1styear Math Full Book PB

version: 1.
CHAPTER
1 Number Systems
Animation 1.1: Complex Plane

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1. Number Systems eLearn.Punjab 1. Number Systems eLearn.Punjab
1.1 Introduction 1.2 Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers
In the very beginning, human life was simple. An early ancient herdsman compared
p
sheep (or cattle) of his herd with a pile of stones when the herd left for grazing and again on We know that a rational number is a number which can be put in the form where p,
q
its return for missing animals. In the earliest systems probably the vertical strokes or bars
such as I, II, III, llll etc.. were used for the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. The symbol “lllll” was used by qUZ / q ≠ 0. The numbers 16 , 3.7, 4 etc., are rational numbers. 16 can be reduced to the
many people including the ancient Egyptians for the number of ingers of one hand.
p 4
Around 5000 B.C, the Egyptians had a number system based on 10. The symbol form where p, qUZ, and q ≠ 0 because 16 = 4 = .
q 1
for 10 and for 100 were used by them. A symbol was repeated as many times as it was
needed. For example, the numbers 13 and 324 were symbolized as and
p
respectively. The symbol was interpreted as 100 + 100 +100+10+10+1+1+1 Irrational numbers are those numbers which cannot be put into the form where
q
+1. Diferent people invented their own symbols for numbers. But these systems of notations
7 5
proved to be inadequate with advancement of societies and were discarded. Ultimately the p, qUZ and q ≠ 0. The numbers 2, 3, , are irrational numbers.
5 16
set {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} with base 10 was adopted as the counting set (also called the set of natural
numbers). The solution of the equation x + 2 = 2 was not possible in the set of natural
numbers, So the natural number system was extended to the set of whole numbers. No 1.2.1 Decimal Representation of Rational and Irrational Numbers
number in the set of whole numbers W could satisfy the equation x + 4 = 2 or x + a = b , if
a > b, and a, b, UW. The negative integers -1, -2, -3, ... were introduced to form the set of 1) Terminating decimals: A decimal which has only a inite number of digits in its decimal
integers Z = {0, ±1, ±2 ,...). part, is called a terminating decimal. Thus 202.04, 0.0000415, 100000.41237895 are examples
Again the equation of the type 2x = 3 or bx = a where a,b,UZ of terminating decimals.
and b ≠ 0 had no solution in the set Z, so the numbers of the form Since a terminating decimal can be converted into a common fraction, so every
terminating decimal represents a rational number.
a
where a,b,UZ and b ≠ 0, were invented to remove such diiculties. The set
b
2) Recurring Decimals: This is another type of rational numbers. In general, a recurring or
a
Q = { I a,b,UZ / b ≠ 0} was named as the set of rational numbers. Still the solution of equations periodic decimal is a decimal in which one or more digits repeat indeinitely.
b
It will be shown (in the chapter on sequences and series) that a recurring decimal can
such as x2 = 2 or x2 = a (where a is not a perfect square) was not possible in the set Q. So the be converted into a common fraction. So every recurring decimal represents a rational
irrational numbers of the type ± 2 or ± a where a is not a perfect square were introduced. number:
This process of enlargement of the number system ultimately led to the set of real numbers A non-terminating, non-recurring decimal is a decimal which neither terminates nor
_ = Q~Q’ (Q’ is the set of irrational numbers) which is used most frequently in everyday life. it is recurring. It is not possible to convert such a decimal into a common fraction. Thus a
non-terminating, non-recurring decimal represents an irrational number.
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
2 3
Example 1: Squaring both sides we get;
.25 ( =
25 p2
i) ) is a rational number. 2 = 2 or p2 = 2q2 (1)
100 q
.333...( = ) is a recurring decimal, it is a rational number.
1
ii) The R.H.S. of this equation has a factor 2. Its L.H.S. must have the same factor.
3
Now a prime number can be a factor of a square only if it occurs at least twice in the
iii) 2.3(= 2.333...) is a rational number. square. Therefore, p2 should be of the form 4p‘2
0.142857142857... ( =
so that equation (1) takes the form:
1
iv) ) is a rational number. 4p‘2 = 2q2 ....(2)
7
i.e., 2p’2 = q2 ....(3)
v) 0.01001000100001 ... is a non-terminating, non-periodic decimal, so it is an In the last equation, 2 is a factor of the L.H.S. Therefore, q2 should be of the form 4q’2 so
irrational number. that equation 3 takes the form
vi) 214.121122111222 1111 2222 ... is also an irrational number. 2p‘2 = 4q’2 i.e., p’2 = 2q’2 ....(4)
vii) 1.4142135 ... is an irrational number.
viii) 7.3205080 ... is an irrational number. From equations (1) and (2),
3.141592654... is an important irrational number called it p(Pi) which

ix) 1.709975947 ... is an irrational number. p = 2p‘
x) and from equations (3) and (4)
denotes the constant ratio of the circumference of any circle to the length q = 2q‘
p 2 p′
of its diameter i.e.,
∴ =
p=
circumference of any circle q 2 q′
length of its diameter.
An approximate value of p is ,a better approximation is

22 355 p
and a still better This contradicts the hypothesis that is in its lowest form. Hence 2 is irrational.
7 113 q
approximation is 3.14159. The value of p correct to 5 lac decimal places has been
Example 3: Prove 3 is an irrational number.
determined with the help of computer.
Solution: Suppose, if possible 3 is rational so that it can be written in the form p/q when
Example 2: Prove 2 is an irrational number.
p,q U Z and q ≠ 0. Suppose further that p/q is in its lowest form,
then 3 = p/q , (q ≠ 0)
Solution: Suppose, if possible, 2 is rational so that it can be written in the
form p/q where p,q U Z and q ≠ 0. Suppose further that p/q is in its lowest form.
Squaring this equation we get;
p2
3= or p2 = 3q2 ........(1)
Then 2 = p/q, (q ≠ 0) q2
4 5
The R.H.S. of this equation has a factor 3. Its L.H.S. must have the same factor. same Universal set.
Now a prime number can be a factor of a square only if it occurs at least twice in _ usually denotes the set of real numbers. We assume that two binary operations
the square. Therefore, p2 should be of the form 9p‘2 so that equation (1) takes the form: addition (+) and multiplication (. or x) are deined in _. Following are the properties or laws
9p‘2 = 3q2 (2) for real numbers.
’2 2
i.e., 3p = q (3)
1. Addition Laws: -
In the last equation, 3 is a factor of the L.H.S. Therefore, q2 i) Closure Law of Addition
should be of the form 9q’2 so that equation (3) takes the form [ a, bU_, a + bU_ ([stands for “for all” )
3p‘2 = 9q2 i.e., p’2 = 3q’2 (4) ii) Associative Law of Addition
From equations (1) and (2), [ a, b,cU_, a + (b + c) = (a + b ) + c
P = 3P’ iii) Additive Identity
and from equations (3) and (4) [ aU_, \ 0U_ such that a+0=0+a=a
q = 3q’ (\ stands for “there exists”).
p 3 p′
0(read as zero) is called the identity element of addition.
∴ =
q 3q′
iv) Additive Inverse
[ aU_, \ (- a)U_ such that
a + ( - a ) = 0 = ( - a) + a
p
This contradicts the hypothesis that is in its lowest form.
q
Hence 3 is irrational. v) Commutative Law for Addition
[ a, bU_, a + b = b + a
Note: Using the same method we can prove the irrationality of 2. Multiplication Laws
5, 7,...., n where n is any prime number. vi) Closure I.aw of Multiplication
[ a, bU_, a. bU_ (a,b is usually written as ab).
vii) Associative Law for Multiplication
1.3 Properties of Real Numbers
[ a, b, cU_, a(bc) = (ab)c
viii) Multiplicative Identity
We are already familiar with the set of real numbers and most of their properties. We
[ aU_, \ 1U_ such that a.1 = 1.a = a
now state them in a uniied and systematic manner. Before stating them we give a prelimi-
1 is called the multiplicative identity of real numbers.
nary deinition.
ix) Multiplicative Inverse
Binary Operation: A binary operation may be deined as a function from A % A into A, but
for the present discussion, the following deinition would serve the purpose. A binary oper-
[ a(≠ 0)U_, \ a-1U_ such that a.a-1 = a-1.a = 1 (a-1 is also written as
1
).
ation in a set A is a rule usually denoted by * that assigns to any pair of elements of A, taken a
in a deinite order, another element of A.
x) Commutative Law of multiplication
Two important binary operations are addition and multiplication in the set of real num-
[ a, bU_, ab = ba
bers. Similarly, union and intersection are binary operations on sets which are subsets of the
6 7
3. Multiplication - Addition Law c) [ a,b,c,dU_ and a,b,c,d are all positive.

xi) [ a, b, c U _, i) a > b / c > d ⇒ ac > bd. ii) a < b / c < d ⇒ ac < bd
a (b + c) = ab + ac (Distrihutivity of multiplication over addition).
(a + b)c = ac + bc Note That:
In addition to the above properties _ possesses the following properties.
i) Order Properties (described below). 1. Any set possessing all the above 11 properties is called a ield.
ii) Completeness axiom which will be explained in higher classes. 2. From the multiplicative properties of inequality we conclude that: - If both the sides
The above properties characterizes _ i.e., only _ possesses all these properties. of an inequality are multiplied by a +ve number, its direction does not change, but
Before stating the order axioms we state the properties of equality of numbers. multiplication of the two sides by -ve number reverses the direction of the inequality.
4. Properties of Equality 3. a and (-a) are additive inverses of each other. Since by deinition inverse of -a is a,
Equality of numbers denoted by “=“ possesses the following properties:- ∴ - (-a) = a
i) Relexive property [ aU_, a = a 4. The left hand member of the above equation should be
ii) Symmetric Property [ a,bU_, a = b ⇒ b = a. read as negative of ‘negative a’ and not ‘minus minus a’.
iii) Transitive Property [ a,b,cU_, a = b/b = c ⇒ a = c
[ a,b,cU_, a = b ⇒ a + c = b + c
1
iv) Additive Property 5. a and are the multiplicative inverses of each other. Since by
v) Multiplicative Property [ a,b,cU_, a = b ⇒ ac = bc / ca = cb.
a
a-1
1
vi) Cancellation Property w.r.t. addition deinition inverse of is a (i.e., inverse of is a), a≠0
[ a,b,cU_, a + c = b + c ⇒ a = b
a
∴
vii) Cancellation Property w.r.t. Multiplication:
(a-1)-1 = a or
[ a,b,cU_, ac = bc ⇒ a = b, c ≠ 0
1
=a
1
5. Properties of Ineualities (Order properties ) a
1) Trichotomy Property [ a,bU_
Example 4: Prove that for any real numbers a, b
i) a.0 = 0 ii) ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 0 b = 0 [ 0 stands for “or” ]
either a = b or a > b or a< b
2) Transitive Property [ a,b,cU_
a > b / b > c ⇒ a > c ii) a<b/ b<c⇒a<c
Solution: i) a.0 = a[1+ (-1)] (Property of additive inverse)
= a (1 -1)
i)
(Def. of subtraction)
3) Additive Property: [ a,b,cU_
a) i) a > b ⇒ a + c > b + c a > b / c > d ⇒a+c > b+d
= a.1-a.1 (Distributive Law)
=a-a
b) i)
ii) a < b ⇒ a + c < b + c a < b / c < d ⇒ a+c < b+d
(Property of multiplicative identity)
ii)
= a + (-a) (Def. of subtraction)
4) Multiplicative Properties:
=0 (Property of additive inverse)
a) [ a,b,cU_ and c >0
a > b ⇒ ac > bc a < b ⇒ ac < bc.
Thus a.0=0.
i) ii)
ii) Given that ab = 0 (1)
b) [ a,b,cU_ and c < 0 .
a > b ⇒ ac < bc a < b ⇒ ac > bc
Suppose a ≠ 0, then exists
i) ii)
8 9
= ,(k ≠ 0)
1 1 iv) a ka (Golden rule of fractions)
(1) gives: (ab) = .0 (Multiplicative property of equality)
a a b kb
⇒ ( .a)b = .0
1 1 a
(Assoc. law of %)
a a b ad
v) = (Rule for quotient of fractions).
The symbol ⇔ stands for if i.e.. if and only if.

⇒ 1.b = 0
c bc
(Property of multiplicative inverse). d
⇒b=0 (Property of multiplicative identity).
Thus if ab = 0 and a ≠ 0, then b = 0
Similarly it may be shown that Solution:
= (= bd ) ( bd )
if ab = 0 and b ≠ 0, then a = 0.
Hence ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = 0. ⇒
a c a c
i)
( bd ) = ( bd )
b d b d
⇒
a.1 c.1
b d
⇒ a.( .b).d =
Example 5: For real numbers a,b show the following by stating the properties used.
(-a) b = a (-b) = -ab
1 1
i) ii) (-a) (-b) = ab c.( .bd )
b d
= c(bd . )
1
⇒ ad =
Solution: i) (-a)(b) + ab = (-a + a)b (Distributive law) d
∴ ad =
cb
∴ (-a)b + ab = 0
= 0.b = 0. (Property of additive inverse) bc
ad =bc ⇒ ( ad ) × . =
1 1 1 1
Again b.c. .
∴ (-a)b = -(ab) = -ab (Q -(ab) is written as -ab)
i.e.. (-a)b and ab are additive inverse of each other. b d b d
⇒ a. .d =
1 1 1 1
(-a) (-b) -ab = (-a)(-b) + (-ab)
b. . c.
b d b d
⇒ =.
ii) a c
= (-a)(-b) + (-a)(b) (By (i)) b d
= (-a)(-b + b) (Distributive law)
( ab ). .= (a. ).(b = = 1
= (-a) .0 = 0. (Property of additive inverse) 1 1 1 1
(-a)(-b) = ab ii) ) 1.1
a b a b
Example 6: Prove that 1 1

Thus ab and . are the multiplicative inverse of each other. But multiplicative inverse
= ⇔ ad =bc
a c a b
i) (Principle for equality of fractions 1
b d of ab is
ab
=∴
1 1 1
ii) . = 1 1 1
a b ab . .
ab a b
. =
. = (a. ).(c. )
a c ac
iii) (Rule for product of fractions). a c 1 1
b d bd iii)
b d b d
10 11
= ( ac ) ( . )
2. Name the properties used in the following equations.
1 1 (Letters, where used, represent real numbers).
(Using commutative and associative laws of multiplication)
b d
(a + 1) + = a + (1 + )
3 3
i) 4+9=9+4 ii)
= ac
=
1 ac 4 4
. .
( 3 + 5) + 7 = 3 + ( 5 + 7) iv)
bd bd
= =
a c ac iii) 100 + 0 = 100
.
b d bd
v) 1000 % 1 = 1000 vi) 4.1 + ( - 4 .1 ) = 0
=
a a
= =
a k ak vii) a-a=0 viii)
a(b - c) = ab - ac x) (x - y)z = xz - yz
iv) .1 .
b b b k ak ix)
∴ = . xii) a(b + c - d) = ab + ac - ad.
a ak
xi) 4%(5 % 8) = (4 % 5) % 8
b bk
3. Name the properties used in the following inequalities:

a a 1
v) = b= =
(bd ) ad ( .b)
-3 < -2 ⇒ 0 < 1 -5 < - 4 ⇒ 20 > 16
b b ad
.
i) ii)
1 > -1 ⇒ -3 > -5 a < 0 ⇒ -a > 0
c c 1 bc
(bd ) cb( .d )
d d d iii) iv)
Example 7: Does the set {1, -1 } possess closure property with respect to v) a>b ⇒ <
1 1
vi) a > b ⇒ -a < -b
i) addition ii) multiplication? a b
i) 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + (-1) = 0 = -1 + 1
4. Prove the following rules of addition: -
a b a+b a c ad + bc
Solution:
-1 + (-1) = -2 i) + = ii) + =
c c c b d bd
But 2, 0, -2 do not belong to the given set. That is, all the sums do not belong to the
7 5 -21 - 10
given set. So it does not possess closure property w.r.t. addition. 5. Prove that - - =
ii) 1.1= 1, 1. (-1) = -1, (-1) .1 = -1, (-1). (-1) = 1 12 18 36
Since all the products belong to the given set, it is closed w.r.t multiplication. 6. Simplify by justifying each step: -
Exercise 1.1
+
4 + 16 x
1 1
4 5
-
1. Which of the following sets have closure property w.r.t. addition and multiplication? i) ii)
4 1 1
(0 , - 1 ) { 1, -1 }
4 5
i) {0} ii) {1} iii) iv)
12 13
Thus 2i, -3i, 5i , - i are all imaginary numbers, i which may be

11
+ -
a c 1 1 2
written 1.i is also an imaginary number.
b d a b
- 1- .
iii) iv) Powers of i :
i2 = -1 (by deination)
a c 1 1
i3 = i2.i = -1.i = -i
b d a b
1.4 Complex Numbers i4 = i2 % i2 = (-1)(-1) = 1

Thus any power of i must be equal to 1, i,-1 or -i. For instance,
i13 = (i2)6.2 = (-1)6.i = i
i6 = (i2)3 = (-1)3 = -1 etc.
The history of mathematics shows that man has been developing and enlarging his
concept of number according to the saying that “Necessity is the mother of invention”. In
the remote past they stared with the set of counting numbers and invented, by stages, the
negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers. Since square of a positive as well 1.4.1 Operations on Complex Numbers
as negative number is a positive number, the square
root of a negative number does not exist in the realm of real numbers. Therefore, square With a view to develop algebra of complex numbers, we state a few deinitions.
The symbols a,b,c,d,k, where used, represent real numbers.
1) a + bi = c + di ⇒ a = c b = d.
roots of negative numbers were given no attention for centuries together. However, recently,
properties of numbers involving square roots of negative numbers have also been discussed
in detail and such numbers have been found useful and have been applied in many branches 2) Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
3) k(a + bi) = ka + kbi
4) (a + bi) - (c + di) = (a + bi) + [-(c + di)]
o f pure and applied mathematics. The numbers of the
= a + bi + (-c - di)
form x + iy, where x, y U_ , and i = ,are called complex numbers, here x is called real
= (a - c) + (b - d)i
part and y is called imaginary part of the complex
number. For example, 3 + 4i, 2 - 5) (a + bi).(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i.
6) Conjugate Complex Numbers: Complex numbers of the form (a + bi) and (a - bi) which
i etc. are complex numbers.
have the same real parts and whose imaginary parts difer in sign only, are called conjugates
of each other. Thus 5 + 4i and 5 - 4i, -2 + 3i and - 2 - 3i,-
Note: Every real number is a complex number with 0 as its imaginary part.
5 i and 5 i are three pairs of
Let us start with considering the equation. conjugate numbers.
x2 + 1 = 0 (1)
⇒ x2 = -1 Note: A real number is self-conjugate.
⇒ x=± -1
-1 does not belong to the set of real numbers. We, therefore, for convenience call it 1.4.2 Complex Numbers as Ordered Pairs of Real Numbers
imaginary number and denote it by i (read as iota).
The product of a real number and i is also an imaginary number We can deine complex numbers also by using ordered pairs. Let C be the set of ordered
pairs belonging to _ % _ which are subject to the following properties: -
14 15
i) (a, b) = (c, d ) ⇔ a = c ∧ b = d .
 a -b 
( a, b)  2 2 
a +b a +b 
ii) (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) 2
, 2
= (1, 0), the identity element
 a -b 
iii) If k is any real number, then k(a, b) = (ka, kb)
iv) (a, b) (c, d) = (ac - bd, ad + bc) = 2 2 
Then C is called the set of complex numbers. It is easy to sec that (a, b) - (c, d) a +b a +b 
2
, 2 ( a, b)
= (a - c, b - d) v) (a, b)[(c, d ) ± (e, =

f )] (a, b)(c, d ) ± (a, b)(e, f )
Properties (1), (2) and (4) respectively deine equality, sum and product of two complex Note: The set C of complex numbers does not satisfy the order axioms. In fact there is no
numbers. Property (3) deines the product of a real number and a complex number. sense in saying that one complex number is greater or less than another.
Example 1: Find the sum, diference and product of the complex numbers (8, 9) and (5, -6) 1.4.4 A Special Subset of C
Solution: Sum = (8 + 5, 9 - 6) = (13, 3)

= (8 - 5, 9 - (-6)) = (3, 15)
We consider a subset of C whose elements are of the form (a, 0) i.e., second component
Diference
= (8.5 - (9)(-6), 9.5 + (-6) 8)
of each element is zero.
Product
= (40 + 54, 45 - 48)
Let (a, 0), (c, 0) be two elements of this subset. Then
= (94, -3)
i) (a, 0) + (c, 0) = (a + c, 0) ii) k(a, 0) = (ka, 0)
iii) (a, 0) % (c, 0) = (ac ,0)
1 
Multiplicative inverse of (a, 0) is  , 0  , a ≠ 0.
1.4.3 Properties of the Fundamental Operations on Complex
a 
iv)
Numbers
Notice that the results are the same as we should have obtained if we had operated on
It can be easily veriied that the set C satisies all the ield axioms i.e., it possesses the
the real numbers a and c ignoring the second component of each ordered pair i.e., 0 which
properties 1(i to v), 2(vi to x) and 3(xi) of Art. 1.3.
has played no part in the above calculations.
By way of explanation of some points we observe as follows:-
On account of this special feature wc identify the complex number (a, 0) with the real
i) The additive identity in C is (0, 0).
number a i.e., we postulate:
ii) Every complex number (a, b) has the additive inverse
(-a, -b) i.e., (a, b) + (-a, -b) = (0, 0).
(a, 0)= a (1)
Now consider (0, 1)
iii) The multiplicative identity is (1, 0) i.e.,
(a, b).(1, 0) = (a.1 - b.0, b.1 + a.0) = (a, b).
(0, 1) . (0, 1) = (-1, 0)
= -1 (by (1) above).
= (1, 0) (a, b)
If we set (0, 1) = i (2)
then (0, 1)2 = (0,1)(0,1) = i.i = i2 = -1
iv) Every non-zero complex number {i.e., number not equal to (0, 0)} has a
multiplicative inverse.
We are now in a position to write every complex number given as an ordered pair, in
 a -b 
The multiplicative inverse of (a, b) is  2 2 
terms of i. For example
a +b a +b 
2
, 2 (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b) (def. of addition)
16 17
= a(1, 0)+ b(0, 1) (by ( 1) and (2) above) 16. Separate into real and imaginary parts (write as a simple complex number): -
2 - 7i (-2 + 3i ) 2
= a.1 + bi
i
4 + 5i (1 + i ) 1+ i
= a + ib i) ii) iii)
Thus (a, b) = a + ib where i2 = -1
This result enables us to convert any Complex number given in one notation into the
other.
1.5 The Real Line
Exercise 1.2
In Fig.(1), let X ′ X be a line. We represent the number 0 by a point O (called the origin)
1. Verify the addition properties of complex numbers. 
2. Verify the multiplication properties of the complex numbers.
3. Verify the distributive law of complex numbers. of the line. Let |OA| represents a unit length. According to this unit, positive numbers are
represented on this line by points to the right of O and negative numbers by points to the
left of O. It is easy to visualize that all +ve and -ve rational numbers are represented on this
(a, b)[(c, d) + (e, f)] = (a, b)(c, d) + (a, b)(e, f)
(Hint: Simplify each side separately)
4. Simplify’ the following: line. What about the irrational numbers?
The fact is that all the irrational numbers are also represented by points of the line.
(-
21 Therefore, we postulate: -
Postulate: A (1 - 1) correspondence can be established between the points of a line l and
i) i9 ii) i14 iii) (-i)19 iv) )
2
5. Write in terms of i
-16
the real numbers in such a way that:-
-1b -5
1
-4
i) ii) iii) iv) i) The number 0 corresponds to a point O of the line.
25 ii) The number 1 corresponds to a point A of the line.
iii) If x1, x2 are the numbers corresponding to two points P1, P2, then the distance
between P1 and P2 will be |x1 - x2|.
Simplify the following:
6. (7, 9 ) + (3, -5) 7. (8, -5 ) - (-7, 4) 8. (2, 6)(3, 7)
9. (5, -4) (-3, -2) 10. (0, 3) (0, 5) 11. (2, 6)'(3, 7). It is evident that the above correspondence will be such that corresponding to any real
number there will be one and only one point on the line and vice versa.
 (2,6) 2 + 6i 3 - 7i  When a (1 - 1) correspondence between the points of a line x′x and the real numbers
(5, -4) '(-3, -8)  Hint for 11: = × etc. 
 (3,7) 3 + 7i 3 - 7i 
12.
has been established in the manner described above, the line is called the real line and the
real number, say x, corresponding to any point P of the line is called the coordinate of the
13. Prove that the sum as well as the product of any two conjugate
point.
complex numbers is a real number.
( )
14. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers:
1.5.1 The Real Plane or The Coordinate Plane
i) (-4, 7) ii) 2, - 5 iii) (1, 0)
15. Factorize the following: We know that the cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B, denoted by A % B,
i) a2 + 4b2 ii) 9a2 + 16b2 iii) 3x2 +3y2 is the set: A % B = {(x, y) I xUA / yUB}
18 19
The members of a cartesian product are ordered the coordinate plane and every point of the plane will represent one and only one complex
pairs. number. The components of the complex number will be the coordinates of the point
The cartesian product _%_ where _ is the set of real representing it. In this representation the x-axis is called the real axis and the y-axis is called
numbers is called the cartesian plane. the imaginary axis. The coordinate plane itself is called the complex plane or z - plane.
By taking two perpendicular lines x′ox and y′oy as By way of illustration a number of complex numbers have been shown in igure 3.
coordinate axes on a geometrical plane and choosing
a convenient unit of distance, elements of _%_ can
be represented on the plane in such a way that there is
a (1-1) correspondence between the elements of _%_
and points of the plane. The igure representing one or more complex
numbers on the complex plane is called an
The geometrical plane on which coordinate system has been speciied is called the Argand diagram. Points on the x-axis represent
real plane or the coordinate plane. real numbers whereas the points on the y-axis
Ordinarily we do not distinguish between the Cartesian plane _%_ and the coordinate represent imaginary numbers.
plane whose points correspond to or represent the elements of _%_.
If a point A of the coordinate plane corresponds to the ordered pair (a, b) then a, b are
called the coordinates of A. a is called the x - coordinate or abscissa and b is called
the y - coordinate or ordinate.
In the igure shown above, the coordinates of the pointsB, C, D and E are (3, 2), (-4, 3), In ig (4), x, y are the coordinates of a point.
(-3, -4) and (5, -4) respectively. It represents the complex number x + iy.
Corresponding to every ordered pair (a, b) U_%_ there is one and only one point in The real number x 2 + y 2 is called the modulus
the plane and corresponding to every point in the plane there is one and only one ordered of the complex number a + ib.
In the igure MA ⊥ o x
pair (a, b) in _%_. 
There is thus a (1 - 1) correspondence between _%_ and the plane.
∴ OM= x, MA= y
In the right-angled triangle OMA, we have,
1.6 Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers The by Pythagoras theorem,
= OM + MA
Complex Plane 2 2 2
OA
∴ OA = x2 + y 2
We have seen that there is a (1-1) correspondence between the elements (ordered
pairs) of the Cartesian plane _%_ and the complex numbers. Therefore, there is a (1- 1)
correspondence between the points of the coordinate plane and the complex numbers.
We can, therefore, represent complex numbers by points of the coordinate plane. In this Thus OA represents the modulus of x + iy. In other words: The modulus of a complex
representation every complex number will be represented by one and only one point of number is the distance from the origin of the point representing the number.
20 21
- z =-a - ib, z =a - ib and - z =-a + ib

The modulus of a complex number is generally denoted as: |x + iy| or |(x, y)|. For convenience,
So,
a complex number is denoted by z.
∴ - z= (-a ) 2 + (-b) 2= a 2 + b2
If z = x + iy = (x, y), then
= x +y
(1)
= a 2 + b2
2 2
z
Example 1: Find moduli of the following complex numbers : z (2)
(i) 1 - i 3 (ii) 3 (iii) -5i (iv) 3 + 4i z = (a ) 2 + (b) 2 = a 2 + b 2 (3)
-z = (-a ) 2 + (b) 2 = a 2 + b2
Solution:
(4)
Let z = 1 - i 3
or z =1 + i ( - 3 )
i) ii) Let z = 3
By equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) we conclude that
- z =z =z =- z
or z = 3 + 0.i
(ii) Let z = a + ib
∴=
z (1) + (- 3)
2 2
∴=
z (3) + (0)= 3
2 2
So that z= a - ib
= 1+ 3 = 2
Let z = -5i
Taking conjugate again of both sides, we have
iii) iv) Let z = 3 + 4i
or z = 0 + (-5)i ∴= (3) 2 + (4) 2 z =a + ib =z
z = a + ib so that z= a - ib
z
(iii) Let
∴= 02 + (-5)= ∴ z.z = (a + ib)(a - ib)

=a 2 - iab + iab - i 2b 2
2
z 5
= a 2 - (-1)b 2
Theorems: [z, z1, z2 U C, = a 2 + b2 = z
2
(iv) Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, then

i) -z = z = z = -z ii) z=z z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id)
= (a + c) + i(b + d)
iii) z z = z z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d ) (Taking conjugate on both sides)
2
iv) so,
= (a + c) - i(b + d)
= (a - ib) + (c - id) = z1 + z 2
z 
v) =  , z2 ≠ 0 z1.z2 = z1 . z2
Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, where z2 ≠ 0, then
z1 (v)
 z2 
1
vi)
z1 a + ib
z2
=
Proof :(i): Let z= a + ib, z2 c + id
22 23
a + ib c - id
(vii) Algebraic proof of this part is tedius. Therefore, we prove it geometrically.
= ×
c + id c - id
(Note this step)
(ac + bd ) + i (bc - ad ) ac + bd bc - ad
= = +
c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2 c2 + d 2
i
 z  ac + bd bc - ad
∴ 1 = +
 z2  c + d c2 + d 2
2 2
i
ac + bd bc - ad
= 2 -i 2
c +d c + d2
2
(1)
z1 a + ib a - ib
Now = =
z 2 c + id c - id
a - ib c + id
= ×
c - id c + id
(ac + bd ) - i (bc - ad )
=
In the igure point A represents z = a + ib and point C represents z = c + id. We complete
c2 + d 2
1 2
the parallelogram OABC. From the igure, it is evident that coordinates of B are (a + c, b + d),
ac + bd bc - ad
= 2 -i 2
c +d c + d2
(2) therefore, B represents
z + z = (a + c) + (b + d)i and OB= z1 + z2 .

2
From (1) and (2), we have 1 2
 z1  z1 Also OA = z1 , = OC
= z2 .
 =
AB
 z2  z 2
In the 3OAB; OA + AB > OB (OA = mOA etc.)
(vi) Let z = a + ib and z = c + id, then
z1.z2 =(a + ib)(c + id )
1 2
∴ |z |+ |z | > |z + z |
= (ac - bd ) + (ad + bc)i
(1)
1 2 1 2
= (ac - bd ) 2 + (ad + bc) 2 Also in the same triangle, OA - AB < OB

= a 2c 2 + b 2 d 2 + a 2 d 2 + b 2c 2
∴ |z |- |z | < |z + z |
= (a + b )(c + d )
(2)
2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2
= z1 . z2 Combining (1) and (2), we have
This result may be stated thus: -

|z |- |z | < |z + z | < |z |+ |z | (3)
The modulus of the product of two complex numbers is equal to the product of their 1 2 1 2 1 2
moduli.
24 25
+ + - -
=
=
z2 3 - 2i 3 - 2i
(2 - 3) + (-6 - 1)i -1 - 7i
=
=
3 - 2i 3 - 2i
(-1 - 7i )(3 + 2i )
=
which gives the required results with inequality
signs. (3 - 2i ) (3 + 2i )
(-3 + 14) + (-2 - 21)i
= = -
11 23
32 + 22
i
Results with equality signs will hold when the 13 13
points A and C representing z and z
Example 3: Show that, " z1 , z2 ∈ C , z1 z2 =

1 2
become collinear with B. This will be so when =

a c z1 z2
b d
Let z+
1 = +=
(see ig (6)).
Solution: a bi , z2 c di
z1zz1 2z2==
(a(a++bibi)()(cc++didi) )==(ac--bd ad++bc
In such a case z1 + z2 = OB + OA
(ac bd)()(ad bc)i)i
==(ac
(ac--bd
bd) )--(ad
(ad++bc
bc)i)i (1)
= OB + BC
z1.zz1.2z= (a(a+=
2 =
) +=
+bibi )= += +didi
)+)
= OC
(c(c
==
(a(a-=
-
bi ) --)(bi +-)bc
- cdi
(cad di))i
= z1 + z2
(abi )(
= =
(ac(-acbd-)bd
+ )(-+ad - bc-)bc
(-ad i )i
Thus z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 z1.z2 =
+(a bi )+(c di )
=
-(a bi )-(c di )
The second part of result (vii) namely = (ac - bd ) + (-ad - bc)i (2)
z1 + z2 ≤ z1 + z2 Thus from (1) and (2) we have, z1 z2 = z1 z2
is analogue of the triangular inequality*. In words, it may be stated thus: - Polar form of a Complex number: Consider adjoining diagram
The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers is less than or equal to the sum of the representing the complex number z = x + iy. From the diagram, we
moduli of the numbers. see that x = rcosq and y = rsinq where r = |z| and q is called argument
of z.
Example 2: If z = 2+ i, z = 3 - 2i, z = 1 + 3i then express 1 3 in the
z z
Hence x + iy = rcosq + rsinq ....(i)
1 2 3 z2
where= and q = tan x
x 2 + y 2 and
form a + ib - -1
y
r
(Conjugate of a complex number z is denoted as z )
Equation (i) is called the polar form of the complex number z.
z1 z3 (2 + i ) (1 + 3i ) (2 - i ) (1 - 3i )
Solution:
=
=
*In any triangle the sum of the lengths of any two sides is greater than the length of the third
z2 3 - 2i 3 - 2i side and diference of the lengths of any two sides is less than the length of the third side.
(2 - 3) + (-6 - 1)i -1 - 7i
=
=
- -
- - + 26
=
- +
27
Example 4: Express the complex number 1 + i 3 in polar form.

ii) Let x1 + iy1 = r1 cosq1 + r1 sinnq1 and x2 + iy2 = r2 cosq2 + r2 sinnq2 then,
 x1 + iy1   r1 cos q1 + r1 i sinq1  r1n (cosq1 + i sinq1 ) n

=
=   
n

n
 2 + 2   2 q + q 2  r2 n (cosq 2 + i sinq 2 ) n
Solution:
x iy r cos 2 r2 i sin
=+ (cosq1 i sinq1 ) n (cos

+ q2 isinq 2 ) - n
Step-I: Put rcosq = 1 and rsinq = r1n
=r 2 (1) 2 + ( 3) 2
n
r2
= n (cosnq1 + isin nq1 ) ( cos ( - nq ) 2 + i sin ( - nq 2 ) ) ,

Step-II:
⇒ r 2 =1 + 3 = 4 ⇒ r = 2 r1n
r2
= q tan
= -1
= -1
3 (By De Moivre's Theorem)
Step-III: tan 3 60
= n (cos nq1 + isin nq1 )(cosnq 2 - isin nq 2 ), (cos( - q ) = cosq
1 r1n
1+ i =
3 2cos 60 + i 2sin 60 r2
sin( - q )= - sinq )
Thus
= + 1 n ,[ ( cos nq1 cos nq 2 sin nq1 sin nq 2 )

De Moivre’s Theorem : - rn
+ i ( sin nq1 cos nq 2 - cos nq1 sin nq 2 ) ]

(cosq + isinq)n = cosnq + isinnq, [n d Z r2
Proof of this theorem is beyond the scope of this book.
= n [ cos (nq1 - nq 2 ) + isin(nq1 - nq 2 ) ] cos (a - b )= cosa cosb +sina sinb

r1n
1.7 To ind real and imaginary parts of r2
and sin(a - b ) = sina cosb - cosa sinb
 x1 + iy1 
  , x2 + iy2 ≠ 0 = n [ cos n(q1 - q 2 )+isin n(q1 - q 2 ) ]
n
 x2 + iy2 
i) (x + iy)n ii) r1n
r2
= - 1 n [ cos n(q1 q 2 )+ isinn (q1 - q 2 ) ]

for n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ... rn
i) Let x = rcosq and y = rsinq, then r2
(x + iy)n = (rcosq + irsinq)n
Thus n cos n (q1 - q 2 ) and n sin n(q1 - q 2 ) are respectively the real and imaginary parts of
= (rcosq + irsinq)n r1n r1n
= [r(cosq + isinq)]n r2 r2
 x1 + iy1 
 , x2 + iy2 ≠ 0
= rn(cosq + isinq)n

n
= rn(cosnq + isinnq) ( By De Moivre’s Theorem)

 2
x + iy 2 
= rn cosnq + irn sinnq
where r1 = x + y ; q1 =tan y+2 ; q 2 =tan
-1 -1
y1 y2
Thus rn cosnq and rn sinnq are respectively the real and imaginary parts of (x + iy)n. 2 2 x1
and r2 = x2 2 2 x2
1 1
Where r =
+ x 2=
+y 22 =yq2 = q - tan -1
x
and tan .
y
28 29
( cos(300
= - ) isin(300o ) )( cos(300
- ) isin(300o ) ) - cos( q ) = cosq
Example 5: Find out real and imaginary parts of each of the following
and sin( - q ) = - sinq

o o
complex numbers.
( )
 1- 3 i  1 
  -1
5
=  +  = +
3 2
1+ 3 i 
i) 3 +i ii) 3 3
2 
i i
2 2 2
Solution:
Let r cos q = 3 and r sin q = 1 where -1  1- 3 i 
 
5
i) 3
 1+ 3 i 
Thus , are respectively real and imaginary parts of
2 2
r 2 = ( 3) 2 + 12 or r = 3 + 1 = 2 and q = tan -1
1
( )
= 30o Exercise 1.3
3
= (rcosq + irsinq )3
3
So, 3 +i
= r 3 (cos3q + isin3q )
1. Graph the following numbers on the complex plane: -
2 + 3i 2 - 3i -2 - 3i -2 + 3i
(By De Moivre’s Theorem)
= 2 (cos90 + isin90 )
i) ii) iii) iv)
3 o o
-6 - i viii) -5 - 6i
3 4
= 8 (0 + i.1) v) vi) i vii)
5 5
( )
= 8i
2. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers: -
-3i 1 - 2i -3 - 5i
3
Thus 0 and 8 are respectively real and imaginary Parts of 3 +i .
and r1sinq1 = - 3
i) ii) iii) iv) (1, 2)
ii) Let r1cosq1 = 1 3. Simplify
⇒ r1 = (1) 2 + ( - 3) 2 = 1 + 3 = 2 and q1 = tan -1 - - 60o (-ai ) 4 , aU_ iii) i -3 i -10
3
i) i101 ii) iv)
1
Also Let r2 cosq 2 = 1 and r2sinq 2 = 3 4. Prove that z = z if z is real.
⇒ r2 = (1) 2 + ( 3) 1 + 3 = 2 and q 2 tan -1

5. Simplify by expressing in the form a + bi
5 + 2 -4 (2 + -3)(3 + -3)
2 3
= = 60o i) ii)
1
 2 ( cos( - 60o ) + isin( - 60O ) ) 

3
6 - -12
2
 1 - 3i  5 + -8
iii) iv)
 = 
( )

5
So, 
5
 +  

o
+ O

( cos(-60 ) + i sin(-60 ) )
1 3i 2 cos(60 ) i sin(60 ) 6. Show that [z U C
i) z 2 - z is a real number. ii) ( z - z ) 2 is a real number.
2
( cos(60 ) + i sin(60 ) )
=
  5
= ( cos( - 60 ) + isin( - 60 ) ) ( cos(60 ) + isin(60 ) )

 
-5
= ( cos( - 300 ) + isin( - 300 ) )( cos( - 300 ) + isin( - 300 ) )

o O 5 o O
o o o o
30 31
1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Number Systems eLearn.Punjab
7. Simplify the following
 1 3   1 3 
 - + i  - - i
3 3
   
i) ii)
2 2 2 2
 1 3   1 3 
-2
iiii)  - - i - - i (a + bi ) 2
   
iv)
2 2 2 2
v) (a + bi ) - 2 vi) (a + bi )3
vii) (a - bi )3 viii) (3 - -4) - 3
version: 1.1
32
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
2 Sets Functions
and Groups
Animation 2.1: Function

2. Sets Functions and Groups eLearn.Punjab 2. Sets Functions and Groups eLearn.Punjab
O = The set of all odd integers = { ± 1,± 3,±5,...}.

2.1 Introduction E = The set of all even integers = {0,±2,±4,...}.
 
= x x = where p,q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0 
We are familiar with the notion of a set since the word is frequently used in everyday p
 
Q = The set of all rational numbers
speech, for instance, water set, tea set, sofa set. It is a wonder that mathematicians have q
 
= x x ≠ where p,q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0 
developed this ordinary word into a mathematical concept as much as it has become a p
 
Q’ = The set of all irrational numbers
language which is employed in most branches of modern mathematics. q
= The set of all real numbers = Q ∪ Q’

For the purposes of mathematics, a set is generally described as a well-deined
collection of distinct objects. By a well-deined collection is meant a collection, which is such
that, given any object, we may be able to decide whether the object belongs to the collection
Equal Sets: Two sets A and B are equal i.e., A=B, if and only if they have the same elements
or not. By distinct objects we mean objects no two of which are identical (same).
that is, if and only if every element of each set is an element of the other set.
The objects in a set are called its members or elements. Capital letters A, B, C, X, Y,
Thus the sets { 1, 2, 3 } and { 2, 1, 3} are equal. From the deinition of equality of sets
Z etc., are generally used as names of sets and small letters a, b, c, x, y, z etc., are used as
it follows that a mere change in the order of the elements of a set does not alter the set. In
members of sets.
other words, while describing a set in the tabular form its elements may be written in any
There are three diferent ways of describing a set
order.
i) The Descriptive Method: A set may be described in words. For instance, the set of all
vowels of the English alphabets. Note: (1) A = B if and only if they have the same elements means
ii) The Tabular Method: A set may be described by listing its elements within brackets. If if A = B they have the same elements and if A and B have the same elements
A is the set mentioned above, then we may write: then A = B.
A = {a,e,i,o,u}. (2) The phrase if and only if is shortly written as “if “.
iii) Set-builder method: It is sometimes more convenient or useful to employ the method
of set-builder notation in specifying sets. This is done by using a symbol or letter for an Equivalent Sets: If the elements of two sets A and B can be paired in such a way that each element
arbitrary member of the set and stating the property common to all the members. of A is paired with one and only one element of B and vice versa, then such a pairing is called a
Thus the above set may be written as: one-to-one correspondence between A and B e.g., if A = {Billal, Ahsan, Jehanzeb} and B = {Fatima,
A = { x |x is a vowel of the English alphabet} Ummara, Samina} then six diferent (1 - 1) correspondences can be established between A and B
This is read as A is the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet.
The symbol used for membership of a set is U . Thus a U A means a is an element of A or
a belongs to A. c ∉ A means c does not belong to A or c is not a member of A. Elements of
Two of these correspondences are shown below; -
a set can be anything: people, countries, rivers, objects of our thought. In algebra we usually i). {Billal, Ahsan, Jehanzeb }
deal with sets of numbers. Such sets, alongwith their names are given below:-
N = The set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,...}   
W = The set of all whole numbers = {0,1,2,...} {Fatima, Ummara, Samina }
Z = The set of all integers = {0,±1,+2....}.
Z ‘ = The set of all negative integers = {-1,-2,-3,...}.
2 3
ii). {Billal, Ahsan, Jehanzeb) The set {1, 3, 5,.......9999} is a inite set but the set { 1, 3, 5, ...}, which is the set of all
positive odd natural numbers is an ininite set.
  
{Fatima, Samina, Ummara) Subset: If every element of a set A is an element of set B, then A is a subset of B. Symbolically
(Write down the remaining 4 correspondences yourselves) this is written as: A ⊆ B (A is subset of B)
Two sets are said to be equivalent if a (1 - 1) correspondence can be established In such a case we say B is a super set of A. Symbolically this is written as:
between them In the above example A and B are equivalent sets. B ⊇ A {B is a superset of A)
Example 1: Consider the sets N= {1, 2, 3,... } and O = {1, 3, 5,...} Note: The above deinition may also be stated as follows:
We may establish (1-1) correspondence between them in the following manner: A ⊆ B if x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
Proper Subset: If A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element which is not an
     element of A, then A is said to be a proper subset of B. In such a case we write: A ⊂ B (A is a
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...} proper subset of B).
Thus the sets N and O are equivalent. But notice that they are not equal. Improper Subset: If A is subset of B and A = B, then we say that A is an improper subset of
Remember that two equal sets are necessarily equivalent, but the converse may not be B. From this deinition it also follows that every set A is an improper subset of itself.
true i.e., two equivalent sets are not necessarily equal.
Sometimes, the symbol ~ is used to mean is equivalent to. Thus N~O. Example 2: Let A = { a, b, c }, B = { c, a, b} and C = { a, b, c, d}, then clearly
A ⊂ C, B ⊂ C but A = B and B = A.
Order of a Set: There is no restriction on the number of members of a set. A set may have 0, Notice that each of A and B is an improper subset of the other because A = B
1, 2, 3 or any number of elements. Sets with zero or one element deserve special attention.
According to the everyday use of the word set or collection it must have at least two elements.
Note: When we do not want to distinguish between proper and improper subsets, we may
use the symbol ⊆ for the relationship. It is easy to see that: N f Z f Q f
But in mathematics it is found convenient and useful to consider sets which have only one
.
element or no element at all.
A set having only one element is called a singleton set and a set with no element (zero
number of elements) is called the empty set or null set.The empty set is denoted by the Theorem 1.1: The empty set is a subset of every set.
symbol φ or { }.The set of odd integers between 2 and 4 is a singleton i.e., the set {3} and the We can convince ourselves about the fact by rewording the deinition of subset as
set of even integers between the same numbers is the empty set. follows: -
The solution set of the equation x2 +1 = 0, in the set of real numbers is also the empty A is subset of B if it contains no element which is not an element of B.
set. Clearly the set {0} is a singleton set having zero as its only element, and not the empty set. Obviously an empty set does not contain such element, which is not contained by another
set.
Finite and Ininite sets: If a set is equivalent to the set {1, 2, 3,...n} for some ixed natural Power Set: A set may contain elements, which are sets themselves. For example if: C = Set
number n, then the set is said to be inite otherwise ininite. of classes of a certain school, then elements of C are sets themselves because each class is
Sets of number N, Z, Z’etc., mentioned earlier are ininite sets. a set of students. An important set of sets is the power set of a given set.
4 5
The power set of a set S denoted by P (S) is the set containing all the possible subsets small sets (sets having small number of elements) to be universal. This is only an academic
of S. artiiciality.
Example 3: If A = {a, b}, then P (A)= {Φ , {a} , {b} , {a,b}} Exercise 2.1
Recall that the empty set is a subset of every set and every set is its own subset.
1. Write the following sets in set builder notation:
i) { 1, 2, 3, .........,1000} ii) { 0, 1,2,........., 100}
P (B ) = {Φ , {1} , {2} , {3} , {1,2} , {1,3} , {2 ,3} , {1,2 ,3}}

Example 4: If B = {1, 2, 3}, then
iii) { 0, ± 1, ± 2,............ ±1000} iv) { 0, -1, -2,.........,-500}
v) {100, 101,102, .........,400} vi) {-100,-101,-102,.., -500}
Example 5: If C = {a, b, c, d}, then vii) {Peshawar, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta}
viii) { January, June, July }
xi) The set of all odd natural numbers
x) The set of all rational numbers
Example 6: If D = {a}, then P(D)= {Φ ,{a}} xi) The set of all real numbers between 1and 2,
xii) The set of all integers between - 100 and 1000
Example 7: If E = { }, then P(E)= {Φ}
2. Write each of the following sets in the descriptive and tabular forms:-
Note: (1) The power set of the empty set is not empty. i) { x|x U N / x 710} ii) { x|x U N /4< x <12}
(2) Let n (S) denoted the number of elements of a set S, then n{P(S)} denotes the iii) { x|x U Z /-5< x <5} iv) { x|x U E /2< x 74}
number of elements of the power set of S. From examples 3 to 7 we get the v) { x|x U P / x <12} vi) { x|x U O/3< x <12}
following table of results: vii) { x|x U E /47 x 710} viii) { x|x U E /4< x <6}
ix) { x|x U O /57x 77} x) { x|x U O /57x <7}
xi) { x|x U N / x +4=0} xi) { x|x U Q/ x2 = 2}
xiv) { x|x U Q / x =-x}
n(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
xiii) { x|x U / x = x}
/ x ∉ Q}
n{p(s)} 1=2 2=21
0
4=22 8=23 16=2 32=25
4
In general if n (S) = m, then, n P(S) =2m

xv) { x|x U / x ≠ x} xvi) { x|x U
3. Which of the following sets are inite and which of these are ininite?
i) The set of students of your class.
Universal Set: When we are studying any branch of mathematics the sets with which we
ii) The set of all schools in Pakistan.
have to deal, are generally subsets of a bigger set. Such a set is called the Universal set or
iii) The set of natural numbers between 3 and 10.
the Universe of Discourse. At the elementary level when we are studying arithmetic, we
iv) The set of rational numbers between 3 and 10.
have to deal with whole numbers only. At that stage the set of whole numbers can be treated
v) The set of real numbers between 0 and 1.
as Universal Set. At a later stage, when we have to deal with negative numbers also and
vi) The set of rationales between 0 and 1.
fractions, the set of the rational numbers can be treated as the Universal Set.
vii) The set of whole numbers between 0 and 1
For illustrating certain concepts of the Set Theory, we sometimes consider quite
viii) The set of all leaves of trees in Pakistan.
6 7
ix) P (N) x) P { a, b, c}
xi) {1,2,3,4,...} xii) {1,2,3,....,100000000} viii) {5, 10, 15,.....,55555}, {5, 10, 15, 20,....... }
xiii) {x x| x U / x ≠ x} xiv) {x|xU / x2 =-16}
xv) { x | x U Q/ x2 =5} xvi) { x | x U Q / 07 x 71} 2.2 Operations on Sets
4. Write two proper subsets of each of the following sets: -
Just as operations of addition, subtraction etc., are performed on numbers, the
i) { a, b, c} ii) { 0, 1} iii) N iv) Z
operations of unions, intersection etc., are performed on sets. We are already familiar with
v) Q vi) vii) W viii) { x|x U Q / 0 < x 72}
them. A review of the main rules is given below: -
5. Is there any set which has no proper sub set? If so name that set.
Union of two sets: The Union of two sets A and B, denoted by A~B, is the set of all elements,
A ∪ B { x x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}
which belong to A or B. Symbolically;
6. What is the diference between {a, b} and {{a, b}}?
Thus if A = {1, 2, 3}, B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}, then A~B ={1,2,3,4,5}

7. Which of the following sentences are true and which of them are false?
i) { 1,2} = { 2,1} ii) Φ 5{{a}} iii) {a} 5 {{a}}
vii) Φ d{{a}}
Notice that the elements common to A and B, namely the elements 2, 3 have been written
v) {a}d {{a}} vi) ad{{a}}
only once in A~B because repetition of an element of a set is not allowed to keep the
elements distinct.
8. What is the number of elements of the power set of each of the following sets?
i) { } ii) {0,1} iii) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
v) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7} vi) {a, {b, c}} vii) {{a,b},{b,c},{d,e}} Intersection of two sets: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A+B, is the set
A ∩ B = { x x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}
of all elements, which belong to both A and B. Symbolically;
9. Write down the power set of each of the following sets: -
ii) {+,-,%'} iii) { Φ }
Thus for the above sets A and B, A ∩ B ={2,3}
i) {9,11 } iv) {a, {b,c}}
10. Which pairs of sets are equivalent? Which of them are also equal?
Disjoint Sets: If the intersection of two sets is the empty set then the sets are said to be
i) {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3}
disjoint sets. For example; if
ii) The set of the irst 10 whole members, {0, 1, 2, 3,....,9}
S1 = The set of odd natural numbers and S2 = The set of even natural numbers, then S1
iii) Set of angles of a quadrilateral ABCD,
and S2 are disjoint sets.
set of the sides of the same quadrilateral.
The set of arts students and the set of science students of a
iv) Set of the sides of a hexagon ABCDEF,
college are disjoint sets.
set of the angles of the same hexagon;
Overlapping sets: If the intersection of two sets is non-empty but neither is a subset of the
vi) {1,2,3,4,.....}, 1, , , ,....
1 1 1 other, the sets are called overlapping sets, e.g., if
 2 3 4 
v) {1,2,3,4,.....}, {2,4,6,8,.....}
L = {2,3,4,5,6} and M= {5,6,7,8,9,10}, then L and M are two overlapping sets.
8 9
Complement of a set: The complement of a set A, denoted by A’ or AC relative to the universal Below are given some more diagrams illustrating basic operations on two sets in
diferent cases (lined region represents the result of the relevant operation in each case
Symbolically: A’ = { x x ∈ U ∧ x ∉ A}
set U is the set of all elements of U, which do not belong to A.
given below).
For example, if U=N, then E’ = O and O’=E
Example 1: If U = set of alphabets of English language,

C = set of consonants, A~B
W = set of vowels, then C’= W and W’= C.
Diference of two Sets: The Diference set of two sets A and B denoted by A-B consists of
all the elements which belong to A but do not belong to B.
The Diference set of two sets B and A denoted by B-A consists of all the elements, which
Symbolically, A-B = { x x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} and B-A = { x x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A}

belong to B but do not belong to A.
A+B
Example 2: If A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B = {4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, then

A-B = {1,2,3} and B-A = {6,7,8,9,10}.
Notice that A-B ≠ B-A.

