials

 Long spans
 Attractive soffit appearance if exposed
 Economical when reusable formwork pans used
 Vertical penetrations between ribs are easy.

DISADVANTAGES

 Depth of slab between the ribs may control the fire rating
 Requires special or proprietary formwork
 Greater floor-to-floor height
 Large vertical penetrations are more difficult to handle.

29
2.4 LIFT SLAB

Lift-Slab Construction is a precast

method of construction of slab on
the ground and then lifting it to the
structure.
A type of pre-casting used in
building construction involves
casting floor and roof slabsat or
near ground level and lifting them
to their final position, hence the
name lift- slabconstruction.

It offers many of the advantages of pre-casting and eliminates many of the

storing, handling, and transporting disadvantages. It normally requires
fewer joints than other types of precast building systems. Typically,
columns are erected first, but not necessarily for the full height of the
building. Near the base of the columns, floor slabsare cast in succession,
one atop another, with a parting com-pound between them to prevent
bond. The roof slab is cast last, on top. Usually, the construction is flat
plate, and the slabs have uniform thickness; waffle slabs or other types
also can be used.

USES AND APPLICATIONS

The lift-slab method makes
possible the construction of
multistory industrial and public
buildings with continuous floor
slab shaving an area up to
3,000 sq. m and a weightof as
much as 1,500 tons. The
distance between columns may
be 6 m or more. For spans
exceeding 8 m, hollow or
coffered slabs ofeither standard
or prestressed reinforced
concrete are used.

30
2.5 SPAN-STRESS FLOOR SYSTEM
This method speeds up construction, and saves on expensive equipment,
since it takes cranes out of the way. Span-stress prestressed Concrete T-
Joist Floor and roofsystem are more compact and light-weight. Easier to
transport and handle.
Span-stress prestressed T-Joist can be used with filler blocks or with
collapsible steelforms or plywood forms. It eliminates or reduces
scaffoldings to the minimum. Length goes from 3.00 meters to 9.00 meters
(Salvan & Buhangin, 1996).

USES AND APPLICATIONS

31
2.6 SLIPFORM METHOD
Slipform is similar in nature and application to jumpform, but the
formwork is raised vertically in a continuous process. It is a method of
vertically extruding a reinforced concrete section and is suitable for
construction of core walls in high-rise structures – lift shafts, stair shafts,
towers, etc. It is a self-contained formwork system and can require little
crane-time during construction.

This is a formwork system which can be used to form any regular shape or
core. Theformwork rises continuously, at a rate of about 300mm per hour,
supporting itself on the core and not relying on support or access from
other parts of the building or permanent works.

Commonly, the formwork has three platforms. The upper platform acts as
a storage and distribution area while the middle platform, which is the
main working platform, is at the top of the poured concrete level. The
lower platform provides access for concrete finishing.

SAFETY
 Working platforms, guard rails, ladders and wind shields are
normally built into the completed system.
 Less congested construction site due to minimal scaffolding and
temporary works.
 Completed formwork assembly is robust.
 Strength of concrete in the wall below must be closely controlled to
achieve stability during operation.
 Site operatives can quickly become familiar with health and safety
aspects of their job.
 High levels of planning and control mean that health and safety are
normally addressed from the beginning of the work.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

 This formwork is more economical for buildings more than seven

storeys high.
 Little flexibility for change once continuous concreting has begun
therefore extensive planning and special detailing are needed.
 Setting rate of the concrete had to be constantly monitored to ensure
that it is matched with the speed at which the forms are raised.
 The structure being slipformed should have significant dimensions in
both major axes to ensure stability of the system.
 Standby plant and equipment should be available though cold
jointing may occasionally be necessary.

32
USES AND APPLICATIONS

 Careful planning of construction processes can achieve

high production rates.
 Slipform does not require the crane to move upwards,
minimizing crane use.
 Since the formwork operates independently, formation of the core
in advanceof the rest of the structure takes it off the critical path –
enhancing main structure stability.

 Availability of the different working platforms in the formwork

system allowsthe exposed concrete at the bottom of the rising
formwork to be finished, making it an integral part of the
construction process.
 Certain formwork systems permit construction of tapered cores
and towers.
 Slipform systems require a small but highly
skilled workforce on site.

33
 III. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Prestressed concrete is a structural material that allows for

predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in members to counteract
the stresses that occur when they are subject to loading. It combines the
high strength compressive properties of concrete with the high
tensile strength of steel.

In ordinary reinforced concrete, stresses are carried by the steel

reinforcement, whereas prestressed concrete supports the load by
induced stresses throughout the entire structural element. This makes it
more resistant to shock and vibration than ordinary concrete, and able
to form long, thin structures with much smaller sectional areas to support
equivalent loads.