Note: In view of the deinition of complement and diference set it is evident that for any
set A, A’ =U - A
A-B
2.3 Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are very useful in depicting visually the basic concepts of sets and
relationships between sets. They were irst used by an English logician and mathematician
John Venn (1834 to 1883 A.D). B-A
In a Venn diagram, a rectangular region represents the universal set and regions
bounded by simple closed curves represent other sets, which are subsets of the universal
set. For the sake of beauty these regions are generally shown as circular regions.
In the adjoining igures, the shaded circular region represents a set A

The above diagram suggests the following results: -
and the remaining portion of rectangle representing the universal set
U represents A’ or U - A.
10 11
Note (1) Since the empty set contains no elements, therefore, no portion of U represents
Fig Relation between Result Suggested it.
No. A and B (2) If in the diagrams given on preceding page we replace B by the empty set (by
1. A and B disjoint sets A~B consists of all the elements of A and all the imagining the region representing B to vanish).
A+B = Φ elements of B. Also A~ Φ = A (FromFig. 1 o r 4)
n(A~B) = n(A) + n(B) A+ Φ = Φ (From Fig. 5 or 8)
A- Φ = A (From Fig. 9 or 12)
2. A and B are overlapping A~B contains elements which are Φ - A = Φ (FromFig. 13 or 16)
A+B ≠ Φ i) in A and not in B ii) in B and not in A iii) in both A Also by replacing B by A (by imagining the regions represented by A and B to coincide),
and B. Also we obtain the following results:
n (A~B)=n (A) + n(B) - (A+B) A ~A = A (From ig. 3 or 4)
A+A = A (From ig. 7 or 8)
3. A5 B A~B = B; n(A~B)=n(B) A-A =Φ (From ig. 12)
4. B5A A~B = A; n(A~B)=n(A)
Again by replacing B by U, we obtain the results: -
5. A+B = Φ A+B = Φ ; n(A+B)=0 A ~U = U (From fig. 3); A ∩ U = A (From fig. 7)
6. A+B ≠ Φ A+B contains the elements which are in A and B A - U = Φ (From ig. 11); U - A = A’ (From ig. 15)
(3) Venn diagrams are useful only in case of abstract sets whose elements are not
7. A5 B A+B= A; n(A+B)=n(A) speciied. It is not desirable to use them for concrete sets (Although this is
erroneously done even in some foreign books).
8. B5A A+B= B; n(A+B)=n(B)
A - B = A; n(A - B)=n(A)
9. A and B are disjoint sets. Exercise 2.2
n(A - B)= n(A) - n A+B

10. A and B are overlapping 1. Exhibit A ~ B and A +B by Venn diagrams in the following cases: -
A - B= Φ ; n(A - B)=0
11. A5 B i) A5B ii) B5A iii) A ~A ‘
A - B ≠ Φ; n(A - B)=n(A) - n(B)
iv) A and B are disjoint sets. v) A and B are overlapping sets
2. Show A - B and B - A by Venn diagrams when: -
12. B5A
13. A and B are disjoint B - A= B; n(B - A)=n(B)
n(B - A)= n(B) - n (A+B)
14. A and B are overlapping i) A and B are overlapping sets ii) A 5 B iii) B 5 A
15. A5 B B - A≠ Φ ; n(B - A)=n(B) - n(A)
B - A= Φ ; n(B - A)=0
3. Under what conditions on A and B are the following statements true?
iii) A - B = A
16. B5A
i) A ~ B = A ii) A ~ B = B
iv) A+B = B v) n ( A ~ B) = n (A) + n (B) vi) n ( A + B ) = n ( A )
12 13
vii) A - B = A vii) n(A+B) = 0 ix) A ~ B =U Properties:

x) A~B = B ~ A xi) n(A+B ) = n(B). xii) U-A = Φ i) A ~ B = B~A (Commutative property of Union)
ii) A + B = B+A (Commutative property of Intersection)
4. Let U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, A = {2,4,6,8,10} , B = {1,2,3,4,5} and C = { 1,3,5,7,9} iii) A~ ( B~C ) = ( A~B)~C (Associative property of Union)
List the members of each of the following sets: - iv) A+(B+C ) = (A+B)+C (Associative property of Intersection).
i) AC ii) BC iii) A~B iv) A - B v) A~( B+C) = (A ~B)+( A~C ) (Distributivity of Union over intersection)
v) A+C vi) AC ~ CC vii) AC ~C . viii) UC vi) A+( B~C ) = ( A+B )~( A+C) (Distributivity of intersection over Union)
vii) ( A ∪ B)′ =A′ ∩ B′ De Morgan's Laws

5. Using the Venn diagrams, if necessary, ind the single sets equal to the following: - viii) ( A ∩ B)′ =A′ ∪ B′ 
i) Ac ii) A+U iii) A~ U iv) A ~ Φ v) Φ + Φ
Proofs of De Morgan’s laws and distributive laws:
i) (A~ B)’ = A’+ B’
Let x ∈ ( A ∪ B)′
6. Use Venn diagrams to verify the following: -
i) A - B = A + Bc ii) (A - B)c + B = B
⇒ x∉ A∪ B
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ A/ and x ∈ B /
2.4 Operations on Three Sets
⇒ x ∈ A′ ∩ B′
If A, B and C are three given sets, operations of union and intersection can be performed But x is an arbitrary member of (A~B)’ (1)
on them in the following ways: - Therefore, (1) means that ( A~B ) ‘ 5 A‘+B‘ (2)
i) A ~ ( B ~ C ) ii) ( A ~ B ) ~ C iii) A +( B ~ C ) Now suppose that y d A’+B’
iv) ( A + B ) + C v) A ~( B + C) vi) (A +C) ~ (B+ C) ⇒ y ∈ A′ and y ∈ B′
vii) ( A ~ B )+ C viii) (A + B ) ~ C. ix) (A ~ C) + ( B ~ C) ⇒ y ∉ A and y ∉ B
Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2,3,4,5} and C = {3,4,5,6,7,8} ⇒ y∉ A∪ B
⇒ y ∈ ( A ∪ B)′
We ind sets (i) to (iii) for the three sets (Find the remaining sets yourselves).
i) B ~ C = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8 }, A~( B ~C) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Thus A‘+B ‘ 5(A~B)’
ii) A ~ B = {1,2,3,4,5}, (A ~B ) ~ C = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
From (2) and (3) we conclude that (3)
iii) B + C = {3,4,5}, A +( B+C ) = {3}
(A~ B)’ = A’+B’
ii) (A+B)’ = A’~B’
2.5 Properties of Union and Intersection It may be proved similarly or deducted from (i) by complementation
iii) A~(B+C) = (A~B)+(A~C)
We now state the fundamental properties of union and intersection of two or three Let x d A ~ ( B +C )
sets. Formal proofs of the last four are also being given. ⇒ x dA or x dB + C
⇒ If xdA it must belong to A~B and xdA~C
14 15
⇒ xd(A~B)+(A~C) = {1,2,3 } ~ {3,4,5}

Also if xdB + C , then xdB and xdC. (1) = {1,2,3,4,5} (1)
⇒ xd A~B and xdA~C (A ~ B )+(A ~ C) = ({1,2,3}~{2,3,4,5 })+({1,2,3}~{3,4,5,6,7,8})
⇒ xd(A~B)+(A~C) = {1,2,3,4,5} + {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Thus A~(B+C) 5(A~B)+(A~C) (2) = {1,2,3,4,5} (2)
Conversely, suppose that From (1) and (2),
y ∈ ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) A~( B +C ) = (A ~ B )+(A ~ C)
There are two cases to consider: - vi) Verify yourselves.
y ∈ A, y ∉ A vii) Let the universal set be U = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
In the irst case y U A ~(B+C) A ~B = {1,2,3} ~ {2,3,4,5} = {1,2,3,4,5}
If y ∉ A , it must belong to B as well as C (A ~B )’ ={6,7,8,9,10} (1)
i.e., y U (B+C) A’ = U - A = (4,5,6,7,8,9,10)
∴ y ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) B’ = U - B = { 1,6,7,8,9,10}
So in either case A‘ + B’ = (4,5,6,7,8,9,10 } + { 1,6,7,8,9,10}
yd ( A~B ) + ( A~C) L ydA~(B+C) = {6,7,8,9,10} (2)
thus ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) ⊆ A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) (3) From (1) and (2),
From (2) and (3) it follows that (A ~B) ‘ = A’ + B’
A~(B+C ) = ( A~B )+(A~C) viii) Verify yourselves.
iv) A +(B~C) = (A+B)~ (A+C) Veriication of the properties with the help of Venn diagrams.
i) and (ii): Veriication is very simple, therefore, do it
≡
It may be proved similarly or deducted from (iii) by complementation A
≡
yourselves, B~C
Verification of the properties: iii): In ig. (1) set A is represented by vertically lined ≡∨
≡
≡
region and B ~ C is represented by horizontally lined A~(B ~ C)
Example 1: Let A = { 1,2,3}, B = {2,3,4,5} and C= {3,4,5,6,7,8} region. The set A~(B ~ C) is represented by the region |||,≡ ∨
≡
i) A~B = {1,2 3} ~ {2,3,4,5} B~A = {2,3,4,5} ~ {1,2,3} which is lined either in one or both ways.
= {1,2,3,4,5} = { 2,3,4,5,1}
In igure(2) A ~B is represented by horizontally lined A ~B
∴ A ~B = B ~A
≡
region and C by vertically lined region. ( A ~ B ) ~ C is
≡ ≡
C
∨
ii) A+B = { 1,2,3}+{2,3,4,5} B+A = {2,3,4,5} + {1,2,3} represented by the region which is lined in either one (A~B)~C
≡
≡
= {2,3} ={2,3} or both ways.
∴A+B=B+A
(iii) and (iv) Verify yourselves.
(v) A~(B +C) = {1,2,3 } ~ ({2,3,4,5}+{3,4,5,6,7,8)
16 17
≡
≡
From ig (1) and (2) we can see that A In ig. (8) doubly lined region represents.
A ~ (B ~C ) = (A~B)~C B ∩ C ||| A‘ + B‘ . A‘
(iv) In ig (3) doubly lined region represents. The two regions in ig (7). And (8) are the B‘
≡
A+(B+C
A +( B + C ) same, therefore, ( A ~ B )‘ = A‘ + B‘ A‘ + B‘
≡
In ig (4) doubly lined region represents (viii) Verify yourselves.
(A+B)+ C. A∩ B ≡
Note: In all the above Venn diagrams only overlapping sets have been considered.
Since in ig (3) and (4) these regions are the same C |||
≡
Veriication in other cases can also be efected similarly. Detail of veriication may
therefore, (A+B)+C
be written by yourselves.
≡
A+( B +C ) = ( A +B ) + C .
Exercise 2.3
(v) in ig. (5) A ~ ( B + C ) is represented by the A≡ 1. Verify the commutative properties of union and intersection for the following pairs of
B ∩ C |||
sets: -
≡ ∨≡
region which is lined horizontally or vertically
i) A = (1,2,3,4,5}, B = {4,6,8,10} ii) N,Z
B= .
or both ways. A~(B+C)
iii) A = { x|x U / x 80},
≡
≡
,
2. Verify the properties for the sets A, B and C given below: -

i) Associativity of Union ii) Associativity of intersection.
iii) Distributivity of Union over intersection.
A∪ B ≡
iv) Distributivity of intersection over union.
In ig. (6) ( A ~ B ) + ( A ~ C ) is represented by
A ∪ C |||
a) A = {1,2,3,4}, B ={3,4,5,6,7,8}, C = {5,6,7,9,10}
b) A = Φ ,
the doubly lined region. Since the two region in
≡
B= {0}, C = {0,1,2}
ig (5) and (6) are the same, therefore (A~B)+(A~C)
c) N, Z, Q
≡
3. Verify De Morgan’s Laws for the following sets:

U= { 1,2,3, ...., 20}, A = { 2,4,6,...., 20}and B ={1,3,5, ....,19}.
A ~ (B + C ) = ( A~B ) + ( A ~ C)
(vi) Verify yourselves.
A∪ B ≡
4. Let U = The set of the English alphabet
(vii) In ig (7) ( A ~ B ) ‘ is represented
( A ∪ B)′ |||
A = { x | x is a vowel}, B ={ y | y is a consonant},
by vertically lined region.
Verify De Morgan’s Laws for these sets.
5. With the help of Venn diagrams, verify the two distributive properties in the following
18 19
cases w.r.t union and intersection. Deduction is much used in higher mathematics. In teaching elementary mathematics
i) A 5 B, A+C = Φ and B and C are overlapping. we generally resort to the inductive method. For instance the following sequences can be
ii) A and B are overlapping, B and C are overlapping but A and C are disjoint. continued, inductively, to as many terms as we like:
i) 2,4,6,... ii) 1,4,9,... iii) 1,-1,2,-2,3,-3,...
6. Taking any set, say A = {1,2,3,4,5} verify the following: -
i) A~ Φ =A
1 1 1 1 2 4
ii) A~A =A iii) A+A =A iv) 1,4,7,... v) , , ,...... vi) , , ,.......
3 12 36 10 100 1000
7. If U= {1,2,3,4,5,...., 20} and A = {1,3,5, ...., 19), verify the following:- As already remarked, in higher mathematics we use the deductive method. To start
i) A~A’ =U ii) A +U = A iii) A+A’ = Φ with we accept a few statements (called postulates) as true without proof and draw as many
conclusions from them as possible.
8. From suitable properties of union and intersection deduce the following results: Basic principles of deductive logic were laid down by Greek philosopher, Aristotle.
i) A+( A~B) = A~( A+B ) ii) A ~( A + B ) = A+( A ~B). The illustrious mathematician Euclid used the deductive method while writing his 13 books
of geometry, called Elements. Toward the end of the 17th century the eminent German
9. Using venn diagrams, verify the following results. mathematician, Leibniz, symbolized deduction. Due to this device deductive method became
i) A+B ‘ = A if A+B = Φ ii) (A - B) ~B = A ~ B. far more useful and easier to apply.
iii) (A - B ) +B = Φ iv) A~B = A ~( A ‘+B).
2.6.1 Aristotelian and non-Aristotelian logics
2.6 Inductive and Deductive Logic
For reasoning we have to use propositions. A daclarative statement which may be true
or false but not both is called a proposition. According to Aristotle there could be only two
In daily life we often draw general conclusions from a limited number of observations
possibilities - a proposition could be either true or false and there could not be any third
or experiences. A person gets penicillin injection once or twice and experiences reaction
possibility. This is correct so far as mathematics and other exact sciences are concerned. For
soon afterwards. He generalises that he is allergic to penicillin. We generally form opinions
instance, the statement a = b can be either true or false. Similarly, any physical or chemical
about others on the basis of a few contacts only. This way of drawing conclusions is called
theory can be either true or false. However, in statistical or social sciences it is sometimes
induction.
not possible to divide all statements into two mutually exclusive classes. Some statements
Inductive reasoning is useful in natural sciences where we have to depend upon
may be, for instance, undecided.
repeated experiments or observations. In fact greater part of our knowledge is based on
Deductive logic in which every statement is regarded as true or false and there is no
induction.
other possibility, is called Aristotlian Logic. Logic in which there is scope for a third or fourth
On many occasions we have to adopt the opposite course. We have to draw conclusions
possibility is called non-Aristotelian. we shall be concerned at this stage with Aristotelian
from accepted or well-known facts. We often consult lawyers or doctors on the basis of their
logic only.
good reputation. This way of reasoning i.e., drawing conclusions from premises believed to
be true, is called deduction. One usual example of deduction is: All men are mortal. We are
2.6.2 Symbolic logic
men. Therefore, we are also mortal.
For the sake of brevity propositions will be denoted by the letters p , q etc. We give a
20 21
Example 2:
10 is a positive integer or p is a rational number. Find truth value of this disjunction.
brief list of the other symbols which will be used.
Symbol How to be read Symbolic expression How to be read i)
; not ;p Not p, negation of p
/ and p /q p and q Solution: Since the irst component is true, the disjunction is true.
∨ or p∨q p or q ii) A triangle can have two right angles or Lahore is the capital of Sind.
If p then q
D If... then, implies p Dq
p implies q Solution: Both the components being false, the composite proposition is false.
Is equivalent to, if and p if and only if q
G only if
p Gq
p is equivalent to q 2.7 Implication or conditional
Explanation of the use of the Symbols: A compound statement of the form if p then q , also written p implies q , is called a
p ;p
conditional or an implication, p is called the antecedent or hypothesis and q is called the
1) Negation: If p is any proposition its negation is denoted by ~p, read T F consequent or the conclusion.
‘not p‘. It follows from this deinition that if p is true, ~p is false and if A conditional is regarded as false only when the antecedent is true and consequent is
F T
p is false, ~p is true. The adjoining table, called truth table, gives the false. In all other cases it is considered to be true. Its truth table is, therefore, of the adjoining
possible truth- values of p and ~p. Table (1) form.
2) Conjunction of two statements p and q is denoted symbolically as p q p/q p q p Dq
Entries in the irst two rows are quite in consonance with
p/q (p and q). A conjunction is considered to be true only if both common sense but the entries of the last two rows seem to be T T T
T T T
its components are true. So the truth table of p / q is table (2). against common sense. According to the third row the conditional T F F
Example 1: T F F If p then q
i) Lahore is the capital of the Punjab and F T T
F T F is true when p is false and q is true and the compound proposition
Quetta is the capital of Balochistan. is true (according to the fourth row of the table) even when both its F F T
ii) 4 < 5/8 < 10 F F F
components are false. We attempt to clear the position with the help Table (4)
iii) 4 < 5/8 > 1 0 Table (2) of an example. Consider the conditional
iv) 2 + 2 = 3 /6 + 6 = 10 If a person A lives at Lahore, then he lives in Pakistan.
p∨q
Clearly conjunctions (i) and (ii) are true whereas (iii) and (iv) are false.
Disjunction of p and q is p or q. It is symbolically written p ∨ q .
p q If the antecedent is false i.e., A does not live in Lahore, all the same he may be living in
3)
The disjunction p ∨ q is considered to be true when at least one
Pakistan. We have no reason to say that he does not live in Pakistan.
T T T We cannot, therefore, say that the conditional is false. So we must regard it as true. It must be
of the components p and q is true. It is false when both of them remembered that we are discussing a problem of Aristotlian logic in which every proposition
are false. Table (3) is the truth table. T F T
must be either true or false and there is no third possibility. In the case under discussion there
F T T being no reason to regard the proposition as false, it has to be regarded as true. Similarly,
F F F when both the antecedent and consequent of the conditional under consideration are false,
there is no justiication for quarrelling with the proposition. Consider another example.
Table (3)
22 23
A certain player, Z, claims that if he is appointed captain, the team will win the tournament. 2.7.1 Biconditional : p ↔ q
There are four possibilities: -
The proposition pDq /qDp i s shortly written pGq and is called the biconditional
i) Z is appointed captain and the team wins the tournament. Z’s claim is true.
or equivalence. It is read p if q (if stands for “if and only if ’)
ii) Z is appointed captain but the team loses the tournament. Z’s claim is falsiied. We draw up its truth table.
iii) Z is not appointed captain but the team all the same wins the tournament.There is no
reason to falsify Z’s claim. p q pDq qDp pG q
iv) Z is not appointed captain and the team loses the tournament. Evidently, blame cannot
be put on Z. T T T T T
It is worth noticing that emphasis is on the conjunction if occurring in the beginning T F F T F
of the ancedent of the conditional. If condition stated in the antecedent is not satisied we F T T F F
should regard the proposition as true without caring whether the consequent is true or
F F T T T
false.
Table (6)
For another view of the matter we revert to the example about a Lahorite:
‘If a person A lives at Lahore, then he lives in Pakistan’. From the table it appears that pGq is true only when both p and q are true or both p
p: A person A lives at Lahore. and q are false.
q: He lives in Pakistan
When we say that this proposition is true we mean that in this case it is not possible 2.7.2 Conditionals related with a given conditional.
that ‘A lives at Lahore’ is true and that ‘A does not live in Pakistan’ is also true, that is p → q
and ~ ( p/~ q) are both simultaneously true. Now the truth table of ~ ( p/~ q) is shown Let pDq be a given conditional. Then
below: i) qDp is called the converse of pDq;
p q ~q p/~ q ~ ( p/~ q) ii) ~ pD~ q is called the inverse of pDq;
iii) ~ q D~ p is called the contrapositive of pDq.
T T F F T
To compare the truth values of these new conditionals with those of pDq we draw
T F T T F
up their joint table.
F T F F T Given
Converse Inverse Contrapositive
F F T F T conditional
Table (5) p q ~p ~q pD q qDp ~ pD ~ q ~ q D~ p
Looking at the last column of this table we ind that truth values of the compound T T F F T T T T
proposition ~ ( p/~ q) are the same as those adopted by us for the conditional pDq. This T F F T F T T F
shows that the two propositions pDq and ~ ( p/~ q) are logically equivalent. Therefore, the F T T F T F F T
truth values adopted by us for the conditional are correct.
F F T F T T T T
Table (7)
24 25
From the table it appears that called a tautology, for example, pDqG(~qD~p) is a tautology.(are already veriied by
i) Any conditional and its contrapositive are equivalent therefore any theorem may be a truth table).
proved by proving its contrapositive. ii) A statement which is always false is called an absurdity or a contradiction
ii) The converse and inverse are equivalent to each other. e.g., p D~ p
Example 3: Prove that in any universe the empty set Φ is a subset of any set A.
iii) A statement which can be true or false depending upon the truth values of the variables
involved in it is called a contingency e.g., (pDq)/(p v q) is a contingency.
(You can verify it by constructing its truth table).
First Proof: Let U be the universal set consider the conditional:
"x ∈U , x ∈ φ → x ∈ A (1)
2.7.4 Quantiiers
The antecedent of this conditional is false because no xUU, is a member of Φ . The words or symbols which convey the idea of quantity or number are called
Hence the conditional is true. quantiiers.
In mathematics two types of quantiiers are generally used.
Second proof: (By contrapositive) i) Universal quantiier meaning for all
The contrapositive of conditional (1) is Symbol used : "
"x ∈U , x ∉ A → x ∉ φ (2) ii) Existential quantiier: There exist (some or few, at least one) symbol used: ∃
The consequent of this conditional is true. Therefore, the conditional is true.
Hence the result. Example 5:
i) "xU A, p(x) is true.
Example 4: Construct the truth table ot [(pDq)/pDq]
∃xU A' p(x) is true.
(To be read : For all x belonging to A the statement p(x) is true).
ii)
Solution : Desired truth table is given below: -
(To be read : There exists x belonging to A such that statement p(x) is true).
The symbol ' stands for such that

p p pDq (pDq)/ p [(pDq)/pDq]
T T T T T
T F F F T
Exercise 2.4
F T T F T
F F T F T 1. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following conditionals: -
Table (8) i) ~pDq ii) qD p iii) ~pD~q iv) ~qD~p
2.7.3 Tautologies
2. Construct truth tables for the following statements: -
i) A statement which is true for all the possible values of the variables involved in it is i) (pD~p )v(pDq) ii) ( p/~p)Dq
26 27
iii) ~(pDq)G(p/~q) Note: (1) Evidently truth set of a tautology is the relevant universal set and that of an
absurdity is the empty set Φ .
3. Show that each of the following statements is a tautology: - (2) With the help of the above results we can express any logical formula in set-
i) (p/q)Dp ii) pD(p v q) theoretic form and vice versa.
iii) ~(pDq) Dp iv) ~q/ (pDq)D~p We will illustrate this fact with the help of a solved example.
Example 1: Give logical proofs of the following theorems: -
4. Determine whether each of the following is a tautology, a contingency or an absurdity: - (A, B and C are any sets)
i) p/~p ii) pD(qDp) iii) q v (~q v p) i) (A~B)’ = A‘+B‘ ii) A+( B ~C) = (A+B) ~(A+C)
5. Prove that p v (~ p/~ q) v (p/q) = p v ( ~ p/~ q) Solution: i) The corresponding formula of logic is
~ (p v q)=~ p/~ q (1)
We construct truth table of the two sides.
2.8 Truth Sets, A link between Set Theory and Logic.
p p ~ p ~q p v q ~(p v q) ~p /~q
Logical propositions p, q etc., are formulae expressed in terms of some variables. For T T F F T F F
the sake of simplicity and convenience we may assume that they are all expressed in terms T F F T T F F
of a single variable x where x is a real variable. Thus p = p(x) where, xU . All those values of F T T F T F F
x which make the formula p(x) true form a set, say P. Then P is the truth set of p. Similarly, F F T T F T T
the truth set, Q, of q may be deined. We can extend this notion and apply it in other cases.
The last two columns of the table establish the equality of the two sides of eq.(1)
i) Truth set of ~p: Truth set of ~p will evidently consist of those values of the variable for
(ii) Logical form of the theorem is
which p is false i.e., they will be members of P’ , the complement of P.
p / (q v r) = ( p / q) v ( p/ r)
ii) p v q: Truth set of p v q = p(x) v q(x) consists of those values of the variable for which p(x)
We construct the table for the two sides of this equation
is true or q(x) is true or both p(x) and q(x) are true. 5 8
1 2 3 4 6 7
Therefore, truth set of p v q will be:
p p r q v r p/(q v r) p/q p/r (p/q) v (p/r)
P~Q ={ x| p(x) is true or q(x) is true}
iii) p/q: Truth set of p(x) / q(x) will consist of those values of the variable for which both T T T T T T T T
p(x) and q(x) are true. Evidently truth set of T T F T T T F T
p/q = P+Q T F T T T F T T
={ x| p(x) is true /q(x) is true} T F F F F F F F
iv) pDq: We know that pDq is equivalent to ~p v q therefore truth set of pDq will be F T T T F F F F
P’~Q
F T F T F F F F
v) pGq: We know that p G q means that p and q are simultaneously true or false.
F F T T F F F F
Therefore, in this case truth sets of p and q will be the same i.e.,
F F F F F F F F
P=Q
Comparison of the entries of columns 5 and 8 is suicient to establish the desired result.
28 29
Exercise 2.5 Solution: C = Set of children = {c1, c2, c3} and F = set of fathers = {m1, m2}
C % F = {(c1, m1), (c1, m2), (c2, m1,), (c2, m2), (c3, m1,), (c3, m2)}
Convert the following theorems to logical form and prove them by constructing truth r = set of ordered pairs (child, father).
tables: - = {(c1, m1),(c2, m1,),(c3, m2)}
1. (A+B)’ = A‘~B‘ 2. (A~B)~C = A~(B~C) Dom r = (c1, c2, c3}, Ran r = {m1, m2}
3. (A+B)+C = A+( B+C) 4. A~(B+C) = (A~B)+(A~C) The relation is shown diagrammatically in ig. (2.29).
2.9 Relations
In every-day use relation means an abstract type of connection between two persons
or objects , for instance, (Teacher, Pupil), (Mother, Son), (Husband, Wife), (Brother, Sister),
(Friend, Friend), (House, Owner). In mathematics also some operations determine relationship
between two numbers, for example: -
> : (5 , 4); square: (25, 5); Square root: (2,4); Equal: (2 % 2, 4).
Technically a relation is a set of ordered pairs whose elements are ordered pairs of
related numbers or objects. The relationship between the components of an ordered pair Example 2: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Determine the relation r such that xry if x < y.
may or may not be mentioned.
Solution: A x A = {(1, 1),(1, 2),(1, 3),(2, 1), (2, 2),(2, 3),(3, 1),(3, 2),(3, 3)}
i) Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then any subset of the Cartesian product
A %B is called a binary relation, or simply a relation, from A to B. Ordinarily a Clearly, required relation is:
relation will be denoted by the letter r. r ={(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}, Dom r = {1, 2}, Ran r = {2, 3}
ii) The set of the irst elements of the ordered pairs forming a relation is called its
domain. Example 3: Let A = , the set of all real numbers.
iii) The set of the second elements of the ordered pairs forming a relation is called Determine the relation r such that x r y if y = x + 1
its range.
iv) If A is a non-empty set, any subset of A % A is called a relation in A. Some authors Solution: A x A= %
call it a relation on A. r = { (x,y)| y= x+1}
When x = 0, y = 1
Example 1: Let c1, c2, c3 be three children and m1, m2 be two men such that father of both x = - 1 , y = 0,
c1, c2 is m1 and father of c3 is m2. Find the relation {(child, father)} r is represented by the line passing through the points (0,1), (- 1,0).
30 31
ii) Dom r =
iii) Clearly irst elements of no two ordered pairs of r can be equal. Therefore, in this case
r is a function.
Some more points belonging to r are: Into Function: If a function f : A D B is such that Ran
{(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (-2, -1), (-3 ,-2 ),(-4,-3)}
i)
f ⊂ B i.e., Ran f ≠ B, then f is said to be a function from A
Clearly, Dom r = , and Ran r = into B. In ig.(1) f is clearly a function. But Ran f ≠ B.
Therefore, f is a function from A into B.
f ={(1,2), (3,4), (5,6)}

2.10 Functions
A very important special type of relation is a function deined as below: - ii) Onto (Surjective) function: If a function f : A DB is
Let A and B be two non-empty sets such that: such that Ran f = B i.e., every element of B is the image
i) f is a relation from A t o B that is , f is a subset of A % B of some elements of A, then f is called an onto function
ii) Dom f = A or a surjective function.
iii) First element of no two pairs of f are equal, then f is said to be a function from A f = {(c1, m1),(c2, m1),(c3, m2)}
to B.
The function f is also written as:
f : AD B iii) (1-1) and into (Injective) function: If a function f from
which is read: f is a function from A t o B . A into B is such that second elements of no two of its
If (x, y) in an element of f when regarded as a set of ordered pairs, ordered pairs are equal, then it is called an injective
we write y = f (x). y is called the value of f for x or image of x under f. (1 - 1, and into) function. The function shown in ig (3) is
In example 1 discussed above such a function. f = {(1, a)(2, b)}
(1 -1) and Onto function (bijective function). If f is a

i) r is a subset of C % F
ii) Dom r ={ c1, c2, c3} = C; iv)
iii) First elements of no two related pairs of r are the same. function from A onto B such that second elements of no
two of its ordered pairs are the same, then f is said to be
(1 - 1) function from A onto B.
Therefore, r is a function from C to F.
Such a function is also called a (1 - 1) correspondence

In Example 2 discussed above
i) r is a subset of A % A;
ii) Dom r ≠ A between A and B. It is also called a bijective function.
Therefore, the relation in this case is not a function. Fig(4) shows a (1-1) correspondence between the sets f = {(a, z),(b, x),(c, yj}
In example 3 discussed above A and B.
i) r is a subset of
32 33
(a, z), (b, x) and (c, y) are the pairs of corresponding elements i.e., in this case When x = 0, y = 2,
f = {(a, z), (b, x), (c, y)} which is a bijective function or (1 - 1) correspondence between the
2
sets A and B. When y = 0, x = = 0.6 nearly. So two points on the line
3
Set - Builder Notation for a function: We know that set-builder notation
is more suitable for ininite sets. So is the case in respect of a function are A (0, 2) and B = (0.6, 0).
comprising ininite number of ordered pairs. Consider for instance, the function Joining A and B and producing AB in both directions, we obtain
f = { (1,1), (2,4), (3, 9), (4, 16),...} the line AB i.e., graph of the given function.
Dom f = (1, 2, 3,4, ...}.and Ran f = {1,4,9, 16, ...}
This function may be written as: f = {(x, y) | y =x2, x d N } 1 2
For the sake of brevity this function may be written as: ii) The equation deining the function is y= x.
2
f = function deined by the equation y= x2 , x d N
Or, to be still more brief: The function x2 , x d N Corresponding to the values 0, ± 1, ±2, ±3 ... of x, values
In algebra and Calculus the domain of most functions is and if evident from the of y are 0, .5, 2, 4.5, ...
context it is, generally, omitted. We plot the points (0, 0), (!1, .5), (!2, 2), (!3, 4.5), ...
Joining them by means of a smooth curve and extending
2.10.1 Linear and Quadratic Functions it upwards we get the required graph. We notice that:
i) The entire graph lies above the x-axis.
The function {( x, y ) |=
y mx + c} is called a linear function, because its graph (geometric ii) Two equal and opposite values of x correspond to every value of y (but not vice
representation) is a straight line. Detailed study of a straight line will be undertaken in the versa).
next class. For the present it is suicient to know that an equationof the form iii) As x increases (numerically) y increases and there is no end to their ncrease.
y = mx + c or ax + by + c = 0 represents a straight line . This can be easily veriied Thus the graph goes ininitely upwards. Such a curve is called a parabola. The
by drawing graphs of a few linear equations with numerical coeicients. The function students will learn more about it in the next class.
{(x, y)|y = ax2 + bx + c} is called a quadratic function because it is deined by a quadratic
(second degree) equation in x, y. 2.11 Inverse of a function
Example 4: Give rough sketch of the functions
If a relation or a function is given in the tabular form i.e., as a set of ordered pairs, its
i) {( x, y ) 3 x + y = ii) {( x, y ) y =
1 2 inverse is obtained by interchanging the components of each ordered pair. The inverse of r
2} x}
2 and f are denoted r -1 and f -1 respectively.
If r or f are given in set-builder notation the inverse of each is obtained by interchanging
Solution:
x and y in the deining equation. The inverse of a function may or may not be a function.
i) The equation deining the function is 3x + y = 2
⇒ y = -3x + 2
The inverse of the linear function
{(x, y) | y = mx + c} is {(x, y) | x = my + c} which is also a linear function. Briely, we
We know that this equation, being linear, represents a straight line. Therefore, for
may say that the inverse of a line is a line.
drawing its sketch or graph only two of its points are suicient.
34 35
The line y = x is clearly self-inverse. The function deined by this equation i.e., the Exercise 2.6
function {(x, y) | y = x} is called the identity function.
1. For A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, ind the following relations in A. State the
Example 6: Find the inverse of
domain and range of each relation. Also draw the graph of each.
i) {(1, 1}, (2,4), (3,9), (4, 16),... xdZ+},
i) {(x, y) | y = x} ii) {(x, y)| y + x = 5}
ii) {(x, y) | y = 2x + 3,x d } iii) {(x, y)| x2 + y2=a2}.
ii) {(x, y) | x + y < 5} iv) {(x, y)|x + y > 5}
Tell which of these are functions.
2. Repeat Q -1 when A = , the set of real numbers. Which of the real lines are functions.
3. Which of the following diagrams represent functions and of which type?
Solution:
i) The inverse is:
{(2,1), (4, 2), (9, 3), (16, 4 )...} .
This is also a function.
Note: Remember that the equation

y = x , x 80
deines a function but the equation y2 = x, x 8 0 does not deine a function.
The function deined by the equation

y= x , x 80
4. Find the inverse of each of the following relations. Tell whether each relation and its
is called the square root function.
The equation y2 = x ⇒ y = ± x
inverse is a function or not: -
i) {(2,1), (3,2), (4,3), (5,4), (6,5)} ii) {(1,3), (2,5), (3,7), (4,9), (5,11)}
Therefore, the equation y2 = x (x 80) may be regarded as deining the union of the iii) {(x, y) | y = 2x + 3,x d } iv) {(x, y) | y2= 4ax ,x80 }
functions deined by
x , x 80 and y = - x , x 80.
v) {(x, y) | x2+ y2 = 9 , |x| 7 3,|y| 7 3 }
y=
ii) The given function is a linear function. Its inverse is: 2.12 Binary Operations
{(x, y)| x = 2y + 3}
which is also a linear function.
In lower classes we have been studying diferent number systems investigating the
Points (0, 3), (-1.5, 0) lie on the given line and points (3, 0),
(0, -1.5) lie on its inverse. (Draw the graphs yourselves).
properties of the operations performed on each system. Now we adopt the opposite course.
We now study certain operations which may be useful in various particular cases.
The lines l, i’ are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. This quality of symmetry is
An operation which when performed on a single number yields another number of the
true not only about a linear n function and its inverse but is also true about any function of
same or a diferent system is called a unary operation.
a higher degree and its inverse (why?).
Examples of Unary operations are negation of a given number, extraction of square
roots or cube roots of a number, squaring a number or raising it to a higher power.
36 37
We now consider binary operation, of much greater importance, operation which

requires two numbers. We start by giving a formal deinition of such an operation. Note: The elements of the set of this example are the fourth roots of unity.
.... (read as star) on a non-empty set G is a function which
w w2
A binary operation denoted as %
associates with each ordered pair (a, b), of elements of G, a unique element, denoted as a % .... - 1
w w2
Example 5: It can be easily veriied that ordinary
b of G. 1 1
w w w2
multiplication (but not addition) is an operation on the
set {1,w,w2} where w3 =1. The adjoining table may be used
In other words, a binary operation on a set G is a function from the set G % G to the set 1
G. For convenience we often omit the word binary before operation. w 2
w 2
1 w
for the veriication of this fact.
.... is an operation on G, we shall say G is closed with respect to %
Also in place of saying % .... .
(w is pronounced omega)
Example 1: Ordinary addition, multiplication are operations on N. i.e., N is closed with
Operations on Residue Classes Modulo n.
respect to ordinary addition and multiplication because
" a ,bd N , a + b d N / a. b d N
Three consecutive natural numbers may be written in the form:
3n, 3n +1, 3n + 2 When divided by 3 they give remainders 0, 1, 2 respectively.
(" stands for” for all” and / stands for” and”)
Any other number, when divided by 3, will leave one of the above numbers as the
reminder. On account of their special importance (in theory of numbers) the remainders
Example 2: Ordinary addition and multiplication are operations on E, the set of all even
like the above are called residue classes Modulo 3. Similarly, we can deine Residue
natural numbers. It is worth noting that addition is not an operation on O, the set of old
classes Modulo 5 etc. An interesting fact about residue classes is that ordinary addition and
natural numbers.
multiplication are operations on such a class.
Example 3: With obvious modiication of the meanings of the symbols, let E be any
Example 6: Give the table for addition of elements of the set of residue classes modulo 5.
even natural number and O be any odd natural number, then + E O
E + E = E (Sum of two even numbers is an even number).
E E O Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3,4} is the set of residues that + 0 1 2 3 4
E +O = O
O O E we have to consider. We add pairs of elements as in 0 0 1 2 3 4
and O+O = E
ordinary addition except that when the sum equals
1 1 2 3 4 0
or exceeds 5, we divide it out by 5 and insert the
These results can be beautifully shown in the form of a table given above: 2 2 3 4 0 1
remainder only in the table. Thus 4 + 3 = 7 but in
This shows that the set {E, O} is closed under (ordinary) addition. 3 3 4 0 1 2
place of 7 we insert 2(= 7#5) in the table and in place
The table may be read (horizontally). 4 4 0 1 2 3
of 2 + 3 = 5 , we insert 0(= 5#5).
E+ E = E, E + O = O;
O+O = E, O+E=O
Example 7:
-1 -i
Give the table for addition of elements of the set of residue classes modulo 4.
- 1 i
Example 4: The set (1 ,-1, i, -i } where i = -1 is closed 1 1 -1 i -i Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3}is the set of residues that we have to
+ 0 1 2 3
-1 -1 -i
w.r.t multiplication (but not w. r. t addition). This 0 0 1 2 3
1 i consider. We add pairs of elements as in ordinary addition except
-i -1
can be veriied from the adjoining table. 1 1 2 3 0
i i 1 that when the sum equals or exceeds 4, we divide it out by 4 and
2 2 3 0 1
-i -i -1
insert the remainder only in the table. Thus 3 + 2 = 5 but in place 3 3 0 1 2
i 1
38 39
.
of 5 we insert 1( = 5#4 ) in the table and in place of 1 + 3 = 4 , we insert 0(= 4#4). ii) Associativity: % ... is said to be associative on S if
a % .... (b % .... c) = (a % .... b) % .... c " a,b,cdS.
Example 8: Give the table for multiplication of elemnts of the set of residue classes modulo iii) Existence of an identity element: An element edS is called an identity element
4. w.r.t % .... if
Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3} is the set of residues that we have to a % .... e = e % .... a = a, " adS.
- 0 1 2 3
consider. We multiply pairs of elements as in ordinary
0 0 0 0 0 iv) Existence of inverse of each element: For any element adS,∃ an element a’dS
multiplcation except that when the product equals or exceeds 4, such that
1 0 1 2 3
we divide it out by 4 and insert the remainder only in the table. a % .... a’ = a’ % .... a = e (the identity element)
Note: (1) The Symbol ∃ stands for ‘there exists’.
2 0 2 0 2
Thus 3%2=6 but in place of 6 we insert 2 (= 6#4 )in the table and 3 0 3 2 1
in place of 2%2=4, we insert 0(= 4#4). (2) Some authors include closure property in the properties of an operation. Since
this property S is already included in the deinition of operation we have considered
Example 9: Give the table for multiplication of elements of the set of residue classes modulo it unnecessary to mention it in the above list.
8. (3) Some authors deine left identity and right identity and also left inverse and right
inverse of each element of a set and prove uniqueness of each of them. The
Solution: Table is given below: following theorem gives their point of view: -
- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Theorem:
i) In a set S having a binary operation % .... a left identity and a right identity are the same.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ii) In a set having an associative binary Operation left inverse of an element is equal to
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
its right inverse.
2 0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 Proof:
3 0 3 6 1 4 7 2 5 ii) Let e’ be the left identity and e” be the right identity. Then
e’ %.... e” = e’ (a e” is a right identity)
4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4
5 0 5 2 7 4 1 6 3 = e” (a e’ is a left identity)
6 0 6 4 2 0 6 4 2 Hence e’ = e” = e
Therefore, e is the unique identity of S under % ....
7 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ii) For any a U S , let a’, a’’ be its left and right inverses respectively then
Note: For performing multiplication of residue classes 0 is generally omitted. .... (a %
a’ % .... a”) = a’ %
.... e (a a” is right inverse of a)
= a’ (a e is the identity)
2.12.1 Properties of Binary Operations Also (a’ % .... a) % .... a” = e % .... a” (a a’ is left inverse of a)
= a”
Let S be a non-empty set and % .... a binary operation on it. Then %
.... may possess one or .... (a % .... a”) = (a’ %.... a) % .... a” %
.... is associative as supposed)
But a’ %
more of the following properties: - a a’ = a”
i) Commutativity: % .... is said to be commutative if
.... a " a,bd S.
Inverse of a is generally written as a-1.
a% .... b = b %
40 41
Example 10: Let A =(1,2,3,...., 20}, the set of irst 20 natural numbers. 3. Show that the adjoining table is that of ....
% 0 1 2 3 4
Ordinary addition is not a binary operation on A because the set is not closed w.r.t. addition. multiplication of the elements of the set of
For instance, 10 + 25= 25 ∉ A
0 0 0 0 0 0
residue classes modulo 5. 1 0 1 2 3 4
2 0 2 4 1 3
Example 11: Addition and multiplication are commutative and associative operations on 3 0 3 1 4 2
the sets 4 0 4 3 2 1
N,Z,Q, , (usual notation),
e.g. 4%5 = 5%4, 2 +(3-+5) = (2+3) + 5 etc. 4. Prepare a table of addition of the elements of the set of residue classes modulo 4.
5. Which of the following binary operations shown in tables (a) and (b) is commutative?
Example 12: Verify by a few examples that subtraction is not a binary operation on N but it
.... a b c d ....
% a b c d
is an operation on Z, the set of integers. %
a a c b d a a c b d
Exercise 2.7 b b c b a b c d b a
c c d b c c b b a c
1. Complete the table, indicating by a tick mark those properties which are satisied by the d d a c d
d a a b b
speciied set of numbers.
(a) (b)
→
Set of numbers Natural Whole Integers Rational Reals
Property ↓ 6. Supply the missing elements of the third row of the ....
% a b c d
.... may be associative.
given table so that the operation % a a b c d
Closure +
- b b a c d
Associative c - - - -
+
d d c c d
-
Identity + 7. What operation is represented by the adjoining table? ....
% 0 1 2 3
- Name the identity element of the relevant set, if it exists. 0 0 1 2 3
Inverse + Is the operation associative? Find the inverses of 0,1,2,3, 1 1 2 3 0
- if they exist. 2 2 3 0 1
Commutative 3 3 0 1 2
+
- 2.13 Groups
2. What are the ield axioms? In what respect does the ield of real numbers difer from We have considered, at some length, binary operations and their properties. We now
that of complex numbers? use our knowledge to classify sets according to the properties of operations deined on
them.
42 43
First we state a few preliminary deinitions which will culminate in the deinition of a Example 5: Consider Z, the set of integers together with the operation of multiplication.
group. Product of any two integers is an integer.
Groupoid: A groupoid is a non-empty set on which a binary operation % .... is deined. Also product of integers is associative because "a,b,cdZ a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
Some authors call the system (S, % .... ) a groupoid. But, for the sake of brevity and Therefore, (Z,.) is a semi-group.
convenience we shall call S a groupoid, it being understood that an operation % .... is deined
on it. Example 6: Let P(S) be the power-set of S and let A,B,C, ... be the members of P. Since union
In other words, a closed set with respect to an operation % .... is called a groupoid. of any two subsets of S is a subset of S, therefore P is closed with respect to ~ . Also the
operation is associative.
Example 1: The set {E ,O} where E is any even number and O is any odd number, (as already (e.g. A ~ ( B ~ C ) = ( A ~ B ) ~ C , which is true in general),
seen) are closed w.r.t. addition. Therefore, (P(S),~) is a semi-group.
It is, therefore, a groupoid. Similarly ( P(S ),+) is a semi-group.
Example 2: The set of Natural numbers is not closed under operation of subtraction e.g., Example 7: Subtraction is non-commutative and non-associative on N.
For 4, 5dN, 4 - 5 = -1∉ N
Thus (N, - ) is not a groupoid under subtraction. Solution: For 4, 5, 6,dN, we see that
4#5 =#1 and 5#4 = 1
Example 3: As seen earlier with the help of a table the set {1,-1,i,-i}, is closed w.r.t. . Clearly 4#5 ≠ 5#4
multiplication (but not w.r.t. addition). So it is also a groupoid w.r.t %. Thus subtraction is non-commutative on N.
Semi-group: A non-empty set S is semi-group if; Also 5#(4#1)= 5#(3)=2 and (5#4)#1 = 1#1 = 0
i) It is closed with respect to an operation % .... and Clearly 5#(4#1) ≠ (5#4 )#1
ii) The operation % .... is associative. Thus subtraction is non-associative on N.
As is obvious from its very name, a semi-group satisies half of the conditions required
.... on A deined by
Example 8: For a set A of distinct elements, the binary operation %
for a group.
x%.... y = x, " x, ydA
Example 4: The set of natural numbers, N, together with the operation of addition is a semi- is non commutative and assocaitve.
group. N is clearly closed w.r.t. addition (+).
Also " a,b,cdN, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c Solution : Consider
.... y = x .... x = y
Therefore, both the conditions for a semi-group are satisied. x% and y %
Clearly .... y ≠ y %
x% .... x
.... is non-commutative on A.
Non-commutative or non-abelian set: A set A is non-commutative if commutative law Thus %
does not hold for it.
For example a set A is non-commutative or non-abilian set under % .... when is deined as: Monoid: A semi-group having an identity is called a monoid i.e., a monoid is a set S;
" x, ydx % y = x. .... .
. ...
i) which is closed w.r.t. some operation %
.... y = x and y %
.... x = y indicates that A is non-commutative or non-abilian set. .... is associative and
the operation %
Clearly x % ii)
44 45
iii) it has an identity. Example 12: The set N w.r.t. +

Condition (i) colsure: satisied i.e., " a, bd N, a + b d N
Example 9: The power-set P(S) of a set S is a monoid w.r.t. the operation ~,because, as seen (ii) Associativity: satisied i.e.,
above, it is a semi-group and its identity is the empty-set Φ because if A is any subset of S, " a,b,c d N, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Φ ~A = A~ = A (iii) and (iv) not satisied i.e., neither identity nor inverse of any element exists.
∴N is only a semi-group. Neither monoid nor a group w.r.t. +.
Example 10: The set of all non negative integers i.e., Z+ ~{0}
i) is clearly closed w.r.t. addition, Example 13: N w.r.t -
ii) addition is also associative, and Condition: (i) Closure: satisied
iii) 0 is the identity of the set. " a, bd N, a, bd N
(a + 0 = 0 + a = a " adZ+~{0}) (ii) Associativity: satisied
∴the given set is a monoid w.r.t. addition. " a,b,cd N, a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
Note: It is easy to verify that the given set is a monoid w.r.t. multiplication as well but not (iii) Identity element, yes, 1 is the identity element
w.r.t. subtraction (iv) Inverse of any element of N does not exist in N, so N is a monoid but not a
group under multiplication.
Example 11: The set of natural numbers, N. w.r.t. -
i) the product of any two natural numbers is a natural number; Example 14: Consider S = {0,1,2} upon which operation +has been performed as shown in
ii) Product of natural numbers is also associative i.e., the following table. Show that S is an abelian group under +.
" a, b, cdN a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
iii) 1dN is the identity of the set. Solution :
∴N is a monoid w.r.t. multiplication i) Clearly S as shown under the operation is closed. + 0 1 2
ii) The operation is associative e.g 0 0 1 2
Note: N is not a monoid w.r.t. addition because it has no identity w.r.t. addition. 0 + (1 + 2) = 0 + 0 = 0 1 1 2 0
(0 + 1) + 2 = 1 + 2 = 0 etc. 2 2 0 1
.
Deinition of Group: A monoid having inverse of each of its elements under % ... is called a
group under % .... . That is a group under % .... is a set G (say) if

iii) Identity element 0 exists.
i) G is closed w.r.t. some operation % ....
iv) Inverses of all elements exist, for example
ii) The operation of % .... is associative;
0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 2 = 0, 2 + 1 = 0
iii) G has an identity element w.r.t. % .... and
⇒ 0-1= 0 1-1 = 2, 2-1 = 1
iv) Every element of G has an inverse in G w.r.t. % .... .
v) Also + is clearly commutative e.g., 1 + 2 = 0 = 2 + 1
If G satisies the additional condition: Hence the result,
v) For every a,bdG
.... b= b %
a % .... a
Example 15: Consider the set S = {1,-1,i -i). Set up its multiplication table and show that the
then G is said to be an Abelian* or commutative group under % ....
set is an abelian group under multiplication
46 47
ab = ac ⇒ a -1 (ab) = a -1(a c)
- 1 -1 i -i
Solution : Proof: (i)
⇒
-i
i) S is evidently closed w.r.t.-. (a -1a)b = (a -1a)c (by associative law)
⇒
1 1 -1 i
-1 -1 1 -i
ii) Multiplication is also associative eb = ec (∴a -1a = e)
i ⇒
-i -1 1
(Recall that multiplication of complex numbers is associative) b=c
-i -i
i i
1 -1
iii) Identity element of S is 1. ii) Prove yourselves.
iv) Inverse of each element exists. i
Each of 1 and -1 is self inverse. 2.14 Solution of linear equations
i and - i are inverse of each other.
v) - is also commutative as in the case of C, the set of complex numbers. Hence given a,b being elements of a group G, solve the following equations:
set is an Abelian group. i) ax = b, ii) xa = b
Example : Let G be the set of all 2 % 2 non-singular real matrices, then under the usual Solution : (i) Given: ax = b ⇒ a-1(ax) = a -1b
multiplication of matrices, G is a non-abelian group.
Condition (i) Closure: satisied; i.e., product of any two 2 % 2 matrices is again a matrix of ⇒ (a -1a) x= a-1b (by associativity)
order 2 % 2. ⇒ ex = a -1b
(ii) Associativity: satisied ⇒ x =a-1b which is the desired solution.
For any matrices A , B and C conformable for multiplication.
ii) Solve yourselves.
A%(B%C)=(A%B)%C.
So, condition of associativity is satisied for 2 % 2 matrices
Note: Since the inverse (left or right) of any element a of a group is unique, from the above
1 0 
(iii)   is an identity matrix.
procedure, it follows that the above solution is also unique.
0 1 
(iv) As G contains non-singular matrices only so, it contains inverse of each of its 2.15 Reversal law of inverses
elements.
(v) We know that AB ≠ BA in general. Particularly for G, AB ≠ BA.
If a,b are elements of a group G, then show that
Thus G is a non-abilian or non-commutative gorup.
(ab)-1 = b-1a-1
Proof: (ab) (b-1a -1) = a(bb-1 )a-1 (Associative law )
Finite and Ininite Gorup: A gorup G is said to be a inite group if it contains inite number
= a e a -1
of elements. Otherwise G is an ininite group.
= aa -1
The given examples of groups are clearly distinguishable whether inite or ininite.
=e
∴a b and b-1a-1 are inverse of each other.
Cancellation laws: If a,b,c are elements of a group G, then
i) ab = ac ⇒ b = c (Left cancellation Law)
ba = ca ⇒ b = c
Note: The rule can obviously be extended to the product of three or more elements of a
ii) (Right cancellation Law) group.
48 49
.
Theorem: If (G, %
... ) is a group with e its identity, then e is unique.
- {0}, % ) inverse of 3 is
1
ii) in group ( etc.
3
Proof: Suppose the contrary that identity is not unique. And let e’ be another identity.
e, e’ being identities, we have Exercise 2.8
.
... e = e %.... e’= e’
e’ % (e is an identity) (i)
. .
e’ %... e = e % ... e’ = e ( e’ i s an identity) (ii) 1. Operation + performed on the two-member set G = {0,1}is shown in the adjoining table.
Comparing (i) and (ii) Answer the questions: -
e’ = e. + 0 1
Thus the identity of a group is always unique. i) Name the identity element if it exists? 0 0 1
ii) What is the inverse of 1 ?
1 1 0
Examples: iii) Is the set G, under the given operation a group?
i) (Z, +) has no identity other then 0 (zero). Abelian or non-Abelian?
ii) ( - {0}, % ) has no identity other than 1. 2. The operation + as performed on the set {0,1,2,3} is shown + 0 1 2 3
iii) (C,+) has no identity other than 0 + 0i. in the adjoining table, show that the set is an Abelian group? 0 0 1 2 3
iv) (C,.) has no identity other than 1 + 0i. 3. For each of the following sets, determine whether or not the
1 1 2 3 0
1 0 
set forms a group with respect to the indicated operation.
2 2 3 0 1
( M2,.) has no identity other than  
0 1  .
v) 3 3 0 1 2
where M2 is a set of 2 % 2 matrices. Set Operation
+
i) The set of rational numbers %
Theoram: If (G, %
.
... ) is a group and adG, there is a unique inverse of a in G. ii) The set of rational numbers
+
iii) The set of positive rational numbers %
Proof: Let (G, %
.
... ) be a group and adG. iv) The set of integers
Suppose that a’ and a’’ are two inverses of a in G. Then v) The set of integers % + E O
a’ = a’ % .... e = a’ % .... (a %
.... a”) .... )
(a”is an inverse of a w.r.t. % 4. Show that the adjoining table represents the sums of the elements
E E O
= (a’ % .... a) %
.... a” (Associative law in G). of the set {E, O}. What is the identity element of this set? Show that this
O O E
set is an abelian group.
Show that the set {1 ,w,w2}, when w3=1, is an Abelian group w.r.t. ordinary multiplication.
=e % .... a’’ (a’ is an inverse of a).
= a’’ (e is an identity of G). 5.
Thus inverse of a is unique in G. 6. If G is a group under the operation and a, b d G, ind the solutions of the equations:
a% .... x = b, x%.... a = b
Examples 16: 7. Show that the set consisting of elements of the form a + 3 b (a, b being rational), is an
i) in group ( Z, + ), inverse of 1 is -1 and inverse of 2 is -2 and so on.

abelian group w.r.t. addition.
8. Determine whether,(P(S), %.... ), where %
.... stands for intersection is a semi-group, a monoid
50 51
2. Sets Functions and Groups eLearn.Punjab
or neither. If it is a monoid, specify its identity.

9. ....
Complete the following table to obtain a semi-group under %
....
% a b c
a c a b
b a b c
c - - a
10. Prove that all 2 % 2 non-singular matrices over the real ield form a non-abelian group
under multiplication.
version: 1.1
52
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
3 Matrices and
Determinants
Animation 3.1: Addition of matrix

3. Matrices and Determinants eLearn.Punjab 3. Matrices and Determinants eLearn.Punjab
is called an m by n matrix (written as m % n matrix).

3.1 Introduction m % n is called the order of the matrix in (iii). We usually use capital letters such as A, B,
C, X, Y, etc., to represent the matrices and small letters such as a, b, c,... I, m, n,...,a11 , a12 , a13
While solving linear systems of equations, a new notation was introduced to reduce
,...., etc., to indicate the entries of the matrices.
the amount of writing. For this new notation the word matrix was irst used by the English
Let the matrix in (iii) be denoted by A. The ith row and the jth column of A are indicated
mathematician James Sylvester (1814 - 1897). Arthur Cayley (1821 - 1895) developed the
in the following tabular representation of A.
theory of matrices and used them in the linear transformations. Now-a-days, matrices are
used in high speed computers and also in
jth column
other various disciplines.
F
The concept of determinants was used by Chinese and Japanese but the Japanese  a11 a12  a1n 
a  a2 n 
a13  a1 j
 21 
mathematician Seki Kowa (1642 - 1708) and the German Mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm a22 a23  a2 j
Leibniz (1646 - 1716) are credited for the invention of determinants. G. Cramer (1704 - 1752)  a31 a32  a3n 
 
a33  a3 j
   
applied the determinants successfully for solving the systems of linear equations.   
 ai1 ai 2  ain 
A= (iv)
A rectangular array o f numbers enclosed by a pair o f brackets such as:
 
ith row D ai 3  aij
      
a  amn 
2 3 0   m1 am 2 am 3  amj
1 -1 4 
 2 -1 3   
 -5 4 7  3 2 6 
 
(i) or (ii)
 
 4 1 -1
The elements of the ith row o f A are ai1 ai2 ai3 ...... aij ...... ain
while the elements of the jth column of A are a1j a2j a3j .... aij ...... amj .
We note that aij is the element of the ith row and jth column of A. The double subscripts are
is called a matrix. The horizontal lines of numbers are called rows and the vertical lines useful to name the elements of the matrices. For example, the element 7 is at a23 position in
of numbers are called columns. The numbers used in rows or columns are said to be the
 2 -1 3 
the matrix  
entries or elements of the matrix.
The matrix in (i) has two rows and three columns while the matrix in (ii) has 4 rows and  -5 4 7 
three columns. Note that the number of elements of the matrix in (ii) is 4 % 3 = 12. Now we
A = [aij]m%n or A = [aij], for i = 1, 2, 3,...., m; j = 1, 2, 3,...., n, where aij is the element of the ith
give a general deinition of a matrix.
row and jth column of A.
Generally, a bracketed rectangular array of m%n elements
aij (i = 1, 2, 3, ...., m; j = 1, 2, 3, ...., n), arranged in m rows and n columns such as:
 a11 a12  a1n  Note: aij is also known as the (i, j)th element or entry of A.
a  a2 n 
a13
 21 
a22 a23
   
(iii)
 
 
 am1 am 2  amn 
The elements (entries) of matrices need not always be numbers but in the study of
am 3
matrices, we shall take the elements o f the matrices from _ or from C.
2 3
Note: The matrix A is called real if all of its elements are real.
 .a..11.... a12 a13 ....a. 14 
 a .....a... a........ a 
matrix A. For example,  21 22................ 23 24  , in the matrix the entries of the principal diagonal
 a31 a...32 a..33... a34 
Row Matrix or Row vector: A matrix, which has only one row, i.e., a 1 % n matrix of the . .
 ........ .... 
..
form [ai1 ai2 ai3 ...... ain] is said to be a row matrix or a row vector.
 ...41 . 
....
a . a42 a 43 a44
Column Matrix or Column Vector: A matrix which has only one column i.e., an m % 1 are a11, a22, a33, a44 and the entries of the secondary diagonal are a14, a23, a32, a41.
 a1 j 
a 
The principal diagonal of a square matrix is also called the leading diagonal or main
 2j diagonal of the matrix.
 a3 j  is said to be a column matrix or a column vector.
 
matrix of the form
  
 amj 
   
For example [1 -1 3 4] is a row matrix having 4 columns and  
Diagonal Matrix: Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n.
 is a column matrix having If aij = 0 for all i ≠ j and at least one aij ≠ 0 for i = j, that is, some elements of the
 
3 rows. principal diagonal of A may be zero but not all, then the matrix A is called a diagonal matrix.
The matrices
Rectangular Matrix : If m ≠ n, then the matrix is called a rectangular matrix of order m %
0 0
1 0 0   0 
n, that is, the matrix in which the number of rows is not equal to the number of columns, is 0 0
said to be a rectangular matrix. [ ], 
0 2 0  and 0

1 0
0 0
7 are diagonal matrices.
0 0 5   
0 2
0 0 0 4
 2 -3 0 
1 2 4 
 2 3 1  
For example;   and  3 -1 5  are rectangular matrices of orders 2 % 3 and 4 % 3
 -  Scalar Matrix: Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n.
 
1 0 4
0 1 2 If aij = 0 for all i ≠ j and aij = k (some non-zero scalar) for all i = j, then the matrix A is
respectively.
called a scalar matrix of order n. For example;
Square Matrix : If m = n, then the matrix of order m % n is said to be a square matrix of order
3 0
a 0 0 0 
n or m. i.e., the matrix which has the same number of rows and columns is called a square 0 0
7 0  0 
0  and 
0
0 7  
3 0
0 0
matrix. For example;
 ,
a are scalar matrices of order 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
1 1 2   0 a   
0 3
 2 5 0 3
[ 0 ],  -1 6  and  2 -1 8  are square matrices of orders 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
0
0 0
 
 3 5 4 
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix o f order n, then the entries a11, a22, a33, ...., ann form the Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix : Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n. If aij = 0 for all
principal diagonal for the matrix A and the entries a1n, a2 n-1, a3 n-2, ...., an-1 2 , an1 form the i ≠ j and aij = 1 for all i = j, then the matrix A is called a unit matrix or identity matrix of order
secondary diagonal for the n. We denote such matrix by In and it is of the form:
4 5
1 0  0 Transpose of a Matrix:
0 0  0 
0
 1
I n = 0 1  0
 
0 If A is a matrix of order m % n then an n % m matrix obtained by interchanging the rows
    and columns of A, is called the transpose of A. It is denoted by At. If [aij]m%n then the transpose
0 0 0  1  of A is deined as:
At = [a’ij]n%m where a’ij= aji .. for i = 1, 2, 3, ...., n and j = 1, 2, 3, ..... , m
1 0 0 
The identity matrix of order 3 is denoted by I3, that is, I 3 = 0 1 0   b11 b12 b14 
0 0 1  = b21 b22 b24  , then
b13
For example, if B = [bij]3%4 b23
b31 b32 b33 b34 
Null Matrix or Zero Matrix : A square or rectangular matrix whose each element is zero, is Bt = [b’ij]4%3 where b’ij = bji for i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and j = 1, 2, 3 i.e.,
called a null or zero matrix. An m % n matrix with all its elements equal to zero, is denoted
 b '11 b '12 b '13   b11 b21 b31 

by Om%n. Null matrices may be of any order. Here are some examples:
b ' b '23  b b 
0  0 0 0 0  =
=B  21  12 22 b32 
b '22
b '31 b '32 b '33  b13 b23 b33 
t
0 0 0  0 0    
[ 0] , [ 0 0 0] ,   ,  , 0  , 0 0 0 0  
b '41 b '42 b '43 
 
b14 b24 b34 

0 0 0  0 0  0  0 0 0 0 
   
Note that the 2nd row of B has the same entries respectively as the 2nd column of Bt and
O may be used to denote null matrix of any order if there is no confusion. the 3rd row of Bt has the same entries respectively as the 3rd column of B etc.
Equal Matrices: Two matrices of the same order are said to be equal if their corresponding Example 1:
entries are equal. For example, A = [aij]m%n and
1 0 -1 2   2 -1 3 1 
A =  3 1 2 5  = 1 3 -1 4  , then show that
B = [bij]m%n are equal, i.e., A = B iff aij = bij for i = 1 , 2 , 3 , ...., m, j = 1, 2, 3, ..... , n. In other words,
 
If and B
0 -2 1 6   3 1 2 -1
A and B represent the same matrix.
3.1.1 Addition of Matrices

(A + B)t = At + Bt
Two matrices are conformable for addition if they are of the same order.
The sum A + B of two m % n matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] is the m % n matrix C = [cij] formed Solution :
by adding the corresponding entries of A and B together. In symbols, we write as C = A + B , 1 0 -1 2   2 -1 3 1  1 + 2 0 + (-1) -1 + 3 2 +1 
that is: [cij] = [aij + bij] A + B=  3 1 2 5+
 1 3 - 1 4= 
 
+3 1 +1 3 +2 -( 1) +5 4 
 
 0 -2 1 6   3 1 2 -1  0 + 3 -2 + 1 1+ 2 6 + (-1) 
 3 -1 2 3 
=  4 4 1 9 
where cij = aij + bij for i = 1 , 2 , 3 , ...., m and j = 1, 2, 3, ..... , n.
Note that aij + bij is the (i, j)th element of A + B.
 3 -1 3 5
6 7
3 4 3
 -1 A - B = A + ( -B )
4 -1
and (A + B) =  2
t
1 3
(1) = [aij] + [-bij] = [aij - bij] for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., m; j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
  Thus the matrix A - B is formed by subtracting each entry of B from the
3 9 5
corresponding entry of A.
Taking transpose of A and B, we have
1 0 2 1 3
3.1.4 Multiplication of two Matrices
0 2  -1 3 1 
3
=
=A   and B t   , so
1 Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for the product AB if the number
 -1 1  3 -1 2 
t
   
2 of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
2 5 6  1 4 -1 Let A = [aij] be a 2%3 matrix and B = [bij] be a 3%2 matrix. Then the product AB is deined
1 3 0 2 1 3 3 4 3
to be the 2%2 matrix C whose element cij is the sum of products of the corresponding
0 1 -2   -1 3 1   -1 4 -1
elements of the ith row of A with elements of jth column of B. The element c21 of C is shown
=
A +B  + =   
 -1 2 1   3 -1 2   2 1 3 
t t
(2) in the igure (A), that is
     
2 5 6   1 4 -1  3 9 5 
From (1) and (2), we have (A + B)t = At + Bt
3.1.2 Scalar Multiplication
If A = [aij] is m % n matrix and k is a scalar, then the product of k and A, denoted by kA, is
the matrix formed by multiplying each entry of A by k, that is,
kA = [kaij]
Obviously, order of kA is m % n. c21 = a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31. Thus
 b11 b12 
Note. If n is a positive integer, then A + A + A + .... to n times = nA.
==AB 
 a11 a12 a13     a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 
  21 22   
 a21 a22 a23  b b   a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 
b b
If A = [aij] U Mm%n (the set of all m % n matrices over the real ield _ then kaij U _, for all i
and j, which shows that kA U Mm%n . It follows that the set Mm%n possesses the closure property  31 32 
 b11 b12 
   a11 a12 a13 
with respect to scalar multiplication. If A, B U M and r,s are scalars, then we can prove that
Similarly BA = b21 b22  
a21 a22 a23 
r(sA) = (rs)A, (r + s)A = rA + sA, r(A + B) = rA + rB.
b31 b32  
 b11a11 + b12 a21 b11a12 + b12 a22 b11a13 + b12 a23 

3.1.3 Subtraction of Matrices
=+b a b a +b a b22 a22 +b21a13 b22 a23 
 
b31a11 + b32 a21 b31a12 + b32 a22 b31a13 + b32 a23 
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are matrices of order m % n, then we deine subtraction of B 21 11 22 21 21 12
from A as:
8 9
AB and BA are deined and their orders are 2%2 and 3%3 respectively.
3.2 Determinant of a 2 % 2 matrix
Note 1. Both products AB and BA are deined but AB ≠ BA
2. If the product AB is deined, then the order of the product We can associate with every square matrix A over _ or C, a number |A|, known as
can be illustrated as given below: the determinant of the matrix A.
Order of A The determinant of a matrix is denoted by enclosing its square array between vertical
bars instead of brackets. The number of elements in any row or column is called the order
Order of B of determinant. For example,
a b
if A =  
a b
c d
Order of AB , then the determinant of A is . Its value is deined to be the real number
c d
 2 -1 0   2 -2 3 ad - bc, that is,

Example=    1 -4 6  , then compute A2B.
2: If A 1 2 -3 and B =-
   
1 2 -2   0 -5 5  = = ad - bc
a b
A
c d
Solution :
 2 -1 0   2 -1 0   2 -1 1 4 
A= AA 1- 2
= 3 1- 2 3 == if A   and B  2 8  , then
      
2 For example,
1 2 -2  1 2 -2 
4 3
2 -1
 4 - 1 + 0 -2 - 2 + 0 0 + 3 + 0   3 -4 3  A= = (2)(3) - (-1)(4) = 6 + 4 = 10
=  2 + 2 - 3 -1 + 4 - 6 0 - 6 + 6  = 1 -3 0 
   
4 3
 2 + 2 - 2 -1 + 4 - 4 0 - 6 + 4   2 -1 -2 
B= = (1)(8) - (4)(2) = 8 - 8 = 0
1 4
and
 3 -4 3   2 -2 3
2 8
∴ A2 B= 1 -3 0   -1 -4 6 
  
Hence the determinant of a matrix is the diference of the products of the entries in the
 2 -1 -2   0 -5 5  two diagonals.
6 + 4 + 0 -6 + 16 - 15 9 - 24 + 15 10 -5 0 
=  2 + 3 + 0 -2 + 12 + 0 3 - 18 + 0  =  5 10 -15 = ad - bc
a b
   
..
........
 4 + 1 + 0 -4 + 4 + 10 6 - 6 - 10   5 10 -10 
c d
..
-bc ad
Note: Powers of square matrices are deined as:
A2 = A % A, A3 = A % A % A, Note: The determinant of a 1%1 matrix [a11] is deined as |a11|= a11
An = A % A % A % .... to n factors.
10 11
3.2.1 Singular and Non-Singular Matrices

 ap + br ap + bs  1 0 
or  = 
 cp + dr cq + ds  0 1 
A square matrix A is singular if |A| = 0, otherwise it is a non singular matrix. In the above
1 4   2 -1
example, |B| = 0 ⇒ 2 8 ⇒  4 3  is a
  = ap += +
is a singular matrix and |A| = 10 ≠ 0
  ⇒
A =
br 1....(i) ap bs 0....(ii)
=cp += +
dr 0....(iii) cq ds 1....(iv)
non-singular matrix.
-c
From (iii), r = p
3.2.2 Adjoint of a 2 % 2 Matrix d
a b 
Putting the value of r in (i), we have
The adjoint of the matrix A =   is denoted by adj A and is deined as: adj  -c   ad - bc 
c d  ap + b  p  =1 ⇒   p =1 ⇒ p =
d
 d   d  ad - bc
 d -b 
A=  
 -c a  -c -c
r= p= = -
d c
d ad - bc ad - bc
and .
3.2.3 Inverse of a 2 % 2 Matrix d
Similarly, solving (ii) and (iv), we get

Let A be a non-singualr square matrix of order 2. If there exists a matrix B such that
-b
= =
a
1 0  ad - bc ad - bc
q , s
AB = BA = I2 where I2 =   , then B is called the
0 1 
 p q
Substituting these values in   , we have
r s
multiplicative inverse of A and is usually denoted by A , that is, B = A
-1 -1
Thus AA-1 = A-1A = I2

 d -b 
 ad - bc ad - bc  1  d -b 
=
=A-1  
Example 3: For a non-singular matrix A, prove that A = adjA  -c a  ad - bc  -c a 
1
 ad - bc ad - bc 
a b   p q
A
Solution : If A =   and A =  r s  , Then:

c d   
-1
Thus A-1 =
1
AA-1 = I2, that is, AdjA
A
a b   p q 1 0 
c d   r s  = 0 1 
     
12 13
3.3 Solution of simultaneous linear equations by using matrices

 5 3
Example 4: Find A-1 if A =   and verify that AA = A A
 
-1 -1
1 1
Let the system of linear equations be

Solution : A = =5-3=2 a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1 
5 3

a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2 
1 1 (i)
where a11, a12, a21, a22,+b1 and

a   x  b 
Since |A|≠ 0, we can ind A-1.
+ =  =  1=are realornumbers.
a
      
b
x1+written
AX = B (ii)
a x =
A-1 = + =  22 2  2  
1 The system (i) cana21be bin the matrix form as:
   
AdjA
 a11 a12   x1   b=  =
          =  1  or  AX  =B  
A
a    =     
 21 a22   x2 21 b222  2    2  -   
(ii)
1 -3 
a a x b
1  1 -3  2 2 a11 a12A ==  a -x1a=
where   b x    b 
⇒ =
A-1 = 
2  -1 5   -1
 where A =   = 
 
, X =   B X  1= B   
5
 a21 a22    x2   b2    -
 
 2 2  
   -    
 x  1  a  =-a  b    
=
 1 -3  If |A| ≠ 0, then A-1 exists
 


= - 
 -(ii) gives
    =  
- 
 by A-1)- 
or so
 5 3  2 2  - 
A. A-1 =     -  
(By pre-multiplying (ii)
 
A-1(AX) = A-1B
1 1  -1 5     isassociative)
Now
  
⇒ X = A-1 B =  (a =A-1A =  -I2=)  = 
-1 -1
or (A A)X = A B (Matrix multiplication
 2 2  - 
 -   -  
 5 3 -15 15  ⇒ X=A B   
= =  
2 - 2 + 
 
-1
1 0
==   -a12   b1 
-3 5  0 1  x  1  a
2 2
1 - 1 or  1  =  22  
(i)
+
 2 2 2 2   x2  A  -a21 a11  b2 
== = =
 1 -3   b1a22 - a12b2 
 2   5 3  
and A-1. A =  2  1  a22b1 - a12b2   
 ==  
 -1 5  1 1
A
A  -a21b1 - a11b2   a11b2 - b1a21 
 2 2   
 
5 3 3 3
A
2 2 - - 
1 0
==  
1 
b1 a12 a11 b1
 -5 + 5 -3 + 5  0
2 2
=
=
(ii) b2 a22 b21 b2
 2 2 2 2 
Thus and x2
A A
From (i) and (ii), we have It follows from the above discussion that the system of linear equations such as (i) has
AA-1 = A-1A a unique solution if |A| ≠ 0.
14 15
Example 5: Solve the following systems of linear equations.

x1 + 2 x2 = 4 
= = 3 x1 - x2 1 + x1 2 x2 4   is
  2 x1 + 4 x2 =12 
(ii) The matrix form of the system
= = x1 + x2 3 + 2 x1 4 x2 12 
i) ii)
 3 -1  x   1  1 2   x1   4 
    ==   == - = 3+x1 - x2 1 +       2  4  x  = 12 
   
  form of the system   is  
= = = x1 + x2 = 3 + x1 + x2 3 +      =   2   

i)
     1 2
Solution : (i) The matrix
 - 
=  3 -1  x13 - 11  x   1 
-  = = 1 2 A=
1 1   x  3     
 = = 4 - 4 = 0, so A-1 does not exist.
    2  
and A
-   3 -1  - 
2 4
  A =3 -1  =  x1   1
= = = A   -  , X -  and  B  
Multiplying the irst equation o f the above system by 2, we have
 1 1   x2   3
or AX = B . . . . (i) where
     
2x1 + 4x2 = 8 but 2x1 + 4x2 = 12

= -
= -  3 - -1   - 

which is impossible. Thus the system has no solution.
 A = - =3 + 1 = 4
-1 1     
   1- 1=  -     
Exercise 3.1
 =
  and  adj= A=   
= ,therefore,   -   
   - 1 3  -  -  -   2 3 1 7 
 =  =
= A   6 4  , then show that
  -      
   1 5  
1. If and B
    1  1 
  1  1  1  4  4   4A - 3A = A 3B - 3A = 3(B - A)
= =  =   
   4  -1 =3  1  3
i) ii)

-1
 =     -  -   -     
A
  i 0 
-      4  4  A= 
  1 -i 
, show that A4 = I2.
 (I)
2. If
 X =A-1B , that  is,
     
 1 1   = 
becomes
  = 
    
3. Find x and y if
 1
= 4- 4   -  
x   
1 3 3   x + 3 1   2 1 x + 3 1  y 1
x 1
 2  -   =
=
i)      -3 3 y - 4   -3 2 x 
 4 4   -3 3 y - 4   -3 2     
ii)
 1 3
 4 + 4  1 
= =     -1 2 3  0 3 2 
=
= A   and B 1 -1 2  , ind the following matrices;
- 1 + 9  2  1 0 2  
4. If
 4 4 
4A - 3B = A A + 3(B - A)
⇒ x1 = 1 and x2 = 2
i) ii)
2 0 x  1 x y   4 -2 3
Find x and y If   + 0 2 -1 =
 
1 y 3    1 6 1
5. 2
16 17
If A = [aij]3%3, ind the following matrices;

i) λ ( µ A ) = ( λµ ) A ( λ + µ ) A =λ A + µ A λ A - A = ( λ - 1) A
6.
3.4 Field
ii) ii)
If A = [aij]2%3 and B = [bij]2%3, show that λ ( A + B) = λ A + λ B.

A set F is called a ield if the operations of addition ‘+ ’ and multiplication ‘. ’ on F satisfy
7.
the following properties written in tabular form as:
1 2 0 0 
=
=
Addition Multiplication
8. If A   0 0  , ind the values of a and b.
a b   
and A2 Closure
i) For any a,b U F, For any a,b U F,
 1 -1 1 0 
a+bUF a.b U F
=
=
9. If A   0 1  , ind the values of a and b.
Commutativity
a b   
and A2
ii) For any a,b U F, For any a,b U F,
a+b=b+a a.b = b.a
1 -1 2  2 3 0 
=
=
10. If A   and B 1 2 -1 , then show that (A + B) = A + B .
Associativity
   
t t t
0 3 1 iii) For any a,b,c U F, For any a,b,c U F,
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
1 1 3
Existence of Identity
11. Find A3 if A =  5 2 6 
iv) For any For any
 
 -2 -1 -3
a U F ,\ 0 U F such that a U F ,\ 1 U F such that
a+0=0+a=a a.1 = 1.a = a
12. Find the matrix X if;. Existence of Inverses
v) For any a U F, a ≠ 0
 5 2   -1 5  5 2 2 1 
v) For any
a U F ,\ -a U F such that
 -2 1  X =  5 10 
∃ U F such that
i) X   
1
 -2 1  12 3    
ii)
a=
.( ) (=
a
1 1
a + (-a ) = (-a ) + a = 0 ).a 1
a a
Distributivity
13. Find the matrix A if,
vi) For any a,b,c U F, D1 : a(b + c) = ab + ac
D2 : (b + c)a = ba + ca
5 -1  3 -7 
 2 -1 0 -3 8 
i) 0 0  A =  0 0 
All the above mentioned properties hold for Q, _, and C.
     -1 2  A =  3 3 -7 
   
ii)
 3 1  7 2  3.5 Properties of Matrix Addition , Scalar Multiplication and
 r cos φ 0 - sin φ   cos φ sin φ 
Matrix Multiplication.
14. Show that  0 0  0 0  = rI 3 .
0
  
r 1
 r sin φ 0 cos φ   -r sin φ 0 r cos φ 
If A, B and C are n%n matrices and c and d are scalers, the following properties
are true:
18 19
1. Commutative property w.r.t. addition: A + B = B + A

Note: w.r.t. is used for “with respect to”. 1 × 2 + (-1) × 1 + 0 × 3 1 × 0 + (-1) × 4 + 0 × 0 1 × 1 + (-1) × 2 + 0 × 6 
Associative property w.r.t. addition: (A + B) + C - A + (B + C) =  2 × 2 + 3 × 1 + (-1) × 3 2 × 0 + 3 × 4 + (-1) × 0 2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + (-1) × 6 
 
1 × 2 + (-2) × 1 + 3 × 3 1 × 0 + (-2) × 4 + 3 × 0 1 × 1 + (-2) × 2 + 3 × 6 
2.
3. Associative property of scalar multiplication: (cd)A = c(dA)
Existance of additive identity: A + O = O + A - A (O is null matrix) 1 -4 -1
=  4 12 2 
4.
 
5. Existance of multiplicative identity: IA = AI = A (I is unit/identity (2)
matrix) 9 -8 15 
6. Distributive property w.r.t scalar multiplication:
(a) c(A + B) = cA + cB (b) (c + d)A = cA + dA Thus from (1) and (2), AB ≠ BA
7. Associative property w.r.t. multiplication: A(BC) = (AB)C
8. Left distributive property: A(B + C) = AB + AC Note: Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general
9. Right distributive property: (A + B)C = AC + BC
10. c(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)  2 -1 3 0 
= 2: If - 1 0 4 2  ,then ind AAt and (At).
 
Example
2 0 1 1 -1 0  -3 5 2 -1
= 1: Find AB and BA if A -1 4 2  and B =  2 3 1
   
Example
 3 0 6  1 -2 3  Solution : Taking transpose of A, we have
 2 1 -3
 2 0 1  1 -1 0  -1 0 5 
=   1 A =  , so
Solution : AB -1 4 2   2 3  3 4 2
t
 3 0 6  1 -2 3   
 0 -2 -1
 2 × 1 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 1 2 × (-1) + 0 × 3 + 1 × (-2) 2 × 0 + 0 × ( -1) + 1 × 3 
= 1 × 1 + 4 × 2 + 2 × 1 1 × (-1) + 4 × 3 + 2 × ( -2) 1 × 0 + 4 × ( -1) + 2 × 3 
 2 1 -3
 2 -1 3 0  
-1 0 5 
 
3 × 1 + 0 × 2 + 6 × 1 3 × (-1) + 0 × 3 + 6 × (-2) 3 × 0 + 0 × (-1) + 6 × 3
= 
AA - 1 0 4 2   
  3 4 2 
 3 -4 3 
t
 -3 5 2 -1  0 -2 -1
= 11 7 2  
 
(1)
 9 -15 18  4 + 1 + 9 + 0 2 + 0 + 12 + 0 -6 - 5 + 6 + 0 
=  2 + 0 + 12 + 0 1 + 0 + 16 + 4 -3 + 0 + 8 + 2 
 
1 -1 0   2 0 1   -6 - 5 + 6 + 0 -3 + 0 + 8 + 2 9 + 25 + 4 + 1 
=BA  2 3 -1 1 4 2 
   14 14 -5
1 -2 3   3 0 6 
= 14 21 7 
 
 -5 7 39 
20 21
 2 1 -3
 -1 0 5   2 -1 3 0 
= =  -  ( ) 
 1 0 4 2
 which is A,
 2 -1 3 0 
3 4 2 7. If A - 1 0 4 2  then ind AAt and AtA.
t t
=
t
A , so A
 -3 5 2 -1
As
   
 0 -2 -1  -3 5 2 -1
That is, (At)t = A. (Note that this rule holds for any matrix A.)
8. Solve the following matrix equations for X:
 2 3 -2   2 -3 1 
Exercise 3.2
== - 2A = B if A    5 4 -1 ,
 -1 1 5   
i) 3X and B
 1 -1 2   3 -1 0 
1. If A = [aij]3%4, then show that
== - 3A = B if A   4 2 1
 -2 4 5 
i) I3A = A ii) AI4 = A
 
ii) 2X and B
2. Find the inverses of the following matrices.
 3 -1  -2 3  2i i   2 1
9. Solve the following matrix equations for A:
i)   ii)   iii)   iv)  
2 1   -4 5  i -i   6 3 4 3  2 3   -1 -4   3 1   -1 2   2 0 
(i)   A- = 3 6  (ii) A  -  3 1 =
 
3. Solve the following system of linear equations.  2 2   -1 -2     4 2     -1 5 
2=x1 - 3 x2 5 4=x1 + 3 x2 5 3 x1 - 5 y =
1 
  
3.6 Determinants
=
5 x1 + x2 4  =
3 x1 - x2 7  -2 x + y = -3
i) ii) iii)
 1 -1 2   2 1 -1  1 3 -2 
4. If A  3 2- 5  , B
=
=  1 3 4  and C =  1 2 0  , then ind
     
The determinants of square matrices of order n83, can be written by following
 -1 0 4   -1 2 1   3 4 -1 the same pattern as already discussed. For example, if n = 4
A-B B-A iii) (A - B) - C iv) A - (B - C)

 a11 a12 a14 
i) ii)
a a24 
a13 a11 a12 a13 a14
i 2i   -i 1  2i -1 A =  21 22  , then the determinat of = =
=
5. If A =   2i i   -i i  , then show that
a a23 a21 a22 a23 a24
 a31 a32 a34 
1 -i     
, B and C = A A
 
a33 a31 a32 a33 a34
 a41 a42 a44 
(A + B)C = AC + BC
a43 a41 a42 a43 a44
i) (AB)C = A(BC) ii)
Now our aim is to compute the determinants of various orders. But before describing
6. If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then explain why in general; a method for computation o f determinants of order n83, we introduce the following
i) (A + B)2 ≠ A2 + 2AB + B2 ii) (A - B)2 ≠ A2 - 2AB + B2 deinitions.
iii) (A + B )(A - B ) ≠ A2 - B2
22 23
 a11 a13  a1 j  a1n 

a a23  a2 j  a2 n 
3.6.1 Minor and Cofactor of an Element of a Matrix or its Determinant a12
 21 a22
 a31 a33  a3 j  a3n 
 
a32
A=       , then
 ai1 ai 3  aij  ain 
Minor of an Element: Let us consider a square matrix A of order 3 .Then the minor of If
an element aij, denoted by .Mij is the determinant of the (3 - 1) % (3 - 1) matrix formed by  
ai 2
      
a an 3  anj  ann 
 n1
deleting the ith row and the jth column of A(or|A|). an 2
For example, if
|A| = ai1Ai1 + ai2Ai2 + ai3Ai3 + .... + ainAin for i = 1, 2, 3,...., n
 a11 a12a13 
or |A| = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + a3j A3j + .... + anj Anj for j = 1, 2, 3,...., n
A =  a21 a22a23  , then the matrix obtained by deleting the irst row and the second
Putting i = 1, we have
 
 a31 a32
a33 
|A| = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 + .... + a1n A1n which is called the expansion of |A|by the irst
-------------------
 a11 a12 a13 
--------------------- row.
 a21 a23 
column of A is   (see adjoining igure)  a21 a22 a23  and its determinant is the
   a11 a12 a13 
 a31 a33   a31 a32 a33 
If A is a matrix of order 3, that is, A =  a21 a22 a23  , then:
 
 a31 a32 a33 
minor of an, that is,
M 12 =
a21 a23
a31 a33 |A| = ai1Ai1 + ai2Ai2 + ai3Ai3 + .... + ainAin for i = 1, 2, 3 (1)
or |A| = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + a3j A3j + .... + anj Anj for j = 1, 2, 3 (2)
Cofactor of an Element: The cofactor of an element aij denoted by Aij is deined by Aij = (-1) For example, for i = 1, j = 1 and j = 2, we have
i+j
%Mij |A| = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 (i)
where Mij is the minor of the element aij of A or |A|. or |A| = a11 A11 + a21 A21 + a31 A31 (ii)
or |A| = a12 A12 + a22 A22 + a32 A32 (iii)
= - 21 23
a21 a23 a a
For example, A12 = (-1)1+2 M12 = (-1)3 (iii) can be written as:|A| = a12(-1)1+2 M12 + a22(-1)2+2 M22 + a32(-1)3+2 M32
i.e., |A| = -a12M12 + a22M22 - a32M32
a31 a33 a31 a33
(iv)
Similarly (i) can be written as |A| = a11M11 - a12M12 - a13M13 (v)
3.6.2 Determinant of a Square Matrix of Order n83: Putting the values of M11.M12: and M13 in (iv). we obtain
A = a11 - a12 + a13

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
The determinant of a square matrix of order n is the sum of the products of each a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
or |A| = a11(a22a33 - a23a32) - a12(a21a33 - a23a31) + a13(a21a32 - a22a31)

elem ent of row (or column) and its cofactor.
(vi)
or |A| = a11a22a33 + a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 - a11a23a32- a12a21a33- a13a22a31 (vi)’
24 25
 1 -2 3 
The second scripts of positive terms are in circular order of
Example 2: Find the cofactors A12, A22 and A32 if A =  -2 3 1  and

anti-clockwise direction i.e., these are as 123, 231, 312 (adjoining igure)
 
 4 -3 2 
while the second scripts of negative terms are such as 132, 213, 321.
ind |A|.
Solution : We irst ind M12, M22 and M32,
An alternative way to remember the expansion of the determinant |A| given in (vi)’ is
-2 1
M 12 = =-4-4=-8; M 22 = = 2 -1 2 = -10 and M 32 =
shown in the igure below. 1 3 1 3
-2 1
= 1- (-6) =7
4 2 4 2
Thus A12 = (-1)1+2 M12 = (-1)(-8 ) = 8 ; A22 = (-1)2+2 M22 = 1(-10)= -10
A32 = (-1)3+2 M32 = (-1)(7 ) = -7 ;
and |A| = a12A12 + a22 A22 + a32 A32 = (-2)8 + 3(-10) + (-3)(-7)
= -16 - 30 + 21 = -25
Note that a11A12 + a21 A22 + a31 A32 = 1(8) + (-2)(-10) + 4(-7)
= 8 + 20 - 28 = 0
and a13A12 + a23 A22 + a33 A32 = 3(8) + 1(-10) + 2(-7)
= 24 - 10 - 14 = 0
 1 -2 3 
Example 1: Evaluate the determinant of A =  -2 3 1 
Similarly we can show that a11A13 + a21 A23 + a31 A33 = 0;
 
 4 -3 2 
a11A21 + a12 A22 + a13 A23 = 0; and a11A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33 = 0;
3.7 Properties of Determinants which Help in their Evaluation

1 -2 3
Solution : A = -2 3 1 1. For a square matrix A, |A| =IAtI
4 -3 2 2. If in a square matrix A, two rows or two columns are interchanged, the determinant of the
resulting matrix is -|A|.
Using the result (v) of the Art.3.6.2, that is, 3. If a square matrix A has two identical rows or two identical columns, then |A| = 0 .
|A| = a11 M11 - a12M12 + a13M13 , we get, 4. If all the entries of a row (or a column) of a square matrix A are zero, then |A| = 0 .
-2 1 -2 3
5. If the entries of a row (or a column) in a square matrix A are multiplied by a number k U
= - (-2) +3
3 1
-3 2 4 -3
A 1 _, then the determinant of the resulting matrix is k |A|.
4 2 6. If each entry of a row (or a column) of a square matrix consists of two terms, then its
= 1[6 - 1(-3)] + 2[(-2).2 -1.4] + 3[(-2)(-3) -12]

determinant can be written as the sum of two determinants, i.e., if
 a11 + b11 a12 a13 
= (6 + 3) + 2(-4 - 4) + 3(6 -12) =B  a21 + b21 a22 a23  ,
  then
= 9 -16 -18 = -25  a31 + b31 a32 a33 
26 27
a11 + b11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 b11 a12 a13 a b c
+B=
a21 b21 = a22 a23 a21 +a22 a23 b21 a22 a23 a b c = 0, (it can be proved by expanding the determinant)
a31 + b31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 b31 a32 a33 x y z
7. If to each entry of a row (or a column) of a square matrix A is added a non-zero multiple
of the corresponding entry of another row (or column), then the determinant of the Property 5: If any row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by a non-zero number k, the
resulting matrix is |A|. value of the new determinant becomes equal to k times the value of original determinant.
8. If a matrix is in triangular form, then the value of its determinant is the product of the For example,
entries on its main diagonal.
A=
a11 a12
Now we prove the above mentioned properties of determinants. , multiplying irst row by a non-zero number k, we get
a21 a22
Proporty 1: If the rows and columns of a determinant are interchanged, then the value
= ka11a22 - ka12a21 = k (a11a22 - a12a21) = k 11 12

of the determinant does not change. For example. ka11 ka12 a a
a21 a22 a21 a22
= a11a22 - a12a21 = a11a22 - a21a12 = 11

a11 a12 a a21
(rows and columns are interchanged)
a21 a22 a12 a22 Property 6: If any row (column) of a determinant consists of two terms, it can be written as
the sum of two determinants as given below:
Property 2: The value of a determinant changes sign if any two rows (columns) are
a11 + b11
interchanged. For example,
a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 b11 a12 a13
a21 + b21 a23 = a21 a23 + b21
= a11a22 - a12a21
a11 a12 a22 a22 a22 a23 (proof is left for the reader)
a21 a22 a31 + b31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 b31 a32 a33
= a12a21 - a11a22 = -(a11a22 - a12a21) (columns are interchanged)

a12 a11 Property 7: If any row (column) o f a determinant is multiplied by a non-zero number k and
and
a22 a21 the result is added to the corresponding entries of another row (column), the value of the
Property 3: If all the entries in any row (column) are zero, the value of the determinant is determinant does not change. For example,
a11 a12 a11 a12 + ka11

zero. For example,
=
a21 a22 a21 a22 + ka21
(k multiple of C1 is added to C2)
0 a12 a13
a23 = 0 22 -0 +0 = 0 (expanding by C )
a a23 a12 a13 a12 a13 It can be proved by expanding both the sides. Proof is left for the reader.
0 a22
 2 -2 3 4 
a32 a33 a32 a33 a22 a23
 3 1 5 -1
0 a32 a33
A=  , evaluate |A|

 -5 -3 1 0 
Example 3: If
 
Property 4: If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the
 1 -1 0 2 
determinant is zero. For example,
28 29
1 1 b+c
2 -2 3 4
= x(a + b + c) 1 1 c + a , (by property 5)
3 1 5 -1
A=
Solution :
1 1 a+b
-5 -3 1 0
1 -1 0 2
= x(a + b + c).0 (a C1 and C2 are identical or by property 3)
0 0 3 0
5 -7
=0
=
x 0 1 1
0 1 -1 -1
0 4
0 -8 =0
By R1 + (-2 )R4, R2 + (-3 )R4 and R3 + 5R4
1 -2 3 4
1 10
1 -1
Example 5: Solve the equation
-2 x 1 -1
0 2
Expanding by irst column, we have

Solution: By C3 + C2 and C4 + C2, we have
|A| = 0.A11 + 0.A21 + 0.A31 + 1.A41
0 3 0 0 3 0
=(-1) 4+1 × 4 5 -7 =(-1) 4 5 -7
x 0 1 1
=0
-8 1 10 -8 1 10
0 1 0 0
1 -2 1 2
= ( -1)(- 3)[4 % 10 - (-7)(-8)] = 3(40 - 56) = - 48 -2 x x + 1 x - 1
x a+ x b+c
Example 4: Without expansion, show that x b + x c + a =
x 1 1
2 = 0 (a (-1)2+2 = 1)
0
x c+ x a+b
Expanding by R2, we get 1 1
-2 x + 1 x - 1
Solution : Multiplying each entry of C1 by -1 and adding to the corresponding entry of C2 i.e.,
x 1 1
2 =0
by C2 + (-1)C1, we get
By R3 + 2R2, we get 1 1
0 x+3 x+3
x a + x b + c x a + x + (-1) x b + c
x b + x c +=a x b + x + (-1) x c + a
x 1 1
( x + 3) 1 1 2 =
x c + x a + b x c + x + (-1) x a + b
or 0 (by taking x + 3 common from R3)
x a b+c 1 a b+c  by property 5 or 

0 1 1
= x b c += x1 b c+a  taking x common 

x 1 1
  ⇒ 1 1 2 =0
 
a
x c a+b 1 c a+b  
x+3=0 or
from C1
1 a + (b + c) b + c
0 1 1
 adding the entries of C3 to the 

= x 1 b + (c + a ) c + a ,   ⇒ x = -3
 corresponding entries of C2 
or x = 0 (a R1 and R3 are identical if x = 0)
1 c + ( a + b) a + b Thus the solution set is {-3, 0}.
30 31
3.8 Adjoint and Inverse of a Square Matrix of Order n83

A33 =-
( 1)3+3 =1.(2 - 0) =2
1 0
 a11 a12 a13   A11 A13 

0 2
If A =  a21 a22 a23  , then the matrix of co-factors of A =  A21 A23  ,  3 1 -2 

A12
 A11 A13 
    A A23   2 1- 1 
A12
[ Aij ]3×3 = =-
A22
 a31 a32 a33   A31 A33  Thus
 21
A22
  
 A31 A33   -4 -1 2 
A32
 A11 A21 A31 
and adj A =  A12 A22 A32  ,
A32
 3 -2 -4 
   1 -1 -1
 A13 A23 A33  = [ Aij′ ]3×=
 
and adj A (a A’ij = Aji for i, j=1, 2, 3 )
 -2 1 2 
3
Inverse of a Square Matrix of Order n83: Let A be a non singular

square matrix of order n. If there exists a matrix B such that Since |A|= a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13
AB = BA = In, then B is called the multiplicative inverse of A and is denoted by A-1. It is obvious = 1(3) + 0(1) + 2(-2)
= 3 + 0 - 4 = -1,
 3 -2 -4   -3 2 4 
that the order of A-1 is n % n.
A -1 = adj A =  1 -1 -1 = -1 1 1 
Thus AA-1 = In and A-1A = In.
-1    
So 1 1
 -2 1 2   2 -1 -2 
If A is a non singular matrix, then
A
A-1 =
 -1 2 
1
adjA
 1 3
Example 7: If A =  1 4  and
A
   2 1 then verify that
1 0 2   2 -1  
Example 6: Find A-1 if A = 0 2 1 
 
1 -1 1 
(AB)t = BtAt
 -1 2   -1 - 4 -3 + 2   -5 -1
 
Solution: We irst ind the cofactors of the elements of A.
AB = 1 4= =  1- 8 3+ 4  =  -7 7  ,
   -2 1    
1 3
Solution: so
A11 =-
( 1)1+1
2 1
=1.(2 + 1) =3, A12 =(-1)1+ 2
0 1
=(-1)(-1) =1  2 -1  2 + 2 6 - 1   4 5 
-1 1
 -5 -7 4 
1 1
( AB )t =  
A13 =
(-1)1+3 =
1.(0 - 2) =
-2, A21 =-
( 1) 2+1 =-
( 1)(0 + 2) =-2  -1 7 5 
0 2 0 2
1 -1 -1 1
1 -2   -1 1 2    -1 1 2  1 -2  
B t At =     A =   and B t =  
A22 =
(-1) =
1.(1 - 2) =
-1, A23 = (-1) = (-1)(-1 - 0) = 1 3 1   2 4 -1   2 4 -1 3 1  
t
and
2+ 2 1 2 2+3 1 0
1 -1
 -1 - 4 1 - 8 2 + 2   -5 -7 4 
1 1
=
=   -1 7 5 
A31 =
(-1)3+1 =
1.(0 - 4) =
-4, A32 =-
( 1)3+ 2 =-
( 1)(1 - 0) =-1  -3 + 2 3 + 4 6 - 1   
0 2 1 2
2 1 0 1
Thus (AB)t = Bt At
32 33
φ φ
+ Determinants
+
3. Matrices and Determinants eLearn.Punjab 3. Matrices and eLearn.Punjab
+ + = + + -
c a+b c+a
Exercise 3.3 a+λ b c
ix) a b+λ c =λ 2 (a + b + c + λ )
Evaluate the following determinants. c+λ
-2 -4 -3 2 -3
a b
5 5 2 1
3 -1 -3 3 -1 1 iii) -1 3
1 1 1
c =(a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
1. i) ii) 4
-2 1 -2 1 -2 -2 5
x) a b
2 6
a2 b2 c2
a+l a-l 1 2 -2
b + c a a2
a 2a a a
a+l a-l v) -1 1 -3
c + a b=b 2 (a + b + c)(a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
iv) a vi) b 2b b
a -l a+l 2 4 -1
xi)
a + b c c2
a c c 2c
2. Without expansion show that

2 3 -1
1 2 -3  5 -2 5 
6 7 8 1 2 3
=
= =

4. If If A =  = 3
2 0 and B- 1 4  ,then find;
-
i) 3 4 5 0 ii) 1 1 0 0 iii) 4 5 6 0
2 -3 5    
0
 -2 -2 1   -2 1 -2 
2 3 4 7 8 9
3. Show that
a13 + a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
i) A12, A22, A32 and |A| ii) B21, B22, B23 and|B|
a11 a12
i) a21 a22 a=23 + a 23 a21 a22 a23 + a21 a22 a 23
a33 + a 33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a 33
5. Without expansion verify that
a31 a32
2 3 0 2 1 0 a+l a a a
3 9 6= a l+ l=
(3 a l + a b +g 1
2
1 a2
ii) 91 1 2 iii) a a ) bc
a+l
1 2 3x
i) b =
g +a = =
2 15 1 2 5 1 a a b
1 0 ii) 2 3 6x 0 iii) 1 b 2 0
b+c g a +b 1
ca
1 1 1 1 1 1 a a 3 5 9x
c
= x= y +z
1 c2
iv) x y z v) b c a b 4abc ab
yz zx xy x 2 y 2 z 2 c c a+b a -b b-c c-a
b -1 a r cos φ 1 - sin φ iv) b-c c-a a -b =
0
vi) a b 0= a 3 b3 vii) 0 1 0+ r = c-a a -b b-c
1 a b r sin φ 0 cos φ bc ca ab
a b+c a+b 1 1 1
=0
viii) b c + a b + c = a 3 + b3 + c3 - 3abc
v)
a b c
c a+b c+a a b c
a+λ mn l l2 1 l2 l3
=
b c version: 1.1 version: 1.1
+λ λ
= λ
+λ 34 35
=
a b c
10. If A is a square matrix of order 3, then show that |KA|= k3|A|.
11. Find the value of λ if A and B singular.
2 2 3
mn l l 1 l l
nl m m 2 = 1 m 2
5 0
m3
 4 λ 3
vi)
8 1
1 2
 
A = 7 3 6 , B= 
lm n n 2 1 n 2 n3
 
2 5
3 1
 2 3 1   
2a 2b2c
vii) a + b b+c
2 0
2b 2 λ -1 3
a + c b + c 2c
7 2 -1 -a 0
12. Which of the following matrices are singular and which of them are
7 2 6 7 2 7 c
viii) 6 3 2= 6 3 5 + 6 3 -3 ix) a -b
non singular?
1 1 2 -1
0
-3 5 1 -3 5 -3 -3 5 4 b -c 0
1 0 3   2 3 -1 1 2 -1 -3
  
i) 3 1 -1 ii) 1 1 0  iii)  
    2 3 1 2 
0 2 4   2 -3 5 
6. Find values of x if
1 x -1 3  
3 1 x 1 2 1  3 -1 3 4 
-1 3 -4 = - 1+ x 1= 0 =
2 1 0
i) 30 ii) 2 0 iii) 2 x 2
-2 x
13. Find the inverse of A = 1 1 0  and show that A-1 A = I3
x 1 0 2 3 6 x
 
7. Evaluate the following determinants:  2 -3 5 
3 4 2 7 2 1 -1
3 -3 9 1 1
0 3 -1 2
14. Verify that (AB)-1 = B-1A-1 if
2 5 0 3 4 0
2 1
1 2 -3 5 2 -1 6 9 7 -1 1  1 2  -3 1  5 1   4 3
i) ii) iii)
=
=
i) A = =
5
4 1 -2 3 -7 2 -2 -2 0 1 -1  -1 0   4 -1 2 2 , B  2 1
       
6 , B ii) A
x 1 1 1 15. Verify that (AB)t = Bt At and if

=
(x + 3)(x - 1)3
1 1 
1 x 1 1
1 -1 2 
8. Show that
=
= 3 2 
1 1 x 1
A   and B
0 3 1   
0 -1
1 1 1 x
9. Find |AAt| and |AtA| if

 2 -1  2 -1
3 4 16. If A =   ( A=-  that ( A-1 )t =( At ) -1
2 1 3 1  3 1 
verify
 3 2 -1  
=
=i) A   ii) A 1
  1
 
2 1 3 17. If A and B are non-singular matrices, then show that
2 3 i) (AB)-1 = B-1A-1 ii) (A-1)-1 = A
36 37
1 1 2   x   1  1 2 3 
 2 -1 8   y  = 12 
[x z ] 1 -1 5 = [1 12 -3]
3.9 Elementary Row and Column Operations on a Matrix
      
or y
Usually a given system of linear equations is reduced to a simple equivalent system by  3 5 4   z   -3  2 8 4 
X t At = B t
applying in turn a inite number of elementary operations which are stated as below:
that is, AX = B (i) (ii)
1. Interchanging two equations.
2. Multiplying an equation by a non-zero number.
1 1 2   x 1
A=-2 1 8 = , X  y  and=
B 12 
3. Adding a multiple of one equation to another equation.
     
where
Note: The systems of linear equations involving the same variables, are equivalent if they  3 5 4   z   -3
have the same solution.
Corresponding to these three elementary operations, the following elementary row A is called the matrix of coeicients.
operations are applied to matrices to obtain equivalent matrices. Appending a column of constants on the left of A, we get the augmented matrix of the
i) Interchanging two rows given system, that is,
ii) Multiplying a row by a non-zero number
iii) Adding a multiple of one row to another row. 1 1 2  1 
 2 -1 8  12 
 
(Appended column is separated by a dotted line segment)
 3 5 4  -3
Note: Matrices A and B are equivalent if B can be obtained by applying in turn a inite
number of row operations on A.
Now we explain the application of elementary operations on the system-of linear equations
Notations that are used to represent row operations for I to III are given below: and the application of elementary row operations on the augmented matrix of the system
Interchanging Ri and Rj is expressed as RiGRj . writing them side by side.
k times Ri, is denoted by kRi D R’i
Adding k times Rj to Ri is expressed as Ri + kRj D R’i x + y + 2z = 1  1 1 2  1
 2
=
2 x + - y + 8 z 12
-  1 8  12 
(R’i is the new row obtained after applying the row operation).
 
3 x + 5 y + 4 z-=3  3 5 4  -3
For equivalent matrices A and B, we write A R .B.

Adding -2 times the irst equation to the (By R2+ (-2)R1 DR’2 and
If A R B then B R A. Also if A R B and B R C, then A R C. Now we state the elementary column
    
second and -3 times the irst equation to R3 + (-3)R1D R’3, we get)
operations and notations that are used for them.
i) Interchanging two columns Ci G Cj
ii) Multiplying a column by a non-zero number kCi D C’i the third, we get
iii) Adding a multiple of one column to another column Ci + kCj D C’i
x + y + 2z = 1  1 1 2  1

R 0 3 4  10 
Consider the system of linear equations;
x + y + 2z = 1  =
- 3 y + 4 z 10 -
  
2 x - y = 8 z = 12  which can be written in matrix forms as 2 y - 2 z-=6  0 2 -2  -6 
3 x + 5 y + 4 z-=3
38 39
1 2 3  1 0 0 
 1 -1 5   1 -3 2 
Interchanging the second and third equations, we have (By R2 GR3, we get)
   
x + y + 2z = 1 1 1 2  1  2 8 4  C  2 4 -2  By C2 + (-2)C1 D C’2 and
    
2 y - 2 z-=6  R 0 2 -2  -6     
 
C3 + (-3)C1 D C’3
     
  1 12 -3  1 10 -6 
=
- 3 y + 4 z 10 -
 0 3 4  10 
1 0 0  1 0 0 
 1 2 -3   1 1 -3
   
1 1
Multiplying the second equation by , we get By R2 DR’2, we get.
C  2 -2 4  By C2 ↔ C3 C  2 -1 4  By C2 → C'2
2 2 1
   
x + y + 2z =1 1 1 2  1       
2

R 0 1 -1  -3
  
y - z =-3   1 -6 10   1 -3 10 
 
10 
-3 y + 4 z = 0 -3 4  10 
1 0 0
By R3 + 3R2DR’3, we obtain, the third, we obtain, 1 1 0
 
Adding 3 times the second equation to
C  2 -1 1  By C3 + 3C2 → C'3
x + y + 2z =1 1 1 2  1   
   
y - z =-3 R 0 1 -1  -3  1 -3 1 
 
z = 1  0 0 1  1 
1 0 0 
[x z ] 1 1 0  = [1 -3 1]
The given system is reduced to the triangular form which is so called because on the left
 
Thus y
 2 -1 1 
the coeicients (of the terms) within the dotted triangle are zero.
Putting z = 1 in y - z = -3 , we have y - 1 = - 3 ⇒ y = - 2
Substiliting z = 1, y = -2 in the irst equation, we get
x + (-2 ) + 2(1) = 1 ⇒ x = 1
or [ x + y + 2z y-z z ] = [1 -3 1]
Thus the solution set o f the given system is {(1, -2,1)}.
x + y + 2z =1

Appending a row of constants below the matrix At, we obtain the
⇒ y - z =-3
1 2 3  z = 1 
 
augmented matrix for the matrix equation (ii), that is  1 -1 5 
2 8 4 
Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij] is called upper triangular if all elements
  below the principal diagonal are zero, that is,
   
 1 12 -3
aij = 0 for all i > j
Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be lower triangular if all elements
Now we apply elementary column operations to this augmented matrix. above the principal diagonal are zero, that is,
aij = 0 for all i < j
40 41
Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A is named as triangular whether it is upper triangular For diagonal elements j = i, so
or lower triangular. For example, the matrices aii = -aii or 2aii = 0 ⇒ aii = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, ......., n
 0 -4 1 
1 0 0 0
1 2 3   For example if B =  4 0 -3 ,then
0 1 4  and  3 2 0 0  
 are triangular matrices of order 3 and 4  -1 3 0 
  4 1 5 0
0 0 6   
 -1 2 3 1
 0 4 -1  0 -4 1 

B =-4 0 3 =  (-1)  4 0 -3 = -B
   
respectively. The irst matrix is upper triangular while the second is lower triangular. t
Note: Diagonal matrices are both upper triangular and lower triangular.  1 -3 0   -1 3 0 
Symmetric Matrix: A square matrices A = [aij]n x n is called symmetric if At = A. Thus the matrix B is skew-symmetric.
From At = A, it follows that [a’ij]n x n = [aij]n x n Let A = [aij] be an n x m matrix with complex entries, Then the n x m matrix [a ij] where a ij is the
which implies that a’ij = aji for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ......., n. complex conjugate of aij for all i, j, is called conjugate of A and is denoted by A . For example, if
but by the deinition of transpose, a’ij = aji for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ......., n.
3 - i -i  3 - i -i  3 + i i 
==
A=
Thus aij = aji for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ......., n.
  , then A    
 2i 1 + i   2i 1 + i   -2i 1 - i 
and we conclude that a square matrix A = [aij]n x n is symmetric if aij = aji.
For example, the matrices
Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]nxn with complex entries, is called hermitian if ( A )
t
1 -1
a g 3 0 5 6
From, ( A ) = A it follows that  aij′  = [aij]nxn which implies that a ij/ = aij for i, j = 1 ,2 ,3,....,n but
3 2 = A.
1 3  h 
f and   are symmetric.
h
3 2  ,   2 5 1 -2 
t
 
n×n
b
 g c   
 -1 6 -2 3 
f by the deinition of transpose, a ij/ = aij for i, j = 1, 2, 3,......, n.
Thus aij = aij for i, j = 1, 2, 3,......, n and we can say that a square matrix
Skew Symmetric Matrix : A square matrix A = [aij]n x n is called skew symmetric or anti-
symmetric if At = -A.
A = [aij]nxn is hermitian if aij = a ji for i, j = 1, 2, 3, .... ,n.
From At = -A, it follows that [a’ij] = for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ......., n

For diagnal elements, j = i so aii = a ii which implies that aii is real for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
which implies that a’ij = -aij for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ......., n

 1 1 - i
For example, if A =   , then
1 + i 2 
but by the deinition of transpose a’ij = aji for i, j = 1, 2, 3,..., n
Thus -aij = aji or aij = -aji
⇒ ( A) = 
 1 1 + i  1 1 - i
A=    =A
- +
t
Alternatively we can say that a square matrix A = [aij]nxn is anti-symmetric 1 i 2  1 i 2 

if aij = -aji . Thus A is hermitian.
42 43
hermitian or anti-hermitian if ( A ) = -A.

Skew Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]nxn with complex entries, is called skew- Note: Some authors do not require the condition (iii)
t
From ( A ) = -A, it follows that  a ij/  = [-aij]nxn

0 1 -2 4  1 2 -3 4 
The matrices 0 0 1 2 and 0
 0 1 2  are in echelon form
t
   
n×n
which implies that a ij/ = -aij for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n. 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 1 

but by the deinition of transpose, a ij/ = a ji for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ...., n. 0 0 1 2 0 1 -2 
Thus -aij = a ji or aij = -a ji , for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ...., n. but the matrices 0 1 3 -1 and 0 0 -1 are not in echelon form.
   
and we can conclude that a square matrix A = [aij]nxn is anti-hermitian if aij = -a ji 0 0 0 0  0 0 4 
For diagonal elements j = i, so aii = -a ii ⇒ aii + -a ii = 0

which holds if aii = 0 or aii = iλ where λ is real
Reduced Echelon Form of a Matrix: An m x n matrix A is said to be in reduced (row)
because 0 + 0 = 0 or iλ + iλ = iλ - iλ = 0
echelon form if it is in (row) echelon form and if the irst non-zero entry (or leading entry) in
Ri lies in Cj , then all other entries of Cj are zero.
 0 2 + 3i 
For example, if A =   , then
 - +  0 1 0 4  1 2 0 0 
The matrices 0 0 1 2  and 0 0 1 0  are in (row) reduced
2 3i 0
 0 2 + 3i     
A= 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 1 
 -2 + 3i 0 
( A)  0 -2 + 3i   0 2 - 3i 
echelon form.
⇒ =   = (-1)  -2 - 3i  = -A
+
t
 2 3i 0   0  Example 1: Reduce the following matrix to (row) echelon and reduced (row) echelon form,
 2 3 -1 9 
1 -1 2 -3
Thus A is skew-hermitian.
 