It is now commonly used for floor beams, piles and railways sleepers, as well
as structures such as bridges, water tanks, roofs and runways.
Generally, prestressed concrete is not necessary for columns and walls,
however, it can be used economically for tall columns and high retaining
walls with high bending stresses.

As a general rule, traditional reinforced concrete is the most economic

method for a span of up to 6 m. Prestressed concrete is more economical
when spans are over 9 m. Between 6 and 9 m, the two options must be
considered according to the particular requirements as to which is the most
suitable option.

34
MATERIALS USED IN PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Steel Ordinary mild steel and deformed bars are used in RCC are not used in
PSC (prestressed concrete) because their yield strength is not very high. In
the prestressed concrete, loss of prestress (about 20 %) occurs due to many
factors. If mild steel bars or HYSD bars are used then very little prestress
will be left after the losses and will be of no use. Therefore, high tensile
strength steel is used for prestressing. In addition to the high strength, the
steel used in prestressing must have a higher ultimate elongation. Various
forms of steel used for prestressing as follows:

Tendons High strength tensile wires available in various diameters from 1.5
mm to 8 mm. the following table gives the ultimate tensile strength of steel
wires used for prestressing.

Wires strands or cables A strand or cable is made of a bundle of wires

spun together. The overall diameter of a cable or strand is from 7 to 17 mm.
They are used for post-tensioning systems.

Bars High tensile steel bars of diameter 10 mm or more are also used in
prestressing.

Concrete Since high tensile steel is used in prestressed concrete, the

concrete used should also be of good quality and high strength. Therefore,
the code recommends a minimum mix of M 40 for pre-tensioned system and
M 30 for post tensioned system. These mixes have high strength and a high
value of modulus of elasticity of concrete which results in less deflection.The
concrete used in prestressed concrete should be well compacted. High
strength concrete is used in prestressed concrete for following reasons:

 Use of high strength concrete results in smaller sections.

 High strength concrete offers high resistance in tension, shear, bond
and bearing.
 Less loss of prestress occurs with high strength concrete.

When repeated loading tests are performed on the different prestressed

concrete beams with the varying proportions of steel contained in grouted
post tensioned cables. Similar tests when performed on the reinforced
concrete beams which are reinforced with plain steel bars or cold worked
deformed mild steel bars. Under the repetitions of working load it is
observed that the deformations on prestressed concrete beams are slightly
increased. Under the similar loads deformations were recorded and it was
found that the cracks developed in the reinforced concrete beams.

35
ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

 Prestressed concrete sections are thinner and lighter than RCC

sections, since high strength concrete and steel are used prestressed
concrete.
 In prestressed concrete, whole concrete area is effective in resisting
loads, unlike RCC where concrete below the neutral axis is neglected.
 Thinner sections in prestressed concrete results in less self weight
and hence overall economy.
 Long span bridges and flyovers are made of prestressed concrete
because of lesser self weight and thinner section. So,
prestressed concrete is used for heavily loaded structures.
 Prestressed concrete members show less deflection.
 Since the concrete does not crack in prestressed concrete, rusting of
steel is minimized.
 Prestressed concrete is used in the structures where tension develops
or the structure is subjected to vibrations, impact and shock like
girders, bridges, railway sleepers, electric poles, gravity dams, etc.
 Precast members like electric poles and railway sleepers are produced
in factories using simple pre-stressing methods.
 The inherent compressive strength of concrete is used to its fullest.
 The special alloy steels used to form the prestressing tendons are used
to their fullest.
 Tension cracks are eliminated, reducing the risk of
the steel components corroding.
 Shear stresses are reduced.
 A composite member can be formed by joining individual precast
concrete units together.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

 Prestressed concrete construction requires very good quality control

and supervisions
 Cost of materials used in prestressed is very high (high tensile steel is
about three times costlier than mild steel).
 Prestressed concrete requires specialized tensioning equipment
and devices which are very costly
 Prestressed concrete sections are more brittle because of use of high-
tension steel.
 A high degree of workmanship and control is required.
 Special alloy steels are more expensive than traditional steels used
in reinforced concrete.
 Expensive equipment is needed and there
are complex safety requirements.