3.10 Echelon and Reduced Echelon Forms of Matrices  3 1 3 2 
 2 3 -1 9  1 -1 2 -3
1 -1 2 -3 R 2 3 -1 9  By R1 ↔ R2
   
Solution:
In any non-zero row of a matrix, the irst non-zero entry is called the leading entry of  3 1 3 2   3 1 3 2 
that row. The zeros before the leading entry of a row are named as the leading zero entries 1 -1 2 -3 1 -1 2 -3
  By R2 +( - 2)R1 → R '2
R 0 5 -5 15 R 0 1 -1 3  By R2 → R '2
  and R +( - 3)R → R '   
of the row. 1
0 4 -3 11  0 4 -3 11 
Echelon Form of a Matrix: An m x n matrix A is called in (row) echelon form if 3 1 3 5
1 -1 2 -3 1 0 1 0
i) In each successive non-zero row, the number of zeros before the leading entry is greater
R 0 1 -1 3  By R3 +( - 4)R2 → R '3 R 0 1 -1 3  By R1 +1.R2 → R '1

than the number of such zeros in the preceding row,
   
0 0 -1 -1 0 0 1 -1
ii) Every non-zero row in A precedes every zero row (if any),
iii) The irst non-zero entry (or leading entry) in each row is 1.
44 45
Interchanging R1 and R3 we get..

1 2 -2  0 0 1  1 2 -2  0 0 1 
1 0 0 1  3 4 2  0 1 By R2 + ( - 3)R1 → R'2
By R1 +( - 1)R3 → R '1 0  R 0 -2 8  0 1 -3
R 0 1 0 2      and R + ( - 2) R → R'
  and R + 1.R → R '  2 5 -1  1 0 0  0 1 3  1 0 -2 
0 0 1 -1
3 1 3
2 3 2
1 -1 2 3  1 0 0 1  By - R2 → R'2 ,
1
Thus 0 1 -1 3  and 0 1 0 2  are (row) echelon and reduced (row) echelon forms
we get
     
2
0 0 1 -1 0 0 1 -1 1 2 -2  0 0 1  1 0 6  0 0 -2 

  
3  3  By R3 + ( - 1)R2 → R'3
0 1 -4  0 -  R 0 1 -4  0 -
1 1
 2  2  and R1 + ( - 2) R2 → R'1
of the given matrix respectively.
0 1 3  1 0 -2   7
Let A be a non-singular matrix. If the application of elementary row operations on A I in 2 2
succession reduces A to I, then the resulting matrix is I  A-1 .  0 0 7  1
1
- 
 2 2
 A R3 → R'3 , we have
1
Similarly if the application of elementary column operations on...in succession reduces
By
 I 
7
  1 0 0  - 6 
1 -2  
1 
1 0 6  0
4
   
I
1  By R1 + ( - 6)R3 → R'1
A to I, then the resulting matrix is -1 7 7
0 1 -4  0 1 3  
- - -
A
2 2   2  and R2 + 4R3 → R'2
4 3

R 0 1 0 
 A  I  
Thus A I R I  A and... C .... 
  1 
7 14
-  0 0 1 
-1
 I    A-1  0 0 1  -
2   2 
1 1 1 1 1

   7 14 7 14
 6 
 2 5 -1 - 7 1 
4
Example 2: Find the inverse of the matrix A =  3 4 2   

 
7

Thus the inverse of A is - - -
1
1 2 -2   7 2
4 3
 2 5 -1  1 1
14
 - 
Solution: A =  3 4 2  = 2(-8 - 4) - 5(-6 - 2) -1(6 - 4) = -24 + 40 - 2  7 2 
1
 
14
1 2 -2  Appending I3 below the matrices A, we have
 2 5 -1
= 40 - 26 = 14 As |A| ≠ 0, so A is non-singular. 3 4 2 
 
1 2 -2 
 2 5 -1  1 0 0   
1 0 0 
Appending I3 on the left of the matrix A, we have  3 4 2  0 1 0   
 
1 2 -2  0 0 1  0 1 0 
0 0 1 
 
46 47
Interchanging C1 and C3, we get
 2 5 -1  -1 5 2   1 5 2
3 4 2   2 4 3  -2 4 3 
       6 
1 2 -2   -2 2 1   2 2 1 - 7 1 
4
  C   C   By (-1)C1 D C’1  
7
1 0 0    0 0 1    0 0 1  Thus the inverse of A is  - -
1
       7 2
4 3
     1
 0 1 0 1 
14
0 0 1  1 0 0   -1 0 0   -
0 1 0 0 1 0
       7 2 
1
14
By C2 + (-5)C1 D C’2 and C3 + (-2)C1 D C’3, we have
Rank of a Matrix: Let A be a non-zero matrix. If r is the number of non-zero rows when it is
 
 1 0 
-
reduced to the reduced echelon form, then r is called the (row) rank of the matrix A.
 1 0 0   -2 1 7
0
 -2 14 7   
   - -  1 -1 2 -3 
4
 2 - 7 -3  2 0 7 -7 
 2 -8 -3
2 4 3
.....  C 
7 ..... 
By C2 → C '2  
 1 Example 3: Find the rank of the matrix
 0 0 1  C  0 00 11  B 14 →  3 1 12 -11
.....
   
1 -1 2 -3  1 -1 2 -3
 0 1 0   00 1 00  By R2 + ( -2 ) R1 → R '2
 -1 5 2    Solution:  2 0 7 -7  R 0 2 3 -1
        and R + ( -3) R → R '
-  3 1 12 -11 0 4 6 -2 
14
- 
 1 14 2 
3 1 3
5
1 -1 -3  1 -1 -3 
 1  1
By C1 + (2)C2 D C’1 and C3 + (-7)C2 D C’3 we have 2 2
R 0 2 - By R2 → R '2 R 0 1
 -  By R3 + ( - 4)R2 → R '3
3 1 3
1 0 0   1 0 0   2  2
0 1 0   0 1 0  0 4 -2  0 0 0 
2 2 2
     6  0
6   0 0 1 
 7 - 7 1  ......  By C +  - 6  C → C '  7
4
......   6    3 -
 7  2
7
 C -
1    7
1 
1 0
 
1 1
4
 0  and C +  4  C → C '
2
  3 R 0 1 -  By R1 + 1.R2 → R '1
0
 1 1   4 1
7
7  2
3 1
   - -  0 0 0 0 
1 3 2 2
2
 7 14 2   7 14 2
 
- 2 5 - 1   1 -
1  
 7 14 2   7 2 
1
14 As the number of non-zero rows is 2 when the given matrix is reduced to the reduced
echelon form, therefore, the rank of the given matrix is 2.
48 49
Exercise 3.4 10. Find the rank of the following matrices
 1 -2 5   -3 1 -2  1 -4 -7   3 -1 3 0 -1
If A =  -2 3 -1 and B =  1 0 -1 ,then show that A + B is symmetric. 1 -1 2 1  2
    -5 1  1 2 -1 -3 -2 
i)  2 -6 5 1  ii)    
1.
 5 -1 0   -2 -1 2    1 -2 3 
iii)
2 3 4 2 5 
 3 5 4 -3    
1 2 0 3 -7 4   2 5 -2 -3 3 
If A =  3 2 -1 , show that
 
2.
 -1 3 2 
3.11 System of Linear Equations
i) A + At is symmetric ii) A - At is skew-symmetric.
3. If A is any square matrix of order 3, show that An equation of the form:
i) A + At is symmetric and ii) A - At is skew-symmetric. ax + by = k (i)
4. If the matrices A and B are symmetric and AB = BA, show that AB is symmetric. where a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0, k ≠ 0
5. Show that AAt and AtA are symmetric for any matrix of order 2 x 3. is called a non-homogeneous linear equation in two variables x and y.
i 1 + i 
Two linear equations in the same two variables such as:
6. If A =   ,show that
 -  a1 x + b1 y =
k1 

1 i
a2 x + b2 y =
i) A + ( A ) is hermitian ii) A - ( A ) is skew-hermitian.
k2 
(I)
t t
is called a system of non-homogeneous linear equations in the two variables x and y if

7. If A is symmetric or skew-symmetric, show that A2 is symmetric. constant terms k1, k2 are not both zero.
If in the equation (i), k = 0 , that is, ax + by = 0 , then it is called a
 1 
homogeneous linear equation in x and y.
8. If A = 1 + i  , ind A ( A ) .
If in the system (I), k1 = k2 = 0 , then it is said to be a system of homogenous linear
 
t
 i 
equations in x and y.
An equation of the form:
9. Find the inverses of the following matrices. Also ind their inverses by using row and ax + by + cz = k . . . . (ii)
column operations. is called a non-homogeneous linear equation in three variables x, y and z if a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0
and k ≠ 0. Three linear equations in three variables such as:
 1 2 -3 1 2 -1 1 -3 2 
i)  0 -2 0  ii) 0 -1 3  2 1 0 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
k1 
      
iii)
 -2 -2 2  1 0 2   0 -1 1  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =k2 
k3 
(II)
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z =
50 51
is called a system of non-homogeneous linear equations in the three variables x, y and z, if
2 5 -1  5  1 2 -2  -3
constant terms k1, k2 and k3 are not all zero.
If in the equations (ii) k = 0 that is, ax + by + cz = 0. 3 4 2  11  R  3 4 2  11  BY R 1 ↔ R 3
    
1 2 -2  -3  2 5 -1  5 
then it is called a homogeneous linear equation it x, y and z.
If in the system (II), k1 = k2 = k3 = 0, then it is said to be a system of homogeneous linear
1 2 -2  -3 1 2 -2  -3
R 0 -2 8  20 BY R2 + ( - 3)R1 → R2′ R 0 -2 8  20  BY R3 + ( - 2)R1 → R3′

equations in x ; y and z.
   
A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if the system has a unique
solution or it has ininitely many solutions.  2 5 -1  5  0 1 3  11 
BY - R2 → R2′ , we get
A system of linear equations is said to be inconsistent if the system has no solution. 1
The system (II), consists of three equations in three variables so it is called 3 x 3 linear 2
system but a system of the form:
1 2 -2  -3  1 0 6  17 
0 1 By R1 + ( - 2)R2 → R'1
x - y + 2z = 6
 -4  -10  R 0 1 -4  -10 
2 x + y + 3z =4
   and R + ( - 1), R → R'
0 1 3  11  0 0 7  21  3 2 3
1 0 6  17  1 0 0  -1
By R1 + ( - 6)R3 → R'1
R 0 1 -4  -10 BY R3 → R′3 R 0 1 0  2 

is named as 2 x 3 linear system.
    and R + 4 R , R'
Now we solve the following three 3 x 3 linear systems to determine the criterion for a system 1
0 0 1  3  0 0 1  3 
to be consistent or for a system to be inconsistent. 7 2 3 2
Thus the solution is x = -1, y = 2 and z = 3.

2x + 5 y - z = 5 x + y + 2z = 1 
 
3x + 4 y + 2 z =
11  2x - y + 7z = 11 
The augmented matrix for the system (2) is
x + 2 y - 2 z-=3 3 x + 5 y + 4 z-=3
....(1), (2)
x - y + 2z = 1  1 1 2  1 
  2 -1 7  11 
2 x - 6 y + 5z = 7   
 3 5 4  -3
3 x + 5 y + 4 z-=3
and ....(3)
Adding (-2)R1 to R2 and (-3)R1 to R3, we get

The augmented matrix of the system (1) is
1 1 2  1 1 1 2 1
 2 5 -1  5   2 -1 7  11  R 0 -3 3 9

 3 4 2  11    


   3 5 4  -3 0 2 -2  -6 
1 2 -2  -3
1 1 2  1 1 0 4
   BY R1 + ( -1) R2 → R1′
-1  -3
3 
-1  -3 By - R2 → R2′ R 0 1
    and R + ( -2 ) R → R′
We apply the elementary row operations to the above matrix to reduce it to the equivalent 1
R 0 1
0 2 -2  -6  0 0 0  0 
3
reduced (row) echelon form, that is, 3 2 3
52 53
The system (2) is reduced to equivalent system The third equation 0z = 4 has no solution, so the system as a whole has no solution. Thus the
x + 3z = 4 system is inconsistent.
y-z=-3 We see that in the case of the system (1), the (row) rank of the augmented matrix and the
0z = 0 coeicient matrix of the system is the same, that is, 3 which is equal to the number of the
The equation 0z = 0 is satisied by any value of z. variables in the system (1).
From the irst and second equations, we get Thus a linear system is consistent and has a unique solution if the
x = -3z + 4 .......(a) (row) rank of the coeicient matrix is the same as that of the augmented matrix of the
and y=z-3 ........(b) system.
As z is arbitrary, so we can ind ininitely many values of x and y from equation (a) and (b) In the case of the system ( 2), the (row) rank of the coeicient matrix is the same as that
or the system (2), is satisied by x = 4 - 3t, y = t - 3 and z = t for any real value of t. of the augmented matrix of the system but it is 2 which is less than the number of variables
Thus the system (2) has ininitely many solutions and it is consistent. in the system (2).
Thus a system is consistent and has ininitely many solutions if the (row) ranks of the
1 -1 2  1  coeicient matrix and the augmented matrix of the system are equal but the rank is less
The augmented matrix of the system (3) is  2 -6 5  7 
 
than the number of variables in the system.
 3 5 4  -3
In the case of the system (3), we see that the (row) rank of the coeicient matrix is not
equal to the (row) rank of the augmented matrix of the system.
Adding (-2)R1, to R2 and (-3)R1, to R3 we have Thus we conclude that a system is inconsistent if the (row) ranks of the coeicient matrix
and the augmented matrix of the system are diferent.
1 -1 2  1  1 -1 2  1 
 2 -6 5  7  R 0 -4 1  5 
3.11.1 Homogeneous Linear Equations
   
 3 5 4  -3 0 8 -2  -6  Each equation of the system of following linear equations:
 1 0  .( i ) 
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 =

0  .( ii ) 
  - 
1 -1 2  1  a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 =
7
1 0
 
0  .( iii ) 
  5  By R1 + 1.R2 → R1′
4 4
R 0 1 - 
 -  By - R2 → R2′ R 0 1 -  - a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 =
 4  and R3 + ( -8 ) R2 → R3′
1 5 1 1
 4
0 8 -2  -6  0 0 0  4  is always satisied by x1 = 0, x2 = 0 and x3 = 0, so such a system is always consistent. The
4 4 4
   
 
solution (0, 0, 0) of the above homogeneous equations (i), (ii), and (iii) is called the trivial
solution. Any other solution of equations (i), (ii) and (iii) other than the trivial solution is
Thus the system (3) is reduced to the equivalent system
called a non-trivial
x+ -z=
7 1
solution. The above system can be written as
0 
4 4
y- -z=  
1 5
AX = O , where O = 0 
0z = 4
4 4
0 
54 55
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

If |A| ≠ 0, then A is non-singular and A-1 exists, that is,
x1 - x2 + 3 x3 = 0  has only the trivial solution,
0 
A-1(AX) = A-1O = O
 x1  0  x1 + 3 x2 - 2 x3 =
(A A )X = O ⇒ X = O , i.e.,  x2  = 0 
 
-1
or
 x  0 
 3
because in this case
In this case the system of homogeneous equations possesses only the trivial solution.
-2 2
Now we consider the case when the system has a non-trivial solution. 1 1 1 1 0 0
A = 1 -1 3 = 1 -2 2 = = 6 - 4= 2 ≠ 0
2 -3
Multiplying the equations (i), (ii) and (iii) by A11, A21 and A31 respectively and adding the
resulting equations (where A11, A21 and A31 are cofactors of the corresponding elements of A), 1 3 -2 1 2 -3
Solving the irst two equations of the above system, we get x1 = -2x3 and x2 = x3. Putting
we have
x1 = -2x3 and x2 = x3 in the expression.

(a11 A11 + a21 A21 + a31 A31)x1 + (a12 A11 + a22 A21 + a32 A31)x2 + (a13 A11 + a23 A21 + a33 A31)x3 = 0, that is,
|A|x1 = 0. Similarly, we can get |A|x2 = 0 and |A|x3 = 0
For a non-trivial solution, at least one of x1, x2 and x3 is diferent from zero. Let x1 ≠ 0 , then x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 , we have - 2x3 + 3(x3) - 2x3 = - x3, that is,
from |A|x1 = 0, we have |A| = 0. the third equation is not satisied by putting x1 = -2x3 and x2 = x3 but it is satisied only if x3 =
For example, the system 0. Thus the above system has only the trivial solution.
x1 + x2 + x3 = ( I) 
3.11.2 Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations
( II ) 
0
x1 - x2 + 3 x3 =
( III )
0
x1 + 3 x2 - x3 =
Now we will solve the systems of non-homogeneous linear equations with help of the
0 following methods.
has a non-trivial solution because i) Using matrices, that is, AX = B ⇒ X = A-1B.
-2 2
1 1 1 1 0 0 ii) Using echelon and reduced echelon forms
A=1 -1 3 =1 -2 2 = =
2 -2
iii) Using Cramer’s rule.
0
1 3 -1 1 2 -2
x1 - 2 x2 + x3 - = 4

Example 1: Use matrices to solve the system 2 x1 - 3 x2 + 2 x3- =6
Solving the irst two equations of the system, we have
2 x1 + 2 x2 + x3 =5 
2x1 + 4x3 = 0 (adding (I) and (II))
⇒ x1 = -2x3
and 2x2 - 2x3 = 0 (subtracting (II) from (I))
⇒
Solution: The matrix form of the given system is
x2 = x3
Putting x1 = -2x3 and x2 = x3 in (III), we see that (-2x3) + 3(x3) - x3= 0, which shows that the
1 -2 1   x1   -4 
equation (I), (II) and (III) are satisied by  2 -3 2-  x  =  6
x1 = -2t, x2 = t and x3 = t for any real value of t.   2  
Thus the system consisting of (I), (II) and (III) has ininitely many solutions. But the system  2 2 1   x3   5 
56 57
or AX = B (i) Example 2: Solve the system;

1 -2 1   x1   -4 
A-=  3= 
- 2 ,X  x2=  and B  6 
      x1 + 3 x2 + 2 x3 =3 

where 2
 2 2 1   x3   5  4 x1 + 5 x2 - 3 x3- =3,
1 -2 1 1 -2 1 42 
3 x1 - 2 x2 + 17 x3 =
As A= 2 -3 2= 0 1 0 By
+ -R2 ( →
2 )R1 R′2
2 2 1 2 2 1 by reducing its augmented matrix to the echelon form and the reduced echelon form.
( -1)
= (1 2 ) =
=- -1 , that is,
2+ 2 1 1 Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is
2 1
1 3 2  3 
 4 5 -3  -3
|A| ≠ 0, so the inverse of A exists and (i) can be written as
 
X = A-1B (ii)
Now we ind adj A.  3 -2 17  42 
We reduce the above matrix by applying elementary row operations, that is,
 -7 2 10 
 A -11 = 7=
,A12 2= ,A13 10= ,A21 4 
 Aij  =  4 -1 -6  ,
  A- = 1,A32 0 ,A33 1  1 3 2  3  1 3 2  3 
 4 5 -3  -3 R 0 -7 -11  -15 By R2 + ( -4 ) R1 → R2′
 22 - 1=- 23= =
6 ,A31 =
3×3
 -1 0 1 
Since ,A
    and R + ( -3) R → R′
 -7 4 -1  3 -2 17  42  0 -11 11  33 
AA=  2 -1 0 
3 1 3
=
 
So adj
10 -6 1  1 3 2  3 
R 0 -11 11  33  By R2 ↔ R3
 -7 4 -1  7 -4 1   
and A-1 = adjA=  2 -1- 0  =  2 1 0 0 -7 -11  -15
   
1 1
-1
10 -6 1   -10 6 -1
A
1 3 2  3  1 3 2  3 
 x1   -4   7 -4 1   -4   -28 + 24 + 5    1  
R 0 1 -1  -3 By  -  R2 → R2′ R 0 1 -1  -3  By R3 + 7 R2 → R3′
 
Thus  x2  = A-1  -6  = -2 1 0   -6  = 8 - 6 + 0  ,i.e.,
 11 
0 -7 -11  -15 0 0 -18  -36 

        
 x3   5   -10 6 -1  5   40 - 36 - 5 
1 3 2  3 
 1
R 0 1 -1  -3 By  -  R3 → R3′
 x1   1     18 
x  =  2  0 0 1  2 
 2  
 x3   -1
Hence x1= 1, x2 = 2 and x3 = - 1.
The equivalent system in the (row) echelon form is
58 59
x1 + 3 x2 + 2 x3 =
3  These are three linear equations in three variables x1, x2, x3 with coeicients and constant

x2 - x3-= 3 terms in the real ield R. We write the above system of equations in matrix form
x3 = 2  as: AX = B (2)
Substituting x3 = 2 in the second equation gives: x2 - 2 = -3 ⇒ x2 = -1

Putting x2 = -1 and x3 = 2 in the irst equation, we have  x1   b1 
where=A =
a=  x  b 
x1 + 3 (-1) + 2(2) = 3 ⇒ x1 = 3 + 3 - 4 = 2. ij  3×3 , X  2
and B
 2
Thus the solution is x1 = 2, x2 = -1 and x3 = 2  x3  b3 
1 3 2  3
We know that
Now we reduce the matrix 0 1 -1  -3 to reduced (row) echelon form, i.e.,
the matrix equation (2) can be written as: X = A-1B (if A-1 exists)
 
0 0 -1  2  Note: A-1(AX) ≠ BA-1
1 3 2  3  1 0 5  12 
We have already proved that A =
-1
0 1 -1  -3 R 0 1 -1  -3 By R1 + ( -3) R2 → R1′
1
adj A and
  
A
0 0 1  2  0 0 1  2 
 A11 A21 A31 
1 0 0  2 
By R1 + ( -5 ) R3 → R1′
Aij′ 
adj A =
= A
 12
A22 A32 
=
 ( A′ Aji )
R 0 1 0  -1
3×3
 A13 A23 A33 
  andR + 1.R → R′
ij
0 0 1  2 
 x1   A11 A31   b1   A11b1 + A21b2 + A31b3 
2 3 2
1  
Thus  x2=  1 
A32 =b2 
A21
+ +
  A   A 
The equivalent system in the reduced (row) echelon form is A12 A22 A b A b A b
 x3   A13 A33  b3   A13b1 + A23b2 + A33b3 
12 1 22 2 32 3
x1 = 2
x2 = - 1
A23
 A11b1 + A21b2 + A31b3 

 
x3 = 2
 x1   
 x  =  A12b1 + A22b2 + A32b3 
which is the solution o f the given system. A
 2  
 x3   
3.12 Cramer’s Rule
A b +A b +A b 
A
 13 1 
 
23 2 33 3
Consider the system of equations, A
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 =

b1 
b1 a12 a13

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 =
b2 
b2 a22 a23
b1 A11 + b2 A21 + b3 A31
b3  =
=
(1)
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 =
b3 a32 a33
Hence x1 (i)
A A
60 61
a11 b1 a13 3 1 -4
1 -4
3 (1 + 8 ) - 1(1 - 4 ) - ( 2 + 1)
a21 b2 a23 1
b1 A12 + b2 A22 + b3 A32 -1 2 1
=
= =
=
a31 b3 a33 (ii)
x2 x3
A A 9 9
27 + 3 - 12 18
a11 a12 b1 = = = 2
9 9
Hence x1 = -1 , x2 = 1, x3 = 2
a21 a22 b2
b1 A13 + b2 A23 + b3 A33
=
=
a31 a32 b3
x3 (iii)
A A Exercise 3.5
The method of solving the system with the help of results (i), (ii) and (iii) is often referred to
1. Solve the following systems of linear equations by Cramer’s rule.
as Cramer’s Rule.
2x + 2 y + z = 3 2 x1 - x2 + x3 = 5  2 x1 - x2 + x3 =8
3 x1 + x2 - x3 = -4    
 i) 3 x - 2 y - 2 z =1 ii) 4 x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 =8 iii) x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 =6
Example 3: Use Crammer’s rule to solve the system. x1 + x2 - 2 x3 = -4 
5 x + y - 3z = 2  3 x1 - 4 x2 - x3 = 3  x1 - 2 x2 - x3 =1 
- x1 + 2 x2 - x3 =1 
3 1 -1
Solution: Here A = 1 1 -2 = 3 ( -1 + 4 ) - 1.( -1 - 2 ) - 1.( 2 + 1)
2. Use matrices to solve the following systems:
-1 2 -1 x - 2 y + z =-1 2 x1 + x2 + 3 x3 =
3  x+ y= 2 
  
=9+3-3=9 i) 3 x + y - 2 z =4 x1 + x2 - 2 x3 =0  iii) 2 x - z =1 
1  -4  -1
ii)
y-z= -3x1 - x2 + 2 x3 = 2 y - 3z =
-4 1 -1
-4 1 -2
-4 ( -1 + 4 ) - 1( 4 + 2 ) - 1( -8 - 1)
3. Solve the following systems by reducing their augmented matrices
1 2 -1
=
=
to the echelon form and the reduced echelon forms.
So x1
9 9
-12 - 6 + 9 -9 x1 - 2 x2 - 2 x-3 = 1 x + 2y + z = 2  x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 =2 
= = = 1   
i) 2 x1 + 3 x2 + x3 = 1  ii) 2 x + y + 2 z =-1 2 x1 + x2 - 2 x3 =9 
1  9  12 
9 9 iii)
-4 -1 3 5 x1 - 4 x2 - 3 x3 = 2x + 3y - z = 3 x1 + 2 x2 - 2 x3 =
1 -4 -2
3 ( 4 + 2 ) + 4 ( -1 - 2 ) - 1(1 - 4 )
4. Solve the following systems of homogeneous linear equations.
-1 1 -1
=
=
x + 2 y - 2z =0 x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 =0 x1 - 2 x2 - x3 =0
x2
9 9
  
18 - 12 + 3 9 i) 2 x + y + 5 z =
0 ii) 2 x1 + x2 - 3 x3 = 0 x1 + x2 + 5 x3 =0
= = = 1
0  0  0 
iii)
9 9 5x + 4 y + 8z = 3 x1 + 2 x2 - 4 x3 = 2 x1 - x2 + 4 x3 =
62 63
3. Matrices and Determinants eLearn.Punjab
5. Find the value of λ for which the following systems have non-trivial solutions. Also solve
the system for the value of λ .
x+ y+z= 0  x1 + 4 x2 + λ x3 =0
 
i) 2 x + y - λ z =0 ii) 2 x1 + x2 - 3 x3 = 0
x + 2 y - 2z = 0  0 
3 x1 + λ x2 - 4 x3 =
6. Find the value of λ for which the following system does not possessa unique solution.
Also solve the system for the value of λ .
x1 + 4 x2 + λ x3 = 2 

2 x1 + x2 - 2 x3 =11 
16 
3 x1 + 2 x2 - 2 x3 =
version: 1.1
64
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
4 Quadratic Equations
Animation 4.1: Completing the square

Source & Credit: 1ucasvb
By Completing Squares, then Extracting Square Roots:

4.1 Introduction Sometimes, the quadratic polynomials are not easily factorable.
For example, consider x2 + 4x - 437 = 0.
It is diicult to make factors of x2 + 4x - 437. In such a case the factorization and hence
A quadratic equation in x is an equation that can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0;
where a, b and c are real numbers and
the solution of quadratic equation can be found by the method of completing the
a ≠ 0.
square and extracting square roots.
Another name for a quadratic equation in x is 2nd Degree Polynomial in x.
Example 2: Solve the equation x2 + 4x - 437 = 0 by completing the squares.
The following equations are the quadratic equations:
i) x2 - 7x + 10 = 0; a = 1, b = -7, c = 10
6x2 + x - 15 = 0; c = -15
x2 + 4x - 437 = 0
ii) a = 6, b = 1,
Solution :
iii) 4x2 + 5x + 3 = 0; a = 4, b = 5, c=3
3x2 - x = 0; a = 3, b = -1, 4
⇒ x2 + 2   x =
iv) c=0
c = -4 2
437
v) x2 = 4; a = 1, b = 0,
4
Add   = (2) 2 to both sides
2
4.1.1 Solution of Quadratic Equations 2

x2 + 4x + (2)2 = 437 + (2)2
⇒
There are three basic techniques for solving a quadratic equation:
(x + 2)2 = 441
i) by factorization.
ii) by completing squares, extracting square roots. ⇒ x + 2 =± 441 =± 21
iii) by applying the quadratic formula. ⇒ x = ± 21 - 2
By Factorization: It involves factoring the polynomial ax2 + bx + c. ∴ x = 19 or x = - 23
It makes use of the fact that if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0. Hence solution set = {- 23, 19}.
For example, if (x - 2) (x - 4) = 0, then either x - 2 = 0 or x - 4 = 0.
By Applying the Quadratic Formula:
Example 1: Solve the equation x2 - 7x + 10 = 0 by factorization. Again there are some quadratic polynomials which are not factorable at all using
integral coeicients. In such a case we can always ind the solution of a quadratic equation
Solution: x2 - 7x + 10 = 0 ax2+bx+c = 0 by applying a formula known as quadratic formula. This formula is applicable
⇒ (x - 2) (x - 5) = 0 for every quadratic equation.
∴ either x - 2 = 0 ⇒x=2 Derivation of the Quadratic Formula
or x-5 =0 ⇒x=5 Standard form of quadratic equation is
∴ the given equation has two solutions: 2 and 5 ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0
∴ solution set = {2, 5} Step 1. Divide the equation by a
Note: The solutions of an equation are also called its roots. x2 + x + =
b c
2 and 5 are roots of x2 - 7x + 10 = 0
0
∴ a a
2 3
Step 2. Take constant term to the R.H.S.

x 2 + x -= -1 ± 361 -1 ± 19
b c
a a = =
12 12
 b 
Step 3. To complete the square on the L.H.S. add   to both sides. -1 + 19 -1 - 19
2
 2a  i.e., x = or x =
x2 + x + 2 = -  3 -5 
12 12
x = or Hence soulation set =  , 
2 2
b b b c
3
2 3 
2
a 4a 4a a
 b  b 2 - 4ac
2
⇒ x+  =2 Example 4: Solve the 8x2 -14x - 15 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
2
 2a  4a
b 2 - 4ac
⇒ x+ ±=
b
Solution: Comparing the given equation with ax2 + bx + c = 0, we get,
a = 8, b = -14, c = -15
2a 2a
b 2 - 4ac
⇒ x-=±
b By the quadratic formula, we have
2a 2a
-b ± b 2 - 4ac -b ± b 2 - 4ac
x = ∴ x=
2a 2a
-(-14) ± (-14) 2 - 4(8)(-15)
∴ x=
Hence the solution of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by
-b ± b 2 - 4ac
2(8)
x =
14 ± 676 14 ± 26
2a = =
14 + 26
which is called Quadratic Formula. 16 16
∴ = ⇒
=
5
Example 3: Solve the equation 6x + x - 15 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
either x x
2 16 2
or ⇒
5 3
2
Solution: Comparing the given equation with ax +bx + c = 0, we get,
a = 6, b = 1, c = - 15 =  , - 
2 4
Hence solution set
∴ The solution is given by
-b ± b 2 - 4ac
x = Exercise 4.1
2a
-1 ± 12 - 4(6)(-15)
=
Solve the following equations by factorization:
2(6) 1. 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 2. x2 + 7x + 12 = 0
3. 9x2 - 12x - 5 = 0 4. x2 -x = 2
4 5
x(x + 7) = (2x - 1)(x + 4)

Example 1: Solve the equation: x - x - 6 =
5. 1 1
x +1 5
2 4
0.
+ = ; x ≠ -1,0
Solution This given equation can be written as ( x ) - x - 6 =
x
x +1
1 1
6. 4 2 4
x 2 0
+= ; x ≠ -1, -2, -5 Let x = y

1 2 7
x +1 x + 2 x + 5
1
7. 4
∴ The given equation becomes

+ =+
a b; x ≠ , y2 - y - 6
a b 1 1
ax - 1 bx - 1
8. =0
⇒ ( y - 3) ( y + 2) = 0
a b
⇒ y = 3, or y = -2
Solve the following equations by completing the square:
x =3 x = -2
1
∴
1
x2 - 2x - 899 = 0 x2 + 4x - 1085 = 0
4 4
9. 10. ⇒ x = (3)4 ⇒
x2 + 6x - 567 = 0 x2 - 3x - 648 = 0
x = (-2)4
11. 12. ⇒ ⇒
x2 - x - 1806 = 0 2x2 + 12x - 110 = 0
x = 81 x = 16
13. 14. Hence solution set is {16, 81}.
Find roots of the following equations by using quadratic formula: Type II: The equation of the form: (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d) = k
5x2 - 13x + 6 = 0 16. 4x2 + 7x - 1 = 0

where a + b = c + d
15.
17. 15x2 + 2ax - a2 =0 18. 16x2 + 8x +1 = 0 Example 2: Solve (x - 7)(x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 5) - 1680
(x - a) (x - b) + (x - b) (x - c) + (x - c) (x - a) = 0
=0
19.
20. (a + b)x2 + (a + 2b + c)x + b + c = 0 Solution: (x - 7)(x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 5) - 1680 =0
⇒ [(x - 7)(x + 5)][(x - 3) (x + 1)] - 1680 = 0 (by grouping)
4.2 Solution of Equations Reducible to the Quadratic Equation ⇒ (x2 - 2x - 35)(x2 - 2x - 3) - 1680 = 0
Putting x2 - 2x = y, the above equation becomes
(y - 35)(y - 3) - 1680 = 0
⇒ y2 - 38y + 105 - 1680 = 0
There are certain types of equations, which do not look to be of degree 2, but they can ⇒ y2 - 38y - 1575 = 0
be reduced to the quadratic form. We shall discuss the solutions of such ive types of the
38 ± 1444 + 6300 38 ± 7744
equations one by one. =
=∴y (by quadratic formula)
2 2
38 ± 88
=
Type I: The equations of the form: ax2n + bxn + c = 0; a ≠ 0
Put xn = y and get the given equation reduced to quadratic equation in y. 2
6 7
⇒ y = 63 or y = -25. Example 4: Solve the equation: 41+x + 41-x = 10

⇒ x2 - 2x = 63 ⇒ x - 2x = - 25
2
⇒ x2 - 2x - 63 =0 ⇒ x2 - 2x + 25 = 0 Solution: Given that

41+x + 41-x = 10
2 ± 4 - 100
⇒ (x + 7)(x - 9) =0 ⇒x = ⇒ 4.4x + 4.4-x = 10
2
⇒ x = -7 or x = 9 2 ± -96 4x = y ⇒ 4=
-x
(4 x=
) -1 y=
-1 1
=
Let
y
2
∴ The given equation becomes
2±4 6 i = 1± 2 6 i
= 4y +
4
- 10 =
0
2 y
⇒ or
⇒ 4y2 - 10y + 4 = 0
{ }
⇒ 2y2 - 5y + 2 = 0
Hence Solution set = -7,9,1 + 2 6 i,1 - 2 6 i
5 ± 25 - 4(2)(2) 5± 9 5±3
∴ =
y = =
Type III: Exponential Equations: Equations, in which the variable occurs in exponent, are 2(2) 4 4
called exponential equations. The method of solving such equations is explained by the
following examples. ⇒ y = 2 or y=
1
2
Example 3: Solve the equation: 22x - 3.2x+2 + 32 = 0 ∴ 4x = 2 ∴

4x =
1
⇒ 22x = 21
2
22x - 3.2x+2 + 32 =0
⇒ 2x = 1 ⇒ 22x = 2-1
Solution:
⇒ 22x - 3.22 . 2x + 32 =0
⇒ 2x = -1
⇒ 22x - 12.2x + 32 =0
⇒ x=
⇒ y2 - 12y + 32 =0
1
⇒
x
(Putting 2 = y)
⇒ (y - 8)(y - 4) =0
2
⇒ y= 8 or y = 4
⇒ 2x = 8 ⇒ 2x = 4 Hence Solution set =  1 , - 1 .
 
2 2
⇒ 2x = 23 ⇒ 2x = 22
⇒ x = 3 ⇒ x = 2 Type IV: Reciprocal Equations: An equation, which remains unchanged when x is replaced
by is called a reciprocal equation. In such an equation the coeicients of the terms equidistant
Hence solution set = {2, 3}. from the beginning and end are equal in magnitude. The method of solving such equations
is explained through the following example:
8 9

x4 - 3x3 + 4x2 - 3x + 1 = 0 ; Exercise 4.2
Solution: Given that: Solve the following equations:

x4 - 3x3 + 4x2 - 3x + 1 = 0
1. x4 - 6x2 + 8 = 0 2. x-2 - 10 = 3x-1
⇒ x 2 - 3x + 4 - + = x-6 - 9x3 + 8 = 0 8x6 - 19x3 - 27 = 0
3 1
0 (Dividing by x2) 3. 4.
x x2
x +8= (x +1) (x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 4) = 24
2 1
 2 1   1
5. 5
6x 5
6.
⇒  x + 2  - 3 x +  + 4 = (x -1)(x + 5)(x + 8)(x + 2) - 880 = 0
 x   x
7.
(x - 5)(x - 7)(x + 6)(x + 4) - 504 = 0
0 (1)
8.
9. (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 8)(x + 5) + 360 = 0
Let ⇒ 10. (x + 1)(2x + 3)(2x + 5)(x + 3) = 945
Hint: (x + 1) (2x + 5)(2x + 3)(x + 3) = 945
So, the equation (1) reduces to 11. (2x - 7)(x2 - 9)(2x + 5) - 91 = 0
y2 - 2 - 3y + 4 = 0 12. (x2 + 6x + 8)(x2 + 14x + 48) = 105
⇒ y2 - 3y + 2 13. (x2 + 6x - 27)(x2 - 2x - 35 ) = 385
14. 4 . 22x+1 - 9.2x + 1 = 0
=0
⇒ (y - 2)(y - 1)
15. 2x + 2-x+6 - 20 = 0
=0
⇒ y =2
16. 4x -3.2x+3+ 128 = 0
or y=1
⇒ x+ = ⇒
⇒ x+ = 17. 32x-1- 12.3x + 81 = 0
1 1
2 1 18.
x x
⇒ x - 2x + 1 ⇒ x - x + 1= 0  1  1
x2+x-4+ + 2 =0 20.  x -  + 3  x +  =
2 2
2
1 1
 x  x
=0 19. 0
x x
⇒ (x - 1)2 =0 ⇒ 21. 2x4 - 3x3 - x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 22. 2x4 + 3x3 - 4x2 - 3x+2 = 0
⇒ (x - 1) (x -1) = 0 23. 6x4 - 35x3 + 62x2 - 35x + 6 = 0 24. x 4 - 6 x 2 + 10 - 6 + 1 =

⇒ x = 1, 1 ⇒
0
x2 x4
Type V: Radical Equations: Equations involving radical expressions of the variable are
Hence Solution set called radical equations. To solve a radical equation, we irst obtain an equation free from
radicals. Every solution of radical equation is also a solution of the radical-free equation but
the new equation have solutions that are not solutions of the original radical equation.
Such extra solutions (roots) are called extraneous roots. The method of the
solution of diferent types of radical equations is illustrated by means of the followings
examples:
10 11
The Equations of the form: l(ax 2 +bx )+m ax 2 + bx + c =

Example 2: Solve the equation:
i) 0
Solution: x + 8 + x +=3 12 x + 13
3 x 2 + 15 x - 2 x 2 + 5 x + 1 =
Squaring both sides, we get
2 x + 8 + x + 3 + 2 x + 8 x + 3= 12 x + 13
x 2 + 5 x + 1 =y
⇒ 2 x + 8 x + 3= 10 x + 2
Solution : Let
⇒ x2 + 5x + 1 = y2
⇒ x2 + 5x = y2 - 1 ⇒ ( x + 8)( x + 3) = 5 x + 1
⇒ 3x2 +15x = 3y2 - 3 Squaring again, we have
∴ The given equation becomes 3y2 - 3 - 2y = 2 x 2 + 11x + 24 = 25x2 + 10x + 1
⇒ 3y2- 2y - 5 = 0 ⇒ 24x 2 - x - 23 = 0
⇒ (3y - 5) (y +1) = 0 ⇒ (24x + 23)(x - 1) = 0
⇒ y= ⇒ -x = or=
y = -1
5 23
x 1
3 or 24
On checking we ind that - 23 is an extraneous root. Hence solution set = {1}.

⇒ x2 + 5x + 1 = ⇒ x2 + 5x + 1 = - 1
5 24
3
iii) The Equations of the form:
⇒ x + 5x + 1 = ⇒
ax 2 + bx + c + px 2 + qx + r= lx 2 + mx + n
2 25
x + 5x + 1 = 1
2
9
⇒ ⇒ x2 + 5x = 0
where ax2 + bx+ c, px2 + qx+ r and lx2 + mx + n have a common factor.
9x 2 + 45x + 9 = 25
⇒ 9x2 + 45x - 16 = 0 ⇒
x 2 + 4 x - 21 + x 2 - x -= 6 x 2 - 5 x - 39
x(x + 5) = 0
⇒ (3x + 16 )(3x -1) = 0 ∴ x = 0 or x = -5
Example3: Solve the equation: 6
∴ x= or- x =
1 16 Solution: Consider that:
3 3 x2 + 4x - 21 = (x + 7)(x- 3)
x2 - x - 6 = (x + 2)(x - 3)
6x2 - 5x -39 = (6x+ 13)(x-3)
On checking, it is found that 0 and - 5 do not satisfy the given equation. Therefore 0
∴
and -5 being extraneous roots cannot be included in solution set.
The given equation can be written as
Hence solution set ( x + 7)( x - 3) + ( x + 2)( x - 3) = (6 x + 13)( x - 3)
⇒ x - 3  x + 7 + x + 2 - 6 x + 13  =
x + a + x + b= x+c
0
ii) The Equation of the form :
∴ Either x=
- 3 0 or x + 7 + x + 2 - 6 x +
= 13 0
12 13
x-3 =0 ⇒ x-3 = 0 ⇒x = 3 ∴ 3 x 2 - 7 x - 30 =
x + 7 + x + 2 - 6 x + 13 =
x
Now solve the equation 0 ⇒ 3x2 - 7x - 30 = x2
⇒ x + 7 + x + 2= 6 x + 13 ⇒ 2x2 - 7x - 30 = 0
⇒ x + 7 + x + 2 + 2 ( x + 7)( x + 2) = 6 x + 13 (Squaring both sides) ⇒ (2x + 5)(x - 6 ) = 0
⇒ 2 ( x + 7)( x + 2) = 4 x + 4 ⇒ x = - ,6
5
⇒ x 2 + 9 x + 14 = 2 x + 2
2
⇒ On checking, we ind that - is an extraneous root.

5
x 2 + 9x + 14 = 4x 2 + 8x + 4 (Squaring both sides again)
⇒ 3x2 - x - 10 = 0
2
Hence solution set = { 6 }
⇒ (3x + 5)(x - 2 ) = 0
Exercise 4.3
⇒ x = - ,2
5
3
Solve the following equations:
Thus possible roots are 3, 2, - .
5
3 1. 3x 2 + 2 x - 3x 2 + 2 x - 1 =
3 2. x2 - - 7 = x - 3 2 x 2 - 3x + 2
On veriication, it is found that -
5
is an extraneous root. Hence solution set = {2, 3}
3 3. 2x + 8 + x + 5 =7 4. 3x + 4 = 2 + 2 x - 4
x + 7 + x + 2= 6 x + 13 x2 + x + 1 - x2 + x - 1 =
The Equations of the form: ax + bx + c + px + qx + r = mx + n
2 2 5. 6. 1
iv)
where, (mx + n) is a factor of (ax2 + bx + c) - (px2 + qx + r) 7. x2 + 2 x - 3 + x2 + 7 x - =
8 5( x 2 + 3 x - 4)
8. 2 x 2 - 5 x - 3 + 3 2 x +=
1 2 x 2 + 25 x + 12
Example 4: Solve the equation: 3 x 2 - 7 x - 30 - 2 x 2 - 7 x - 5 =x - 5 9. 3 x 2 - 5 x + 2 + 6 x 2 - 11x +=
5 5x2 - 9 x + 4
( x + 4)( x + 1)= x 2 + 2 x - 15 + 3 x + 31
Solution: Let 3 x =
- 7 x - 30 a and 2 x= - 7x - 5
10.
3x 2 - 2 x + 9 + 3x 2 - 2 x - 4 =
2 2
b
Now a2 - b2 = ( 3x2 - 7x - 30 ) - (2x2 - 7x - 5) 11. 13
a2 - b2 = x2 -25 (i) 12. 5 x 2 + 7 x + 2 - 4 x 2 + 7 x + 18 =x - 4
The given equation can be written as:
a-b=x-5 (ii) 4.3 Three Cube Roots of Unity
(a + b)(a - b) ( x + 5)( x - 5)
=
a -b x-5
[From (i) and (ii)]
Let x be a cube root of unity
⇒ ∴ x = 1 = (1)
1
a+b= x+5 (iii) 3 3
2a = 2x [From (ii) and (iii)] ⇒

⇒
x3 = 1
a=x ⇒ x3 - 1 = 0
14 15
⇒ (x - 1)(x2 + x + 1) = 0
Either x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1  -1 - 3i   (1 + 3i ) 
(b)   = - 
2 2
   
or x2 + x + 1 = 0
2 2
-1 ± 1 - 4 -1 ± -3
=
∴ x = (1) 2 + ( 3 i ) 2 + (2)(1)( 3 i )
2 2 =
4
-1 ± 3i 1 - 3 + 2 3i -2 + 2 3i
=
⇒ x = ( -1 i ) =
=
2 4 4
 -1 + 3 i 
Thus the three cube roots of unity are: = 2 
 
-1 + 3i -1 - 3i
4
-1 + 3 i
=
1, and
2 2
2
Note: We know that the numbers containing i are called complex numbers. So Hence each complex cube root of unity is square of the other.
-1 + 3i -1 - 3i
-1 + 3 i -1 - 3 i
are called complex or imaginary cube roots of unity.
= w , then = w2 ,
and
2 2
Note: if
2 2
-1 - 3 i -1 + 3 i
= w , then = w 2 [ w is read as omega]
*By complex root we mean, a root containing non-zero imaginary part.
and if
2 2
4.3.1 Properties of Cube Roots of Unity
ii) The Sum of all the three cube roots of unity is zeroi.e. 1 + w + w 2 = 0
i) Each complex cube root of unity is square of the other
Proof: We know that cube roots of unity are
 -1 + 3 i  (-1) 2 + ( 3 i ) 2 + 2(-1)( 3 i ) -1 + 3 i -1 - 3 i
Proof: (a)   =
2
 
1, and
2 4 2 2
1- 3 - 2 3 i -2 - 2 3 i -1 + 3 i -1 - 3 i
== Sum of all the three cube roots = 1+
2
+
2
2 -1+ 3 i -1- 3 i 0
4 4
 -1 - 3 i  = = = 0
= 2 
 
2 2
-1 + 3i -1 - 3i
4
=
= if w , then w 2
-1 - 3 i
=
2 2
2 Hence sum of cube roots of unity =1 + w + w 2 =0
16 17
The product of all the three cube roots of unity is unity i.e., w = 1 Example 2: Prove that: =( - 1 + -3) 4 + ( - 1 - -3) 4 =-16
3
iii)
-1 + 3i -1 - 3i
=
Proof:=Let w and w2 Solution: L.H.S = ( - 1 + -3) 4 + ( - 1 - -3) 4
  -1 + -3     -1 - -3  
2 2
= + 2   2  
4 4
 -1 + 3i  -1 - 3i 
∴ 1.w.w 2 =
     2     2  
   = (2w ) 4 + (2w 2 ) 4  -1 + -3
=w
2 2
(-1) 2 - ( 3i ) 2 Let
= = 16w 4 + 16w 8  2
= 16(w 4 + w 8 ) 
1 - ( -3) 1 + 3 
4
= = ∴ -1 - -3 = w2

w = = 16 w 3 . w + w 6 . w 2 
4 4
⇒ 3
2
1
= 16(w + w 2 )  w= w=
∴ = w=
=16( - 1)
3 3 6
Product of the complex cube roots of unity 1. 1
 w + w 2- =
For any n ∈ z,w n is equivalent to one of the cube roots of unity. = - 16=R.H.S
1
With the help of the fact that w 3 = 1, we can easily reduce the higher exponent of w to
iv)
its lower equivalent exponent. 4.4 Four Fourth Roots of Unity

=
e.g. w4 w=
3
.w 1. w
= w
w
= w
= .w 1 .w
= w
Let x be the fourth root of unity
∴ =
=
5 3 2 2 2
w6
= w 3 )2
(= =
1
4 4
(1) 2 1 x 1 (1)
w15
= w 3 )5
(= =
(1)5 1 ⇒ x4 = 1
w 27
= w 3 )9
(= =
⇒ x4 - 1 =
(1)9 1
w
= 11
w=
.w
9 2
(w =
) . w (1)
3 3 2
= .w w3 2 2 0
=w -1 w -3 .w 2
= (w=) .w 2 w 2
3 -1
⇒ ( x 2 - 1)( x 2 + 1) =
w -5
= w -6 .w
= (w=) .w w
0
3 -2
w -12 (w=
= 3 -4
) =
(1) -4 1 ⇒ x 2 - 1 =0 ⇒ x 2 =1 ⇒ x =±1
Example 1: Prove that: (x3 + y 3 ) =(x + y )(x + w y )(x + w 2 y ) and x 2 + 1 =0 ⇒ x 2 =-1 ⇒ x =±i.
Solution : R .H.S =(x + y )(x + w y )(x + w 2 y )
=(x + y )[x 2 + (w + w 2 )yx + w 3 y 2 ]
Hence four fourth roots of unity are:
+ 1 ,- 1 , + i, - i.
=+(x y )(x 2 - xy + y 2 ) =
x3 + y 3 { w 3 =
1,w + w 2 =
-1}
= L.H.S.
18 19
4.4.1 Properties of four Fourth Roots of Unity 4. If w is a root of x2 + x + 1 = 0, show that its other root is w2 and prove that w3 = 1.
1 + 3i 1 - 3i
We have found that the four fourth roots of unity are: 5. Prove that complex cube roots of -1 are and and hence prove that
+ 1 ,- 1 , + i , - i
2 2
 1 + -3   1 - -3 
  + -  =
9 9
i) Sum of all the four fourth roots of unity is zero
 + 1 + (-1) + i + (-i ) =0 2. .
 2   2 
If w is a cube root of unity, form an equation whose roots are 2w and 2w2.
+1 and -1 are the real fourth roots of unity
ii) The real fourth roots of unity are additive inverses of each other 6.
7. Find four fourth roots of 16, 81, 625.
and +1 + (-1) = 0 = (-1) + 1
iii) Both the complex/imaginary fourth roots of unity are conjugate of each other
i and - i are complex / imaginary fourth roots of unity, which
8. Solve the following equations:
2 x 4 - 32 = 3 y 5 - 243 y =
are obviously conjugates of each other.
i) 0 ii) 0
iv) Product of all the fourth roots of unity is -1 iii) x3 + x 2 + x + 1 =0 iv) 5 x5 - 5 x =

0
∴ 1 × ( - 1) × i × ( - i ) =-1
4.5 Polynomial Function:

Exercise 4.4
Find the three cube roots of: 8, - 8, 27, -27, 64.

A polynomial in x is an expression of the form
1.
an x n + an-1 x n-1 + .... + a1n x + a0 , an ≠ 0

2. Evaluate:
(1 + w - w ) w + w + 1 iii) (1 + w - w )(1 - w + w )
2 8 28 29 2 2
(i)
i) ii)
 -1 + -3   -1 - -3 
where n is a non-negative integer and the coeicients an , an-1 ,...., a1 and a0 are real numbers. It
  +  (-1 + -3) + (-1 - 3)
9 7
   
5 5
iv) v) can be considered as a Polynomial function of x. The highest power of x in polynomial in
2 2
x are called the degree of the polynomial. So the expression (i), is a polynomial of degree n.
The polynomials x 2 - 2 x + 3, 3 x3 + 2 x 2 - 5 x + 4 are of degree 2 and 3 respectively.
3. Show that:
i) x3 - y 3 = (x - y )(x - w y )(x - w 2 y )
Consider a polynomial; 3 x3 - 10 x 2 + 13 x - 6.
ii) x3 + y 3 + z 3 - 3 xyz = (x + y + z )(x + w y + w 2 z )(x + w 2 y + w z )
If we divide it by a linear factor x - 2 as shown below, we get a quotient x 2 - 4 x + 5 and
iii) (1 + w )(1 + w 2 )(1 + w 4 )(1 + w 8 )....2n factors =
1 a remainder 4 .
Hint: 1 + w 4 =+
1 w 3 . w =+
1-w =+w 2 ,1=+
w 8 1 w=+
6
. w-2 1=w 2 w
20 21
Example 1: Find the remainder when the polynomial x3 + 4 x 2 - 2 x + 5 is divided by x - 1.

3x - 4 x + 5
2
divisor → x - 2 3 x3 - 10 x 2 + 13 x - 6 ← dividend Solution: Let f(x) = x3 + 4x2 - 2x + 5 and x - a = x - 1 ⇒ a = 1

3x3 - 6 x 2 Remainder = f(1) (By remainder theorem)
- = (1)3 +4(1)2 - 2(1) + 5
= 1+4-2+5
+
- 4x 2 + 13 x
- 4x 2 + 8 x
=8
Example 2: Find the numerical value of k if the polynomial x3 + kx 2 - 7 x + 6 has a remainder
-
of - 4, when divided by x + 2.
+
5x - 6
5x - 10 Solution: Let f(x) = x3 + kx2 - 7x + 6 and x - a = x + 2, we have, a = -2
- + Remainder = f(-2) (By remainder theorem)
← remainder = (-2)3 + k (-2) 2 - 7(-2) + 6
= -8 + 4k + 14 + 6
4
Hence we can write: 3 x3 - 10 x 2 + 13 x - 6 = ( x - 2)(3 x 2 - 4 x + 5) + 4 = 4k + 12

Given that remainder = - 4
4k + 12 = - 4
i.e., dividend = (divisor) (quotient) + remainder.
∴
⇒ 4k = -16
4.6 Theorems: ⇒ k=-4
Factor Theorem: The polynomial x - a is a factor of the polynomial f ( x ) if and only if
Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial f(x) of degree n ≥ 1 , n is non-negative integer is divided f ( a ) = 0 i.e.; (x - a) is a factor of f ( x ) if and only if x = a is a root of the polynomial equation
by x - a till no x-term exists in the remainder, then f(a) is the remainder. f ( x ) = 0.
Proof: Suppose we divide a polynomial f(x) by x - a. Then there exists a unique quotient q(x) Proof: Suppose g (x) is the quotient and R is the remainder when a polynomial f (x) is divided
and a unique remainder R such that f(x) = (x - a)(qx) + R (i) by x - a, then by Remainder Theorem
Substituting x = a in equation (i), we get f (x) = ( x - a ) g (x) + R
f (a) = (a - a)q(a) + R ⇒R=0
⇒
Since f (a ) = 0
f (a) = R ∴ f (x) = ( x - a ) g (x)
Hence remainder = f (a) ∴ ( x - a ) is a factor of f(x).
Conversely, if ( x - a ) is a factor of f(x), then
Note: Remainder obtained when f(x) is divided by x - a is same as the value of the polynomial R = f (a ) = 0
f(x) at x = a. which proves the theorem.
22 23
Note: To determine if a given linear polynomial x - a is a factor of f(x), all we need to check Example 4: Use synthetic division to ind the quotient and the
whether f(a) = 0. remainder when the polynomial x 4 - 10 x 2 - 2 x + 4 is divided by x + 3.
Solution: Let f(x) = x4 - 10x2 - 2x + 4

Example 3: Show that (x - 2) is a factor of x - 13 x + 36 .
= x4 + 0x3 - 10x2 - 2x + 4
4 2
and x - a = x + 3 = x - (-3) ⇒ x = -3
Solution: Let f ( x ) = x 4 - 13 x 2 + 36 and x - a = x - 2 ⇒ a = 2
Dividend x4 - 10x2 - 2x + 4
Now f(2) = (2)4 - 13(2)2 + 36
= 16 - 52 + 36
= 0 = remainder
⇒ (x - 2) is a factor of x 4 - 13 x 2 + 36
4.7 Synthetic Division
There is a nice shortcut method for long division of a ∴ Quotient = x3 - 3x 2 - x + 1

polynomial f ( x ) by a polynomial of the form x - a. This process of division is called Remainder = 1
Synthetic Division.
To divide the polynomial px3 + qx2 + cx+d by x - a Example 5: If (x - 2) and (x + 2) are factors of x 4 - 13 x 2 + 36 . Using synthetic division, ind the
other two factors.
Solution: Let f(x) = x4 - 13x2 + 36

= x4 + 0x3 - 13x2 - 0x + 36
Here x - a = x - 2 ⇒ x = 2 and x - a = x + 2 = x- (-2) ⇒ x = -2
By synthetic Division:
Out Line of the Method:

i) Write down the coeicients of the dividend f (x) from left to right in decreasing
order of powers of x. Insert 0 for any missing terms.
ii) To the left of the irst line, write a of the divisor ( x - a ) .
iii) Use the following patterns to write the second and third lines:
Vertical pattern ( ↓ ) Add terms ∴ Quotient = x2 + 0x - 9
Diagonal pattern (  ) Multiply by a. = x2 - 9
24 25
= (x + 3)(x - 3)
x2 + x - 2 = 0
Depressed Equation:
∴ Other two factors are (x + 3) and (x - 3).
⇒ (x + 2) (x - 1) = 0 ⇒ x = -2 or x = 1
Example 6: If x + 1 and x - 2 are factors of x3 + px 2 + qx + 2 . By use of synthetic division ind Hence Solution set = {-2, -1, 1, 2}.
the values of p and q.
Solution: Here x - a = x + 1 ⇒ a = -1 and x - a = x - 2 ⇒ a = 2 Exercise 4.5

Let f ( x ) = x3 + px 2 + qx + 2
Use the remainder theorem to ind the remainder when the irst polynomial is divided by
the second polynomial:
By Synthetic Division:
x2 + 3x + 7 , x + 1 x3 - x2 + 5x + 4 , x-2
3x4 + 4x3 + x - 5 , x3 - 2x2 + 3x + 3
1. 2.
3. x+1 4. , x-3
Use the factor theorem to determine if the irst polynomial is a

factor of the second polynomial.
x - 1, x2 + 4x - 5 x - 2, x3 + x2 - 7x + 1
Since x + 1 and x - 2 are the factors of f ( x )
w + 2, 2w3 + w2- 4w + 7
5. 6.
x - a, xn - an where n is a positive
∴ p-q+1=0
7. 8.
(i)
integer
x + a, xn + an where n is an odd integer.
and p + q + 3 = 0 (ii)
⇒ p = -2
9.
10. When x 4 + 2 x3 + kx 2 + 3 is divided by x - 2 the remainder is 1. Find
Adding (i) & (ii) we get 2p + 4 = 0
from (i) -2 - q + 1 = 0 ⇒ q = -1
the value of k.
11. When the polynomial x + 2 x + kx + 4 is divided by x - 2 the remainderis 14. Find the
3 2
value of k.
Example 7: By the use of synthetic division, solve the equation
x - 5x + 4 =
4 2
0 if -1 and 2 are its roots.
Use Synthetic division to show that x is the solution of the polynomial and use the
result to factorize the polynomial completely.
12. x3 - 7 x +=
6 0, =
x 2 13. x3 - 28 x - 48 =
0 , - x =4
14. 2 x 4 + 7 x3 - 4 x 2 - 27 x - 18 , x=
2 ,- x =3
Use synthetic division to ind the values of p and q if x + 1 and x - 2 are the factors of
f (x) = x - 0x - 5x + 0x + 4
15.
the polynomial x3 + px 2 + qx + 6 .
4 3 2
Solution:
26 27
16. Find the values of a and b if -2 and 2 are the roots of the polynomial x3 - 4 x 2 + ax + b . Solution: Since a , b are the roots of ax 2 + bx + c= 0 , a ≠ 0
4.8 Relations Between the Roots and the Coeficients of a ∴ a +b =- and ab =

b c
a a
a2 + b2 =( a + b )2 - 2ab
Quadratic Equation
i)
Let a , b are the roots of ax 2 + bx + c= 0 , a ≠ 0 such that  b c b 2c b 2 - 2ca

=-
  - 2   =2 - = 2
2 2
 a a a
-b + b - ac -b - b 2 - 4ac
b=
a a
a2 b2 a 3 + b 3 (a + b )3 - 3ab (a + b )
+ = =
and
b a ab ab
2a ii)
-b + b 2 - 4ac -b - b 2 - 4ac  b c b -b3 + 3abc

∴ a=
+b + -  -3 - 
3
=
a a c
2a 2a = a3
-b + b 2 - 4ac - b - b 2 - 4ac
c c
= - - ==
2b b
-b + 3abc
a a
=
2a 2a a 3
 -b + b 2 - 4ac  -b - b 2 - 4ac 
ab =   
a 2c
  
   (a - b ) 2 =(a + b ) 2 - 4ab
and
2 a 2 a iii)
(-b) 2 - ( b 2 - 4ac ) 2  b c b c b 2 - 4ac

= =
 -  - 4   =2 - 4 = 2
2 2
 a a a
4a 2 a a
b 2 - b 2 + 4ac 4ac
= =2 = 2
Example 2: Find the condition that one root of ax 2 + bx + c= 0 , a ≠ 0 is square of the other.
c
4a 4a a
Sum of the roots = S - =-

0 is square of the other, let the roots be a and a 2
b coefficient of x
a coefficient of x 2 Solution: As one root of ax 2 + bx + c =
Product of the roots = P= = Sum of roots a + a 2 =

-
c constant term b
(i)
a coefficient of x 2 a
Product of roots= a . a 2 = ⇒a3 =
The above results are helpful in expressing symmetric functions of the roots in terms c c
(ii)
a a
of the coeicients of the quadratic equations.
Example 1: If a , b are the roots of ax 2 + bx + c= 0 , a ≠ 0, ind the values of
a2 b2
a +b + ( a - b )2
b a
2 2
i) ii) iii)
28 29
Cubing both sides of (i), we get y2 -(Sum of roots) y + Product of roots = 0
a + a + 3aa (a + a ) = - 3 ⇒ y2 + y+ = ⇒ ay 2 + 2by + 4c =
b3 2b 4c
3 6 2 2 0 0
a a a
⇒ a + (a ) + 3a (a + a -) =3
3 3 2 3 2 b3
a
Exercise 4.6
c c c b
⇒ +   + 3  - -= 3
2 3
b
a a a a If a , b are the root of 3x2 - 2x + 4 = 0, ind the values of
(From (i), (ii))
a
⇒ a 2c + ac 2 - 3abc
-=
1.
a b
b3
+ + a4 + b 4
a b b a
1 1
i) 2 2
ii) iii)
4.9 Formation of an Equation Whose Roots are Given
a3 + b 3 + a2 - b 2
a3 b3
1 1
iv) v) vi)
∴ (x - a )(x - b ) =
0 has the roots a and b
If a , b are the root of x2 - px - p - c = 0, prove that
x 2 - (a + b )x + ab =
0 has the roots a and b .
2.
⇒ (1 + a )(1 + b ) = 1 - c
For S = Sum of the roots and P = Product of the roots. 3. Find the condition that one root of x2 + px + q = 0 is
i) double the other ii) square of the other
Thus x2 - Sx + P = 0 iii) additive inverse of the other
iv) multiplicative inverse of the other.
Example 3: If a , b are the root of ax 2 + bx + c =0 form the equation whose roots are double 4. If the roots of the equation x2 - px + q = 0 difer by unity, prove that p 2 = 4q + 1.
+ =
the roots of this equation. a b
x-a x-b
5. Find the condition that 5 may have roots equal in magnitude but opposite
Solution:  a and b are the root of ax 2 + bx + c =

in signs.
0
a b
∴ a + b - = and ab = If the roots of px2 + qx + q = 0 are a and b then prove that + + =
b a
q
b c 6. 0.
a a p
The new roots are 2 a and 2 b . 7. If a , b are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, form the equations whose roots
∴ Sum of new roots = 2 a +2 b are
= 2( a + b ) = - a 2 ,b 2
a b a
b2
2b 1 1 1 1
i) ii) , iii) 2
,
a
Product of new roots= 2 a .2 b = 4ab = a3 ,b 3 vi) a + , b +
a b a b
4c 1 1 1 1
iv) v) 3
, 3
a
Required equation is given by
30 31
Example 1: Discuss the nature of the roots of the following equations:

(a - b ) 2 , (a + b ) 2 viii) - ,-
a b3
1 1
2x2 + 5x - 1 = 0
vii) 3
i) x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 ii)
8. If a , b are the roots of the 5x2 - x - 2 = 0, form the equation whose roots are iii) 2x2 - 7x+ 3 = 0 iv) 9x2- 12x + 4 = 0
a b
3 3
and . Solution:
9. If a , b are the roots of the x2 - 3x + 5 = 0, form the equation whose roots are i) Comparing x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 with ax2 +bx + c = 0, we have
1-a 1- b
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
Discriminant ( Disc) = b2 - 4ac
1+a 1+ b
.
= (2)2 - 4 (1)(3) = 4 - 12 = -8
and
⇒ Disc < 0
∴ The roots are complex / imaginary and distinct / unequal.
4.10 Nature of the roots of a quadratic equation ii) Comparing 2x2 + 5x - 1 = 0 with ax2 +bx + c = 0, we have
a = 2, b = 5, c = -1
We know that the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by the Disc = b2 - 4ac
= (5)2 - 4(2) (-1)
-b ± b 2 - 4ac
quadratic formula as: x =
= 25 + 8 = 33
2a ⇒ Disc > 0 but not a perfect square.
We see that there are two possible values for x, as discriminated by the part of the ∴ The roots are irrational and unequal.
formula ± b 2 - 4ac . iii) Comparing 2x2 - 7x + 3 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 we have
a = 2, b = - 7, c = 3
The nature of the roots of an equation depends on the value of the expression b2 - 4ac, Disc = b2 - 4ac
= ( -7)2 - 4 (2) (3)
= 49 - 24 = 25 = 52
which is called its Discriminant.
Case 1: If b2 - 4ac = 0 then the roots will be - and -

b b
So, the ⇒ Disc > 0 and a perfect square.
roots are real and repeated equal.
2a 2a ∴ The roots are irrational and unequal.
Comparing 9x2 - 12x +4 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0,we have
If b2 - 4ac < 0 then b 2 - 4ac will be imaginary
iv)
a = 9, b = -12, c = 4
Case 2:
Disc = b2 - 4ac
So, the roots are complex / imaginary and distinct / unequal
If b2 - 4ac > 0 then b 2 - 4ac will be real.
= (-12)2- 4 (9) (4)
Case 3:
= 144 -144 = 0
So, the roots are real and distinct / unequal.
However, If b2 - 4ac is a perfect square then b 2 - 4ac will be rational, and so the ⇒ Disc = 0
roots are rational, otherwise irrational. ∴ The roots are real and equal.
32 33
Example 2: For what values of m will the following equation have The roots will be equal, if the discriminant = 0
equal root? (m + 1)x 2 + 2(m + 3)x + 2m +=
3 0 ,m ≠ -1 This is possible only if a - b = 0, b - c = 0, c - a = 0 i.e., if a = b = c.
Solution: Comparing the given equation with ax2 + bx + c = 0 Exercise 4.7

a =m + 1,b =2(m + 3) ,c =2m + 3
Disc = b2 - 4ac 1. Discuss the nature of the roots of the following equations:
= [2(m + 3)]2 - 4(m + 1)(2m + 3) i) 4 x2 + 6 x + 1 =0 ii) x2 - 5x + 6 =0
= 4(m 2 + 6m + 9) - 4(2m 2 + 5m + 3) iii) 2 x2 - 5x + 1 =0 iv) 25 x 2 - 30 x + 9 =0
-= 4+m 2 4+m 24 2. Show that the roots of the following equations will be real:
 1
The roots of the given equation will be equal, if Disc. = 0 i.e.,
-4m 2 + 4m + 24 = x 2 - 2  m +  x + 3= 0; m • 0
 m
if 0 i)
⇒ m -m-6=
2
(b - c)x 2 + (c - a )x + (a -=
b) 0;a,b,c ∈ Q
0
⇒ (m - 3)(m + 2) =⇒
0 m= 3 or m =-2 ii)
Hence if m = 3 or m = -2, the roots of the given equation will be equal. 3. Show that the roots of the following equations will be rational:
i) (p + q )x 2 - px - q =0; ii) px 2 - ( p - q )x - q =0;
Example 3:Show that the roots of the following equation are real 4. For what values of m will the roots of the following equations be equal?
(x - a )(x - b) + (x - b)(x - c) + (x - c)(x - a ) =
0 i) (m + 1)x 2 + 2(m + 3)x + m + 8 =
0
x 2 - 2(1 + 3m)x + 7(3 + 2m) =
Also show that the roots will be equal only if a = b = c.
ii) 0
Solution: (x - a )(x - b) + (x - b)(x - c) + (x - c)(x - a ) = iii) (1 + m)x 2 - 2(1 + 3m)x + (1 + 8m) =

0
Show that the roots of x 2 + (mx + c) 2 =
a 2 will be equal, if=
c 2 a 2 (1 + m 2 )
0
⇒ x - ax - bx + ab + x - bx - cx + bc + x - cx - ax + ac =
2 2 2
0 5.
⇒ 3 x 2 - 2(a + b + c)x + ab + bc + ca =
Show that the roots of (mx + c)2 = 4ax will be equal,= ;m≠0
0
Disc = b2 - 4ac
a
6. if c
m
= [2( a + b + c)]2 - 4(3)(ab + bc + ca ) x 2 (mx + c) 2
Prove that 2 +
= 4(a + b + c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca - 3ab - 3bc - 3ca)
7. 2
=1 will have equal roots, if c2 = a2m2 + b2; a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0
2 2 2 a b
= 4(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 - ab - bc - ca ) 8. Show that the roots of the equation (a2 - bc)x2 + 2(b2 - ca)x + c2 - ab = 0 will be equal, if
= 2(2a 2 + 2b 2 + 2c 2 - 2ab - 2bc - 2ca ) either a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc or b = 0.
= 2[a 2 + b 2 - 2ab + b 2 + c 2 - 2bc + c 2 + a 2 - 2ca ]
= 2[(a - b) 2 + (b - c) 2 + (c - a) 2 ] 4.11 System of Two Equations Involving Two Variables
= 2(Sum of three squares)
Thus the discriminant cannot be negative. We have, so far, been solving quadratic equations in one variable. Now we shall be
Hence the roots are real. solving the equations in two variables, when at least one of them is quadratic. To determine
34 35
the value of two variables, we need a pair of equations.Such a pair of equations is called a Example 2: Solve the following equations:
system of simultaneous equations. x 2 + y 2 +=
4 x 1 and x 2 + (y -=
1) 2 10
No general rule for the solution of such equations can be laid down except that some
how or the other, one of the variables is eliminated and the resulting equation in one variable Solution: The given system of equations is
is solved.
 x 2 + y 2 + 4 x =
 2
1 (i)
Case I: One Linear Equation and one Quadratic Equation  x + y - 2 y + 1 =
2
10 (ii)
If one of the equations is linear, we can ind the value of one variable in terms of the Subtraction gives,
other variable from linear equation. Substituting this value of one variable in the quadratic 4x + 2 y + 8 =0
equation, we can solve it. The procedure is illustrated through the following examples: ⇒ 2x + y + 4 =0
⇒ y= -2 x - 4 (iii)
Example 1: Solve the system of equations:
x + y = 7 and x2 - xy + y2 = 13
Putting the value of y in equation (i),
x 2 + ( - 2x - 4) 2 + 4 x =⇒
1 x 2 + 4 x 2 + 16 x + 16 + 4 x =1
⇒ 5 x 2 + 20 x + 15 = ⇒ x + 4x + 3 =
Solution: x + y = 7 ⇒ x = 7 - y
0 0
⇒ (x + 3)(x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = -3 or x = -1
(i)
Substituting the value of x in the equation x2 - xy + y2 = 13 we have
(7 - y)2 - y(7 - y)+ y2 = 13
Putting x = -3 in (iii), we get; y =-2( - 3) - 4 =6 - 4 =2
⇒ 49 - 14 y + y 2 - 7 y + y 2 + y 2 =
Putting x = -1 in (iii), we get; y =-2( - 1) - 4 =2 - 4 =-2
13
⇒ 3 y 2 - 21 y + 36 =
0
⇒ y 2 - 7 y + 12 =
0 Hence solution set = {( - 3, 2),( - 1, - 2)} .
⇒ (y - 3) (y - 4) = 0
⇒ y = 3 or y = 4 Exercise 4.8
Putting y = 3, in (i), we get x = 7 - 3 = 4 Solve the following systems of equations:

Putting y = 4, in (i), we get = 7 - 4 = 3 1. 2x - y =4; 2 x 2 - 4 xy - y 2 =
6 2. x+ y=
5; x2 + 2 y 2 =
17
Hence solution set = {(4, 3), (3, 4)}. 7; 3 x=

3x + 2 y = 25 + 2 y 2 x + y= 5; + = 2 , x ≠ 0 , y ≠ 0
2 2 3
3. 4.
x y
x + y = a + b; + =2 3x + = += 2
Note:Two quadratic equations in which xy term is missing and the a b 3 4
5. 6. 4 y 25;
coeicients of x2 and y2 are equal, give a linear equation by x y x y
(x - 3) 2 + y 2 = 2 x= y + 6
subtraction.
7. 5;
36 37
8. (x + 3) 2 + (y - 1) 2 =
5; x2 + y 2 + 2 x =
9 Equation x 2 - 3 xy + 2 y 2 =
0 is homogeneous in x and y
x 2=
+ (y + 1) 2 18; (x +=
2) 2 + y 2 21 ⇒ (x - y )(x - 2 y ) =
0. (Factorizing)
⇒ x- y= x - 2y =
9.
x2 + y 2 + 6 x = x 2 + y 2 + 2( x + y ) = 0 or 0
⇒ x= y ⇒ x = 2y
10. 1; 3
...(iii) (iv)
Putting the value of x in (ii), we get Putting the value of x in (ii), we get
2 y2 - 3y + y2 = 2(2 y ) 2 - 3(2 y ) + y 2 =
Case II: Both the Equations are Quadratic in two Variables
The equations in this case are classiied as: 24 24
i) Both the equations contain only x2 and y2 terms. ⇒ y2 - y - 8 =0 ⇒ 8 y2 - 6 y + y2 =
24
1 ± 1 + 32
ii) One of the equations is homogeneous in x and y.
iii) Both the equations are non-homogeneous. ⇒ y= ⇒ 3y2 - 2 y - 8 =0
⇒ (3 y + 4)(y - 2) =
The methods of solving these types of equations are explained through the following 2
0
1 ± 33
examples:
 x2 + y 2 = ⇒ y= ⇒ y= - , 2
4
Example 1: Solve the equations:  2
25
 2x + 3y =
2 3
1 + 33
when y = y= - ,
2
6
4
Solution: Let x 2 = u and y 2 = v
when
2 3
1 + 33  4
x= x =-
2 -  =
By this substitution the given equations become 8
u+v=  3
from (iii) from (iv)
25 2 3
2u + 3v =
(i)
1 - 33
=
66 (ii)
when y when y = 2,
Multiplying both sides of the equation (i) by 2, we have
2u + 2v =
2
50 (iii)
from (iv) x = 2(2) = 4
Subtraction of (iii) from (ii) gives,
v = 16 1 - 33
from (iii) x =
Putting the value of v in (i), we have
u + 16 = 25 ⇒ u = 9
2
x 2 = 9 ⇒ x = ±3 and y 2 = 16 ⇒ y = ±4
Hence following is the solution set.
∴
 1 + 33 1 + 33  1 - 33 1 - 33   8 4  
,  - ,-  ( 4 ,2 ) 
Hence solution set = {( ± 3, ± 4)}.
 ,
 2  2  3 3  
, ,
2 2
Example 2: Solve the equations: x 2 - 3 xy + 2 y=
2
0; 2 x 2 - 3 x + y=
2
24
Example 3: Solve the equations:
Solution: The given equations are:
 x2 - y 2 =
x - 3 xy + 2 y =  2
5
4 x - 3 xy =
2 2
0 (i)
2 x 2 - 3x + y 2 =
18
24 (ii)
38 39
 x2 - y 2 = ⇒ y= ± ⇒ y2 = 4
Solution Given that  2
5 (i) 1
4 x - 3 xy = ⇒ y = ±2
18 (ii) 7
when y = 2 ,
We can get a homogeneous equation in x and y, if we get rid of the constants. For the
when y =
1
purpose, we multiply both sides of equation (i) by 18 and both sides of equation (ii) by 5 and ,
7
get
18 x 2 - 18 y 2 =

90
20 x - 15 xy = when y = -2
2
90
 -1  -6
Subtraction gives,
2 x - 15 xy + 18 y = when - y == x 6 =  x =( - 2) =
-3
1 3
 7
2 2
0 2
7 7
⇒ (x - 6 y )(2 x - 3 y ) =  6 1   6 1  
= set - , -  ,  - -  ,( 3, 2),(3,2) 
0
 7 7   7 
Hence Solution ,
⇒ x -=
6 y 0 or 2 x -=
7
3y 0
Exercise 4.9
Combining each of these equations with any one of the given equations, we can solve
them by the method used in the example 1. Solve the following systems of Equations:
or 2 x 2= 6 + 3 y 2 ; 3x 2 - 5 y 2 =
x - 6y = 2x - 3y =
1. 7
0 0
2. 8x 2 = y 2 ; x2 + 2 y 2 =
19
⇒ x = 6y ⇒ 2x = 3y ⇒ x=
3 3. 2 x2 - 8 =5 y2 ; x 2 - 13- =2 y2
x 2 - 5 xy + 6 y 2 = ; x2 + y 2 =
y
2 4. 0 45
a x2 - y 2 =
5 from (i) a x2 - y 2 =
5 from (i) 5. 12 x 2 - 25 xy + 12 y 2 =
0 ; 4 x2 + 7 y 2 =
148
3  12 x 2 - 11xy + 2 y 2 = ; 2 x 2 + 7 xy =
∴ (6 y ) - y = ∴  y - y =
2
6. 0 60
2  x2 - y 2 = ; xy = 15
2 2 2
5 5
7. 16
⇒ 35 y 2 = 5 8. x 2 + xy =
9 ; x2 - y 2 =
2
9. y2 - 7 =
2 xy ; 2 x2 + 3 =xy
⇒ y2 = ⇒ 9 y2 - 4 y2 = x2 + y 2 = ; xy = 2
1
20 10. 5
⇒ 5 y 2 = 20
7
40 41
Here both values of x are admissible.

4.12 Problems on Quadratic Equations Hence required parts are 5 and 7.
We shall now proceed to solve the problems which, when expressed symbolically, Example 2: A man distributed Rs.1000 equally among destitutes of his street. Had there been
lead to quadratic equations in one or two variables. 5 more destitutes each one would have received Rs. 10 less. Find the number of destitutes.
In order to solve such problems, we must:
1) Suppose the unknown quantities to be x or y etc. Solution: Suppose number of destitutes = x
2) Translate the problem into symbols and form the equations satisfying the given Total sum = 1000 Rs.
conditions.
∴
1000
Translation into symbolic expression is the main feature of solving problems leading to Each desitute gets = Rs.
x
equations. So, it is always helpful to proceed from concrete to abstract e.g. we may say that:
i) 5 is greater than 3 by 2 = 5 - 3 ii) x is greater than 3 by x - 3 For 5 more destitutes, the number of destitutes would have
iii) 5 is greater than y by 5 - y iv) x is greater than y by x - y. been x + 5
The method of solving the problems will be illustrated through the following examples:
∴
1000
x+5
Each destitute would have got = Rs.
Example 1: Divide 12 into two parts such that the sum of their squares is greater than twice
This sum would have been Rs. 10 less than the share of each destitute in the previous
their product by 4.
case.
∴ = - 10
1000 1000
∴ The other part x+5
Solution: Suppose one part = x
= 12 - x x
Sum of the squares of the parts = x 2 + (12 - x) 2 ⇒ 1000 x = 1000 (x + 5) - 10(x + 5)(x)
twice the product of the parts = 2(x)(12 - x)

⇒ x2 + 5x - 500 = 0
⇒ (x + 25)(x -20) = 0
By the condition of the question,
x 2 +(12 - x) 2 - 2 x(12 - x) =
⇒ x = - 25 or x = 20
4
⇒ x 2 + 144 - 24 x + x 2 - 24 x + 2 x 2 =
4 The number of destitutes cannot be negative. So, -25 is not
admissible.
⇒ 4 x 2 - 48 x + 140 =
0 ⇒ x 2 - 12 x + 35 =
0 Hence the number of destitutes is 20.
⇒ (x - 5)(x - 7) = 0 ⇒ x = 5 or x = 7
If one part is 5, then the other part = 12 - 5 = 7,
Example 3: The length of a room is 3 meters greater than its breadth. If the
and if one part is 7, then the other part = 12 - 7 = 5

area of the room is 180 square meters, ind length and the breadth of the room.
42 43
Solution: Let the breadth of room = x meters xy = 8 (i)
and the length of room = x + 3 meters and 10 y + x =10x + y + 18 (ii)
∴ Area of the room = x (x + 3) square meters Solving (i) and (ii) ;we get
By the condition of the question x = - 4 or x = 2.
x (x + 3) = 180 (i) when x = - 4, y = -2 and when x = 2, y = 4
⇒ x2 + 3x -180 = 0 (ii) Rejecting negative values of the digits,
⇒ (x + 15)(x -12) = 0 Tens digit = 2
∴ x = -15 or x = 12 and Units digit = 4
As breadth cannot be negative so x = -15 is not admissible Hence the required number = 24
∴ when x = 12, we get length x + 3 = 12 + 3 = 15

Exercise 4.10
∴ breadth of the room = 12 meter and length of the room = 15 meter
1. The product of one less than a certain positive number and two less than three times
Example 4: A number consists of two digits whose product is 8. If the digits are interchanged, the number is 14. Find the number.
the resulting number will exceed the original one by 18. Find the number. 2. The sum of a positive number and its square is 380. Find the
number.
Solution : Suppose tens digit = x 3. Divide 40 into two parts such that the sum of their squares is
greater than 2 times their product by 100.
and units digit = y
26
4. The sum of a positive number and its reciprocal is .Find the
∴
5
The number = 10x + y number.
By interchanging the digits, the new number = 10y + x 5. A number exceeds its square root by 56. Find the number.
Product of the digits = xy 6. Find two consecutive numbers, whose product is 132.
By the condition of question; (Hint: Suppose the numbers are x and x + 1).
7. The diference between the cubes of two consecutive even
44 45
numbers is 296. Find them. from each corner and then folding the sides of the remaining piece. If the capacity of
(Hint: Let two consecutive even numbers be x and x + 2) the box is to be inish 128 c.dm, ind the length of the side of the piece.
8. A farmer bought some sheep for Rs. 9000. If he had paid Rs. 100 less for each, he 20. A man invests Rs. 100,000 in two companies. His total proit is Rs.
would have got 3 sheep more for the same money. How many sheep did he buy, 3080. If he receives Rs. 1980 from one company and at the rate 1% more from the
when the rate in each case is uniform? other, ind the amount of each investment.
9. A man sold his stock of eggs for Rs. 240. If he had 2 dozen more, he would have got
the same money by selling the whole for Rs. 0.50 per dozen cheaper. How many
dozen eggs did he sell?
10. A cyclist travelled 48 km at a uniform speed. Had he travelled 2
km/hour slower, he would have taken 2 hours more to perform
the journey. How long did he take to cover 48 km?
11. The area of a rectangular ield is 297 square meters. Had
it been 3 meters longer and one meter shorter, the area
would have been 3 square meters more. Find its length and breadth.
12. The length of a rectangular piece of paper exceeds its
breadth by 5 cm. If a strip 0.5 cm wide be cut all around the piece of paper, the area of
the remaining part would be 500 square cms. Find its original dimensions.
13. A number consists of two digits whose product is 18. If the digits are interchanged, the
new number becomes 27 less than the original number. Find the number.
14. A number consists of two digits whose product is 14. If the digits are interchanged, the
resulting number will exceed the original number by 45. Find the number.
15. The area of a right triangle is 210 square meters. If its
hypoteneuse is 37 meters long. Find the length of the base and
the altitude.
16. The area of a rectangle is 1680 square meters. If its diagonal
is 58 meters long, ind the length and the breadth of the rectangle.
17. To do a piece of work, A takes 10 days more than B. Together
they inish the work in 12 days. How long would B take to inish it alone?
1
Hint: If some one takes x days to inish a work. The one day’s work will be .
x
18. To complete a job, A and B take 4 days working together.
A alone takes twice as long as B alone to inish the
same job. How long would each one alone take to do the job?
19. An open box is to be made from a square piece of tin by cutting a piece 2 dm square
46 47
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
5 Partial Fractions
5. Partial Fractions eLearn.Punjab 5. Partial Fractions eLearn.Punjab
5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rational Fraction
We have learnt in the previous classes how to add two or more rational fractions into
p
a single rational fraction. For example, We know that where p, q U Z and q ≠ 0 is called a rational number.
q
+ = where Q( x) ≠ 0,
1 2 3x
x -1 x + 2 ( x - 1)( x + 2)
i) P( x)
Similarly, the quotient of two polynomials with no common
Q( x)
5x2 + 5x - 3
factors, is called a Rational Fraction. A rational fraction is of two types:
+ + =
2 1 3
x + 1 ( x + 1) 2 x - 2 ( x + 1) 2 )( x - 2)
and ii)
5.2.1 Proper Rational Fraction
In this chapter we shall learn how to reverse the order in (i) and (ii) that is to express
P( x)
a single rational function as a sum of two or more single rational functions which are called A rational fraction is called a Proper Rational Fraction if the degree of the
Q( x)
Partial Fractions.
Expressing a rational function as a sum of partial fractions is called Partial Fraction polynomial P( x) in the numerator is less than the degree of the polynomial Q( x) in the
2x - 5
Resolution. It is an extremely valuable tool in the study of calculus.
3 9 x2
x +1 x + 4 x -1
An open sentence formed by using the sign of equality ‘=’ is called an equation. The denominator. For example, , 2 and 3 are proper rational fractions or
equations can be divided into the following two kinds: proper frations.
Conditional equation: It is an equation in which two algebraic expressions are equal
for particular value/s of the variable e.g., 5.2.2 Improper Rational Fraction
3 P( x)
a) 2x = 3 is a conditional equation and it is true only if x = . A rational fraction is called an Improper Rational Fraction if the degree of the
2
b) x2 + x - 6 = 0 is a conditional equation and it is true for x = 2, - 3 only.
Q( x)
polynomial P ( x) in the numerator is equal to or greater than the degree of the polynomial
Note: For simplicity, a conditional equation is called an equation.
Q( x) in the denominator.
Identity: It is an equation which holds good for all values of the variable e.g., x ( x - 2)( x + 1) x 2 - 3 x3 - x 2 + x + 1
2 x - 3 ( x - 1)( x + 4) 3 x + 1 x2 + 5
a) (a + b) x = ax + bx is an identity and its two sides are equal for all values of x. For example, , , and
b) (x + 3) (x + 4) = x2 + 7x + 12 is also an identity which is true for all values of x.
For convenience, the symbol “=” shall be used both for equation and identity. are improper rational fractions or improper fractions.
Any improper rational fraction can be reduced by division to a mixed form, consisting
of the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.
2 3
We now discuss the following cases of partial fractions resolution.

3x 2 + 1
x-2
For example, is an improper rational fraction. By long division we obtain P( x)
Case I: Resolution of into partial fractions when Q( x) has only non-repeated
3x 2 + 1
= 3x + 6 +
Q( x)
13
x-2 x-2 linear factors:
3x 2 + 1
The polynomial Q( x) may be written as:
Q( x) = (x - a1)(x - a2) .... (x - an), where a1 ≠ a2 ≠ .... ≠an
x-2 3x + 6
i.e., an improper rational fraction has been reduced to the
x - 2 3x + 1
± 3x  6 x ∴ = + + ........ +
P( x) A1 A2 An
Q( x) x - a1 x - a2 x - an
is an identity.
6x +1
13
x-2 ± 6 x  12
sum o f a polynomial 3x + 6 and a proper rational fraction
Where, the coeicients A1, A2, ..., An arenumbers to be found.
13
The method is explained by the following examples:
When a rational fraction is separated into partial fractions, the result is an identity; i.e.,
7 x + 25
it is true for all values of the variable.
( x + 3)( x + 4)
The evaluation of the coeicients of the partial fractions is based on the following Example 1: Resolve, into Partial Fractions.
7 x + 25
= +
theorem:
A B
( x + 3)( x + 4) x + 3 x + 4
“If two polynomials are equal for all values o f the variable, then the polynomials have Solution: Suppose
same degree and the coeicients of like powers of the variable in both the polynomials
must be equal”. Multiplying both sides by (x + 3) (x + 4), we get
7x + 25 = A(x + 4) + B(x + 3)
⇒
For example,
If px3 + qx2 - ax + b = 2x3 - 3x2 - 4x + 5, [x 7x + 25 = Ax + 4A + Bx + 3B
then p = 2, q = - 3 , a = 4 and b = 5. ⇒ 7x + 25 = (A + B)x + 4A + 3B
This is an identity in x.
P( x) So, equating the coeicients of like powers of x we have
5.3 Resolution of a Rational Fraction into Partial Fractions
Q( x) 7 = A + B and 25 = 4A + 3B
Solving these equations, we get A = 4 and B = 3 .
P( x)
Following are the main points of resolving a rational fraction into partial fractions:
Q( x)
+
4 3
x+3 x+4
i) The degree of p ( x) must be less than that of Q( x) . If not, divide and work with Hence the partial fractions are:
the remainder theorem.
ii) Clear the given equation of fractions. Alternative Method:
iii) Equate the coeicients of like terms (powers of x). 7 x + 25
= +
A B
( x + 3)( x + 4) x + 3 x + 4
iv) Solve the resulting equations for the coeicients. Suppose
⇒ 7x + 25 = A(x + 4) + B(x + 3)
4 5
⇒ - 8 = 2C ∴ C-=
As two sides of the identity are equal for all values of x,
let us put x = -3, and x = -4 in it. 4
Putting x = -3, we get -21 + 25 = A(-3 + 4)
+ -
2 3 4
⇒ A=4 x -1 x - 2 x - 3
Hence partial fractions are:
Putting x = -4, we get -28 + 25 = B(-4 + 3)

⇒ B=3 Note: In the solution of examples 1 and 2. We observe that the value of the constants have
been found by substituting those values of x in the identities which can be got by
+
4 3
Hence the partial fractions are: x + 3 x + 4
putting each linear factor of the denominators equal to zero.
x 2 - 10 x + 13
In the Example 2
the denominator of A is x - 1, and the value of A has been found by putting
( x - 1)( x 2 - 5 x + 6)
a)
x - 1 = 0 i.e ;x = 1;
Example 2: Resolve into Partial Fractions.
Solution: The factor x2 - 5x + 6 in the denominator can be factorized and its factors are x - 3 b) the denominator of B is x - 2, and the value of B has been found by putting
and x - 2. x - 2 = 0 i.e., x = 2 ; and
the denominator of C is x - 3, and the value of C has been found by putting
x 2 - 10 x + 13 x 2 - 10 x + 13
c)
∴ = x - 3 = 0 i.e.,x = 3.
( x - 1)( x 2 - 5 x + 6) ( x - 1)( x - 2)( x - 3)
2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3
x 2 - 10 x + 13 x(2 x + 3)( x - 1)
Example 3: Resolve into Partial Fractions.
= + +
A B C
( x - 1)( x - 2)( x - 3) x -1 x - 2 x - 3
Suppose
Solution:
⇒ x2 - 10x + 13 = A(x - 2)(x - 3) + B(x - 1)(x - 3) + C(x - 1)(x - 2)
2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3
x(2 x + 3)( x - 1)
which is an identity in x.  is an improper fraction so, transform it into mixed from.
Putting x = 1 in the identity, we get
(1)2 - 10(1) + 13 = A(1 - 2)(1 - 3) + B(1 - 1)(1 - 3) + C(1 - 1)(1 - 2) = x (2x + 3)(x - 1)
1
⇒ 1 - 10 + 13 = A (-1) (-2) + B(0) (- 2) + C(0) (-1) 2 x3 + x 2 - 3x 2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3
Denominator
= 2x3 + x2 - 3x
± 2 x3 ± x 2  3x
4 = 2A ∴ A = 2 2 x -3
∴ Dividing 2x3 + x2 - x - 3 by 2x3 + x2 - 3x, we have

(2)2 - 10(2) + 13 = A(0)(2 - 3) + B(2 - 1)(2 - 3) + C(2 - 1)(0)
⇒ 4 - 20 + 13 = B (1)(-1) Quotient = 1 and Remainder = 2x - 3
⇒ - 3 = -B ∴ B = 2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3 2x - 3
∴ = +
3
x(2 x + 3)( x - 1) x(2 x + 3)( x - 1)
1
(3)2 - 10(3) + 13 = A(3 - 2)(0) + B(3 - 1) (0) + C(3 - 1)(3 - 2)
⇒ 9 - 30 + 13 = C(2) (1)
6 7
2x - 3 x2 + a2
=
+ +
A B c
x(2 x + 3)( x - 1) x 2x + 3 x -1 ( x 2 + b 2 )( x 2 + c 2 )( x 2 + d 2 )
Suppose 11.
⇒ 2x - 3 = A(2x + 3)(x - 1) + B( x ) (x - 1) +C( x )(2x + 3) [Hint: Put x2 = y to make factors of the denominator linear]
which is an identity in x.
Putting x = 0 in the identity, we get A = 1 Case II: when Q( x ) has repeated linear factors:
If the polynomial has a factor (x - a) n, n 8 2 and n is a +ve integer, then may be written
Putting 2x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = - in the identity, we get B = -

3 8 as the following identity:
2 5
∴ = + + ........ +
P( x) A1 A2 An
Putting x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 in the identity, we get C= - ( x - a1 ) ( x - a2 ) ( x - an ) n
1 2
Q( x)
5
where the coeicients A1, A2,....., An are numbers to be found.
Hence partial fractions are: 1 + - -

1 8 1 The method is explained by the following examples:
x 5(2 x + 3) 5( x - 1)
x2 + x - 1
( x + 2)3
Example 1: Resolve, into partial fractions.
Exercise 5.1
x2 + x - 1
= + +
A B C
( x + 2) x + 2 ( x + 2) ( x + 2)3
Solution: Suppose
Resolve the following into Partial Fractions: 3 2
x2 + 1 ⇒ x2 + x - 1 = A(x + 2)2 + B(x + 2) + C (i)

⇒ x2 + x -1 = A(x2 + 4x + 4) + B(x +2) + C
1
x -1 ( x + 1)( x - 1)
1. 2.
2
(ii)
Putting x + 2 = 0 in (i), we get
2x + 1 3x 2 - 4 x - 5 (-2)2 + (-2) - 1 = A(0) + B(0) + C
( x - 1)( x + 2)( x + 3) ( x - 2)( x 2 + 7 x + 10) ⇒ 1= C
3. 4.
Equating the coeicients of x2 and x in (ii), we get A =1

1 x
( x - 1)(2 x - 1)(3 x - 1) ( x - a )( x - b)( x - c)
5. 6. and 1 = 4A + B
⇒ 1=4 + B ⇒ B = -3
6 x3 + 5 x 2 - 7 2 x3 + x 2 - 5 x + 3
2 x2 - x - 1 2 x3 + x 2 - 3x - +
7. 8. 1 3 1
x + 2 ( x + 2) ( x + 2)3
Hence the partial fractions are: 2
( x - 1)( x - 3)( x - 5) 1
( x - 2)( x - 4)( x - 6) (1 - ax)(1 - bx)(1 - cx)
9. 10. 1
( x + 1) ( x 2 - 1)
Example 2: Resolve 2
into Partial Fractions.
8 9
Solution: Here denominator = (x + 1)2 (x2 - 1)

= (x + 1)2 (x + 1) (x - 1) = (x + 1)3 (x - 1)
Exercise 5.2
∴ =
1 1 Resolve the following into Partial Fractions:
( x + 1) ( x - 1) ( x + 1)3 ( x - 1)
2 x 2 - 3x + 4 5x2 - 2 x + 3
2 2
4x
( x - 1)3 ( x + 2)3 ( x + 1) 2 ( x - 1)
1. 2. 3.
= + + +
A B C D
( x - 1)( x + 1) x - 1 x + 1 ( x + 1) ( x + 1)3
Suppose 3 2
9 1 x2
⇒ 1 = A (x + 1)3 + B(x +1)2( x - 1) + C(x - 1)(x + 1) + D(x - 1) ( x + 2) 2 ( x - 1) ( x - 3) 2 ( x + 1) ( x - 2)( x - 1) 2
4. 5. 6.
(i)
⇒ 1 = A(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + B(x3 + x2 - x - 1) + C(x2 - 1) + D(x - 1)
⇒ 1 = (A + B)x3 +(3A + B + C)x2 +(3A - B + D)x+(A - B - C - D) (ii) x2 x -1
x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 in (i), we get,
1
( x - 1) 2 ( x + 1) ( x - 1)3 ( x + 1) ( x - 2)( x + 1)3
7. 8. 9.
Putting
⇒ A = 2x + 1
1
1 = A(2)3 2 x4
( x 2 - 1)( x + 1) 2 ( x + 3)( x - 1)( x + 2) 2 ( x - 3)( x + 2) 2
8 10. 11. 12.
Putting x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = -1 in (i), we get,

Case III: when Q( x ) contains non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor
1 = D(-1 - 1) ⇒ D= -
1 Deinition: A quadratic, factor is irreducible if it cannot be written as the product of two
2 linear factors with real coeicients. For example, x2 + x + 1 and x2 + 3 are irreducible quadratic
factors.
Equating the coeicients of x3 and x2 in (ii), we get
P( x)
⇒ B=-A ⇒ B= -
1 If the polynomial Q( x) contains non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor then
0 = A+B Q( x)
8 may be written as the identity having partial fractions of the form:
0 = 3A + B + C ⇒ 0 = - +C
3 1
⇒ C= -
1 Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
and where A and B the numbers to be found.
8 8 4
Hence the partial fractions are: The method is explained by the following examples:
- - -
1 1 1 1
8 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 1
-
1
-
1
-
1 3 x - 11
x - 1 x + 1 ( x + 1) ( x + 1) 8( x - 1) 8( x + 1) 4( x + 1) 2( x + 1)3
2 3 2 Example 1: Resolve
( x 2 + 1)( x + 3)
into Partial Fractions.
3 x - 11 Ax + B
= +
C
( x + 1)( x + 3) ( x + 1) ( x + 3)
Solution: Suppose 2 2
10 11
⇒ 3x - 11 = (Ax + B ) (x + 3) + C(x2 + 1)
x+2 -x - 2
(i)
⇒ 3x - 11 = (A +C )x2 + (3A + B)x+(3B + C ) + 2
x + 2x + 3 x - 2x + 3
(ii)
⇒ x = - 3 in (i), we get
Hence the partial fractions are: 2
Putting x+3=0
-9 - 11 = C(9 + 1) ⇒ C = -2
Equating the coeicients of x2 and x in (ii), we get Exercise 5.3
0=A+C ⇒A=-C ⇒ A=2
3 = 3A + B ⇒ B = 3 - 3A ⇒B=3-6 ⇒ B = -3
Resolve the following into Partial Fractions:
and
2x - 3
- 9x - 7 3x + 7
2
x2 + 1 x + 3
1
( x 2 + 1)( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1)( x + 1) ( x 2 + 4)( x + 3)
Hence the partial fraction are:
1. 2. 3.
4 x2 + 8x
x + 2 x2 + 9
Example 2: Resolve 4 into Partial Fractions.
x 2 + 15 x2 x2 + 1
Solution: Here, denominator = x4 + 2x2 + 9 = (x2 + 2x + 3) (x2 - 2x + 3). ( x 2 + 2 x + 5)( x - 1) ( x 2 + 4)( x + 2) x3 + 1
4. 5. 6.
4 x2 + 8x 4 x2 + 8x
∴ = x2 + 2 x + 2
x4 + 2 x2 + 9 ( x 2 + 2 x + 3)( x 2 - 2 x + 3)
1 x4
( x 2 + 3)( x + 1)( x - 1) ( x - 1) 2 ( x 2 + 2) 1 - x4
7. 8. 9.
Suppose
x2 - 2 x + 3
4 x + 8x Ax + B Cx + D x4 + x2 + 1
= + 2
2 10.
( x + 2 x + 3)( x - 2 x + 3)
2 2
x + 2x + 3 x - 2x + 3
2
⇒ 4x2 + 8x = (Ax + B) ( x2 - 2x + 3) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 2x + 3)

Case IV: when Q( x ) has repeated irreducible quadratic factors
⇒
If the polynomial Q( x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factors
4x2 + 8x = (A + C) x3 + (-2A + B + 2C + D)x2
+ (3A - 2B + 3C + 2D)x + 3B + 3D (I) P( x)
(anx2 + bx + c)n, n 8 2 and n is a +ve integer, then may be written as the following
which is an identity in x.
Equating the coefficients of x3, x2, x, x0 in I, we have
Q( x)
identity:
A1 x + B1 Ax +B An x + Bn
= + +2 2 + 2
0=A+C (i)
4 = -2A + B + 2C + D
P( x)
a1 x + bx + c (a 2 x + b x + c) 2 (an x + bx + c) n
(ii) ......
8 = 3A - 2B + 3C + 2D
2 2
Q( x)
(iii)
0 = 3B + 2D (iv)
where A1, B1, A2, B2,..... An, Bn are numbers to be found. The method is explained through the
Solving (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
A = 1 , B = 2 , C = -1 D = -2
following example:
and
12 13
4 x2 4 x 4 + 3x3 + 6 x 2 + 5 x 2 x 4 - 3x3 - 4 x
( x + 1) 2 ( x - 1) ( x - 1)( x 2 + x + 1) 2 ( x 2 + 2) 2 ( x + 1) 2
Example 1: Resolve 2 into partial fractions. 5. 6.
Ax + B Cx + D
= + +
4 x2 E
( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x - 1) x2 + 1 ( x 2 + 1) 2 x - 1
Solution: Let
⇒ 4x2 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 1)(x - 1) + (Cx + D )(x - 1) + E (x2 + 1)2 (i)

⇒ 4x2 = (A + E)x4 + (-A + B)x3 + ( A - B + C + 2E )x2
+(-A + B - C + D)x + (-B - D + E) (ii)
Putting x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 in (i), w e get
4 = E(1 + 1)2 ⇒ E =1
Equating the coeicients o f x , x , x , x, in (ii), w e get
4 3 2
0=A+E ⇒ A =- E ⇒ A = -1
0 =-A + B ⇒ B=A ⇒ B = -1
4 = A - B + C + 2E
⇒ C = 4 - A + B - 2E = 4 + 1 - 1 - 2 ⇒ C=2
0=-A+B-C+D
⇒ D=A-B+C=-1+1+2=2 ⇒ D=2
-x - 1 2x + 2
+ 2 +
1
x + 1 ( x + 1) x -1
Hence partial fractions are: 2 2
Exercise 5.4
Resolve into Partial Fractions.
x3 + 2 x + 2 x2
( x 2 + x + 1) 2 ( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x - 1)
1. 2.
2x - 5 8x2
( x 2 + 2) 2 ( x - 2) ( x 2 + 1) 2 (1 - x 2 )
3. 4.
14 15
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
7 Permutation Combination
and Probability
7. Permutation Combination and Probability eLearn.Punjab 7. Permutation Combination and Probability eLearn.Punjab
7.1 Introduction 9!
Example 3: Evaluate
6!3!
The factorial notation was introduced by Christian Kramp (1760 - 1826) in 1808. This
notation will be frequently used in this chapter as well as in inding the Binomial Coeicients
= = 84
9! (9.8.7)6!
in later chapter. Let us have an introduction of factorial notation. Solution:
Let n be a positive integer. Then the product n(n - 1)(n - 2). . . . 3 . 2 . 1 is denoted by
6!3! 6!(3.2.1)
n! or In and read as n factorial.