36
HOW PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE WORKS?

So by now, I have had our concept. We have learned why and when we
should use prestressed concrete. So, how does it work? In the real life, high
tensile strength steel wires are inserted into the beam section and they are
stretched and anchored, then released. Now the steel tendon wants to gain
its original length and tensile stresses are transformed into a
compressive stress in the concrete. Now after loading there are two kinds of
forces on the beam,

1. Internal prestressing force

2. External forces (Dead load, Live load etc.)

Internal prestressing
In this system, a prestressing force is applied to the high tensile steel i.e.
the steel reinforcement. It induces internal compressive stresses in concrete.
it is the most commonly used method because of easy and accurate
application. Internal prestressing can be done by two methods:

 Pre-tensioning
 Post-tensioning

External prestressing
This method is not commonly used. In this method, the prestressing is done
by adjusting the external reactions (by introducing different support
conditions). The externally prestressing system requires very much accuracy
in the planning and applications. The method of prestressing involves pre-
tensioning and post-tensioning methods.

37
3.1 PRE-TENSIONING

Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the

tendons are tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. The concrete bonds
to the tendons as it cures, following which the end-anchoring of the tendons
is released, and the tendon tension forces are transferred to the concrete as
compression by static friction.

Pre-tensioning is a common prefabrication technique, where the resulting

concrete element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location
and transported to site once cured. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage
points between which the tendons are stretched. These anchorages form the
ends of a “casting bed” which may be many times the length of the concrete
element being fabricated. This allows multiple elements to be constructed
end-on-end in the one pre-tensioning operation, allowing significant
productivity benefits and economies of scale to be realized for this method of
construction.

The amount of bond (or adhesion)

achievable between the freshly set
concrete and the surface of the
tendons is critical to the pre-
tensioning process, as it determines
when the tendon anchorages can
be safely released. Higher bond
strength in early-age concrete
allows more economical fabrication
as it speeds production.

Pre-tensioned concrete is most

commonly used for the
fabrication of structural beams,
floor slabs, hollow-core planks,
balconies, lintels, driven piles,
water tanks and concrete pipes.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-TENSIONING

Pre-tensioning is done in the factories so it is more reliable and durable

technique. But is used for smaller sections, so heavier and longer sections
cannot be prestressed. When cable is released or cut, after pre-tensioning it
leads to more losses due to shortening. The shrinkage and creep losses are
also more in pre-tensioning system.

38
3.2 POST -TENSIONING

Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the

tendons are tensioned after the surrounding concrete structure has been
cast.

The tendons are not placed in

direct contact with the
concrete, but are encapsulated
within a protective sleeve or
duct which is either cast into
the concrete structure or
placed adjacent to it. At each
end of a tendon is an
anchorage assembly firmly
fixed to the surrounding
concrete.

Tendon encapsulation systems are constructed from plastic or galvanised

steel materials, and are classified into two main types: those where the
tendon element is subsequently bonded to the surrounding concrete by
internal grouting of the duct after stressing (bonded post-tensioning); and
those where the tendon element is permanently debonded from the
surrounding concrete, usually by means of a greased sheath over the tendon
strands (unbondedpost-tensioning).

Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning
occurs allows them to be readily “profiled” to any desired shape including
incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature. When the tendons are
tensioned, this profiling results in reaction forces being imparted onto the
hardened concrete, and these can be beneficially used to counter any
loadings subsequently applied to the structure.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POST-TENSIONING

 Post-tensioning can be done in factories and at the site also

 The loss of prestress is less as compared to pre-tensioning system.
 This method is used for large spans and heavily loaded structures.

The disadvantages of post tensioning method are that it is costly as

compared to pre tensioning method because of use of sheathing.

39
T Y PE S O F P OST T EN SIO N E D S YS T EM S

3.2.1 BONDED POST TENSIONED SYSTEM

Bonded post-tensioning has prestressing tendons permanently bonded to

the surrounding concrete by the in situ grouting of their encapsulating
ducting following tendon tensioning. This grouting is undertaken for three
main purposes: to protect the tendons against corrosion; to permanently
“lock-in” the tendon pre-tension, thereby removing the long-term reliance
upon the end-anchorage systems; and to improve certain structural
behaviors of the final concrete structure.

Bonded post-tensioning characteristically uses tendons each

comprising bundles of elements (e.g. strands or wires) placed inside a single
tendon duct, with the exception of bars which are mostly used unbundled.
This bundling make for more efficient tendon installation and grouting
processes, since each complete tendon requires only one set of end-
anchorages and one grouting operation. Ducting is fabricated from a durable
and corrosion-resistant material such as plastic (e.g. polyethylene)
or galvanised steel, and can be either round or rectangular/oval in cross-
section. The tendon sizes used are highly dependent upon the application,
ranging from building works typically using between 2-strands and 6-strands
per tendon, to specialised dam works using up to 91-strands per tendon.

Fabrication of bonded tendons is generally undertaken on-site, commencing

with the fitting of end-anchorages to formwork, placing the tendon ducting
to the required curvature profiles, and reeving (or threading) the strands or
wires through the ducting. Following concreting and tensioning, the ducts
are pressure-grouted and the tendon stressing-ends sealed
against corrosion.