=
=
9! 9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1
or 84
n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2) ....3.2.1

6!3! 6.5.4.3.2.1.3.2.1
That is,
For Example, Exercise 7.1

1! = 1
2! = 2.1 =2 ⇒2! = 2.1! 1. Evaluate each of the following:
3! = 3.2.1 =6 ⇒3! = 3.2!
4! = 4.3.2.1 = 24 ⇒ 4! = 4.3!
⇒5! = 5.4!
8! 10!
5! = 5.4.3.2.1 = 120 i) 4! ii) 6! iii) iv)
⇒6! = 6.5!
7! 7!
and 6 ! = 6.5.4.3.2.1 = 720
11! 6! 8! 11!
v) vi) vii) viii)
Thus for a positive integer n, we deine n factorial as: 4!7! 3!3! 4!2! 2!4!5!
n! =n(n - 1)! where 0!= 1
2!( 9 - 2 )! 15!(15 - 15 )!
9! 15! 3!
8! ix) x) xi) xii) 4!.0!.1!
Example 1: Evaluate 0!
6!
==
8! 8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1 2. Write each of the following in the factorial form:
Solution: 56
6! 6.5.4.3.2.1 i) 6.5.4. ii) 12.11.10 iii) 20.19.18.17
10.9 8.7.6 52.51.50.49

iv) v) vi)
Example 2: Write 8.7.6.5 in the factorial form 2.1 3.2.1 4.3.2.1
(n + 1)(n)(n - 1)
8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1 8! vii) n(n - 1 )(n - 2) viii) (n + 2)(n + 1)(n) ix)
Solution: 8.7.6.5 = = 3.2.1
4.3.2.1 4!
x) n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1)
2 3
are two ways of writing at second place as shown. 3 2

7.2 Permutation
Now just one vertex is left. So, we can write at third place only one vertex in one way
as shown. 3 2 1
Suppose we like to ind the number of diferent ways to name the
The total number of possible ways (arrangements) is the product 3.2.1= 6.
triangle with vertices A, B and C.
This example illustrates the fundamental principle of counting.
The various possible ways are obtained by constructing a tree
diagram as follows:
Fundamental Principle of Counting:
Suppose A and B are two events. The irst event A can occur in
p diferent ways. After A has occurred, B can occur in q diferent ways.
The number of ways that the two events can occur is the product p.q.
This principle can be extended to three or more events. For instance, the number of
ways that three events A, B and C can occur is the product p.q.r.
One important application of the Fundamental Principle of Counting is to determine
the number of ways that n objects can be arranged in order. An ordering (arrangement) of
n objects is called a permutation of the objects.
A permutation of n diferent objects is an ordering (arrangement) of the objects
such that one object is irst, one is second, one is third and so on.
To determine the possible ways, we count the paths of the tree, beginning from the
According to Fundamental Principle of Counting:
start to the end of each branch. So, we get 6 diferent names of triangle.
i) Three books can be arranged in a row taken all at a time = 3.2.1 = 3! ways
ABC, ACB, BCA, BAC, CAB, CBA.
ii) Number of ways of writing the letters of the WORD taken all at a time
Thus there are six possible ways to write the name of the triangle with vertices A, B and
= 4.3.2.1 = 4!
C.
Each arrangement is called a permutation. Now we have the following deinition.
Explanation: In the igure, we can write any one of the three vertices A, B, C at irst place.
A permutation of n diferent objects taken r (7 n) at a time is an arrangement of
After writing at irst place any one of the three vertices, two vertices are left. So, there are
the r objects. Generally it is denoted by n Pr or P(n,r).
two choices to write at second place. After writing the vertices at two places, there is just one
Prove that: n pr= n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1)=

( n - r )!
vertex left. So, we can write only one vertex at third place. n!
Another Way of Explanation:

Proof: As there are n diferent objects to ill up r places. So, the irst place can be illed in n ways.
Think of the three places as shown
Since repetitions are not allowed, the second place can be illed in (n-1) ways, the third place
is illed in (n-2) ways and so on. The rth place has n - (r - 1) = n - r + 1 choices to be illed in.
Since we can write any one of the three vertices at irst place, so it is written in 3 diferent
ways as shown. 3
Therefore, by the fundamental principle of counting, r places can be illed by n diferent objects
in n(n - 1)(n - 2) .... (n - r + 1) ways
Now two vertices are left. So, corresponding to each way of writing at irst place, there
4 5
∴ p = n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1)=

Example 3: In how many ways can a set of 4 diferent mathematics books and 5 diferent
( ) physics books be placed on a shelf with a space for 9 books, if all books on the same subject
are kept together?
n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1)(n - r)(n - r - 1) .... 3.2.1
=
(n - r )(n - r - 1) .... 3.2.1 Solution: 4 diferent Mathematics books can be arranged among themselves in 4! ways. 5
⇒ n Pr =
( n - r )!
n! diferent Physics books can be arranged among themselves in 5! ways.To every one way of
arranging 4 mathematics books there are 5! ways of arranging 5 physics books. The books
which completes the proof. in the two subjects can be arranged subject-wise in 2! ways.
Corollary: If r = n, then
So the number of ways of arranging the books as given by.
p=n = = = n!
( n - n )! 0! 1
n n! n! n!
4! % 5! % 2! = 4 % 3 % 2 % 1 % 5 % 4 % 3 % 2 % 1 % 2 % 1
= 5740
⇒ n diferent objects can be arranged taken all at a time in n! ways. Exercise 7.2
Example 1: How many diferent 4-digit numbers can be formed out of the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 1. Evaluate the following:
5, 6, when no digit is repeated?
i) 20 P3 ii) 16 P4 iii) 12
P5 iv) 10
P7 v) 9
P8
2. Find the value of n when:
P2 = 30 Pn = 11.10.9 P4 : n-1P3 = 9 :1
Solution: The total number of digits = 6 n 11 n
i) ii) iii)
The digits forming each number = 4.
So, the required number of 4-digit numbers is given by:
3. Prove from the irst principle that:
p= = = = 6.5.4.3
= 360 i) n Pr = n . n-1Pr -1 ii) = n -1
Pr + r. n-1Pr -1
( 6 - 4 )! 2!
n
6 6! 6! 6.5.4.3.2.1 Pr
4
2.1 4. How many signals can be given by 5 lags of diferent colours, using 3 lags at a time?
Example 2: How many signals can be made with 4-diferent lags when any number of them 5. How many signals can be given by 6 lags of diferent colours when any number of
are to be used at a time? lags can be used at a time?
6. How many words can be formed from the letters of the following words using all letters
Solution: The number of flags = 4 when no letter is to be repeated:
i) PLANE ii) OBJECT iii) FASTING?
Number of signals using 1 lag = 4 P1 = 4
7. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed by using each one of the digits 2, 3, 5, 7, 9
Number of signals using 2 lags = 4 P2 = 4 . 3 =12
only once?
Number of signals using 3 lags = 4 P3 = 4.3.2 = 24 8. Find the numbers greater than 23000 that can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 ,
∴
Number of signals using 4 lags = P4 = 4.3.2.1 = 24
4
without repeating any digit.
Total Number of signals = 4 + 12 + 24 + 24 = 64. HINT: The irst two digits on L.H.S. will be 23 etc.
6 7
9. Find the number of 5-digit numbers that can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 alike of second kind and the rest of them are all diferent. Let x be the required number of
(when no digit is repeated), but permutation. Replacing n1 alike things by n1diferent things and n2 alike things by n2 diferent
i) the digits 2 and 8 are next to each other; things, we shall get all the n things distinct from each other which can be permuted among
ii) the digits 2 and 8 are not next to each other. themselves in n! ways. As n1 diferent things can be permuted among themselves in (n1)!
10. How many 6-digit numbers can be formed, without repeating any digit from the digits ways and n2 diferent things can be arranged among themselves in (n2)! ways, so because of
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5? In how many of them will 0 be at the tens place? the replacement suggested above, x permutation would increase to x x (n1) ! % (n2)! number
11. How many 5-digit multiples of 5 can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 5, 7,9, when no digit of ways.
is repeated. ∴ x × (n1 )!× (n 2 )! =
(n)!
In how many ways can 8 books including 2 on English be arranged on a shelf in such a
 n 
12.
way that the English books are never together? = =  
(n)!
(n1 )!× (n2 )!  n1 , n2 
Hence x
13. Find the number of arrangements of 3 books on English and 5 books on Urdu for
placing them on a shelf such that the books on the same subject are together.
Cor. If there are n1 alike things of one kind, n2 alike things of second kind and n3 alike
14. In how many ways can 5 boys and 4 girls be seated on a bench so that the girls and the
things of third kind, then the number of permutation of n things,taken all at a time is given
boys occupy alternate seats?
by:
 n 
= 
7.2.1 Permutation of Things Not All Different

n!
Suppose we have to ind the permutation of the letters of the word BITTER, using all
(n1 )!× (n2 )!× (n3 )!  n1 , n2 n3 
the letters in it. We see that all the letters of the word BITTER are not diferent and it has 2
Ts in it. Obviously, the interchanging of Ts in any permutation, say BITTER, will not form Example 1: In how many ways can be letters of the word MISSISSIPPI be arranged when
a new permutation. However, if the two Ts are replaced by T1 and T2, we get the following all the letters are to be used?
two permutation of BITTER
BIT1T2ER and BIT2T1ER Solution: Number of letters in MISSISSIPPI = 11
In MISSISSIPPI,
Similarly, the replacement of the two Ts by T1 and T2 I is repeated 4 times
in any other permutation will give rise to 2 permutation. S is repeated 4 times
P is repeated 2 times
Now, BIT1T2ER consists of 6 diferent letters which can be permuted among themselves M comes only once.
in 6 ! diferent ways. Hence the number of permutation of the letters of the word BITTER
 11 
Required number of permutation =  
taken all at a time
= = =
6! 6.5.4.3.2.1
360  4,4,2,1
2 2
=
=
This example guides us to discover the method of inding the permutation of n things (11)!
(4)!× (4)!× (2)!× (1)!
34650 ways
all of which are not diferent. Suppose that out of n things, n1 are alike of one kind and n2 are
8 9
7.2.2 Circular Permutation
So far we have been studying permutation of things which can be represented by

the points on a straight line. We shall now study the permutation of things which can be
represented by the points on a circle. The permutation of things which can be represented
by the points on a circle are called Circular Permutation.
Figure (i) Figure (ii)
The method of inding circular permutation is illustrated by the following examples.
By lipping the necklace we get the necklace as shown in igure (ii). We observe that the
Example 2: In how many ways can 5 persons be seated at a round table. two arrangements of the beads are actually the same.
Hence the required number of necklaces = = × (7)! =

1
2520
Solution: Let A, B, C, D, E be the 5 persons One of the ways of seating

2
Exercise 7.3
them round a table is shown in the adjoining igure. If each person
moves one or two or more places to the left or the right, they will, no 1. How many arrangements of the letters of the following words, taken all
doubt, be occupying diferent seats, but their positions relative to each together, can be made:
other will remain the same. i) PAKPATTAN ii) PAKISTAN
ii) MATHEMATICS iv) ASSASSINATION?
So, when A occupies a certain seat, the remaining 4 persons will be permuting their seats 2. How many permutation of the letters of the word PANAMA can be made, if P is to be
among themselves in 4! ways. the irst letter in each arrangement?
Hence the number of arrangements = 4! = 24 3. How many arrangements of the letters of the word ATTACKED can be made, if each
arrangement begins with C and ends with K?
Example 3: In how many ways can a necklace of 8 beads of diferent colours be made? 4. How many numbers greater than 1000,000 can be formed from the digits 0, 2, 2,2, 3,
4 ,4 ?
Solution: The number of beads = 8 5. How many 6-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4? How many
The number of arrangements of 8 beads in the necklace will be like the seating of 8 of them will lie between 400,000 and 430,000?
persons round a table.
⇒ The number of such necklaces (ixing one of the beads) = 7!
6. 11 members of a club form 4 committees of 3, 4, 2, 2 members so that no member is
a member of more than one committee. Find the number of committees.
Now suppose the beads are a, b, c, d, e , f g , h and the necklace is as shown in Fig. (i) 7. The D.C.Os of 11 districts meet to discuss the law and order situation in their
below: districts. In how many ways can they be seated at a round table, when two particular
D.C.Os insist on sitting together?
8. The Governor of the Punjab calls a meeting of 12 oicers. In how many ways can they
be seated at a round table?
10 11
9. Fatima invites 14 people to a dinner. There are 9 males and 5 females who are seated
⇒ cr ×
= ∴=
( n - r )! r !( n - r )!
at two diferent tables so that guests of one sex sit at one round table and the guests n n! n n!
r cr
of the other sex at the second table. Find the number of ways in which all gests are
seated.
Which completes the proof.
10. Find the number of ways in which 5 men and 5 women can be seated at a round table
Corollary:
in such a way that no two persons of the same sex sit together.
In how many ways can 4 keys be arranged on a circular key ring?
= = =
n!( n - r )! n!0!
11. n! n!
n
12. How many necklaces can be made from 6 beads of diferent colours? i) If r = n, then cn 1
= = = 1
7.3 Combination
0!( n - 0 )!
n n! n!
ii) If r = 0, then c0
0!n!
While counting the number of possible permutation of a set of objects, the order is
important. But there are situations where order is immaterial. For example
ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA are the six names of the triangle whose vertices
i)
7.3.1 Complementary Combination
are A, B and C. We notice that inspite of the diferent arrangements of the vertices
Prove that: nCr = nCn-r
Proof: If from n diferent objects, we select r objects then (n - r) objects are left.
of the triangle, they represent one and the same triangle.
ii) The 11 players of a cricket team can be arranged in 11! ways, but they are players
Corresponding to every combination of r objects, there is a combination of (n - r)
of the same single team. So, we are interested in the membership of the committee
objects and vice versa.
(group) and not in the way the members are listed (arranged). Therefore, a
Thus the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is equal to the number
combination of n diferent objects taken r at a time is a set of r objects.
of combinations of n objects taken (n - r) at a time.
The number of combinations of n diferent objects taken r at a time is denoted by nCr
∴ n
Cr =
n
Cn - r
n
or C(n, r) or r  and is given by
 
cn-r =
(n - r )!( n - n + r )!
n n!
Other wise:
cr =
r !( n - r )! = =
n!
( n - r )!r! r !( n - r )!
n
n! n!
Proof: There are nCr combinations of n diferent objects taken r at a time. Each combination ⇒ ncn-r =
n
cr
consists of r diferent objects which can be permuted among themselves in r! ways. So, each
combination will give rise to r! permutation. Thus there will be nCr x r! permutation of n cr r > .
n
Note: This result will be found useful in evaluating nCr when
diferent objects taken r at a time. 2
n
cr × r !=n pr
c2 =
(12).(11)
e.g l2
C10 = 12
C12-10 = 12
= (6). (11) =66
2
12 13
Example 1: If nC8 = nC12, ind n. = R.H.S.

Hence n-1Cr + n-1Cr- 1 = nCr
∴
n
Solution: We know that Cr = nCn - r
n
C8 = nCn-8 (i) Exercise 7.4
But it is given that nC8 = nC12 (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we conclude that 1. Evaluate the following:
12
n
Cn-8 = n
C12 i) C3 ii) 20C17 iii) n
C4
⇒ n - 8 = 12
∴
2. Find the value of n, when
n = 20
12 × 11
i) n
C5 = nC4 ii) n
C10 = iii) C12 = nC6
n
2!
Example 2: Find the number of the diagonals of a 6-sided igure.
3. Find the values of n and r, when
Solution: A 6-sided igure has 6 vertices. Joining any two vertices we get a line segment. i) nCr = 35 and nPr = 210
ii) n-1Cr-1 : nCr : n+1Cr+1 = 3 : 6 : 1 1
∴ Number of line segments = = 15
6 6! 4. How many (a) diagonals and (b) triangles can be formed by joining the vertices of the
C2
2!4! polygon having:
But these line segments include 6 sides of the igure i) 5 sides ii) 8 sides iii) 12 sides?
∴ Number of diagonals = 1 5 - 6 = 9 5. The members of a club are 12 boys and 8 girls. In how many ways can a committee of 3
boys and 2 girls be formed?
Example 3: Prove that: n-1
Cr + n-1Cr- 1 = nCr 6. How many committees of 5 members can be chosen from a group of 8 persons when
each committee must include 2 particular persons?
Solution: L.H.S. = n-1
Cr + n-1Cr- 1 7. In how many ways can a hockey team of 11 players be selected out of 15 players? How
many of them will include a particular player?
n -1 n -1
= +
r n -1- r r -1 n - r
8. Show that: l6C11 + 16C10 = 7C11
9. There are 8 men and 10 women members of a club. How many committees of can be
n -1 n -1
formed, having;
= +
r r -1 n - r -1 r - 1(n - r ) n - r - 1
i) 4 women ii) at the most 4 women iii) atleast 4 women?
10. Prove that nCr + nCr-1 = n+1Cr.
n -1 1 1  n -1 n - r + r 
= = + =
 
r -1 n - r -1  r n - r  r - 1 n - r - 1 r (n - r ) 
7.4 Probability
n n -1
= = =
n We live in an uncertain world where very many events cannot be predicted with
r r - 1(n - r ) n - r - 1 r n - r
n
Cr
complete certainty, e.g.
i) In a cloudy weather, we cannot be sure whether it will or will not rain. However,
14 15
we can say that there is 1 chance out of 2 that the rain will fall. on the top is the same as that of the tail. We say that these two events are equally likely.
ii) There are 6 theorems on circle out of which one theorem is asked in the Secondary Similarly, if a die, which is a perfect unloaded cube is rolled, then the face containing 2 dots
School Examination. Evidently, there is 1 chance out of 6 that a particular theorem is as likely to be on the top as the face containing 5 dots. The same will be the case with any
will be asked in the examination. other pair of faces. In general, if two events A and B occur in an experiment, then A and B
In simple situations, we are guided by our experience or intuition. However, we cannot are said to be equally likely events if each one of them has equal number of chances
be sure about our predictions. Nevertheless, in more complex situations, we cannot depend of occurrence.
upon guess work and we need more powerful tools for analyzing the situations and adopting The following deinition of Probability was given by a French Mathematician, P.S. Laplace
the safer path for the achievement of our goals. (1749 - 1827) and it has been accepted as a standard deinition by the mathematicians all
In order to guide in solving complex problems of every day life, two French Mathematicians, over the world:
BLAISE PASCAL (1623-62) and PIERRE DE FERMAT (1601 - 65), introduced probability If a random experiment produces m diferent but equally likely out-comes and n
theory. A very simple deinition of probability is given below: outcomes out of them are favourable to the occurrence of the event E, then the probability
of the occurrence of the event E is denoted by P(E) such that
Probability is the numerical evaluation of a chance that a particular event would
P( E= = =
n n( E ) no.of ways in which event occurs
occur. )
m n( S ) no.the elements of the sample space
This deinition is too vague to be of any practical use in estimating the chance of the Since the number of outcomes in an event is less than or equal to the number of
occurrence of a particular event in a given situation. But before giving a comprehensive outcomes in the sample space, the probability of an event must be a number between 0 and
deinition of probability we must understand some terms connected with probability. 1.
Sample Space and Events: The set S consisting of all possible outcomes of a That is, 0 7 P(E) 71
given experiment is called the sample space. A particular outcome is called an event i) If P{E) = 0, event E cannot occur and E is called an impossible event.
and usually denoted by E. An event E is a subset of the sample space S. For example, ii) If P(E) = 1, event E is sure to occur and E is called a certain event.
i) In tossing a fair coin, the possible outcomes are a Head (H) or a Tail (T) and it is
written as: S = {H, T } ⇒ n(S) = 2. Example 1: A die is rolled. What is the probability that the dots on the top are greater than
ii) In rolling a die the possible outcomes are 1 dot, 2 dots, 3 dots, 4 dots, 5 dots or 6 4?
Solution: S = {1,2, 3 ,4 ,5 ,6 } ⇒ n(S) = 6
∴ S = {1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6 } ⇒ n(S) =6
dots on the top.
The event E that the dots on the top are greater than 4 = {5, 6 }
To get an even number 2, 4 or 6 is such event and is written as:
E = {2,4,6} ⇒ n(E) = 3 ⇒ ∴ P ( E )=
==
n( E ) 2 1
n(E) = 2
n( S ) 6 3
Mutually Exclusive Events: If a sample space S = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and an event A = {1, 3, 5}
and another event B = {9}, then A and B are disjoint sets and they are said to be mutually Example 2: What is the probability that a slip of numbers divisible by 4 are picked from the
exclusive events. In tossing a coin, the sample space S = {H, T }. Now, if event A = {H } and slips bearing numbers 1, 2, 3, ......,10
event B = {T }, then A and B are mutually exclusive events. Solution: S = {1, 2, 3 ,..., 10} ⇒ n(S) = 10
Equally Likely Events: We know that if a fair coin is tossed, the chance of head appearing Let E be the event of picking slip with number divisible by 4.
16 17
E = { 4,8 } ⇒ n(E) = 2 4. Experiment:

A fair coin is tossed three times. It shows
∴ P( E ) = = =
n( E ) 2 1
Events Happening: i) One tail ii) atleast one head.
n( S ) 10 5
5. Experiment:
A die is rolled. The top shows
7.4.1 Probability that an Event does not Occur
Events Happening: i) 3 or 4 dots ii) dots less than 5.
6. Experiment:
If a sample space S is such that n(S) = N and out of the N equally likely events an event
E occurs R times, then, evidently, E does not occur N - R times.
From a box containing slips numbered 1,2, 3, ...., 5 one slip is picked up
Events Happening:
The non-occurrence of the event E is denoted as E .
i) the number on the slip is a prime number
= =
n( E ) R ii) the number on the slip is a multiple of 3.
Now P (E)
7. Experiment:
( )
n( S ) N
( )
Two die, one red and the other blue, are rolled simultaneously. The numbers of dots
n E N -R N R
P E = = = - =-
R on the tops are added. The total of the two scores is:
and 1
( )
n( S ) N N N N Events Happening: i) 5 ii) 7 iii) 11.
∴ P E = 1 - p ( E ).
8. Experiment:
A bag contains 40 balls out of which 5 are green, 15 are black and the remaining are
yellow. A ball is taken out of the bag.
Events Happening:
Exercise 7.5 i) The ball is black ii) The ball is green iii) The ball is not green.
9. Experiment:
For the following experiments, ind the probability in each case: One chit out of 30 containing the names of 30 students of a class of 18 boys and 12
1. Experiment: girls is taken out at random, for nomination as the monitor of the class.
From a box containing orange-lavoured sweets, Bilal takes out one sweet without Events Happening:
looking. i) the monitor is a boy ii) the monitor is a girl.
Events Happening: 10. Experiment:
i) the sweet is orange-lavoured A coin is tossed four times. The tops show
ii) the sweet is lemon-lavoured. Events Happening:
2. Experiment: i) all heads ii) 2 heads and 2 tails.
Pakistan and India play a cricket match. The result is:
Events Happening: i) Pakistan wins ii) India does not lose.
3. Experiment:
There are 5 green and 3 red balls in a box, one ball is taken out.
Events Happening: i) the ball is green ii) the ball is red.
18 19
7.4.2 Estimating Probability and Tally Marks Solution: Let E be the event that rain falls on a particular day of a July.
20 + 20 + 22 + 22 + 23 + 21 + 24 + 20 + 22 + 21
P( E ) =
We know that P( E ) = 31 × 10
n(E)
, where E is the event and S is the sample space. The fraction
n( S )
= = 0.7
showing the probability is very often such that it is better to find its approximate value. The 215
(approx).
following examples illustrate the necessity of approximation. 310
Number of days of raining in 20 days of July = 20 % 0.7 = 14
Example 1: The table given below shows the result of rolling a die 100 times. Find the ∴ The number of days it for picnic = 2 0 - 1 4 = 6
probability in which odd numbers occur.
Exercise 7.6
Event Tally Marks Frequency
1 25 1. A fair coin is tossed 30 times, the result of which is tabulated below. Study the table
2 13 and answer the questions given below the table:
3 14
4 24 Event Tally Marks Frequency
5 8 Head 14
6 16 Tail 16
i) How many times does ‘head’ appear?
25 + 14 + 8 47 1
=
Solution: Required probability = = (approx.) ii) How many times does ‘tail’ appear?
100 100 2 iii) Estimate the probability of the appearance of head?
iv) Estimate the probability of the appearance of tail?
Note: In the above experiment, we have written the probability = 1 (approx.) 2. A die is tossed 100 times. The result is tabulated below. Study the table and answer the
2
questions given below the table:
It may be remembered that the greater the number of trials, the more accurate Event Tally Marks Frequency
is the estimate of the probability. 1 14
2 17
3 20
Example 2: The number of rainy days in Murree during the month of July for the past ten
4 18
years are: 20, 20, 22, 22, 23, 21, 24, 20, 22, 21
5 15
Estimate the probability of the rain falling on a particular day of July. Hence ind the
6 16
number of days in which picnic programme can be made by a group of students who wish
i) How many times do 3 dots appear?
to spend 20 days in Murree.
ii) How many times do 5 dots appear?
iii) How many times does an even number of dots appear?
20 21
iv) How many times does a prime number of dots appear? ii) P(A~B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(AkB)
v) Find the probability of each one of the above cases. when A and B are overlapping or B5A.
3. The eggs supplied by a poultry farm during a week broke during transit as follows: Let us now learn the application of these formulas in solving problems involving the
1 1 addition of two probabilities.
1%, 2%, 1 %, %, 1%, 2%, 1%
2 2
Example 1: There are 20 chits marked 1, 2, 3,....,20 in a bag. Find the probability of picking
Find the probability of the eggs that broke in a day. Calculate the number of eggs that a chit, the number written on which is a multiple of 4 or a multiple of 7.
will be broken in transiting the following number of eggs:
i) 7,000 ii) 8,400 iii) 10,500 Solution: Here S = {1, 2, 3 ,..., 20} ⇒ n(S) = 20
Let A be the event of getting multiples of 4.
7.4.3 Addition of Probabilities ∴ A = {4,8, 12, 16,20} ⇒ n(A) = 5
∴ P( A) = =
We have learnt in chapter 1, that if A and B are two sets, then the shaded parts in the 5 1
following diagram represent A ∪ B . 20 4
Let B be the event of getting multiples of 7

∴ B = {7, 14} ⇒ n(B) = 2
∴ P( B) = =
2 1
20 10
As A and B are disjoint sets
∴ P( A ∪ B) =p( A) + p( B) = + =
1 1 7
4 10 20
The above diagrams help us in understanding the formulas about the sum of two
probabilities. Example 2: A die is thrown. Find the probability that the dots on the top are prime numbers
We know that: or odd numbers.
P(E) is the probability of the occurrence of an event E.
If A and B are two events, then Solution: Here S = {1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6 } ⇒ n(S) = 6
P(A) = the probability of the occurrence of event A; Let A = Set of prime numbers = {2,3,5} ⇒ n(A) = 3
P(B) = the probability of the occurrence of event B; Let B = Set of odd numbers = {1,3,5} ⇒ n(B) = 3
P(A~B) = the probability of the occurrence of A ∪ B ; ∴A∩ B
= {2, 3, 5} ∩ {1, 3,=
5} {3, 5} ⇒ n( A ∩ =
P(AkB) = the probability of the occurrence of A ∩ B ;
B) 2
Now P( A) = = , P( B) = = , P(A∩ B) = =
The formulas for the addition of probabilities are: 3 1 3 1 2 1
i) P(A~B) = P(A) + P(B), when A and B are disjoint 6 2 6 2 6 3
22 23
Since A and B are overlapping sets. them does not inluence the occurrence of the other event. In other words, regardless
P( A ∪ B)= P( A) + P( B) - P( A ∩ B) of whether event A has or has not occurred, if the probability of the event B remains the
same, then A and B are independent events.
= + - =
1 1 1 2
Suppose a bag contains 12 balls. If 4 balls are drawn from it twice in such a way that:
2 2 3 3
i) the balls of the irst draw are not replaced before the second draw;
ii) the balls of the irst draw are replaced before the second draw.
In the case (i), the second draw will be out of (12 - 4 = 8) balls which means that the
Exercise 7.7
1. If sample space= {1, 2, 3 , 9 } , Event A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and Event B = {1, 3, 5}, ind out-comes of the second draw will depend upon the events of the irst draw and the two
P( A ∪ B) . events will not be independent. However, in case (ii), the number of balls in the bag will be
2. A box contains 10 red, 30 white and 20 black marbles. A marble is drawn at random. Find the same for the second draw as has been the case at the time of irst draw i.e. the irst draw
the probability that it is either red or white. will not inluence the probability of the event of second draw. So the two events in this case
3. A natural number is chosen out of the irst ifty natural numbers. What is the probability will be independent.
that the chosen number is a multiple of 3 or of 5?
4. A card is drawn from a deck of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that it is a Theorem: If A and B are two independent events, the probability that both of them
diamond card or an ace? occur is equal to the probability of the occurrence of A multiplied by the probability of
5. A die is thrown twice. What is the probability that the sum of the number of dots shown the occurrence of B. Symbolically, it is denoted as:
P( A ∩ B) =
is 3 or 11?
P( A) . P( B)
6. Two dice are thrown. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers of dots
appearing on them is 4 or 6 ? Proof: Let event A belong to the sample space S1 such that
⇒ P( A) =
7. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. If the event A is that the sum of the numbers of m1
dots shown is an odd number and the event B is that the number of dots shown on at n(S1) = n1 and n(A) = m1
least one die is 3. Find P( A ∪ B) .
n1
8. There are 10 girls and 20 boys in a class. Half of the boys and half of the girls have blue Let event B belong to the sample space S2 such that
eyes. Find the probability that one student chosen as monitor is either a girl or has blue
⇒ p( B) =
m2
eyes. n(S2) = n2 and n(B) = m2
n2
∴ Total number of combined outcomes of A and B = n1 n2

7.4.4 Multiplication of Probabilities a A and B are independent events
We can multiply probabilities of dependent as well as independent events. But, in and total number of favourable outcomes = m1m2
this section, we shall ind the multiplication of independent events only. Before learning
∴ P( A ∩ B) = = . = P( A) . P( B)
m1m2 m1 m2
the formula of the multiplication of the probabilities of independent events, it is necessary n1n2 n1 n2
to understand that what is meant by independent events.
Two events A and B are said to be independent; if the occurrence of any one of
24 25
a E1 and E2 are independent

Note: The above proof of the formula holds good even if the sample spaces of A and B are
the same. The formula P( A ∩ B) = ∴ P( E1 ) . P( E2 ) =
1 1 1
P( A) . P( B) can be generalized as: .
P( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ ..... ∩ An ) =
2 6 12
Now E1 ∩ E2 =
P( A1 ) . P( A2 ) . P( A3 ) ........P( An )
{(1,2), (1,4), (1,6)}
where A1, A2, A3, ......, An are independent events.
⇒ n( E1 ∩ E2 ) = 3
∴ P( E1 ∩ E2 ) = =
Example 1 The probabilities that a man and his wife will be alive in the next 20 years are 0.8
3 1
and 0.75 respectively. Find the probability that both of them will be alive in the next 20 years.
36 12
Solution: If P(A) is the probability that the man will be alive in 20 years and P(B) is the Hence P ( E1 ∩ E2 ) =
P( E1 ) . P ( E2 )
probability that his wife be alive in 20 years.
Exercise 7.8
∴ P(A) = 0.8
a The two events are independent:
P(B) = 0.75 5
1. The probability that a person A will be alive 15 years hence is and the probability that
The probability that both man and wife will be alive in 20 years 7
is given by: 7
P( A ∩ B) = 0.8 × 0.75 = 0.6
another person B will be alive 15 years hence is 9 . Find the probability that both will
be alive 15 years hence.
2. A die is rolled twice: Event E1 is the appearance of even number of dots and event E2 is
the appearance of more than 4 dots. Prove that: P ( E1 ∩ E2 ) =
Example 2: Two dice are thrown. E1 is the event that the sum of their dots is an odd
P( E1 ) . P ( E2 )
number and E2 is the event that 1 is the dot on the top of the irst die. Show that
P ( E1 ∩ E2 ) =
3. Determine the probability of getting 2 heads in two successive tosses of a balanced
P( E1 ) . P ( E2 )
coin.
Solution: E1 = {(1,2), (1 ,4), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3,4), (3 ,6), (4, 3) (4, 5) 4. Two coins are tossed twice each. Find the probability that the head appears on the irst
(5, 6), (2, 1), (4, 1), (6,1), (3, 2), (5, 2), (6, 3), (5, 4), (6, 5)} toss and the same faces appear in the two tosses.
5. Two cards are drawn from a deck of 52 playing cards. If one card is drawn and replaced
⇒ n(E1) = 18 before drawing the second card, ind the probability that both the cards are aces.
6. Two cards from a deck of 52 playing cards are drawn in such a way that the card is
E2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)} replaced after the irst draw. Find the probabilities in the following cases:
i) irst card is king and the second is a queen.
⇒ ii) both the cards are faced cards i.e. king, queen, jack.
n(S) = 6%6 = 36
n(E2) = 6
a 7. Two dice are thrown twice. What is probability that sum of the dots shown in the irst
throw is 7 and that of the second throw is 11 ?
∴ P( E1 ) =
= and=
P(=
18 1 6 1
E2 ) 8. Find the probability that the sum of dots appearing in two successive throws of two
36 2 36 6
dice is every time 7.
26 27
7. Permutation Combination and Probability eLearn.Punjab
9. A fair die is thrown twice. Find the probability that a prime number of dots appear in
the irst throw and the number of dots in the second throw is less than 5.
10. A bag contains 8 red, 5 white and 7 black balls, 3 balls are drawn from the bag. What
is the probability that the irst ball is red, the second ball is white and the third ball is
black, when every time the ball is replaced?
 8  5  7 
HINT:     is the probability.
 20  20  20 
version: 1.1
28
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
8 Mathematical Inductions
and Binomial Theorem
8. Mathematical Inductions and Binomial Theorem eLearn.Punjab 8. Mathematical Inductions and Binomial Theorem eLearn.Punjab
The sequence of sums is (1)2, (2)2, (3)2, (4)2, ...

8.1 Introduction We see that each sum is the square of the number of terms in the sum. So the following
statement seems to be true.
Francesco Mourolico (1494-1575) devised the method of induction and applied this
For each natural number n,
1 + 3 + 5 + ... . + (2n - 1) = n2 . . . . (i) (a nth term=1+(n - 1)2)
device irst to prove that the sum of the irst n odd positive integers equals n2. He presented
many properties of integers and proved some of these properties using the method of
But it is not possible to verify the statement (i) for each positive integer n, because it
mathematical induction.
involves ininitely many calculations which never end.
We are aware of the fact that even one exception or case to a mathematical formula is
The method of mathematical induction is used to avoid such situations.Usually it is
enough to prove it to be false. Such a case or exception which fails the mathematical formula
used to prove the statements or formulae relating to the set {1,2,3,...} but in some cases, it
or statement is called a counter example.
is also used to prove the statements relating to the set (0 ,1,2 ,3,...}.
The validity of a formula or statement depending on a variable belonging to a certain
set is established if it is true for each element of the set under consideration.
For example, we consider the statement S(n) = n2 - n + 41 is a prime number for every
8.2 Principle of Mathematical Induction
natural number n. The values of the expression n2 - n + 41 for some irst natural numbers
are given in the table as shown below: The principle of mathematical induction is stated as follows:
If a proposition or statement S(n) for each positive integer n is such that
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1) S(1) is true i.e., S(n) is true for n = 1 and
S(n) 41 43 47 53 61 71 83 91 113 131 151 2) S(k + 1) is true whenever S(k) is true for any positive integer k, then S(n) is true for
all positive integers.
From the table, it appears that the statement S(n) has enough chance of being true. If
we go on trying for the next natural numbers, we ind n = 41as a counter example which fails Procedure:
the claim of the above statement. So we conclude that to derive a general formula without 1. Substituting n = 1, show that the statement is true for n = 1.
proof from some special cases is not a wise step. This example was discovered by Euler 2. Assuming that the statement is true for any positive integer k, then show that it is true
(1707-1783). for the next higher integer. For the second condition, one of the following two methods
Now we consider another example and try to formulate the result. Our task is to ind can be used:
the sum of the irst n odd natural numbers. We write irst few sums to see the pattern of M1 Starting with one side of S(k +1), its other side is derived by using S(k).
sums. M2 S(k + 1) is established by performing algebraic operations on S(k).
n (The number of terms) Sum
1 --------------------------------------------------------------------1= 12
3n(n + 1)
Example 1: Use mathematical induction to prove that 3 + 6 + 9 + .... + 3n =
2 ------------------------------------------------------------1+3= 4 = 22
for every
3 ----------------------------------------------------------1+3+5= 9=32 2
positive integer n.
4 ------------------------------------------------------1+3+5+7=16=42
5 -------------------------------------------------1+3+5+7+9=25 = 52
Solution: Let S(n) be the given statement, that is,
6 ---------------------------------------------1+3+5+7+9+11=36= 62
2 3
Solution: Let S(n) be the given statement,

3n(n + 1)
3 + 6 + 9.... + 3n = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n 2 =
S ( n) : (i)
2 S ( n) :
6
1. When n = 1, S(1) becomes
1. If n = 1, S (1) becomes
3(1)(1 + 1)
= = 3 1(1 + 1)(2 × 1 + 1) 1 × 2 × 3
= : (1) 2 = =
S (1) : 3
2 S (1) 1
6 6
Thus S(1) is true i.e., condition (1) is satisied.
2. Let us assume that S(n) is true for any n = kU N , that is, Thus S(1) is true, i.e., condition (1) is satisied.
3k (k + 1)
2. Let us assume that S(k) is true for any k U N , that is,
3 + 6 + 9.... + 3k =
k (k + 1)(2k + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + .... + k 2 =
(A)
2 (A)
2
(k + 1)(k + 1 + 1)(2k + 1 + 1)
The statement for n = k+ 1 becomes
S (k + 1) : 12 + 22 + 32 + .... + k 2 + (k + 1) 2 =
3k (k + 1) ( k + 1) + 1
3 + 6 + 9.... + 3k + 3(k + 1) = (k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
6
=
3(k + 1)(k + 2)
2 (B)
=
6
(B)
2 Adding (k+1)2 to both the sides of equation (A), we have
k (k + 1)(2k + 1)
Adding 3(k+ 1) on both the sides of (A) gives
12 + 22 + 32 + .... + k= + (k + 1) 2 + +
3k (k + 1)
3 + 6 + 9 + .... + 3k + 3(k =
+ 1) + 3(k + 1)
2
(k 1) 2
(k + 1)[k (2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]

=
2
=3(k + 1)( + 1)
k 6
(k + 1)(2k 2 + k + 6k + 6)
3(k + 1)(k + 2) =
2
= 6
(k + 1)(2k 2 + 7 k + 6)
=
2
Thus S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true, so the condition (2) is satisied.
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
6
=
Since both the conditions are satisied, therefore, S(n) is true for each positive integer
n. 6
Thus the condition (2) is satisied. Since both the conditions are satisied, therefore, by
Example 2: Use mathematical induction to prove that for any positive integer n, mathematical induction, the given statement holds for all positive integers.
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n3 + 2n
6 Example 3: Show that represents an integer [nUN.
3
4 5
Solution: Let S(n) be the given statement, that is,

n 3 + 2n
Solution: Let S (n) =
3(5n+1 - 1)
3 The dot (.)between
S (n) : 3 + 3.5 + 3.5 + .... + 3.5 =
2 n
two number, stands,
1. When n = 1, S(1) becomes 4
for multipication symbol.
13 + 2(1) 3
S (1) = = = 1∈ Z 3(50+1 - 1) 3(5 - 1)
3 3 1. For n= 0, S(0) becomes S (0)=
: 3.5 = = 0
or 3 3
4 4
2. Let us assume that S(n) is ture for any n = k U W, that is,
k 3 + 2k
Thus S(0) is true i.e., conditions (1) is satisied.
S (k ) = represents an integer.
3
2. Let us assume that S(k) is true for any k U W , that is,
3(5k +1 - 1)
Now we want to show that S(k+l) is also an integer. For n=k+1, the statement becomes
S (k ) : 3 + 3.5 + 3.5 + .... + 3.5 =
(k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1)
2 k
(A)
S (k + 1) =
4
3
k + 3k + 3k + 1 + 2k + 2 (k 3 + 2k ) + (3k 2 + 3k + 3) Here S(k+1) becomes
=
=
3 2
3(5( k +1)+1 - 1)
S (k + 1) : 3 + 3.5 + 3.5 + .... + 3.5 + 3.5 =
3 3 k +1
(k 3 + 2k ) + 3(k 2 + k + 1)
=
2 k
3(5k + 2 - 1)
3
k 3 + 2k =
= + (k 2 + k + 1) 4
(B)
3
k 3 + 2k Adding 3.5k+1 on both sides of (A), we get
As is an integer by assumption and we know that (k2 + k + 1)is an integer as
3(5k +1 - 1)
3
3 + 3.5 + 3.5 + .... + 3.5 + = + 3.5k +1
k U W.
2 k k +1
S(k + 1) being sum of integers is an integer, thus the condition (2) is satisied. 3.5
4
3(5 - 1 + 4.5k +1 )
k +1
=
Since both the conditions are satisied, therefore, we conclude by mathematical
n3 + 2n
4
3[5k +1 (1 + 4) - 1]
=
induction that represents an integer for all positive integral values of n.
3
4
3(5 - 1)
k +2
=
Example 4: Use mathematical induction to prove that
3(5n+1 - 1)
3 + 3.5 + 3.5 + .... + 3.5 =
4
2 n
whenever n is non-negative integer.
4 This shows that S(k + 1) is true when S(k) is true. Since both the conditions are satisied,
therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, S(n) in true for each n U W.
6 7
Care should be taken while applying this method. Both the conditions (1) and (2) of S (k + 1) : 1 + 3 + 5 + .... + (2k + 5) + (2k + 1 + 5) = (k + 1 + 3) 2 = (k + 4) 2 (B)
Adding (2k + 1 + 5)= (2k + 7) on both sides of equation (A) we get,
the principle of mathematical induction are essential. The condition (1) gives us a starting
point but the condition (2) enables us to proceed from one positive integer to the next. In
1 + 3 + 5+ .... + (2k + 5) + (2k + 7) = (k + 3)2 + (2k + 7)
the condition (2) we do not prove that S(k + 1) is true but prove only that if S(k)is true, then
= k2 + 6k + 9 + 2k + 7
S(k + 1) is true. We can say that any proposition or statement for which only one condition
= k2 + 8k + 16
is satisied, will not be truefor all n belonging to the set of positive integers.
= (k + 4)2
For example, we consider the statement that 3n is an even integer for any positive
Thus the condition (2) is satisied. As both the conditions are satisied, so we conclude
integer n. Let S(n) be the given statement.
that the equation is true for all integers n 8- 2.
Assume that S(k) is true, that is, 3k in an even integer for n = k. When 3k is even, then
3k + 3k + 3k is even which implies that 3k .3= 3k +1 is even.
Example 6: Show that the inequality 4n > 3n + 4 is true, for integral values of n82.
This shows that S(k + 1 ) will be true when S(k) is true. But 31 is not an even integer which
relects that the irst condition does not hold. Thus our supposition is false.
Solution: Let S(n) represents the given statement i.e., S(n): 4n > 3n + 4 for integral values of
Note:- There is no integer n for which 3n is even. n 82.
Sometimes, we wish to prove formuIae or statements which are true for all integers 1. For n = 2, S(2) becomes
n greater than or equal to some integer i, where i m1. In such cases, S(1) is replaced by S(i) S(2): 42 > 32 + 4 , i.e., 16 > 13 which is true.
and the condition (2) remains the same. To tackle such situations, we use the principle of Thus S(2) is true, i.e., the irst condition is satisied.
extended mathematical induction which is stated as below: 2. Let the statement be true for any n = k(82) UZ , that is
4k > 3k + 4 (A)
8.3 Principle of Extended Mathematical Induction Multiplying both sides of inequality (A) by 4, we get
or 4.4k > 4 (3k + 4)
Let i be an integer. If a formula or statement S(n) for n8i is such that or 4k+1 > (3 + 1)3k +16
1) S(i) is true and or 4k+1 > 3k+1 + 4 + 3k + 12
2) S(k+ 1) is true whenever S(k) is true for any integer n8i. or 4k+1 > 3k+1 + 4 (a3k +12 > 0) (B)
Then S(n) is true for all integers n8i. The inequality (B), satisies the condition (2).
Since both the conditions are satisied, therefore, by the principle of extended
Example 5: Show that 1 + 3 + 5 + .. .. (2n+ 5) = (n+ 3)2 for integral values of n8-2. mathematical induction, the given inequality is true for all integers n82.
Solution: Exercise 8.1

1. Let S(n) be the given statement, then for n = -2 , S(-2) becomes, 2(-2)+5=(-2+3)2,
i.e., 1 = (1)2 which is true. Use mathematical induction to prove the following formulae for every positive integer
Thus S(-2) is true i.e., the condition (1) is satisied n.
2. Let the equation be true for any n = kUZ , k 8-2 , so that 1. 1 + 5 + 9 + .... + (4n - 3)
= n (2n - 1)
1+3+5+....+(2k+5)= (k+ 3)2 (A)
8 9
1 + 3 + 5 + .... + (2n - 1) =
n(4n 2 - 1)
12 + 32 + 52 + .... + (2n - 1) 2 =
2. n2
n(3n - 1)
19.
1 + 4 + 7 + .... + (3n - 2) =
3
 3  4   5  n + 2   n + 3
3.
 3  +  3  +  3  + .... +  3  =  
2
1 + 2 + 4 + .... + 2n-1 = 2n - 1          4 
20.
4.
 1
Prove by mathematical induction that for all positive integral values of n
1 + + + .... + n-1 = 2 1 - n 
21.
ii) 5n - 2” is divisible by 3.
1 1 1
 2 
5. i) n2 + n is divisible by 2.
5n -1 is divisible by 4. iv) 8 x 10n - 2 is divisible by 6.
2 4 2
2 + 4 + 6 + .... + 2n= n(n + 1)

iii)
6. v) n3- n is divisible by 6.
2 + 6 + 18 + .... + 2 × 3n-1 = 3n - 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + .... + n = 1- n 
1 1
2 3 
7. 22.
n(n + 1)(4n + 5)
3 3 3
1 × 3 + 2 × 5 + 3 × 7 + .... + n × (2n + 1) =
(-1) n-1.n(n + 1)
8.
n(n + 1)(n + 2) 12 - 22 + 32 - 42 + .... + (-1) n-1 .n 2 =

6
1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 + .... + n × (n + 1) =
23.
9. 2
n(n + 1)(4n - 1) 13 + 33 + 53 + .... + (2n - 1)

= n 2 [2n 2 - 1]
3
1 × 2 + 3 × 4 + 5 × 6 + .... + (2n - 1) × 2n =
3
24.
x + 1 is a factor of x 2 n - 1;( x ≠ -1)
10.
3 25.
1
+
1
+
1
+ .... +
1
-=
1 x - y is a factor of xn - yn ; (x ≠ y)
1× 2 2 × 3 3 × 4 n(n + 1) n +1
26.
x + y is a factor of x2n-1+ y2n-1 (x ≠ -y )
11. 1
27.
+ + + .... + =
1 1 1 1 n
1× 3 3 × 5 5 × 7 (2n - 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1
28. Use mathematical induction to show that
1 + 2 + 22 +.... + 2n = 2n+1 - 1 for all non-negative integers n.
12.
+ + + .... + = If A and B are square matrices and AB = BA, then show by mathematical induction that
1 1 1 1 n
2 × 5 5 × 8 8 × 11 (3n - 1)(3n + 2) 2(3n + 2)
13. 29.
ABn = BnA for any positive integer n.
r (1 - r n ) Prove by the Principle of mathematical induction that n2 - 1 is divisible by 8 when n is
r + r2 =+ r 3 + .... + r n ≠
1- r
14. , (r 1) 30.
an odd positive integer.
a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + .... + [a + (n - 1)d= [2a + (n - 1)d ]
n
15. ] 31. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that lnxn = n lnx for any integer
2
n 8 0 if x is a positive number. Use the principle of extended mathematical induction
1.1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + .... + n n = n + 1 - 1 to prove that:
n! > 2n - 1 for integral values of n 8 4 .
16.
32.
17. an = a1 + (n - 1)d when,a1 , a1 + d , a1 + 2d , .... form an A.P. 33. n2 > n + 3 for integral values of n 8 3.
34. 4n > 3n + 2n-1 for integral values of n 8 2 .
18. an = a1r n-1 when a1 , a1r , a1r 2 ,... form a G.P. 35. 3n < n! for integral values of n > 6 .
36. n! > n2 for integral values of n 8 4 .
10 11
37. 3 + 5 + 7 +.... + (2n + 5) = (n + 2)(n + 4) for integral values of n8-1. 1. If n = 1, we obtain

1 + nx 7 (1 + x)n for n 82 and x > -1
1  1
38.
S (1) : (a + x)1 =  a1 +   a1-1 x =a + x
0 1
8.4 Binomial Theorem
Thus condition (1) is satisied.
An algebraic expression consisting of two terms such as a + x, x - 2y, ax + b etc., is called

2. Let us assume that the statement is true for any n = kU N, then
a binomial or a binomial expression.
k  k  k   k  k -( r -1) r -1  k  k -r r
(a + x=
) k   a k +   a k -1 x +   a k -2 x 2 + .... +  +x
We know by actual multiplication that
a  r a x
(a + x)2 = a2 + 2ax + x2 (i) 0 1  2  r - 1  
(a + x)3 = a3 + 3a2x + 3ax2 + x3 (ii)
 k  k k 
+.... +   ax +   x k
The right sides of (i) and (ii) are called binomial expansions of the binomial a + x for the
k  k 
(B)
indices 2 and 3 respectively.
In general, the rule or formula for expansion of a binomial raised to any positive integral
 k + 1 k +1  k + 1 k  k + 1 k -1 2
power n is called the binomial theorem for positive integral index n.For any positive integer S (k + 1) : (a=
+ k ) k +1   +  1  × +  2  a × x + .... +
 0     
a a x
n,
n n n  n  n-( r -1) r -1  k + 1 k -r + 2 r -1  k + 1 k -r +1 r  k + 1  k + 1 k +1

(a + x=
) n   a n +   a n-1 x +   a n-2 x 2 + .... +  a  r -1 a ×x +  × x + .... +   a × xk +  x
0 1  2  r - 1    r   k   k + 1
x (A) a (C)
n  n  n-1  n  n
+   a n-r x r + .... +   ax +  n  x
Multiplying both sides of equation (B) by (a+x), we have
r   n - 1  
 k  k  k   k  k -r +1 r -1
(a + x)(a + x) k = (a + x)   a k +   a k -1 x +   a k -2 x 2 + .... +  a
 0  1  2  r - 1
or briely x
∑
 n  n-r r
(a + x) =  a x k   k  k -1  k  k 
n
r =0  r  +   a k -r x r + .... +   ax +  k  x 
n
r   k - 1   
where a and x are real numbers.
 k  k  k   k  k -r + 2 r -1
=   a k +1 +   a k x +   a k -1 x 2 + .... + 
The rule of expansion given above is called the binomial theorem and it also holds if a
- a
        
x
or x is complex. 0 1 2 r 1
Now we prove the Binomial theorem for any positive integer n, using the principle of
k   k  2 k -1  k  k 
+   a k -r +1 x r + .... +   a x +  k  ax 
mathematical induction.
r   k - 1   
Proof: Let S(n) be the statement given above as (A).
12 13
The following points can be observed in the expansion of (a + x)n

 k  k  k   k  k -r +1 r
+   a k x +   a k -1 x 2 +   a k -2 × x3 + .... +  a ×x
1. The number of terms in the expansion is one greater than its index.
 
0  
1  
2  r - 1  2. The sum of exponents of a and x in each term of the expansion is equal to its
index.
k   k  k  k  k +1 
+   a k -r x r +1 + .... +   ax +  k  x 
3. The exponent of a decreases from index to zero.
 
r  k - 1     4. The exponent of x increases from zero to index.
5. The coeicients of the terms equidistant from beginning and end of the expansion
k   k   k    k   k  
=   a k +1 +   +    a k x +   +    a k -1 x 2 + .... n  n 
0  1   0    2   1   are equal as   =  
r  n - r
 k   k   k -r +1 r  k   k   k  k  k +1 n
+   +   a x + .... +   +    ax +  k  x 6. The (r + l)th term in the expansion   a n-r x r and we denote it as Tr +1 i.e.,
  
r r - 1    
k k - 1    r 
  nr r
 k   k + 1  k   k + 1  k   k   k + 1  a x
=
As    =  r  +=  for1 ≤ r ≤ k  
T
      
 0   0   k   k + 1    r - 1  r 
, and
 k + 1 k +1  k + 1 k  k + 1 k -1 2
∴ (a=
+ x) k +1  a + a x+  a x + ....
As all the terms of the expansion can be got from it by putting r = 0, 1,2..... n, so we call
 
 0   1   2  it as the general term of the expansion.
 k + 1 k -r +1 r  k + 1  k + 1 k +1 a 2
+ + + + Example 1: Expand  -  also ind its general term.
6
  k   k + 1 x 2 a
 r     
k
a x .... a x
 a 2   a  -2  
Solution:  -  = +   
6 6
We ind that if the statement is true of n = k, then it is also true for n = k +1.  2 a   2  a 
Hence we conclude that the statement is true for all positive integral values of n.
 a   6  a   2   6  a   2   6  a   2 
=   +     -  +    +  -  +     - 
6 5 4 2 3 3
 2  1   2   a   2   2   a   3   2   a 
n n n n  6   a   2   6   a  2   2 

Note:   ,   ,   ,....,   are called the binomial coeicients. +      -  +     -  +  - 
2 4 5 6
 0  1   2  n  4   2   a   5   2  a   a 
 a 5   2  6.5 a 4 4 6.5.4 a 3  8  6.5 a 2 16

= + 6   -  + . . 2 .+ . . - 3  +
a6
    
. . 4
64 32 a 2.1 16 a 3.2.1 8 a 2.1 4 a
14 15
a  -32  64 11  3 
11- r
 1  11 3
+6.  5  + 6
11- r
=Tr +1    x  =
-    11-r x11-r .(-1) r .3- r.x - r
r
2 a  a
 r  2   3x   r  2
= - a + a - 20 + 2 - 4 + 6 11 311-2 r
a 6 3 4 15 2
= (-1) r .  11-r .x11-2 r
60 96 64
 r 2
64 8 4 a a a
Tr +1 , the general term is given by As this term involves x5 , so the exponent of x is 5, that is,
11 - 2r =
5
-2r = 5 - 11 ⇒ r = 3
 6  a   2  6 a
6- r 6- r
T= - =   6-r (-1) r
or
 r  
r r
r 2
  2   a  r  2
r +1 Thus T4 involves x5
a
11 311-6 11-6
 6  a .a r 6 a  6  a 
6- 2 r
∴ T4 -=
( 1) .  11-3 .x -=
6- r -r 6- 2 r
11.10.9 35 5
- -= -r = =
 6- r - r .  6- 2 r ( 1) r      3 2
3
( 1). . x
 r  2 .2 r  2  r  2 
( 1) ( 1) 3.2.1 28
165 × 243 5
= - =-
40095 5
x x
256 256
Example 2: Evaluate (9.9)5
Solution: (9.9)5 = (10-.1)5 ii) Putting r = 4 in Tr+1, we get T5
11 311-8 11-8

= (10)5 + 5 x (10)4 x (-. 1) + 10(10)3 x (-. 1)2 + 10(10)2 x (-. 1)3 + 5(10)(-.1)4 + (-.1)5
= 100000 - (.5) (10000) + (10000X.01) + 1000(-.001) + 50 (.0001) -.00001 ∴ T-5 =
( 1)   11-4 .x =
11.10.9.8 33 3
= 100000 - 5000 +100 -1 + .005 - .00001 4  2
4
. .x
4.3.2.1 27
= 100100.005 - 5001.00001 11 × 10 × 3 27 3 165 × 27 3
= 95099.00499 =
= . x x
1 128 64
3 1  =
4455 3
Example 3: Find the specified term in the expansion of  x - 
11
x
2 3x 
; 64
The 6th term from the end term will have (11 + 1) - 6 i.e., 6 terms before it,
∴
iii)
i) the term involving x5 ii) the ifth term It will be (6 + 1) th term i.e.. the 7th term of the expansion.
iii) the sixth term from the end. iv) coeicient of term involving x-1
11 311-12 11-12 11.10.9.8.7 3-1 -1
T7 =
( 1)   11-6 x - .=
Solution:
6  2
6
Thus x
3 1 
5.4.3.2.1 25
Tr +1 be the term involving x in the expansion of  x - 
11
2 3x  11 × 6 × 7 1 1
=
=
5
i) Let , then
77
3 × 32 x
. .
1 16 x
16 17
12 
is the coeicient of the term involving x-1 Therefore the required term T5 =   28-12.x12-12
77
iv)
4
16
12 × 11 × 10 × 9 -4 0
=
4 × 3 × 2 ×1
8.3.1 The Middle Term in the Expansion of (a + x)n .2 .x
11 × 45 495
= =
In the expansion of (a + x)n, the total number of terms is n + 1
Case I: (n is even) 24 16
 n +1 ii) In this case, n = 12 which is even, so

If n is even then n+1 is odd, so   th term will be the only one middle term in the
 2 
 12 
∴  + 1 th term is the middle term in the expansion,
expansion.
 2 
Case II: (n is odd)
i.e., T7 is the required term.
 n +1  n +3
If n is odd then n + 1 is even so   th and   th terms of the expansion will be the 12   x 
12-6
 2
 2   2  T7 =     . 2 
6
 6  2  x 
two middle terms.
x 2  12  x 6 26 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 6-12
Example 4: Find the following in the expansion of  + 2  ;
12
2 x  =
=   6 . 12
 6 2 x 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ×1
.x
12 × 11 × 7 924
i) the term independent of x. ii) the middle term
= =
Solution: i) Let Tr+1 be the term independent of x in the expansion of x6 x6
x 2 
 + 2
12
8.3.2 Some Deductions from the binomial expansion of (a + x)n.
2 x 
, then
12   x   2 12  x12-r r -2 r

12- r We know that
=
=Tr +1      2  r  12-r .2 .x
r
 r  2  x   2  n  n  n  n-1  n  n-2 2
(a + x)=  0  a + 1  a x +  2  a x + ...
     
n
12 
=   22 r -12.x12-3r
r n  n  n-1  n  n
+   a n-r x r + .... +   ax +  n  x
 n - 1
(I)
r   
As the term is independent of x, so exponent of x, will be zero.
That is, 12 -3r = 0 ⇒ r = 4.
18 19
(i) If we put a = 1, in (I), then we have;

n n n n n -1  n  n n
n n n n  n  n-1  n  n  0  - 1  +  2  -  3  + .... + (-1)  n - 1 + (-1)  n  =0
(1 + x) n =   +   x +   x 2 + .... +   x r + .... +  x + nx            
Thus
 n - 1
(II)
 0  1  2 r    If n is odd positive integer, then
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1) r n n  n  n n n

=1 + nx + x + .... + x +.... +nx n-1 +x n + + + = + + +
0 2  n - 1 1   3  n
           
2! r! .... ....
 n n(n - 1)....(n - r + 1)(n - r )! n(n - 1)....(n - r + 1 

=
   == 
n!
  r  r !(n - r )! r !(n - r )!
If n is even positive integer, then
r! 
n n n n n  n 
Putting a = 1 and replacing x by -x, in (I), we get.  0  +  2  + .... +  n  = 1  +  3  + .... +  n - 1
           
ii)
n n n n  n  n

(1 - x) n =  +   (- x) +   (- x) 2 +   (- x)3 + .... +   - n -1
+   (- x) n
 0  1  2 3   n - 1 n
( x )
Thus sum of odd coeicients of a binomial expansion equals to the sum of its even
coeicients.
n n n n  n  n-1 n
=   -   x +   x 2 -   x3 + .... + (-1) n-1   x+ - ( 1) n   x n ....
 n - 1
(III)
 0  1  2 3  n
n n n n
Example 5: Show that:   + 2   + 3   + .... + n   =
n.2n-1
iii) We can ind the sum of the binomial coicients by putting 1   2 3  n
a = 1and x = 1 in (I).
Solution:
n n n  n  n
(1 + 1) n =   +   +   + .... +   + n
       -    n n n n n(n - 1) n(n - 1)(n - 2)
i.e.,
1  + +
 2 3  + + n = + + +.... +n.1
0 1 2 n 1
       
2 3 .... n n 2 3
2! 3!
n n n  n  n
2n =   +   +   + .... +  +   (n - 1)(n - 2) 
 0  1   2   n - 1  n  = n. 1 + (n - 1) + + .... + 1
or
 2! 
Thus the sum of coeicients in the binomial expansion equals to 2n .
 n - 1   n - 1   n - 1   n - 1 
= n.   +  +  + ....  +  
iv) Putting a = 1 and x = -1, in (i) we have  0   1   2   n - 1 
n n n n  n  n = n.2n-1

(1 - 1)=   -   +   -   + .... + (-1) n-1   + (-1) n  
 0  1   2   3   n - 1 n
n
20 21
(
y3 in the expansion of x - y )
11
Exercise 8.2 iv)
1. Using binomial theorem, expand the following: 7. Find the coeicient of;
x 2   x   3 
(a + 2b)  - 2  3a -  x in the expansion of  x 2 - 
6 4 10
2 x   3a   2x 
5
i) ii) iii) i) 5
 x  x 2y   a x  1
- + - x in the expansion of  x 2 - 
2n
 
6
   
7 8
 a  x
n
ii)
 2y x   x a
iv) 2 a v) vi)
 3 
Find 6th term in the expansion of  x 2 - 
10
 2x 
8.
2. Calculate the following by means of binomial theorem:
i) (0.97)3 ii) (2.02)4 iii) (9.98) iv) (21)5 9. Find the term independent of x in the following expansions.
 2  1   1 
x-   x+ 2 (1 + x ) 1 + 2 
10 10 4
 x  2x   x 
(a + ) + (a - ) (2 + 3) + (2 - 3)
Expand and simplify the following:
2 3
3. i) ii) iii)
( ) ( )
4 4 5 5
i) 2x 2x ii) 10. Determine the middle term in the following expansions:
(2 + i) - (2 - i )5 x + x2 - 1 + x - x2 - 1
 1 x2  3 1   1 
3 3
2 m +1
5
 -   x-   2x - 
iii) iv) 12 11
x 2  2 3x   2x 
i) ii) iii)
 1 
4. Expand the following in ascending power of x:
i) (2 + x - x ) ii) (1 - x + x ) (1 - x - x ) Find (2n +1) th term from the end in the expansion of  x - 
3n
 2x 
2 4 2 4
iii) 2 4 11.
Expand the following in descending powers of x: 1.3.5....(2n - 1) n n

Show that the middle term of (1 + x) 2 n is =
5.
12. 2 x
 1
( x + x - 1) - -
n!
 
3
 x n n n  n 

Show that:   +   +   + .... +  =
2 3
i) ii) x 1
 2n-1
1   3   5   n - 1
13.
6. Find the term involving:
x4 in the expansion of (3 - 2x)7
n 1 n 1n 1 n 1  n  2n+1 - 1
i)
Show that:   +   +   +   + .... +  =
 2  0  2 1  3  2  4  3  n + 1 n  n +1
14.
x-2 in the expansion of  x - 2 
13
 x 
ii)
2 
a4 in the expansion of  - a 
9
x 
iii)
22 23
(-1) r .3.4.5....(r + 2) r
8.4 The Binomial Theorem when the index n is a negative
integer or a fraction. = x
r!
1.2.3.4.5....(r + 2) r
When n is a negative integer or a fraction, then = (-1) r . x
n(n - 1) n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3
(1 + x )
1.2.r !
=+
1 nx + + x +
r !.(r + 1)(r + 2) r
n
= (-1) r
.....
2! 3! x
n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1) r
2.r !
+ x + ..... (r + 1)(r + 2) r
r! = (-1) r . x
provided x < 1.
2
Some particular cases of the expansion of (1 + x)n , n<0.

The series of the type i) (1 + x)-1 = 1 - x + x2 - x3 + ...... +(-1)rxr + ....
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3 (1 + x)-2 = 1 - 2x + 3x2 - 4x3 + ....+ ( -1)r(r + 1)xr + ...
1 + nx + x + x + ...
ii)
(r + 1)(r + 2) r
(1 + x) -3 = 1 - 3 x + 6 x 2 - 10 x3 + .... + (-1) r x + ...
2! 3!
iii)
is called the binomial series. 2
iv) (1 - x)-1 = 1 + x + x2 - x3 +......+ xr +....

(1 - x)-2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + ....+ (r + 1)xr + ...
Note (1): The proof of this theorem is beyond the scope of this book.
v)
n n n (r + 1)(r + 2) r
Symbols   ,   ,   etc are meaningless when n is a negative integer or a (1 - x) -3 =1 + 3 x + 6 x 2 + 10 x3 + ... + x +...
 0  1   2 
(2) vi)
2
fraction.
(3) The general term in the expansion is
8.5 Application of the Binomial Theorem
n(n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1) r
Tr +1 = x
r!
Approximations: We have seen in the particular cases of the expansion of (1+x)n that
the power of x go on increasing in each expansion. Since | x | < 1, so
Example 1: Find the general term in the expansion of (1 + x) -3 when x < 1 x
r
< x for r =
2,3, 4...
(-3)(-4)(-5)....(-3 - r + 1) r
Solution: Tr +1 = x This fact shows that terms in each expansion go on decreasing numerically if | x | < 1.
r!
Thus some initial terms of the binomial series are enough for determining the approximate
values of binomial expansions having indices as negative integers or fractions.
24 25
(.8)1/3 ≈ .928
Summation of ininite series: The binomial series are conveniently used for summation of
Thus
ininite series..The series (whose sum is required) is compared with
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3

1 + nx + x + x + ...
Alternative method:
11  1  1  1 
 - 1  - 1 - 2 
2! 3!
(.8)1/3 =(1 - .2)1/3 =1 - + 

.2 3 3 
(-.2) 2 + 
3 3  3  ( .2)
to ind out the values of n and x. Then the sum is calculated by putting the values of n and x - 3 ....
+
3 2! 3!
in (1 + x )n .
Simplify onward by yourself.
Example 2: Expand ( 1 - 2x)1/3 to four terms and apply it to evaluate (.8)1/3 correct to three
places of decimal. Example 3: Expand (8 - 5x)-2/3 to four terms.
Solution: This expansion is valid only if 2 x < 1 or 2 x < 1 or x <   5x    5   5 

- - -
2
Solution: (8 - 5 x) -2/3 = 8 1 - 8   =8 1 - x  =(8 ) 1 - x 

2 2
-
3 -2
2 1
, that is 3 3 3
    8   8 
3
11  1  1  1 
 - 1  - 1 - 2  1 5 
-
(1 - 2 x)1/3 =1 + (-2 x) + 
3 3 
(-2 x) 2 + 
3 3  3 ( - = 1 - x 
2
2 x)3 -......
3
4 8 
1
3 2! 3!
1 2  1  2  5    2  5 
-   -  -    -  - 
3 3  3  3  3   2  5   3  3   5 
=
1- x + (4 x 2 ) + (-8 x3 ) - .... = 1 +  -  - x  + - x +
2
2 1
3 2.1 3.2.1 4   3  8   8 

2!
=
1 - x - x2 - -
2 4 1.2.5 1
(8 x3 ) ....
 2  -5  8  
.
 -   - 
3 9 3.3.3 3.2.1

 3  3  3   - 5 x  + ...
 
3
=
1 - x - x 2 - x3 - ....  8  
2 4 40

3 9 81 3!
Putting x =.1 in the above expansion we have

1 
= 1 + x + × x2 + × x + ...
(1 - 2(.1) ) -= 
5 5 25 40 125 3
1 -(.1) - 2 - 3 ... 4  12 81 8 × 64 
1/3 2 4 40
(.1) (.1) 9 64
3 9 81
=+ x + x + x + ....
1 5 125 2 625 3
=1 - - - ( 40 ×.001 =
.2 .04 .04
... .04) 4 48 2304 20736
3 9 81
 5 
-2/3
≈ 1 - .06666 - .00444 - .00049
- = = .92841 The expansion of 1 - x 
5
x <1
 8 
1 .07159 is valid when
8
26 27
coeicient of x n = (-1)(-1) n-1 n + (-1) n (n + 1)

x <1 ⇒ x <
5 8
or
= (-1) n n + (-1) n (n + 1)
8 5
=-
( 1) n [n + (n + 1)]
3
Example 4: Evaluate 30 correct to three places of decimal.
= (30)= (27 + 3) - =
( 1)+.(2
1
3 1/3
Solution: 30 3 1)
  3   1
= 27 1 +   =(27) 1 + 
1/3 1/3 Example 6: If x is so small that its cube and higher power can be neglected, show that
  27    9
1/3
1- x
≈ 1 - x + x2
1
1+ x
 1
= 3 1 + 
1/3 2
 9 1- x
-= + (1 x) -1/2
1+ x
Solution: (1 x)1/2
  1  2  1  2  5  
 1 1  3  - 3   1 2  -  -  1 3
3  3  3    
=3 1 + . +   
  +   +   11    1  1  
 9 9   1  -    1  -  - -  
...
= 1 + (- x) + 
2 2 
(- x) 2 + ... 1 +  -  x + 
2  2  2
  x + ...
3 9 2! 3! 1 1
 2   2 
   
2! 2!
 1 1 1  1  2 5  1 3   1  1  
= 3 1 + . -   +   + ... = 3 1 + -   + ...
2
 3 9 9  9  81  9    27  27    1  1 
=1 - x - x 2 + ... 1 - x + x 2 + ...
≈ 3[1 + .03704 - .001372 ] 3[1.035668 ] 3.107004
1 3
= =  2 8  2 8 
 1 3   1 1  1 
= 1 - x + x 2  +  - x + x 2  - x 2 + ...
Thus 30 ≈ 3.107  2 8   2 4  8 
1- x 1 1 3 1 1
Example 5: Find the coeicient of xn in the expansion of
(1 + x) 2 =1 -  +  x +  + -  x 2 + ...
2 2 8 4 8
1- x
=(1 - x)(1 + x) -2
(1 + x) ≈1- x +
Solution: 2 1 2
x
(-2)(-3) 2 (-2)(-3)...(-2 - r + 1) r
2
= (- x + 1)[1 + (-2) x + x + .... + x + ...]
2! r! Example 7: If m and n are nearly equal, show that
= (- x + 1)[1 + (-1)2 x + (-1) 3 x + ... + (-1) × (r + 1) x + ...]
 5m - 2 n  n+m
2 2 r r
  ≈ +
1/3
m
= (- x + 1)[1 + (-1)2 x + (-1) 2 3 x 2 + .... + (-1) n-1 nx n-1 + (-1) n (n + 1) x n + ...]  3n  m + 2n 3n
28 29
Solution: Put m = n + h (here h is so small that its square and higher powers can be neglected)
Example 8: Identify the series: 1 + + + + ... as a binomial expansion and ind its sum
1 1.3 1.3.5
 5m - 2n   5(n + h) - 2n   3n + 5h 
=
= =      
1/3 1/3 1/3
3 3.6 3.6.9
 3n     3n 
L.H.S.
3n
Solution: Let the given series be identical with.
 5h  n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3

= 1 +  1 + nx + x + x + ...
1/3
 3n 
(A)
2! 3!
≈1+
5h We know that (A) is expansion of (1+x)n for I x l< 1 and n is not a positive integer. Now
(neglecting square and higher powers of h) (i)
9h comparing the given series with (A) we get:
n+m nx =
= +
m 1
m + 2n
R.H.S. (i)
3n 3
n + h 2n + h n(n - 1) 2 1.3
= + x =
3n + h
(ii)
3n 2! 3.6
From (i), x =
1
 
( n + h)  1   2
3n
h 
= + +    Now substitution of x =
1
3n  1 + h   3 3n 
in (ii) gives
 3n 
3n
n(n - 1)  1  1 n(n - 1) 1
1 h  2 h  =
=
-1
. 
2
=(n + h) 1 +  +  + 
1
2!  3n  6
or .
3n  3n   3 3n 
2! 9n 2 6
 1 h   2 h 
=  + 1 - + ...  +  +  n - 1 =3n ⇒ n =-
h
 3 3n  3n   3 3n 
1
or
2
Putting n = -
1  h h   2 h
1
in (iii), we get
=  +  - +  + ... + +
2
 3  9n 3n   3 3n
x= = -
1 2
≈ 1+  1
3 - 
5h
(neglecting square and higher powers of h) (ii) 3
 2
9n
  2   2
-1/2 -1/2
Thus the given series is the expansion of 1 +  -   or 1 - 

From (i) and (ii), we have the result.
  3   3
30 31
 2 1 2
-1/2 - n - 1 = 3n ⇒ n = -
1
Hence the sum of the given series =
-1 =  =
1
 
or 2(n - 1) = 6n or
 3 3
(3)1/2 2
Putting n = -
1
= 3
in (iii), we get
2
1 4 1.3  4  1.3.5  4 
Example 9: For y =+   + + x= = -
2 3
2 4
2 9  22.2!  9  23.3!  9   1
...
9 - 
9
show that 5y2 + 10y - 4 = 0  2
1 4 1.3  4  1.3.5  4   4 5 9

-1/2 -1/2
Solution: y =+
   +  + 1 + y = 1 -  =  = 
2 3 1/2
2 9  4.2!  9  8.3!  9   9 9 5

... (A) Thus
=
3
Adding 1 to both sides of (A), we obtain 5
1  4  1.3  4  1.3.5  4  5(1 + y ) =

1 + y =1 +   +   +   + ...
2 3
or (iv)
2  9  4.2!  9  8.3!  9 
(B) 3
Squaring both the sides of (iv), we get
Let the series on the right side of (B) be identical with 5(1 + 2y + y2) = 9
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3 5y2 + 10y - 4 = 0

1 + nx + x + x + ...
or
2! 3!
which is the expansion of (1+x )n for| x | < 1 and n is not a positive integer. On comparing Exercise 8.3
terms of both the series, we get
Expand the following upto 4 terms, taking the values of x such that the expansion in
1 4
1.
nx = . 
2 9
(i) each case is valid.
n(n - 1) 2 1.3  4  (1 - x)1/2 (1 + 2 x) -1 (1 + x) -1/3 (4 - 3 x)1/2

x =  
2
i) ii) iii) iv)
4.2!  9 
(ii)
2!
From (i), x = (1 - x) -1 1 + 2x
2
v) (8 - 2 x) -1
(2 - 3 x) -2
(iii)
(1 + x) 2 1- x
9n vi) vii) viii)
Substituting x =
2
(1 - 2 x + 3x )
in (ii), we get
(4 + 2 x)1/2
(1 + x - 2 x )
9n 1 1
n(n - 1)  2  3 16 n(n - 1) 4 2- x
2 2 2 2
=
=
ix) x) xi)
. 
2
3 16
 9n  8 81
. or . .
2 2 81n 2 8 81
32 33
2. Using Binomial theorem ind the value of the following to three places of decimals. 5. If x is so small that its cube and higher power can be neglected, then show that
1+ x
1 1
1 - x - 2 x2 ≈ 1 - x - x2 ≈ 1 + x + x2
3
i) 99 ii) (.98) 2
iii) (1.03) 3
iv) 65 1 9 1
1- x
i) ii)
2 8 2
4 5 1 1
v) 17 vi) 31 vii) viii)
If x is very nearly equal 1, then prove that px p - qx q ≈ ( p - q ) x p + q
3 5
998 252
-
1 1 6.
7 1
If p - q is small when compared with p or q, show that
ix) x) (.998) 3
xi) 6
xii) (1280) 4
8 486 7.
(2n + 1) p + (2n - 1))q  p + q 

3. Find the coeicient of xn in the expansion of
≈ 
1/ n
1 + x2 (1 + x) 2 (1 + x)3 (2n - 1) p + (2n + 1)q  2q 

(1 + x) 2 (1 - x) 2 (1 - x) 2
i) ii) iii)
  n+ N
(1 + x) Show that   ≈ -
1/2
(1 - x + x - x + ...)
n 8n
 2(n + N )  9n - N
where n and N are nearly equal.
2
8.
(1 - x)3
2 3 2
iv) v) 4n
9. Identify the following series as binomial expansion and ind the sum in each case.
4. If x is so small that its square and higher powers can be neglected, then show that
1  1  1.3  1  1.3.5  1 
1- x 1 + 2x 1-   +   -   + ...
2 3
≈1- x ≈1+ x 2  4  2!4  4  3!8  4 

3 3 i)
1+ x 1- x
i) ii)
1  1  1.3  1  1.3.5  1 
2 2
1-   +   -   + ...
2 3
(9 + 7 x) - (16 + 3 x) 2  2  2.4  2  2.4.6  2 

ii)
-
1/2 1/4
1 17
4 + 5x 1+ + + + ...
iii)  x 3 3.5 3.5.7
4 384 iii)
4 4.8 4.8.12
4+ x 1 1 1.3  1  1.3.5  1 
≈2+ x 1- . +   -   + ...
2 3
25
(1 - x) 2 3 2.4  3  2.4.6  3 
iv) 3 iv)
4
(1 + x)1/2 (4 - 3 x)3/2  5x 
≈ 4 1 -  Use binomial theorem to show that 1 + + + + ... =2
(8 + 5x)  6 
v) 1 1.3 1.3.5
1/3 10.
4 4.8 4.8.12
(1 - x) (9 - 4 x) 1 1.3  1  1.3.5  1 
≈ - x If+y =+  +   ..., then prove that y 2 + 2 y - 2 - 0
2 3
3 2!  3  3!  3 
1/2 1/2
3 61
(8 + 3 x)1/3
vi) 11.
2 48
If 2 y =
+2 + +. 6 ... then prove that 4 y 2 + 4 y - 1 =
1 1.3 1 1.3.5 1
4 - x + (8 - x)
12. . 4 0
≈2-
1/3
1 2 2! 2 3! 2
(8 - x)1/3 2 1.3  2  1.3.5  2 
vii) x
If+ y =+.  +  ... then prove that y 2 + 2 y - 4 =
2 3
12
5 2!  5  3!  5 
13. 0
34 35
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
9 Fundamentals of
Trigonometry
9. Fundamentals of Trigonometry eLearn.Punjab 9. Fundamentals of Trigonometry eLearn.Punjab
9.1 Introduction 9.2.1. Sexagesimal System: (Degree, Minute and Second).


Trigonometry is an important branch of Mathematics. The word If the initial ray OA rotates in anti-clockwise direction in such a way that it coincides
Trigonometry has been derived from three Greek words: Trei (three), Goni (angles) and with itself, the angle then formed is said to be of 360 degrees (360°).
Metron (measurement). Literally it means measurement of triangle. One rotation (anti-clockwise) = 360°
For study of calculus it is essential to have a sound knowledge of trigonometry. 1
It is extensively used in Business, Engineering, Surveying, Navigation, Astronomy, rotation (anti-clockwise) = 180° is called a straight angle
2
Physical and Social Sciences.
1
rotation (anti-clockwise) = 90° is called a right angle.
4
9.2 Units of Measures of Angles
Concept of an Angle
Two rays with a common starting point form an angle. One of the rays of angle is called
initial side and the other as terminal side. The angle is identiied by showing the direction of
rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.
are usually denoted by Greek letters such as a (alpha), b (beta), g (gamma), q (theta) etc.
An angle is said to be positive/negative if the rotation is anti-clockwise/clockwise. Angles
1 1
In igure 9.1 ∠AOB is positive and ∠COD is negative.
1 rotation =360° rotation = 180° rotation = 90°
2 4
1 degree (1°) is divided into 60 minutes ( 60′ ) and 1 minute ( 1’) is divided into 60 seconds
( 60′′ ). As this system of measurement of angle owes its origin to the English and because 90,
60 are multiples of 6 and 10, so it is known as English system or Sexagesimal system.
Thus 1 rotation (anti-clockwise) = 360°.

One degree (1°) = 60’
One minute (1′ ) = 60”
igure 9.1 9.2.2. Conversion from D°M’ S” to a decimal form and vice versa.
1630′ = ′
= 30=
There are two commonly used measurements for angles: Degrees and Radians. which
1
are explained as below: (i) 16.5 (As 0.5 )
2
2 3
most useful for the study of higher mathematics. Specially in Calculus, angles are measured
= 45 15′ (0.25
=  = = = 15′)
25 1 60 in radians.
(ii) 45.25
100 4 4 Deinition: Radian is the measure of the angle subtended at the center of the circle by an
Example 1: Convert 18 6′ 21′′ to decimal form.

arc, whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
Consider a circle of radius r. Construct an angle ∠AOB at the

 1   1 ′  1 
= 1′ =  = ′′    
 
 60   60   60 × 60 
Solution: and 1 centre of the circle whose rays cut of an arc AB on the circle whose
  1   1 
length is equal to the radius r.
∴ 18 6′ 21′′ = + + Thus m∠AOB =

    
  60   60 × 60  

18 6 21 1 radian.
= (18 + 0.1 + 0.005833)° =18.105833°

9.3 Relation between the length of an arc of a circle and the
Example 2: Convert 21.256° to the D M ′ S ′′ form

circular measure of its central angle.
0.256 = (0.256)(1 ) Prove that q =
l
Solution:
= (0.256) ( 60′ )
r
= 15.36′ where r is the radius of the circle l, is the length of the arc and q is the circular measure
0.36′ = (0.36)(1′)
of the central angle.
and
Proof:
= (0.36)(60′′)
= 21.6′′
Therefore,
21.256°= 21°+ 0.256°
= 21 + 15.36′
= 21 + 15′ + 0.36′ By deinition of radian;

An angle of 1 radian subtends an arc 
AB on the circle of length = 1.r
= 21 + 15′ + 21.6′′
AB on the circle of length = .r
1 1
An angle of radian subtends an arc 
= 21° 15’ 22” rounded of to nearest second 2 2
An angle of 2 radians subtends an arc 

∴An angle of q radian subtends an arc AB on the circle of length= q.r
AB on the circle of length = 2.r
9.2.3. Circular System (Radians)
⇒ q .r
AB =

There is another system of angular measurement, called the Circular System. It is
4 5
⇒ q .r
=
2p r
⇒ q=
l
∴ q =
l r
r ⇒ q =
2p radian
Alternate Proof
Let there be a circle with centre O and radius r. Suppose that length of arc 
AB = l and Thus we have the relationship
the central angle m∠AOB = q radian. Take an arc AC of length = r. 2p radian = 360
By deinition m∠AOC =
p radian
1 radian.
We know from elementary geometry that measures of central angles of the arcs of a ⇒ =
180
circle are proportional to the lengths of their arcs.
⇒ = ≈ ≈ 57.296
180 180
m∠AOB p
1 radian
⇒ =
m
AB 3.1416
m∠AOC m
p
AC
=
q radian
Further 1 radian.
⇒ =
l 180
1 radian r
≈ ≈ 0.0175 radain
3.1416
⇒ q =
l 180
r
Thus the central angle q (in radian) subtended by a circular arc of length l is given by Example 3: Convert the following angles in degree:
2p
q = , where r is the radius of the circle.
l (i)
radain (ii) 3 radians.
2p
r 3
== (p radain)
2 2
Remember that r and l are measured in terms of the same unit and the radian measure Solution: (i) radains = (180 ) 120
3 3 3
3 radains = 3(1 radain) ≈ 3(57.296 ) ≈ 171.888

is unit-less, i.e., it is a real number.
For example, if r = 3 cm and l = 6 cm (ii)
q
= = = 2
l 6
then Example 4: Convert 54° 45 ‘ into radians.
r 3
′  45   3
= =  54=  54 
 
219
 60   4
9.3.1 Conversion of Radian into Degree and Vice Versa Solution: 54 45 
4
We know that circumference of a circle of radius r is 2p r = (l ), and angle formed by one
complete revolution is q radian, therefore, =
219 
(1 )
4
q=
l
r
6 7
Example 7: Find correct to the nearest centimeter, the distance at which a coin of diameter
≈ ‘1’ cm should be held so as to conceal the full moon whose diameter subtends an angle of
219
(0.0175) radinas
4 31’ at the eye of the observer on the earth.
≈ 0.958 radains.
Most calculators automatically would convert degrees into radians and radians into
degrees.
Example 5: An arc subtends an angle of 70° at the center of a circle and its length is
132 m.m. Find the radius of the circle.
Solution: Solution: Let O be the eye of the observer. ABCD be the moon and PQSR be the coin, so that
70 = × radains. (p = =
APO and CSO are straight line segments.
= 1 cm, m∠AOC = 31′
3.1416 70 11
70 radains = (3.1416)radain 3.1416)
180 180 9 We know that mPS
m∠ACO (∠=
=q
∴=
Now since m POC ) is very very small.
∴ PS can be taken as the arc .of the circle with centre O and
11
radain and l 132m.m.
9
radius OP.
q = ⇒ r = = 132 × =108 m.m. 31 × p

q Now =
OP r= q = 31′
l l 9

60 × 180
r 11 , l 1 cm , = radains
Example 6: Find the length of the equatorial arc subtending an angle of 1° at the centre of
q =
l
the earth, taking the radius of the earth as 6400 km. 
r
p 1 × 60 × 180 60 × 180
= 1 ≈ ∴ = = ≈ ≈ 110.89 cm.
q 31 × p
3.1416 l
31 × 3.1416
Solution: radains radain r
180 180
Hence the coin should be held at an approximate distance of 111 cm. from the observer’s
∴ q ≈ r=
3.1416
and 6400 km. eye.
180
Note: If the value of p is not given, we shall take p ≈ 3.1416.

q =
l
Now
r
⇒ l = rq ≈ 6400 × ≈ 111.7 km
31416
1800000
8 9
Exercise 9.1 9. A railway train is running on a circular track of radius 500 meters at the rate of 30 km
per hour. Through what angle will it turn in 10 sec.?
1. Express the following sexagesimal measures of angles in radians: 10. A horse is tethered to a peg by a rope of 9 meters length and it can move in a circle
i) 30° ii) 45° iii) 60° iv) 75° with the peg as centre. If the horse moves along the circumference of the circle, keeping
v) 90° vi) 105° vii) 120° viii) 135° the rope tight, how far will it have gone when the rope has turned through an angle of
10 15′ 35 20′ 75 6′ 30′′

70°?
ix) 150° x) xi) xii)
120′ 40′′ 154 20′′ 3′′

11. The pendulum of a clock is 20 cm long and it swings through an angle of 20° each
xiii) xiv) xv) 0° xvi) second. How far does the tip of the pendulum move in 1 second?
2. Convert the following radian measures of angles into the measures of sexagesimal 12. Assuming the average distance of the earth from the sun to be 148 x 106 km and the
system: angle subtended by the sun at the eye of a person on the earth of measure 9.3 x 10-3
p p p p p
radian. Find the diameter of the sun.
i) ii) iii) iv) v) 13. A circular wire of radius 6 cm is cut straightened and then bent so as to lie along the
2p 3p 5p 7p 9p
8 6 4 3 2 circumference of a hoop of radius 24 cm. Find the measure of the angle which it
vi) vii) viii) ix) x) subtends at the centre of the hoop.
11p 13p 17p 25p 19p

3 4 6 12 5
Show that the area of a sector of a circular region of radius r is r 2 q , where q is the
1
xi) xii) xiii) xiv) xv) 14.
27 16 24 36 32 2
circular measure of the central angle of the sector.
3. What is the circular measure of the angle between the hands of a watch at 4 O’clock? 15. Two cities A and B lie on the equator such that their longitudes are 45°E and 25°W
4. Find q , when: respectively. Find the distance between the two cities, taking radius of the earth as
i) l = 1.5 cm, r = 2.5cm 6400 kms.
ii) l = 3.2m, r = 2m 16. The moon subtends an angle of 0.5° at the eye of an observer on earth. The distance
5. Find l, when: of the moon from the earth is 3.844 x 105 km approx. What is the length of the diameter
i) q = p randains, r = 6cm of the moon?
ii) q = 65 20′ r = 18mm
17. The angle subtended by the earth at the eye of a spaceman, landed on the moon, is
1° 54’. The radius of the earth is 6400 km. Find the approximate distance between the
6. Find r, when:
moon and the earth.
q =
1
i) l = 5 cm, radian
2
ii) l = 56 cm, q = 45 9.4 General Angle (Coterminal Angles)

7. What is the length of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius 14 cms by the arms of a
central angle of 45°?
There can be many angles with the same initial and terminal sides. These are called
coterminal angles. Consider an angle ∠POQ with initial side OP and terminal side OQ with
8. Find the radius of the circle, in which the arms of a central angle of measure 1 radian  
cut of an arc of length 35 cm.
10 11
=
vertex O. Let m∠POQ q ≤ ≤ where 0 q
radian, 2p ⇒ General angle is q + 2kp , k ∈ Z ,
9.5 Angle In The Standard Position
An angle is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system and its initial side along the positive x-axis.
The following igures show four angles in standard position:

Now, if the side OQ comes to its present position after one or more complete rotations
in the anti-clockwise direction, then m∠POQ
will be
i) q + 2p , after one revolution ii) q + 4p , after two revolutions,
An angle in standard position is said to lie in a quadrant if its terminal side lies in that
quadrant. In the above igure:
Angle a lies in I Quadrant as its terminal side lies is I Quadrant
Angle b lies in II Quadrant as its terminal side lies is II Quadrant
Angle g lies in III Quadrant as its terminal side lies is III Quadrant
and Angle q lies in IV Quadrant as its terminal side lies is IV Quadrant
If the terminal side of an angle falls on x-axis or y-axis, it is called a
However, if the rotations are made in the clock-wise direction as shown in the igure,
m∠POQ will be:
i) q - 2p , after one revolution,
ii) q - 4p , after two revolution, quadrantal angle.

i.e., 90°, 180°, 270° and 360° are quadrantal angles.
It means that OQ comes to its original position after every revolution of 2p radians in

the postive or negative directions. 9.6 Trigonometric Functions

In general, if angle q is in degrees, then q + 360k where k ∈ Z , is an angle coterminal
with q . If angle q is in radians, then q + 2kp where k ∈ Z , is an angle coterminal with q . Consider a right triangle ABC with ∠C =
90 and sides a, b, c, as shown in the igure. Let
m∠A =q radian.
12 13
the angle be (x, y).

The side AB opposite to 90° is called the hypotenuse (hyp), If = x 2 + y 2 denote the distance from O (0, 0) to P (x, y), then six trigonometric
The side BC opposite to q is called the opposite (opp) and functions of q are deined as the ratios
r
the side AC related to angle q is called the adjacent (adj)
sin q = ; cscq ≠ =( y 0)= ≠ q

y r y
; tan ( x 0)
We can form six ratios as follows: r y x
cosq = ≠ ; secq = =(≠x 0) ; cot q

x r x
a b a c c b (y 0)
, , , , and r x y
c c b a b a
In fact these ratios depend only on the size of the angle and not on the triangle formed.
Therefore, these ratios are called trigonometric functions of angle q and are deined as
Note: These deinitions are independent of the position of the point P on the terminal side
i.e., q is taken as any angle.
below:
Sin q :Sin q = = ; Cosecant q : = csc=

q
a opp c hyp
c hyp a opp
; 9.8 Fundamental Identities
For any real number q , we shall derive the following three fundamental identities:
Cosine q : Cos q= = ; Secant q q
: =sec=
b adj c hyp
;
c hyp b adj
sin 2 q + cos 2 q =
Tangent q : tan q= ; Cotangent q : =q =
i) 1
a opp b adj
1 + tan 2 q sec 2 q
=
= cot .
b adj a opp
ii)
1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q .
We observe useful relationships between these six trigonometric functions as
follows: iii)
sin q
= = = cscq sec q ; tan q
Proof:
sin q cosq cosq
1 1
; ; (i) Refer to right triangle ABC in ig. ( I) by Pythagoras theorem, we have, Dividing
cosq
=
= cot q cot q
a2 + b2 = c2 both sides by c2, we get
sin q tan q
1
; ;
+ 2 =
a2 b2 c2
c2 c a2
9.7 Trigonometric Functions of any angle
a b
⇒   +  =
2 2
c c
1
Now we shall deine the trigonometric functions of any angle.
Consider an angle ∠XOP = q radian in ⇒ (sin q ) 2 + (cosq ) 2 =1
∴ sin 2 q + cos 2 q =
standard position.
1
Let coordinates of P (other than origin) on the terminal side of (1)
14 15
ii) Again as a2 + b2 = c2 ⇒ All trigonometric functions are +ve in Quadrant I.

Dividing both sides by b2, we get
(ii) If q lies in Quadrant II, then a point P(x, y) on its terminal side has negative x-coordinate.
+ 2 =
a2 b2 c2
and positive y-coordinate.
b2 b b2
⇒
a
+
c
= + q=
∴ sin > 0, cosq
= -ve =
= - =ve < 0, tanq =
y x y
   
2 2
ve <0
b b
1 r r x
(iii) If q lies in Quadrant III, then a point P(x, y) on its terminal side has negative x-coordinate.
⇒ (tan q ) 2 + 1 =(secq ) 2 and negative y-coordinate.
1 + ta n 2 q =
sec 2 q
∴ sin q -
== < ve -cosq
0, == ve < 0, tanq = + =ve
>
(2) y x y
0
r r x
If q lies in Quadrant IV, then a point P(x, y) on its terminal side has positive x-coordinate.
(iii) Again as a2 + b2 = c2
(iv)
Dividing both sides by a2, we get
and negative y-coordinate.
+ = ∴ sin q-== < ve +

==cosq > 0- <tanq = ve
a2 b2 c2 y x
a2 a2 a2 0 ve 0
r r
These results are summarized in the following igure. Trigonometric functions
b c
⇒ 1 +   =  
2 2
a a
mentioned are positive in these quardrants.
⇒ 1 + (cot q ) 2 =
(cscq ) 2
∴ 1 + cot 2 q =
csc 2 q (3)
==
Note: (sinq ) 2
= sin 2 q , (cosq ) 2 cos 2 q and (tanq ) 2 tan 2 q etc.
9.9 Signs of the Trigonometric functions It is clear from the above igure that
sin (-q ) =- sin q ; csc(-q ) =- cscq
If q is not a quadrantal angle, then it will lie in a particular quadrant. Because
cos(-q ) =cosq ; sec(-q ) =secq
r = x 2 + y 2 is always positive, it follows that the signs of the trigonometric functions can
be found if the quadrant of 0 is known. For example, tan(-q ) =- tan q ; cot(-q ) =- cot q
(i) If q lies in Quadrant I, then a point P(x, y) on its terminal side has both x, y co-ordinates
+ve
16 17
Solution: The terminal side of the angle is not in the I quadrant but cos q is positive,
Example 1: If tan q = ∴ The terminal side of the angle is in the IV quadrant
8
and the terminal arm of the angle is in the III quadrant, ind the
15
values of the other trigonometric functions of q .

sec q= = =
cosq
1 1 13
Now
12 12
Solution: 13
tan q = ∴ cot q = =
tan q
8 1 15
 12 
sin q = -q 1  =
- 1 cos = - =
2
15 8 144 25
 13 
2 2
8
1
sec q =1 + tan q = 1 +   =+ =
64 289
2 169 169
 15 
2 2
1
∴ sin±q =
225 225 5
∴ secq± =
± =
289 17 13
As the terminal side of the angle is in the IV quadrant where sin q is negative.
225 15
The terminal arm of the angle is in the III quadrant where sec q is negative
∴ sin-q =
a
5
-q =
∴ sec
17 13
cosec q = = = -
sin q
15 1 1 13
-
5 5
cos q = = = -
sec q
1 1 15 13
-
Now
-
17 17
sin q
5
tan q = = 13 = - 5
15
8  15  cosq
sin q= tan q=
. cos q -  
12 12
15  17  13
cot q = = = -
tan q
1 1 12
∴ q =
sin - -
8 5 5
17 12
csc q = = = -
sin q - 8
1 1 17
and Exercise 9.2
8
17
1. Find the signs of the following:
Example 2: Find the value of other ive trigonometric functions of q , if cos q =
12 i) sin 160 ii) cos 190 iii) tan115
and the
13
terminal side of the angle is not in the I quadrant.
iv) sec 245 v) cot 80 vi) cosec 297
18 19
2. Fill in the blanks: ratios.

sin(-310 ) =
.... sin 310 cos(-75 ) =
.... cos 75
If tan q =
i) ii)
1
7. and the terminal arm of the angle is not in the III quad., ind the values of
tan(-182 ) = cot(-173 ) =
7
iii) .... tan 182 iv) .... cot137
sec (-216 ) = cosec(-15 ) = csc 2 q - sec 2 q

csc 2 q + sec 2 q
v) ... sec 216 vi) ... cosec 15 .
3. In which quadrant are the terminal arms of the angle lie when
sin q < 0 and cos q > 0, cot q > 0 and cosec q > 0,
If cot q =
i) ii) 5
8. and the terminal arm of the angle is in the I quad., ind the value of
tan q < 0 and cos q > 0, sec q < 0 and sin q < 0,
2
iii) iv) 3 sin q + 4cos q
cos q - sin q
cot q > 0 and sin q < 0, cos q < 0 and tan q < 0?
.
v) vi)
4. Find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions:

9.10 The values of Trigonometric Functions of acute angles 45°,
sin q =
12
i) and the terminal arm of the angle is in quad. I. 30° and 60°
13
Consider a right triangle ABC with m∠C =

cos q =
9 90 and sides
ii) and the terminal arm of the angle is in quad. IV. a, b, c as shown in the igure on right hand side.
41
cos q = -
p
Case 1 when m∠A= 45=
3
iii) and the terminal arm of the angle is in quad. III. (a) randian
2 4
iv) tan = - and the terminal arm of the angle is in quad. II. then m∠B =45
⇒ ∆ABC is right isosceles.

sin q = -
1
v) and the terminal arm of the angle is not in quad. III. As values of trigonometric functions depend only on the angle and not on the
2
size of the triangle, we can take a = b = 1
Find cot q =
By Pythagoras theorem,
=
c2 a 2 + b2
15
5. and the terminal arm of the angle is not is quad. I, ind the values of
8
⇒ c2 = 1 + 1 = 2
cos q and cosec q .
⇒ c=
m +1  p
2
If cosec q = and m 0  0 < q <  , ind the values of the remaining trigonometric
2
 2
6.
2m
\ Using triangle of ig. 1, with a=b= 1 and c = 2
20 21
half the hypotenuse.

sin 45= = = csc 45=
 a 1 1 Let c = 2 then b = 1
; 2;
c 2 sin 45 \ By Pythagoras theorem ,
= = = sec 45 =
 b 1 1
a 2 + b2 =
cos 45 ; 2;
c 2 cos 45 \ c2
= = 1 = cot 45 = ⇒ a2 =c2 - b2
 a 1
tan 45 ; 1.
= 4 -1 = 3
b tan 45
p ⇒ a =3
(b) Case 2: when m∠A = 30 = 
randian
6
then m∠B =60 \ Using triangle of fig.3, with a = 3, , b = 1 and c = 2
sin 60= = =csc 60 =

By elementary geometry, in a right triangle the measure of the side opposite to 30° is a 3 1 2

half of the hypotenuse. ; ;
c 2 sin 60 3
Let c = 2 then a = 1
cos60= = ; =sec60 =
 b 1 1
\ By Pythagoras theorem , a2+b2 = c4 c 2 cos60
2;
tan 60= = 3; =cot 60 =

a 1 1
⇒ b 2 =c 2 - a 2

.
b tan 60 3
= 4 -1
=3 Example 3: Find the values of all the trigonometric functions of
⇒ b =3
-7p 19p
(i) 420° (ii)
\ Using triangle of fig.2, with a = 1, b = 3 and c = 2
(iii)
4 3
Solution: We know that q= + 2kp q , where k ∈ Z

sin 30= = ; = =
a 1 1

csc30 
2; (i) 420° = 60°+ 1(360°) (k= 1)
c 2 sin 30
= 60°
cos30= = = 30 = ∴ sin 420 =sin 60 = ; =
b 3 1 2 3 2
; sec ; csc 420
c 2 cos30 3 2 3
= = = cot 30= cos= = =
 a 1  1 1
tan 30 ; 3. 420 cos60 
; sec 420 2
b 3 tan 30 2
p tan= = 60 =
1
when m∠A= 60= radian, then m∠B =
420 tan 3; cot 420
(c) Case 3: 30 3
3
By elementary geometry, in a right triangle the measure of the side opposite to 30° is
22 23
The point (1,0) lies on the terminal side of angle 0°

-7p p
= + (-1)2p (k =-1)
⇒
(ii)
4 4 x=1 and y = 0
p r= x2 + y 2 = 1
=
so
 -7p  p   -7p  p 
4
∴ sin   =
sin  = csc   =   = ∴ sin 0 == = 0 =csc 0 = 
1 y 0 1 1
 4  4  4  4
; csc 2; (undefined)
r 1 sin 0 0
 -7p  p   -7p  p 
2
cos = = cos0= = = 1 = sec 0 =

  cos   =; = sec   sec  
1 x 1 1
 4  4  4  4
2; 1
r 1 cos 0
 -7p  p   -7p  p 
2
tan = = tan 0= = = 0= cot=0

  tan  = 1 ; = cot   cot  
 y 0 1 1
 4  4  4  4
1; 
(undefined)
x 1 tan 0 0
19p p When q = 90
3 ( 2p )
o
= + (k =
(b)
(iii) 3)
3 3 The point (0, 1) lies on the terminal side of angle 90°.
p
= ⇒ x=0 and y = 1
3
 19p  p  19p  p  2
∴ sin   =
sin = csc   csc=
= 
3
 3   3  3 r= x2 + y 2 = 1
( ) ; ;
3 2 so
 19p  p  19p  p 
3
cos = =
 cos = =sec   sec   2 ;
1
 3   3  3 ∴ = = = 1; csc90 = =
( ) ;
3 2 y 1 1
 19p  p   19p  p  1

sin 90 1;
tan = = = =
sin 90
  tan   cot   cot  
r 1
 3  3  3  3 cos90= = = 0; = sec90 =
3 ; . x 0 1 1
3 
(undefined);
r 1 cos90 0
tan 90= = = 90= =
y 1 x 0
(undefined); cot 0.
9.11 The values of the Trigonometric Functions of angles x 0 y 1
0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°.
When q = 180
When terminal line lies on the x- axis or the y- axis, the angle q is called a quadrantal
o
(c)
angle.
Now we shall ind the values of trigonometric functions of quadrantal angles 0°, 90°,
180°, 270°, 360° and so on.
(a) When q = 0°
The point (-1, 0) lies on the terminal side of angle 180°.
⇒ x = -1 and y = 0
24 25
so r = x2 + y 2 = 1 =
sin 360 
=
sin 0 0; csc 360 is undefined;
= = 1; = =
1
∴ sin 180= = csc 180= =
 
 y 0  r 1 cos 360 cos0 sec 360 1
0; (undefined); cos0
= =
r 1 y 0
x -1

tan 360 tan 0 0; cot 360 is undefined.
cos 180 = = =- = = =-
r 1
x -1
1; sec 180 1;
q + 2 kp q ,
We know that= where k ∈ Z
r 1
tan 180= = = 0; = cot=180
y 0 x 1 (ii)
x -1 p 3p

(undefined).
Now - = + (-1)2p (k =-1)
y 0
2 2
When q = 270 3p
=
o
(d)
The point (0, -1) lies on the terminal side of angle 270°. 2
⇒ x = 0 and y = -1
 p  3p   p
∴ sin  -  =
sin   = - 1; csc  - - 1; =
 2  2   2
r = x2 + y 2 = 1  p  3p   p
cos =-  cos  =  0 ; - sec   is undefined;
so
 2  2   2
y -1  p  3p   p
- ∴ sin
= = = 1; - = = = 1; =
= tan  -  tan -  is undefined; cot   0
 2  2   2
r 1
y -1
 
270 csc 270
r 1
cos 270= = = 0; =sec=270

x 0 r 1
+ 5p =
p 2(2
=p ) (k 2)

(undefined);
y -1
r 1 x 0 (iii) Now
tan 270= = = 270= = =p
x 0
-1

(undefined); cot 0.
x 0 y
∴ sin 5p =sin p =0; csc 5p is undefined;

cos 5p =cos p 1; sec5=p 1; - =
5p p 0; cot 5p is undefined;
Example 4: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of
= =
-p
5p
tan tan
(i) 360° (ii) (iii)
2
Exercise 9.3
Solution: We know that q=
+ 2 kp q , where k ∈ Z 1. Verify the following:
sin60° cos 30° - cos 60° sin 30° = sin 30°

(i) Now 360° = 0° + 1(360°), (k = 1)
(i)
p p p
= 0°
(ii) sin 2 + sin 2 + tan 2 =
2
6 3 4
26 27
9.12 Domains of Trigonometric functions and of Fundamental

2 sin 45 + cosec 45 =
1  3
(iii) Identities
2 2
p p p p
(iv) sin 2 : sin 2 : sin 2 : sin 2 = 1: 2 : 3: 4. We list the trigonometric functions and fundamental identities, learnt so far mentioning
6 4 3 2 their domains as follows:
(i) sin q , for all q ∈ R
p p p
2. Evaluate the following:
tan - tan 1 - tan 2
cos q for all q ∈ R
p p p
i) 3 6 ii) 3 (ii) ,
1 + tan tan 1 + tan 2
(iii) csc q
= ∈, for≠ all q but ∈q np ,
sin q
3 6 3 1
R n Z
3. Verify the following when q = 30°, 45°
sin 2q = 2sin q cos q = 2q cos 2 q - sin 2 q  2n + 1 
(iv) sec q
= ∈, for≠ all q but ∈q  p ,
i) ii) cos
cos q
1
 2 
R n Z
cos 2q
= 2cos 2 q - 1 cos 2q= 1 - 2sin 2 q
sin q p
( 2n 1) ,
iii) iv)
2 tan q = tan q ∈ ≠ + all q R∈ but q

tan 2q = cosq
(v) , for n Z
1 - tan 2 q
v) 2
Find x, if tan2 45° - cos2 60° = x sin 45° cos 45° tan 60°. cosq
(vi) cot q
= ∈, ≠ all q but ∈q np ,
sin q
4.
for R n Z
5. Find the values of the trigonometric functions of the following quadrantal angles:
= q + cos 2 q 1 , ∈ for all q
-p -3p p
2
5 (vii) sin R
p
( 2n 1) ,
i) ii) iii)
(viii) 1 + tan 2 q sec 2 ∈
= q + q
≠for all ∈ q
2
- p - 15p
9 , R but n Z
iv) v) vi) 1530° 2
(ix) 1 + cot 2 q csc 2 q ∈ ,
= ≠ all q but∈ q np ,
2
- 2430° p p
235 407 for R n Z
vii) viii) ix)
2 2
Now we shall prove quite a few more identities with the help of the above mentioned
6. Find the values of the trigonometric functions of the following angles: identities.
i) 390° ii) - 330° iii) 765°
-17 Prove that cos 4 q - sin 4 q = cos 2 q - sin 2 q , for all q ∈ R

-675° p p
13 Example 1:
iv) v) vi)
-71 = cos 4 q - sin 4 q

3 3
p p -1035°
25 Solution: L.H.S
vii) viii) ix)
6 6
28 29
- q
=
+ q
- q - q
=
( cos q ) - ( sin q )
1 + sin q 1 - sin q
=
(1 - sin q )
( cos
+ q sin q )( cos q sin q )
2 2 2 2
= - =
2
1 - sin 2 q
= (1) ( cos q - sin q )
2 2 2 2
+2 q =
cos 2 q 1)
( sin
(1 - sin q ) 1 - sin q
2 2
=
=
2
= cos q - sin q = R.H.S.

2 2
cos 2 q cos q
sin q
cos 4 q - sin 4 q = cos 2 q - sin 2 q = - = secq - tan q = R.H.S
cosq cosq
1
Hence
1 - sin q
np = sec q - tan q .
  1 + sin q
Prove that sec 2 A + sec 2 A cosec 2 A  Where A ≠
cosec 2 A = , n∈ Z 
Hence
 
Example 2:
2
Show that cot 4 q + cot 2 q= cosec 4 q - cosec2 q , where q is not an integral multiple
= sec A + cosec A
2 2 Example 4:
p
Solution: L.H.S
sin A + cos A
= + =
2 2 of .
1 1 2
cos 2 A sin 2 A cos 2 A sin 2 A
== +  sin 2 A cos 2 A 1

Solution:

1
= cot 4 q + cot 2 q
2 2
cos A sin A L.H.S.
1
. 2
1
= = + cot 2 q (cot 2 q 1)
2
cos A sin A
=
= sec 2 A. cosec 2 A R.H.S = (cosec 2 q - 1)cosec 2 q
Hence sec 2 A + cosec 2 A =

sec 2 A. cosec 2 A. = cosec 4q - cosec 2q
= R.H.S.
1 - sin q p
= sec q - tan q , where q is not an odd multiple of . Hence cot 4 q + cot 2 q = cosec4q - cosec2q .
1 + sin q
Example 3: Prove that
2
Solution:
1 - sin q
L.H.S. =
Exercise 9.4
1 + sin q
Prove the following identities, state the domain of q in each case:
1 - sin q 1 - sin q
=
1 + sin q 1 - sin q
(rationalizing.)
tan q + cot q =
cosec q secq sec q cosec q sin q cos q = 1
(1 - sin q )
1. 2.
=
2
- q
( q)
- - q
=
=
q q 30 31
q
3. cos q + tan q sin q =

sec q 4. cosec q + tan q secq =
cosecq sec 2 q 20. sin 3 q - cos3 q = (sin q - cos q )(1 + sin q cos q )
5. sec 2 q - cosec 2 q =tan 2 q - cot 2 q 21. sin 6 q - cos 6 q = (sin 2 q - cos 2 q ) (1 - sin 2 q cos 2 q )
6. cot 2 q - cos 2 q =
cot 2 q cos 2 q 7. (sec q + tan q ) (sec q - tan q ) =
1 22. sin 6 q + cos 6 -q =
1 3sin 2 q cos 2 q
1 - tan 2 q
2 cos q - 1 = 1 - 2sin q cos q - sin q = 2 + 2sec 2 q
=
1 + tan q 1 + sin q 1 - sin q
8. 2 2
9. 2 2 1 1
23.
cosq - sin q cot q - 1 sin q cos q + sin q cos q - sin q

= + cot q =
cosec q + =
cos q - sin q cos q + sin q 1 - 2sin 2 q
2
cosq + sin q cot q + 1 1 + cos q
10. 11. 24.
cot 2 q - 1
= 2cos 2 q - 1
1 + cot q
12. 2
1 + cos q
= (cosec q + cot q ) 2
1 - cos q
13.
1 - sin q
(sec q - tan q ) 2 =
1 + sin q
14.
2 tan q
= 2sin q cos q
1 + tan 2 q
15.
1 - sion q cos q
=
cos q 1 + sin q
16.
17. (tan q + cot q ) 2 =

sec 2 q cosec2 q
tan q + sec q - 1
= tan q + sec q
tan q - sec q + 1
18.
- = -
cosec q - cot q sin q sin q cosec q + cot q
1 1 1 1
19.
32 33
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
10 Trigonometric
Identities
10. Trigonometric Identities eLearn.Punjab 10. Trigonometric Identities eLearn.Punjab
10.1 Introduction 10.1.2 Fundamental Law of trigonometry
In this section, we shall irst establish the fundamental law of trigonometry before Let a and b any two angles (real numbers), then
discussing the Trigonometric Identities. For this we should know the formula to ind the cos(a=- b) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
distance between two points in a plane. which is called the Fundamental Law of Trigonometry.
10.1.1 The Law of Cosine Proof: For our convenience, let us assume that a > b > 0.
Consider a unit circle with
Let P (x1 , y1) and Q (x2 , y2) be two points. If “ d “ denotes the distance between them, centre at origin O.
Let terminal sides o f angles a and b cut the unit circle at
then, d = PQ = ( x1 - x2 ) 2 + ( y1 - y2 ) 2
A and B respectively.
Evidently ∠AOB =- a b
= ( x2 - x1 ) 2 + ( y2 - y1 ) 2 Take a point C on the unit circle so that
∠XOC = ∠m AOB = -a b .
i.e., square root o f the sum of square the diference of x-coordinates and square the
Now angles a b and a - b are in standard position.

Join A,B and C,D.
diference o f y-coordinates.
∴ The coordinates o f A are (cos a, sin a)

the coordinates o f B are (cos b, sin b)
Example 1: Find distance between the following points:
the coordinates o f C are (cos a - b , sin a - b )

i) A(3,8) , B(5,6)
ii) P(cosx , cosy), Q(sinx , siny)
and the coordinates o f D are (1, 0).
Now ∆AOB and ∆COD are congruent.
Solution:
[(SAS) theorem]
Distance = AB = (3 - 5) 2 + (8 - 6) 2 = 4+4 = 8= 2 2
∴ AB =
i)
CD
= (5 - 3) + (6 - 8) = 4+4 = 8= 2 2 ⇒ AB =
2 2
2 2 CD
Using the distance formula, we have:
(cos a - cos b ) 2 + (sin a - sin b=
) 2 [(cos(a - b ) - 1]2 + [sin(a - b ) - 0]2
ii) Distance = (cos x - sin x) + (cos y - sin y )
2 2
⇒ cos 2 a + cos 2 b - 2cos a cos b + sin 2 a + sin 2 b - 2sin a sin b

= cos 2 x + sin 2 x - 2cos x sin x + cos 2 y + sin 2 y - 2cos y sin y
= cos 2 (a - b ) + 1 - 2cos(a - b ) + sin 2 (a - b )
-=
2 2cos-x sin x 2cos y sin y ⇒ 2 - 2 (cos a cos b + sin a sin b ) = 2 - 2cos(a - b )
-= + x sin x cos y sin y

2 2(cos Hence cos(a
= - b ) cos a cos b + sin a sin b .
2 3
Note: Although we have proved this law for a > b > 0. it is true for all values of a and b   p p
sin  - 2 -
= -= 1
 p   
cos  a + = cos a . 0 + sin a .(-1)
sin
a and b. we can ind ⇒  
2
 2 cos  - p = cos p= 0
cos (a - b) using this law as explained in the following example:
Suppose we know the values of sin and cos of two angles
  2  2
p p 
Example 1: Find the value of cos ∴ cos  + a  = - sin a
2 
. (ii)
p p p
12
Solution: As =15 =45 - 30 = - 3) We known that
12 4 6
p p p  p p p p p 
∴ cos = cos  - =  cos cos + sin sin cos  - b  = sin b
4 6 2 
12 4 6 4 6 [(i) above]
3 +1 p
= . + = Putting b= + a in it, we get
1 3 1 1
. .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p  p  p 
cos  -  + a =  +a 
2  2  2 
sin
10.2 Deductions from Fundamental Law
p 
⇒ cos(-a= sin  + a 
2 
1) We know that:
cos(a -=
b) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
)
p 
a
⇒ cos = sin  + a  cos( a ) cos a }
{ -=
p 2 
Putting a = in it, we get
p 
sin  + a  =
cos a
2
p  p p ∴
cos  =-b cos cos b + sin sin b 2 
(iii)
2  2 2
p   p p 
⇒ cos  - b  = 0. cos b + 1. sin b = =
4) We known that
 cos 1
cos(a=
- b) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
2   
0, sin
2 2
p  replacing b by -b we get
∴ cos  - b  =
sin b
2  cos[a -=
(- b )] cos a cos(- b ) + sin a sin(- b )
{ cos(- b ) =
cos b ,sin (- b ) =
- sin b }
2) We know that:
cos (a -=
b) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
⇒ cos(a=
+ b) cos a cos b - sin a sin b
p
Putting b = -
7
in it, we get
5) We known that
cos(a=
2
  p   p  p
cos a - =
-  cos a . cos  -  + sin a sin  - 
  2   2  2 p
replacing a by + a we get
2
4 5
 p   p  p  sin 2p = 0
cos  + a  +=
b cos  + a  cos b - sin  + a  sin b = 0 . cosq - 1 . sin q 
 2   2  2  cos 2p = 1

p 
⇒ cos  + (a + b )  = - sin a cos b - cos a sin b = - sin q
2 
(viii)
sin(a + b ) sin a cos b + cos a sin b

⇒ - sin(a + b ) = - [sin a cos b + cos a sin b ] tan(a + b ) = =
cos(a + b ) cos a cos b - sin a sin b
9)
∴ sin(a=
+ b) sin a cos b + cos a sin b
sin a cos b cos a sin b  Dividing 

+  neumerator and 
cos a cos b cos a cos b
6) We known that
=  
cos a cos b sin a sin b  denuminator 
sin(a =
+ b) sin a cos b + cos a sin b -  
 -cos a cos b 
[from (v) above]
replacing b by -b we get
tan a + tan b
sin(a -=
b) sin a cos(- b ) + cos a sin(- b ) ∴ tan(a + b ) =
1 - tan a tan b
(ix)
 sin(- b ) =- sin b

 cos(- b ) = cos b sin(a - b ) sin a cos b - cos a sin b
tan(a - b )= =
∴ sin(a =
- b) sin a cos b - cos a sin b cos(a - b ) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
10)
(vi)
sin a cos b cos a sin b  Dividing 

7) We known that -
cos a cos b cos a cos b  neumerator and 
cos(a=
- b) cos a cos b + sin a . sin b =  
cos a cos b sin a sin b
+  denuminator 
Let a 2=
= p and b q
tan a - tan b
∴ tan(a - b ) =
∴ = p -q ) + 2p . cos q sin 2p sin q 1 + tan a tan b
(x)
cos(2 cos
cos 2p = 1
= 1 . cos q + 0 . sin q 
sin 2p = 0
 10.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Allied Angles
= cos q The angles associated with basic angles of measure q to a right angle or its multiples
are called allied angles. So, the angles of measure 90° ± q , 180° ± q , 270° ± q , 360° ± q , are
8) a - b ) sin a . cos b - cos a . sin b
We known that sin(= known as allied angles.
Using fundamental law, cos(a - b ) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b and its deductions, we
∴ =
sin(2p -q ) sin 2p . cosq - cos 2p sin q
derive the following identities:
6 7
Measure of the Quad.

 p  p  p 
 =  - q= -q = -
 q  q  q  cot q
angle
 2  2  2 
sin cos , cos sin , tan
 p
sin  p + q  = p  p  -q
  q  q + = - q  q+ = -q
I
  2  2  2 
cos , cos sin , tan cot 2
sin(p - q ) =sin q , cos(p q-) =- q , tan(p q ) - tan=

q- p

cos + q or p - q
sin(p + q ) =
- sin q , cos(p q+) =- q , tan(p q ) +tan q=
II
cos 2
3p
  3p   3p   3p  p + q or -q
- q -= q - q - = q -q  = cot q
III
     
      
sin cos , cos sin , tan 2

2 2 2
sin  3p + q -=cosq , cos  3p + q  = q
 3p 
q +- = cot q 3p
  2     + q or 2p - q
  2   2 
sin , tan Iv
2
sin(2p - q ) =
- sin q , cos(2p q-) cos
= q , tan(2p q ) - tan=
q-

sin(2p + q=
= ) sin+q = + p q ) cosq , tan(2p q ) tan q
p  p   3p   3p 
, cos(2
In sin  - q  , sin  + q  ,sin  - q  and sin  +q 
2  2   2   2 
a)
Note: The above results also apply to the reciprocals of sine, cosine and tangent. These
results are to be applied frequently in the study of trigonometry, and they can be p
odd multiplies of are involved.
remembered by using the following device:
∴
2
If q is added to or subtracted from odd multiple of right angle, the trigonometric

sin will change into cos.
1) Moreover, the angle of measure
p
ratios change into co-ratios and vice versa.