COMPONENTS OF BONDED POST TENSIONED SYSTEM SITE IMAGE OF BONDED POST TENSIONED SYSTEM

40
ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM OVER UNBONDED POST-TENSIONING

 Reduced reliance on end-anchorage integrity

Following tensioning and grouting, bonded tendons are connected to

the surrounding concrete along their full length by high-strength grout.
Once cured, this grout can transfer the full tendon tension force to the
concrete within a very short distance (approximately 1 metre). As a
result, any inadvertent severing of the tendon or failure of an end
anchorage has only a very localised impact on tendon performance,
and almost never results in tendon ejection from the anchorage.

 Increased ultimate strength flexure

With bonded post-tensioning, any flexure of the structure gets directly

resisted by tendon strains at that same location (i.e. no strain re-
distribution occurs). This results in significantly higher tensile strains in
the tendons than if they were unbonded, allowing their full yield
strength to be realised, and producing a higher ultimate load capacity.

 Improved crack-control

In the presence of concrete cracking, bonded tendons respond

similarly to conventional reinforcement (rebar). With the tendons fixed
to the concrete at each side of the crack, greater crack-expansion
resistance is offered than with unbonded tendons, allowing many
design codes to specify reduced reinforcement requirements for
bonded post-tensioning.

 Improved fire performance

The absence of strain redistribution in bonded tendons may limit the

impact that any localised overheating has on the overall structure. As
a result, bonded structures may display a higher capacity to resist fire
conditions than unbonded ones.

41
3.2.2 UNBONDED POST TENSIONED SYSTEM

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning

by providing each individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative
to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated with
grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed
in an extrusion process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved
by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of
the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that
a cable can de-stress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as
during repair on the slab).

SITE IMAGE OF UNBONDED POST TENSIONED SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM OVER BONDED POST-TENSIONING

 The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field

conditions (For example: shifting a group of 4 cables around an
opening by placing 2 on each side).

 The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.

 The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work.

42
 APPLICATION OF POST TENSIONG IN INFRASTRUCTURE

 Highway Flyovers
 Highway Bridges
 Metro Rail
 Nuclear Power Plants
 Cement Silos
 Irrigation Plants

APPLICATION OF POST TENSIONING IN BUILDINGS

 Large Span Construction:

More flexibility because of large
column-less spaces used in Public
Spaces, Auditoriums etc.

43
 Post Tensioned Flat Slabs
Larger spans can be achieved with
lesser depths and steel. Used in
IT Parks, Commercial Building,
Podium Slabs, Hospitality
Buildings.

 Transfer Girders / Transfer

Plates for Floating Columns
Highly economical design can be
achieved with smaller sections and
lesser amount of steel.Used in
Residential Buildings for Parking
issues majorly, Buildings with
vertical irregularities.

 Post Tensioned Slabs for Heavy

loadings:
Slabs with big span & heavy
loadings can be achieved in an
economical way.

 Large Cantilevers
Large Cantilevers that are not
possible in RCC can be easily done
using Post Tensioning.

44
3.3 PRE-TENSIONING VS. POST-TENSIONING
Sr.No. Pre-Tensioning
Pre-tensioning is done in the
1 factories thus suitable for precast
construction works
In this type of concrete, the pre-
stressing cables called the
strands are tensioned before
2 casting the concrete and then
concrete is casted enclosing the
tensioned cables.
Small sections are to be
3 constructed
4 Loss of prestressing isn’t less
(about 18 %)
In this method, similar
5 prestressed members are
prepared.
Pre-tensioning members are
6 produced in a mould.
In this method, the concrete is
7 prestressed with tendons before
it is placing in position
This method is developed due to
8 the bonding between the
concrete and steel tendons.
This method is developed due to
9 bearing.
It is cheaper because the cost of
10 sheathing is not involved
It is more reliable and durable
11
45
Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning can be done in
factories as well as on the site
In this type of concrete, the
strands are enclosed within a
duct in the form and then
concrete is casted. The process
of tensioning the strands is
carried out after the concrete
attains its sufficient strength.
Size of a member is not
restricted, long-span bridges are
constructed by post-tensioning
Loss of prestressing isn’t more
(about 15 %)
In this method, products are
changed according to a
structure.
Cables are used in place of
wires and jacks are used for
stretching.
In this method prestressing is
done after the concrete attains
sufficient strength.
This method is developed due to
bearing.
Post-tensioning is preferred
when the structural element is
heavy.
It is costlier because of use of
sheathing
The durability depends upon the
two anchorage mechanism
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