→ cos, 
→ cot, 
→ coses 
i.e, sin ←
 tan ←
 sec ←
  - q  will have terminal side in Quad.I,
2 
i)
p   3p  p 
= sin = - q  cos+q and cos  q sin q So sin  - q  =
cos q ;
2   2  2 
e.g.
p p 
If q is added to or subtracted from an even multiple of  + q  will have terminal side in Quad.II,
2 
2) the trigonometric ratios shall ii)
p 
2
remain the same.
So sin  + q  = cos q ;
3) So far as the sign of the results is concerned, it is determined by the quadrant in which 2 
 3p 
the terminal arm of the angle lies.
 - q  will have terminal side in Quad.III,
= p - q ) sin q , tan(
= p + q ) tan q , cos(2= p - q ) cos q  2 
iii)
e.g. sin(
8 9
Example 3: Simplify:
 3p 
So sin  - q -=cosq ; sin(360 - q )cos(180 - q ) tan(180 + q )
 2 
sin(90 + q )cos(90 - q ) tan(360 + q )
 3p 
 + q  will have terminal side in Quad.Iv,
 2 
iv)
 sin(360 - q ) =- sin q , cos(180 q-) =-q

 3p
cos
So sin 

+ q -=cos q . Solution:  =
 tan(180=

+ q ) tan+q , sin(90 q ) cosq
 2   cos(90
= = - q ) sin+q , tan(360 q ) tan q


p sin(360 - q )cos(180 - q ) tan(180 + q ) (- sin q )(- cosq ) tan q

b) In cos(p - q ), cos(p + q ), cos(2p - q ) and cos(2p + q ) even multiples of are involved. ∴ = =
cosq . sin q . tan q cosq . sin q .tan q
∴
2 1
cos will remain as cos.
Moreover, the angle of measure

(p - q ) will have terminal side in Quad. II,
Exercise 10.1
i)
∴ cos(p - q ) = - cos q ; 1. Without using the tables, ind the values of:
ii) (p + q ) will have terminal side in Quad. III, i) sin (-780 ) ii) cot (-855 ) iii) csc(2040 )
∴ cos(p + q ) = - cos q ;
iv) sec(-960 ) v) tan (1110 ) vi) sin (-300 )
iii) (2p - q ) will have terminal side in Quad. IV:
∴ cos(2p - q ) = cos q ; 2. Express each of the following as a trigonometric function of an angle of positive degree
measure of less than 45°.
iv)(2p + q ) will have terminal side in Quad. I
∴ cos(2p + q ) = cos q .
i) sin 196 ii) cos 147 iii) sin 319
Example 2: Without using the tables, write down the values of: iv) cos 254 v) tan 294 vi) cos 728
vii) sin (-625 ) cos(-435 )

i) cos 315° ii) sin 540° iii) tan (-135°) iv) sec(-300°)
viii) ix) sin 150
Solution: 3. Prove the following:
sin (180 + a ) sin (90 - a ) -=sin a cos a
=cos(270 + 45) =cos(3 × 90 + 45) =
+ sin 45 =
   1 
i)
i) cos315
sin 780 sin 480 + cos120 sin 30 =
2 1
=sin(540 + 0) =
sin(6 × 90 + 0) =
+ sin 0 =
  
ii)
ii) sin 540 0 2
iii) tan(-135-) =tan135

- = 
- tan(180
- = ×45)- -tan(2
-=90 =
45) ( tan 45 ) 1 iii) cos306 + cos 234 + cos162 + cos18 =
0
iv) sec(-300 ) = sec300= sec(360 - 60)=


sec(4 × 90 - 60)= sec60=

2 iv) cos 330 sin 600 + cos120 sin150 =
1 -
10 11
 3p
Prove that:

4.
sin 2 (p + q ) tan  +q   1   3   1  1  3 +1
 2  =   +  = 
= cos q  2  2   2  2 
2  3p  2
i)
cot  - q  cos (p - q )coses(2p - q )
2 2
 2 
= cos(45 + 30= ) cos 45 cos30 - sin 45 sin 30
cos(90 + q )sec(-q ) tan(180 - q )
 
cos75
= -1
 
sec(360 - q )sin(180 + q )cot(90 - q )

 1   3   1  1 
ii)
3 -1
If a, b, g are the angles of a triangle ABC, then prove that =   -  = 
 2  2   2  2 
5. 2 2
a + b  g tan 45 + tan 30
sin (a + b ) =
sin g cos   = sin = tan (45 + 30=
 2  1 - tan 45 tan 30
i) ii) tan 75  
) 
2
iii) cos(a + b ) -=cos g iv) tan (a + b ) + tan g = 0.
1+
3 +1
1
10.4 Further Application of Basic Identities = =
3 -1
3
1 - 1.
1
Example 1: Prove that 3
sin(a + b ) sin(a - b ) = sin 2 a - sin 2 b
3 -1
= =
(i)
= cos b - cos a
1
3 +1
2 2
(ii) cot 75
Solution: L.H.S. =sin(a + b ) sin(a - b )
tan 75
= + a cos b cos a sin b )(sin

- a cos b cos a sin b )
= = = =
(sin 1 2 2 1 2 2
= -sin 2 a cos 2 b cos 2 a sin 2 b 3 +1 3 -1
coses 75 and sec 75
sin 75 cos75
= sin 2 a (1 - sin 2 b ) - (1 - sin 2 a )sin 2 b
= sin 2 a - sin 2 a sin 2 b - sin 2 b + sin 2 a sin 2 b cos11 + sin11
= tan 56.
cos11 - sin11
Example 3: Prove that:
= sin 2 a - sin 2 b
 
(i)
= (1 - cos 2 a ) - (1 - cos 2 b ) Solution: Consider
= 1 - cos 2 a - 1 + cos 2 b tan 45 + tan11

R.H.S.= tan 56 = tan(45 + 11 ) =
= cos 2 b - cos 2 a 1 - tan 45 tan11
  
(ii)
1+
Example 2: Without using tables, ind the values of all trigonometric functions of 75°. sin11 
1 + tan11 cos11 + sin11
= = =

1 - tan11 sin11 cos11 - sin11

cos11
Solution: As = 45 + 30
= L.H.S.
1-
  
75
cos11
=
sin 75
sin (45 + 30=

) sin 45 cos30 + cos 45 sin 30
12 13
cos11 + sin11  7  40   24  9 
= tan 56. =   -  +  -  - 
cos11 - sin11  25  41   25  41 
Hence  
-280 + 216
Example 4: If- cos a =
= , tan b the terminal side of the angle of measure a is in the II = = -
24 9 64
25 40 1025 1025
quadrant and that of b is in the III quadrant, ind the values of: and cos(a + b =
) cos a cos b - sin a sin b
sin (a + b ) cos (a + b )  24  40   7  9 
= -  -  -   - 
 25  41   25  41 
i) ii)
In which quadrant does the terminal side of the angle of measure (a + b ) lie?
960 + 63
=
Solution: We know that sin 2 a + cos 2 a =
1 1025
∴ sin a±=- 1 cos =

a± - 1± =±= =
576 49 7 1023
2
1025
sin (a + b ) is - ve and cos(a + b ) is + ve
625 625 25
As the terminal side o f the angle of measure of a is in the II quadrant, where sin a is 
positive.
\ The terminal arm of the angle of measure (a + b ) is in the IV quadrant.
∴ sin a =
Example 5: If a , b , g are the angles of ∆ABC prove that:
7
25
Now sec b =± 1 + tan ± b =

+ 1 = ±
tan a + tan b + tan g =
tan a tan b tan g
2 81 41
1600 40 i)
As the terminal side of the angle of measure of b in the III quadrant, so sec b is a b b g g a
ii) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan =1
negative 2 2 2 2 2 2
∴ sec-b =
41
and cos b = -
40 Solution: As a , b , g are theangles of ∆ ABC
a + b + g = 180
40 41
∴
sin b = ± 1 - cos 2 b = ± 1- =±
a +b = 180 - g
1600 9
1681 41 i)
As the terminal arm of the angle of measure b is in the III quadrant, so sin b is negative
∴ tan (a + b ) = tan (180 - g )
∴ sin-b =
tan a + tan b
9
⇒ tan g
= -
1 - tan a tan b
41
∴ sin (a +=
b) sin a cos b + cos a sin b
14 15
⇒ tan a + tan b = - tan g + tan a tan b tan g = r sin (q + φ )
∴ tan a + tan b + tan g =

tan a tan b tan g =
= φ tan -1
4
Where r 5 and
a b g
3
ii) As a=
+ b + g 180 ⇒ +=+ 90 Exercise 10.2
2 2 2
Prove that
a b g
1.
So + = 90 - i) sin (180 + q ) =
- sin q ii) cos(180 + q ) =
- cosq
tan (270 - q ) =
cot q cos(q - 180- ) =cosq
2 2 2
a b   g
iii) iv)
∴ tan  + = tan  90 -  cos(270 + q ) =
sin q sin (q + 270
- ) =cosq
2 2  2
v) vi)
vii) tan (180 + q ) =
tan q viii) cos(360 - q ) =
cosq
a b
+ tan g
⇒ 2 =
=
tan
a b 2 tan g
2 1 2. Find the values o f the following:
1 - tan tan
cot
i) sin 15 ii) cos 15 iii) tan 15
a g b g a b
2 2 2
⇒ + tan - =
iv) sin 105 v) cos 105 vi) tan 105
(Hint: 15 =(45 30 ) and -105 45 ) = +
tan tan tan 1 tan tan
2 2 2 2 2 2 (60 .
a b b g g a
3. Prove that:
∴ + tan + tan tan =
sin(45= +a) (sin a + cos a )
tan tan tan 1
2 2 2 2 2 2  1
i)
Example 6: Express 3 sin q + 4 cos q in the form r sin(q + φ ), where the terminal side of the
2
angle of measure φ is in the I quadrant. cos(a + = (cos a - sin a )

1
ii) 45 )
2
=
=
Solution: Let 3 r cos φ and 4 r sin φ 4. Prove that:
∴ 32 +=
42 r 2 cos 2 φ + r 2 sin 2 φ i) tan (45 + A) tan (45 - A) =
1
 r sin φ
= p   3p 
⇒ 9=+ 16 φ + sin φ )  r cos φ tan  - q  + tan  +q  =
4
 4   4 
r (cos 2 2 2
3 ii) 0
⇒ 25 = 
⇒ = tan φ  p  p
sin  q +  + cos  q +  =cosq
r2 4
⇒ 5 =   6  3
iii)

r 3
⇒ r = tan φ =
∴
5 4
 q
sin q - cos q tan
3
∴ 3sin q + 4cos
= q r cos φ sin q + r sin φ cos q 2 = tan q
q
iv)
= + r (sin q cos φ cosq sin φ ) cos q + sin q tan 2
2
16 17
1 - tan q tan φ cos(q + φ ) tan a = b

and sin - = - side of the angle of
=
15 7
1 + tan q tan φ cos(q - φ )
v) ii) and neither the terminal
8 25
measure a nor that of b is in the Iv quadrant.
5. Show that: cos(a + b )cos(a - b=
) cos 2 a - sin 2 =
b cos 2 b - sin 2 a
sin(a + b ) + sin(a - b )
cos8 sin8
= tan a
11. Prove that tan 37
cos(a + b ) + cos(a - b )
6. Show that: cos8 sin8
a b g a b g
7. Show that: 12. If a , b , g are the angles of a triangle ABC, show that cot + cot + cot =
cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2
cot a cot b - 1 If a + b + g =180 , show that
cot (a + b ) =
cot a + cot b
13.
i)
cot a cot b + 1 cot a cot b + cot b cot g + cot g cot a =

cot (a - b ) =
cot b - cot a
1
ii)
tan a + tan b sin(a + b ) Express the following in the form r sin (q + φ ) or r sin (q - φ ) , where terminal sides of
=
tan a - tan b sin(a - b )
14.
the angles of measures q and φ are in the irst quadrant:
iii)
p p 12 sin q + 5 cos q 3 sin q - 4 cos q iii) sin q - cos q

If sin a
8.=
= and cos b where 0<a < and 0<b < .
4 40 i) ii)
,
iv) 5 sin q - 4 cosq v) sin q + cos q . 3 sin q - 5 cos q
5 41 2 2
vi)
Show that sin (a - b ) = .
133
205
10.5 Double angle Identities
p p
If sin a < and< sinb = < <where a p and b p . Find
4 12
9.
5 13 2 2 We have discovered the following results:
sin (a =
i) sin (a + b ) ii) cos (a + b ) iii) tan (a + b )
iv) sin (a - b ) v) cos (a - b ) vi) tan (a - b ). cos (a=

tan a + tan b
In which quadrants do the terminal sides of the angles of measures and tan (a + b ) =
(a + b ) and (a - b ) lie? 1 - tan a tan b
10. Find sin (a + b ) and cos(a + b ), given that We can use them to obtain the double angle identities as follows:
= b a in sin (a =
tan a
i) = = , cos b
3 5 i) Put
and neither the terminal side o f the angle of measure
∴ sin (a =
+a) sin a cos a + cos a sin a
4 13
a nor that of b is in the I quadrant.
18 19
sin 2a = 2sin a cos a

a 1 + cos a
Hence
⇒ ± =
Put b a in cos (a=
= + b) cos a cos b - sin a sin b
cos
ii) 2 2
cos(a=
+a) cos a cos a - sin a sin a
a a 1 - cos a
 cos a -=
1 2 sin 2 ⇒ sin=
= 2a cos a - sin a
2
2 2
ii)
Hence cos 2 2 2
cos 2a
= cos 2 a - sin 2 a a 1 - cos a
 ⇒ sin± =
∴ cos 2a = cos 2 a - (1 - cos 2 a ) ( sin 2 a =1 -cos 2 a ) 2 2
= cos 2 a - 1 + cos 2 a
a 1 - cos a
cos 2a
= 2cos 2 a - 1 a
= = ±
sin
a 1 + cos a
\ iii) tan 2 2
2
= 2a cos a - sin a
cos
 cos 2 2 2 2
∴ cos 2a -= - 2 a ) sin 2 a ( cos 2-a =
1 sin 2 a ) a 1 - cos a
⇒ tan ± =
(1 sin
1 + cos a
∴ cos 2a = 1 - 2 sin 2 a
2
tan a + tan b
10.7 Triple angle Identities
Put b a in
= a + b)
tan(=
1 - tan a tan b
iii)
= 3a 3 sin a - 4 sin 3 a
tan a + tan a
tan(a + a ) =
i) sin
1 - tan a tan a
ii) cos 3a 4 cos3 a - 3 cos a
=
2 tan a
∴ tan 2a = 3tan a - tan 3 a
1 - tan 2 a tan 3a =
1 - 3tan 2 a
iii)
Proof:
sin 3a sin (2a + a )
10.6 Half angle Identities
i) =
= + sin 2a cos a cos 2a sin a

The formulas proved above can also be written in the form of half angle identities, in
the following way:
= 2+ sin-a cos a cos a (1 2 sin 2 a ) sin a
= 2sin a cos 2 a + sin a - 2 sin 3 a
2a 2a 1 + cos a
i) a 2cos
 cos= - 1 ⇒ cos=
= 2sin a (1 - sin 2 a ) + sin a - 2sin 3 a
2 2 2
20 21
= 2sin a - 2sin 3 a + sin a - 2sin 3 a sin A + sin 2 A

= tan A.
1 + cos A + cos 2 A
Hence
\ sin 3a
= 3sin a - 4sin 3 a
Example 2: Show that
cos 3a
= cos (2a + a )
2 tan q 1 - tan 2 q
sin 2q = ii) cos 2q =
ii)
= - cos 2a cos a sin 2a sin a 1 + tan 2 q 1 + tan 2 q

i)
= (2 cos 2 a - 1) cos a - 2 sin a cos a sin a 2sin q cosq 2 sin q cosq

sin 2q
i)=
=
= 2sin q cos q
= 2 cos3 a - cos a - 2 sin 2 a cos a cos 2 q + sin 2 q
Solution:
1
= 2 cos3 a - cos a - 2(1 - cos 2 a ) cos a

2sin q cos q sin q
= 2 cos3 a - cos a - 2 cos a + 2 cos3 a cos 2 q cos q
=
=
2
cos 2 q + sin 2 q cos 2 q sin 2 q

cos3a
= 4 cos3 a - 3 cos a +
\ cos 2 q cos 2 q cos 2 q
2 tan q
sin 2q =
tan 3a
iii) = tan (2a + a ) 1 + tan 2 q
\
cos 2 q - sin 2 q cos 2 q - sin 2 q
tan 2a + tan a cos 2q = cos q - sin q = =
= cos 2 q + sin 2 q
2 2
ii)
1 - tan 2a tan a
1
cos 2 q - sin 2 q cos 2 q sin 2 q

2 tan a -
+ tan a cos 2 q cos 2 q cos 2 q
1 - tan 2 a 2 tan a + tan a - tan 3 a =
=
=
= cos 2 q + sin 2 q cos 2 q sin 2 q
2 tan a 1 - tan 2 a - 2 tan 2 a +
1- . tan a cos 2 q cos 2 q cos 2 q
1 - tan 2 a
1 - tan 2 q
cos 2q =
3tan a - tan 3 a 1 + tan 2 q
\
tan 3a =
1 - 3tan 2 a
\
Example 3: Reduce cos 4 q to an expression involving only function of multiples of q , raised

sin A + sin 2 A
= tan A
1 + cos A + cos 2 A
Example 1: Prove that to the irst power.
Solution: We know that:
sin A + 2sin A cos A sin A(1 + 2cos A) 1 + cos 2q
=
= 2 cos 2 q + = 2q
1 cos ⇒ = q
1 + cos A + 2 cos 2 A - 1 cos A(1 + 2cos A)
Solution: L.H.S cos 2
2
1 + cos 2q 
= = ∴ cos q = (cos q ) =  
2
sin A 4 2 2
tan A = R.H.S
cos A 2
22 23
q q
1 + 2 cos 2q + cos 2 2q + cot sin 3q cos3q
= 2 = sec q + 2cot 2q
=
tan
q q cosq sin q
2
- tan
12. 13.
4
= [1 + 2cos 2q + cos 2 2q ]
cot
1 2 2
Reduce sin 4 q to an expression involving only function of multiples of q , raised to the

4
1 1 + cos 4q 
= 1 + 2cos 2q +
14.
4  irst power.
Find the values of sin q and cos q without using table or calculator, when q is
2
= [2 + 4cos 2q + 1 + cos 4q ]
1 15.
4× 2
18 36 54 iv) 72
= [3 + 4cos 2q + cos 4q ]
i) ii) iii)
1
Hence prove that: cos36 cos72 cos108 cos 144 =

8 1
16
Exercise 10.3
=
= Let q q
Hint :
18 36
Find the values of sin 2a , cos 2a and tan 2a , when:
Let
1. =
=5q 90 5q 180
p (3q + 2q ) =
= 90 + 3q 2q
sin a = cos a = , where 0<a <
180
3q =
90 2q 3q 2q =
12 3
--
i) ii)
13 5 2 180
Prove the following identities: sin 3q = - 

sin(90 2q ) 3q
sin=- sin(180 2q )
sin 2a
etc. etc.
cot a - tan a =
2cot 2a = tan a
1 + cos 2a
2. 3.
10.8. Sum, Difference and Product of Sines and
Cosines
1 - cos a a cos a - sin a
= tan = sec 2a - tan 2a
sin a cos a + sin a
4. 5.
We know that:
sin (a +=
b) sin a cos b + cos a sin b
2
a a
(i)
1 + sin a sin + cos coses q + coses 2q q

= = cot sin (a -=
b) sin a cos b - cos a sin b
1 - sin a a a sec q
2 2 (ii)
sin - cos
6. 7.
cos(a =
2
2 2 (iii)
2sin q sin 2q
1 + tan a tan 2a =
sec 2a = tan 2q tan q cos(a =- b) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
cosq + cos3q
8. 9. (iv)
Adding (i) and (ii) we get
sin 3q cos3q cos3q sin 3q
- = + 4 cos 2q
= sin (a + b ) + sin (a - b ) =2sin a cos b
sin q cosq cosq sin q
10. 2 11. (v)
Subtracting (ii) from (i) we get
24 25
sin (a + b ) - sin (a - b ) =2cos a sin b

sin 19 cos 11 + sin 71 sin 11 =
(vi)
1
2
Adding (iii) and (iv) we get
cos(a + b ) + cos(a - b ) =2cos a cos b (vii) =
Solution: L.H.S. + sin 19 cos 11 sin 71 sin 11
= + [2sin 19 cos 11

Subtracting (iv) from (iii) we get 1
2sin 71 sin 11 ]
cos(a + b ) - cos(a - b ) =- 2sin a sin b
2
(viii)
= [{sin(19 + 11 ) + sin(19 - 11 )} - {cos(71 + 11 ) - cos(71 - 11 )}]

So we get four identities as: 1
2sin a cos b= sin(a + b ) + sin(a - b ) 2
2cos a sin b= sin(a + b ) - sin(a - b ) = [sin 30 + sin8 - cos82 + cos60 ]

1
2
2cos a cos b= cos(a + b ) + cos(a - b )
1 1 1
=  + sin8 - cos(90 - 8 ) + 
-2sin a sin b= cos(a + b ) - cos(a - b ) 2 2 2
1 1 1
Now putting a=
+ b P and a=
- b Q, we get =  + - +  ( cos82= cos(90 - 8 =
2 2 2
  
sin8 sin8 ) sin8 )
P+Q P-Q
=
=a b 1 1 1
= +
2  2 2 
and
2 2
P+Q P-Q
sin P + sin Q =
=
2sin cos
2 2 1
P+Q P-Q
sin P - sin Q =
2
2cos sin = R.H.S.
P+Q P-Q
2 2
cos P + cos Q =
2cos cos Hence sin19 cos11 + sin 71 + sin11 =
1
P+Q P-Q
2 2 2
cos P - cos-Q =
Example 3: Express sin 5 x + sin 7 x as a product.
2cos sin
2 2
Example 1: Express 2 sin 7q cos3q as a sum or diference. 5x + 7 x 5x - 7 x

Solution: sin 5 x + sin 7 x= 2 sin cos = 2sin 6 x -cos( x)
2 2
Solution: 2sin 7q cos3=
q sin(7q + 3q ) + sin(7q - 3q ) =
= 2- sin 6 x cos x ( cos( q ) cos q )
= sin 10q + sin 4q Example 4: Express cos A + cos3 A + cos5 A + cos7 A as a product.
cos A + cos3 A + cos5 A + cos7 A

Example 2: Prove without using tables / calculator, that
Solution:
26 27
= (cos3 A + cos A) + (cos7 A + cos5 A)

Hence cos 20 cos 40 cos 80 = .
1
3A + A 3A - A 7A + A 7 A - 5A
= +2cos
8
cos 2cos cos
2 2 2 2
= +2cos 2 A cos A 2cos6 A cos A Exercise 10.4
= +2cos A(cos6 A cos 2 A) 1. Express the following products as sums or diferences:

2 sin 3q cos q 2 cos 5q sin 3q
 6A + 2A 6A - 2A
i) ii)
= 2cos A  2cos
 2  sin 5q cos 2q 2 sin 7q sin 2q
cos
2 iii) iv)
2 cos A(2cos 4 A cos 2 A) 4cos A cos 2 A cos 4 A.
v) cos( x + y ) sin ( x - y ) vi) cos(2 x + 30 ) cos(2 x - 30 )
Example 4: Show that cos 20 cos 40 cos80 =
1
sin( x + 45 ) sin( x - 45 )

8
vii) sin 12 sin 46 viii)
Solution: L.H.S. = cos 20 cos 40 cos80
= (4cos 20 cos 40 cos80 )

2. Express the following sums or diferences as products:
sin 5q + sin 3q sin 8q - sin 4q
1
4 i) ii)
= [(2cos 40 cos 20 ) . 2 cos80 ]

cos 6q + cos 3q cos 7q - cos q
1
4 iii) iv)
= [(cos60 + cos 20 ).2 cos80 ]
1
4 v) cos 12 + cos 48 vi) sin ( x + 30 ) + sin( x - 30 )
1  1  
=   + cos 20  .2cos80 
4  2   3. Prove the following identities:
= (cos80 + 2cos80 cos 20 ) sin 3 x - sin x sin8 x + sin 2 x
1
= cot 2 x = tan 5 x
cos x - cos3 x cos8 x + cos 2 x
4 i) ii)
= (cos80 + cos100 + cos60 )
1
sin a - sin b a -b a +b
4
= [cos80 + cos(180 - 80 ) + cos60 ] = tan
sin a + sin b
1
iii) cot
4 2 2
1 1
=  cos80 - cos80 +  [ cos(180 - q ) =
- cosq ] Prove that:
4 2
 
4.
cos 20 + cos100 + cos140 =
11 1
i) 0
= = 
4 2 8 p  p  1
R.H.S.
sin  - q  sin  + q  = cos 2q
4  4  2
ii)
28 29
10. Trigonometric Identities eLearn.Punjab
sin q + sin 3q + sin 5q + sin 7q

= tan 4q
cosq + cos3q + cos5q + cos7q
iii)
5. Prove that:
cos 20 cos 40 cos60 cos80 =

1
i)
16
p 2p p 4p
=
3
ii) sin sin sin sin
9 9 3 9 16
sin10 sin 30 sin 50 sin 70 =

1
iii)
16
version: 1.1
30
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
11 Trigonometric Functions
and their Graphs
11. Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs eLearn.Punjab 11. Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs eLearn.Punjab
p 3p 5p
q ≠ ± , ± , ± ,...
11.1 Introduction
⇒
2 2 2
p
Let us irst ind domains and ranges of trigonometric functions before drawing their
graphs. ⇒ q ≠ (2n + 1) , where n ∈ Z
2
p
11.1.1 Domains and Ranges of Sine and Cosine Functions
Domain of tangent function =-
R {x | x =
(2n + 1) , n ∈ Z}
a
We have already deined trigonometric functions 2
sin q , cos q , tan q , csc q , sec q and cot q . We know that and Range of tangent function = R = set of real numbers.
if P(x, y) is any point on unit circle with center at the origin
O such that ∠XOP = q is standard position, then
cos q = x
ii) From igure 11.1
and sin q = y
=cot q ≠
x
⇒ for any real number q there is one and only
, y 0
y
one value of each x and y .i.e., of each cos q
⇒ terminal side OP should not coincide with OX or OX’ (i.e., X - axis)

and sin q .
⇒ q ≠ 0, ± p , ± 2p ,...
Hence sin q and cos q are the functions of q and their domain is R a set of real numbers.
⇒ q ≠ np , where n ∈ Z
Since P(x, y) is a point on the unit circle with center at the origin O.
∴ -1 ≤ x ≤ 1 -1 ≤ y ≤ 1 Domain of cotangent function = R -{x | x =np , n ∈ Z}
a
and
⇒ - 1 ≤ cos q ≤ 1 and - 1 ≤ sin q ≤ 1 and Range of cotangent function = R = set of real numbers.
Thus the range of both the sine and cosine functions is [-1, 1].
11.1.3 Domain and Range of Secant Function
11.1.2 Domains and Ranges of Tangent and Cotangent Functions
From igure 11.1 From igure 11.1
i)=tan q ≠ =sec q ≠
y 1
, x 0 , x 0
x x
⇒ terminal side OP should not coincide with OY or OY’ (i.e., Y - axis)
 
⇒ terminal side OP should not coincide with OY or OY’ (i.e., Y-axis)
p 3p 5p
⇒ q ≠ ± , ± , ± ,...
2 2 2
2 3
p
⇒ q ≠ (2n + 1) , where n ∈ Z y = tan x (2n + 1)p
2 -∞ < x < +∞, x ≠ , n ∈ Z - ∞ < y < +∞
y = cot x
2
p -∞ < x < + ∞, x ≠ np , n ∈ Z -∞ < y < +∞
Domain of secant function = R -{x | x =(2n + 1) , n ∈ Z}
(2n + 1)p y ≥ 1 or y ≤ - 1
a
2
y = sec x -∞ < x < + ∞, x ≠ ,n ∈ Z
As sec q attains all real values except those between -1 and 1
y ≥1 or y ≤ - 1
2
Range of secant function= R - {x | - 1 < x < 1} y = coses x -∞ < x < + ∞, x ≠ np , n∈ Z
a
11.2 Period of Trigonometric Functions

11.1.4 Domain and Range of Cosecant Function
All the six trigonometric functions repeat their values for each increase or decrease of
2p in q i.e., the values of trigonometric functions for q and q ± 2np , where q ∈ R , and n ∈ Z ,
From igure 11.1
=csc q ≠
1 are the same. This behaviour of trigonometric functions is called periodicity.
, y 0
y Period of a trigonometric function is the smallest +ve number which, when added to

the original circular measure of the angle, gives the same value of the function.
⇒ q ≠ 0, ± p , ± 2p ,... Let us now discover the periods of the trigonometric functions.
⇒ q ≠ np , where n ∈ Z Theorem 11.1: Sine is a periodic function and its period is 2p .
Domain of cosecant function = R -{x | x =np , n ∈ Z}

Proof: Suppose p is the period of sine function such that
= sin (q + p ) sin∈q for all q R (i)
a
Now put q = 0, we have

As csc q attains all values except those between -1 and 1
sin (0 + p ) =
Range of cosecant function = R - {x | -1 < x < 1}
sin 0
⇒ sin p =
p = 0, ± p , ± 2p , ± 3p ,...
0
⇒
a
The following table summarizes the domains and ranges of the trigonometric func-
if p = p , then from (i)

tions:
i)
sin (q + p ) = sin q
Function Domain Range
(not true)
y = sin x -∞ < x < +∞ -1 ≤ y ≤ 1  sin (q + p ) =
- sin q
y = cos x -∞ < x < +∞ -1 ≤ y ≤ 1 p is not the period of sin q .

if p = 2p , then from (i)
a
ii)
sin (q + 2p ) = sin q , Which is true
4 5
As is the smallest +ve real number for which

sin (q + 2p ) = sin q x
2p is not the period of sin q .
Example 1: Find the periods of: i) sin 2x ii) tan
3
We know that the period of sine is 2p

a
Theorem 11.2: Tangent is a periodic function and its period is p .

Solution: i)
+ 2p )
∴ sin (2 x= sin 2 x x +p)
⇒ sin 2(= sin 2 x
It means that the value of sin 2x repeats when x is increased by p .

Proof: Suppose p is the period of tangent function such that
= tan (q + p ) ∈q
tan for all q R (ii)
Hence n is the period of sin 2x.
We know that the period of tangent is p
Now put q = 0 , we have
ii)
x 
p
∴ tan  += + 3p )
⇒ tan ( x =
tan (0 + p ) =
x 1 x
3 
tan tan
tan 0 3 3 3
⇒ tan p =
repeats when x is increased by 3p .
0
x
It means that the value of tan
∴ 0, p , 2p ,3p ,....
p=
3
is 3p .
x
Hence the period of tan
3
i)
tan (q + p ) =tan q , which is true. Exercise 11.1
As p is the smallest +ve number for which Find the periods of the following functions:
tan (q + p ) =tan q
x
1. sin 3x 2. cos 2x 3. tan 4x 4. cot
2
p is not the period of tan q . 5. sin

x
6. coses
x
7. sin
x
8. cos
x
a
3 4 5 6
Note: By adopting the procedure used in inding the periods of sine and tangent, we can
prove that x
9. tan 10. cot 8x 11. sec 9x 12. cosec 10x.
7
i) 2p is the period of cos q . ii) 2p is the period of csc q . x

13. 3 sin x 14. 2 cos x 15. 3 cos
2p is the period of sec q . p is the period of cotq .
5
iii) iv)
6 7
For this purpose,

11.3 Values of Trigonometric Functions i) table of ordered pairs (x, y) is constructed, when x is the measure of the angle and
y is the value of the trigonometric ratio for the angle of measure x;
We know the values of trigonometric functions for angles of measure 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°,
ii) The measures of the angles are taken along the X- axis;
and 90°. We have also established the following identities:
iii) The values of the trigonometric functions are taken along the Y-axis;
sin (-q ) - =sin q - cos ( q=
) cos q- - tan ( q=
) tan q iv) The points corresponding to the ordered pairs are plotted on the graph paper,
sin (p - q ) =sin q cos (p q )- - cos= q tan p =
- (- q) tan q v) These points are joined with the help of smooth ciurves.
sin (p + q )- =sin q cos+ (p- =q) cos q+ tan= (p q ) tan q
sin (2p - q )- =sin q cos (2p - q ) = cos q tan (2p q-)- =tan q
Note: As we shall see that the graphs of trigonometric functions will be smooth curves
and none of them will be line segments or will have sharp corners or breaks
By using the above identities, we can easily find the values of trigonometric functions within their domains. This behaviour of the curve is called continuity. It means
of the angles of the following measures: that the trigonometric functions are continuous, wherever they are deined.
-30 , -45 , -60 , -90 Moreover, as the trigonometric functions are periodic so their curves repeat
±120 , ±135 , ±150 , ±180 after a ixed interval.
±210 , ±225 , ±240 , ±270
±300 , ±315 , ±330 , ±360.
11.5 Graph of y = sin x from -2p to 2p
We know that the period of sine function is 2p so, we will irst draw the graph for the
11.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
interval from 0° to 360° i.e., from 0 to 2p .
We shall now learn the method of drawing the graphs of all the six trigonometric
functions. These graphs are used very often in calculus and social sciences. For graphing the To graph the sine function, irst, recall that -1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R
linear equations of the form:
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = (i) i.e., the range of the sine function is [-1, 1], so the graph will be between the horizon-
tal lines y = +1 and y = - 1
0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 =0 (ii)
The table of the ordered pairs satisfying y = sin x is as follows:

We have been using the following procedure.
i) tables of the ordered pairs are constructed from the given equations,
ii) the points corresponding to these ordered pairs are plotted/located,
and iii) the points, representing them are joined by line segments.
Exactly the same procedure is adopted to draw the graphs of the trigonometric
functions except for joining the points by the line segments.
8 9
To draw the graph
1side of small square on the x - axis =

Take a convenient scale 
10
1side of big square on the y - axis =
i)
1unit
ii) Draw the coordinate axes.

iii) Plot the points corresponding to the ordered pairs in the table above i.e., (0, 0),
11.6 Graph of y = cos x from -2p to 2p

(30°, 0.5), (60°, 0.87) and so on,
(iv) Join the points with the help of a smooth curve as shown so we get the graph of
y = sin x from 0 to 360° i.e., from 0 to 2p .
We know that the period of cosine function is 2p so, we will irst draw the graph for the
interval from 0° to 360° i.e., from 0 to 2p
To graph the cosine function, irst, recall that -1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R
i.e., the range of the cosine function is [-1, 1], so the graph will be between the horizontal
lines y = +1 and y = -1
The table of the ordered pairs satisfying y = cos x is as follows:
In a similar way, we can draw the graph for the interval from 0° to -360°. This will
complete the graph of y = sin x from -360° to 360° i.e. from - 2p to 2p , which is given below:
The graph of y = cos x from 0° to 360° is given below:
The graph in the interval [0, 2p ] is called a cycle. Since the period of sine function is 2p ,
so the sine graph can be extended on both sides of x-axis through every interval of 2p (360°)
as shown below:
10 11
complete the graph of y = cos x from -360° to 360° i.e. from - 2p to 2p , which is given below: p p
iv) x approaches - from right i.e., x → - + 0 , tan x increases indeinitely in III Quard.
2 2
We know that the period of tangent is p , so we shall irst draw the graph for the
interval from - p to p i.e., from -180° to 180°
The table of ordered pairs satisfying y = tan x is given below:
a
As in the case of sine graph, the cosine graph is also extended
on both sides of x-axis through an interval of 2p as shown above:
11.7 Graph of y = tan x from - p To p
We know that tan (-x) = - tan x and tan ( p - x) = - tan x, so the values of tan x for
x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° can help us in making the table.
Also we know that tan x is undeined at x = ± 90°, when
p p
i) x approaches from left i.e., x → - 0, tan x increases indeinitely in I Quard.
2 2
p p
ii) x approaches from right i.e., x → + 0 , tan x increases indeinitely in IV Quard.
2 2
p p
iii) x approaches - from left i.e., x → - - 0 tan x increases indeinitely in II Quard.
2 2
12 13
We know that the period of the tangent function is p . The graph is extended on both
sides of x-axis through an interval of p in the same pattern and so we obtain the graph of
y = tan x from -360° to 360° as shown below:
11.8 Graph of y = cot x From -2p to p
We know that cot (-x) = - cot x and cot ( p - x) = - cot x, so the values of cot x for
x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90° can help us in making the table.
The period of the cotangent function is also p . So its graph is drawn in a similar way of
tangent graph using the table given below for the interval from -180° to 180°.
We know that the period of the cotangent function is p . The graph is extended on both
14 15
sides of x - axis through an interval of p in the same pattern and so we obtain the graph of Since the period of sec x is also 2p , so we have the following graph of y = sec x from
y = cotx from from -360° to 360° as shown below: - 360° to 360° i.e., from - 2p to 2p :
Graph of y = sec x from - 360° to 360°

11.9 Graph of y = sec x from -2p to 2p
11.10 Graph of y = csc x from -2p to 2p
We know that sec (- x) =
sec x and sec (p x-)- =
sec x,
We know that: csc ( -x) = - csc x and csc ( p - x) = csc x
So the values of sec x for x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, can help us in making the following table
So the values of csc x for x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, can help us in making the following
of the ordered pairs for drawing the graph of y = sec x for the interval 0° to 360°:
table of the ordered pairs for drawing the graph of y = csc x for the interval 0° to 360°:
16 17
Since the period of csc x is also 2 p , so we have the following graph of =

iii) y ∈
tan -2 x, x [ p ,p ]
=
iv) y ∈
tan - x, x [ 2p ,2p ]
= y ∈ sin [0,2p ]
x
v) , x
2
= ∈cos- , [ p ,p ]
x
vi) y x
2
2. On the same axes and to the same scale, draw the graphs of the following function for
their complete period:
i) y = sin x and y = sin 2x
ii) y = cos x and y = cos 2 x
3. Solve graphically:
= i) sin x ∈cos x , x [0, p ]
=
ii) sin x ∈x , x [0, p ]
Note 1: From the graphs of trigonometric functions we can check their domains and
ranges.
Note 2: By making use of the periodic property, each one of these graphs can be extended
on the left as well as on the right side of x-axis depending upon the period of the
functions.
Note 3: The dashes lines are vertical asymptotes in the graphs of tan x, cot x, sec x and
csc x.
Exercise 11.2
1. Draw the graph of each of the following function for the intervals mentioned against
each :
i) y = - sin x, x∈ [- 2p ,2p ]
=
ii) y ∈ 2cos x, x [0,2p ]
18 19
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
11 Trigonometric Functions
and their Graphs
p 3p 5p
q ≠ ± , ± , ± ,...
11.1 Introduction
⇒
2 2 2
p
Let us irst ind domains and ranges of trigonometric functions before drawing their
graphs. ⇒ q ≠ (2n + 1) , where n ∈ Z
2
p
11.1.1 Domains and Ranges of Sine and Cosine Functions
Domain of tangent function =-
R {x | x =
(2n + 1) , n ∈ Z}
a
We have already deined trigonometric functions 2
sin q , cos q , tan q , csc q , sec q and cot q . We know that and Range of tangent function = R = set of real numbers.
if P(x, y) is any point on unit circle with center at the origin
O such that ∠XOP = q is standard position, then
cos q = x
ii) From igure 11.1
and sin q = y
=cot q ≠
x
⇒ for any real number q there is one and only
, y 0
y
one value of each x and y .i.e., of each cos q

and sin q .
⇒ q ≠ 0, ± p , ± 2p ,...
Hence sin q and cos q are the functions of q and their domain is R a set of real numbers.
⇒ q ≠ np , where n ∈ Z
Since P(x, y) is a point on the unit circle with center at the origin O.
∴ -1 ≤ x ≤ 1 -1 ≤ y ≤ 1 Domain of cotangent function = R -{x | x =np , n ∈ Z}
a
and
⇒ - 1 ≤ cos q ≤ 1 and - 1 ≤ sin q ≤ 1 and Range of cotangent function = R = set of real numbers.
Thus the range of both the sine and cosine functions is [-1, 1].
11.1.3 Domain and Range of Secant Function
11.1.2 Domains and Ranges of Tangent and Cotangent Functions
From igure 11.1 From igure 11.1
i)=tan q ≠ =sec q ≠
y 1
, x 0 , x 0
x x
⇒ terminal side OP should not coincide with OY or OY’ (i.e., Y - axis)
 
⇒ terminal side OP should not coincide with OY or OY’ (i.e., Y-axis)
p 3p 5p
⇒ q ≠ ± , ± , ± ,...
2 2 2
2 3
p
⇒ q ≠ (2n + 1) , where n ∈ Z y = tan x (2n + 1)p
2 -∞ < x < +∞, x ≠ , n ∈ Z - ∞ < y < +∞
y = cot x
2
p -∞ < x < + ∞, x ≠ np , n ∈ Z -∞ < y < +∞
Domain of secant function = R -{x | x =(2n + 1) , n ∈ Z}
(2n + 1)p y ≥ 1 or y ≤ - 1
a
2
y = sec x -∞ < x < + ∞, x ≠ ,n ∈ Z
As sec q attains all real values except those between -1 and 1
y ≥1 or y ≤ - 1
2
Range of secant function= R - {x | - 1 < x < 1} y = coses x -∞ < x < + ∞, x ≠ np , n∈ Z
a
11.2 Period of Trigonometric Functions

11.1.4 Domain and Range of Cosecant Function
All the six trigonometric functions repeat their values for each increase or decrease of
2p in q i.e., the values of trigonometric functions for q and q ± 2np , where q ∈ R , and n ∈ Z ,
From igure 11.1
=csc q ≠
1 are the same. This behaviour of trigonometric functions is called periodicity.
, y 0
y Period of a trigonometric function is the smallest +ve number which, when added to

the original circular measure of the angle, gives the same value of the function.
⇒ q ≠ 0, ± p , ± 2p ,... Let us now discover the periods of the trigonometric functions.
⇒ q ≠ np , where n ∈ Z Theorem 11.1: Sine is a periodic function and its period is 2p .
Domain of cosecant function = R -{x | x =np , n ∈ Z}

Proof: Suppose p is the period of sine function such that
= sin (q + p ) sin∈q for all q R (i)
a
Now put q = 0, we have

As csc q attains all values except those between -1 and 1
sin (0 + p ) =
Range of cosecant function = R - {x | -1 < x < 1}
sin 0
⇒ sin p =
p = 0, ± p , ± 2p , ± 3p ,...
0
⇒
a
The following table summarizes the domains and ranges of the trigonometric func-

tions:
i)
sin (q + p ) = sin q
Function Domain Range
(not true)
y = sin x -∞ < x < +∞ -1 ≤ y ≤ 1  sin (q + p ) =
- sin q
y = cos x -∞ < x < +∞ -1 ≤ y ≤ 1 p is not the period of sin q .

if p = 2p , then from (i)
a
ii)
sin (q + 2p ) = sin q , Which is true
4 5
As is the smallest +ve real number for which

sin (q + 2p ) = sin q x
2p is not the period of sin q .
Example 1: Find the periods of: i) sin 2x ii) tan
3
We know that the period of sine is 2p

a
Theorem 11.2: Tangent is a periodic function and its period is p .

Solution: i)
+ 2p )
∴ sin (2 x= sin 2 x x +p)
⇒ sin 2(= sin 2 x
It means that the value of sin 2x repeats when x is increased by p .

Proof: Suppose p is the period of tangent function such that
= tan (q + p ) ∈q
tan for all q R (ii)
Hence n is the period of sin 2x.
We know that the period of tangent is p
Now put q = 0 , we have
ii)
x 
p
∴ tan  += + 3p )
⇒ tan ( x =
tan (0 + p ) =
x 1 x
3 
tan tan
tan 0 3 3 3
⇒ tan p =
repeats when x is increased by 3p .
0
x
It means that the value of tan
∴ 0, p , 2p ,3p ,....
p=
3
is 3p .
x
Hence the period of tan
3
i)
tan (q + p ) =tan q , which is true. Exercise 11.1
As p is the smallest +ve number for which Find the periods of the following functions:
tan (q + p ) =tan q
x
1. sin 3x 2. cos 2x 3. tan 4x 4. cot
2
p is not the period of tan q . 5. sin

x
6. coses
x
7. sin
x
8. cos
x
a
3 4 5 6
Note: By adopting the procedure used in inding the periods of sine and tangent, we can
prove that x
9. tan 10. cot 8x 11. sec 9x 12. cosec 10x.
7
i) 2p is the period of cos q . ii) 2p is the period of csc q . x

13. 3 sin x 14. 2 cos x 15. 3 cos
2p is the period of sec q . p is the period of cotq .
5
iii) iv)
6 7
For this purpose,

11.3 Values of Trigonometric Functions i) table of ordered pairs (x, y) is constructed, when x is the measure of the angle and
y is the value of the trigonometric ratio for the angle of measure x;
We know the values of trigonometric functions for angles of measure 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°,
ii) The measures of the angles are taken along the X- axis;
and 90°. We have also established the following identities:
iii) The values of the trigonometric functions are taken along the Y-axis;
sin (-q ) - =sin q - cos ( q=
) cos q- - tan ( q=
) tan q iv) The points corresponding to the ordered pairs are plotted on the graph paper,
sin (p - q ) =sin q cos (p q )- - cos= q tan p =
- (- q) tan q v) These points are joined with the help of smooth ciurves.
sin (p + q )- =sin q cos+ (p- =q) cos q+ tan= (p q ) tan q
sin (2p - q )- =sin q cos (2p - q ) = cos q tan (2p q-)- =tan q
Note: As we shall see that the graphs of trigonometric functions will be smooth curves
and none of them will be line segments or will have sharp corners or breaks
By using the above identities, we can easily find the values of trigonometric functions within their domains. This behaviour of the curve is called continuity. It means
of the angles of the following measures: that the trigonometric functions are continuous, wherever they are deined.
-30 , -45 , -60 , -90 Moreover, as the trigonometric functions are periodic so their curves repeat
±120 , ±135 , ±150 , ±180 after a ixed interval.
±210 , ±225 , ±240 , ±270
±300 , ±315 , ±330 , ±360.
11.5 Graph of y = sin x from -2p to 2p
We know that the period of sine function is 2p so, we will irst draw the graph for the
11.4 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
interval from 0° to 360° i.e., from 0 to 2p .
We shall now learn the method of drawing the graphs of all the six trigonometric
functions. These graphs are used very often in calculus and social sciences. For graphing the To graph the sine function, irst, recall that -1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R
linear equations of the form:
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = (i) i.e., the range of the sine function is [-1, 1], so the graph will be between the horizon-
tal lines y = +1 and y = - 1
0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 =0 (ii)
The table of the ordered pairs satisfying y = sin x is as follows:

We have been using the following procedure.
i) tables of the ordered pairs are constructed from the given equations,
ii) the points corresponding to these ordered pairs are plotted/located,
and iii) the points, representing them are joined by line segments.
Exactly the same procedure is adopted to draw the graphs of the trigonometric
functions except for joining the points by the line segments.
8 9
To draw the graph
1side of small square on the x - axis =

Take a convenient scale 
10
1side of big square on the y - axis =
i)
1unit
ii) Draw the coordinate axes.

iii) Plot the points corresponding to the ordered pairs in the table above i.e., (0, 0),
11.6 Graph of y = cos x from -2p to 2p

(30°, 0.5), (60°, 0.87) and so on,
(iv) Join the points with the help of a smooth curve as shown so we get the graph of
y = sin x from 0 to 360° i.e., from 0 to 2p .
We know that the period of cosine function is 2p so, we will irst draw the graph for the
interval from 0° to 360° i.e., from 0 to 2p
To graph the cosine function, irst, recall that -1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R
i.e., the range of the cosine function is [-1, 1], so the graph will be between the horizontal
lines y = +1 and y = -1
The table of the ordered pairs satisfying y = cos x is as follows:
complete the graph of y = sin x from -360° to 360° i.e. from - 2p to 2p , which is given below:
The graph of y = cos x from 0° to 360° is given below:
The graph in the interval [0, 2p ] is called a cycle. Since the period of sine function is 2p ,
so the sine graph can be extended on both sides of x-axis through every interval of 2p (360°)
as shown below:
10 11
complete the graph of y = cos x from -360° to 360° i.e. from - 2p to 2p , which is given below: p p
iv) x approaches - from right i.e., x → - + 0 , tan x increases indeinitely in III Quard.
2 2
We know that the period of tangent is p , so we shall irst draw the graph for the
interval from - p to p i.e., from -180° to 180°
The table of ordered pairs satisfying y = tan x is given below:
a
As in the case of sine graph, the cosine graph is also extended
on both sides of x-axis through an interval of 2p as shown above:
11.7 Graph of y = tan x from - p To p
We know that tan (-x) = - tan x and tan ( p - x) = - tan x, so the values of tan x for
x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° can help us in making the table.
Also we know that tan x is undeined at x = ± 90°, when
p p
i) x approaches from left i.e., x → - 0, tan x increases indeinitely in I Quard.
2 2
p p
ii) x approaches from right i.e., x → + 0 , tan x increases indeinitely in IV Quard.
2 2
p p
iii) x approaches - from left i.e., x → - - 0 tan x increases indeinitely in II Quard.
2 2
12 13
We know that the period of the tangent function is p . The graph is extended on both
sides of x-axis through an interval of p in the same pattern and so we obtain the graph of
y = tan x from -360° to 360° as shown below:
11.8 Graph of y = cot x From -2p to p
We know that cot (-x) = - cot x and cot ( p - x) = - cot x, so the values of cot x for
x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90° can help us in making the table.
The period of the cotangent function is also p . So its graph is drawn in a similar way of
tangent graph using the table given below for the interval from -180° to 180°.
We know that the period of the cotangent function is p . The graph is extended on both
14 15
sides of x - axis through an interval of p in the same pattern and so we obtain the graph of Since the period of sec x is also 2p , so we have the following graph of y = sec x from
y = cotx from from -360° to 360° as shown below: - 360° to 360° i.e., from - 2p to 2p :
Graph of y = sec x from - 360° to 360°

11.9 Graph of y = sec x from -2p to 2p
11.10 Graph of y = csc x from -2p to 2p
We know that sec (- x) =
sec x and sec (p x-)- =
sec x,
We know that: csc ( -x) = - csc x and csc ( p - x) = csc x
So the values of sec x for x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, can help us in making the following table
So the values of csc x for x = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, can help us in making the following
of the ordered pairs for drawing the graph of y = sec x for the interval 0° to 360°:
table of the ordered pairs for drawing the graph of y = csc x for the interval 0° to 360°:
16 17
Since the period of csc x is also 2 p , so we have the following graph of =

iii) y ∈
tan -2 x, x [ p ,p ]
=
iv) y ∈
tan - x, x [ 2p ,2p ]
= y ∈ sin [0,2p ]
x
v) , x
2
= ∈cos- , [ p ,p ]
x
vi) y x
2
2. On the same axes and to the same scale, draw the graphs of the following function for
their complete period:
i) y = sin x and y = sin 2x
ii) y = cos x and y = cos 2 x
3. Solve graphically:
= i) sin x ∈cos x , x [0, p ]
=
ii) sin x ∈x , x [0, p ]
Note 1: From the graphs of trigonometric functions we can check their domains and
ranges.
Note 2: By making use of the periodic property, each one of these graphs can be extended
on the left as well as on the right side of x-axis depending upon the period of the
functions.
Note 3: The dashes lines are vertical asymptotes in the graphs of tan x, cot x, sec x and
csc x.
Exercise 11.2
1. Draw the graph of each of the following function for the intervals mentioned against
each :
i) y = - sin x, x∈ [- 2p ,2p ]
=
ii) y ∈ 2cos x, x [0,2p ]
18 19
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
13 Invnerse Trignometric
Functions
13. Inverse Trignometric Functions eLearn.Punjab 13. Inverse Trignometric Functions eLearn.Punjab
 -p p 
13.1 Introduction
restrict the domain of y = sinx to the interval  ,  , then the restricted function y = sinx,
 2 2
p p
- ≤ x ≤ is called the principal sine function; which is now one-to-one and hence will
We have been inding the values of trigonometric functions for given measures
of the angles. But in the application of trigonometry, the problem has also been the other 2 2
way round and we are required to ind the measure of the angle when the value of its
have an inverse as shown in igure 2.
trigonometric function is given. For this purpose, we need to have the knowledge of inverse
This inverse function is called the inverse sin function and is written as sin-1x or arc
trigonometric functions.
sinx.
In chapter 2, we have discussed inverse functions. We learned that only a one-to-
The Inverse sine Function is deined by:
one function will have an inverse. If a function is not one-to-one, it may be possible to restrict
y = sin-1x , if and only if x = sin y.
its domain to make it one-to-one so that its inverse can be found.
p p
where - ≤ y≤ and - 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
In this section we shall deine the inverse trigonometric functions.
2 2
13.2 The Inverse sine Function: Here y is the angle whose sine is x. The domain of the function
p p
The graph of y = sinx, -T< x < +T, is shown in the igure 1.
y = sin-1x is - 17 x 7 1, its range is - ≤ y≤
2 2
The graph of y = sin-1x is obtained by relecting the restricted portion of the graph of
y = sinx about the line y = x as shown in igure 3.
We notice that the graph of y = sinx is along the x - axis whereas the graph of y = sin-1x
is along the y - axis.
Note: It must be remembered that sin-1x ≠ (sin x)-1.
(i) sin -1 (ii) sin -1 (- )

3 1
Example 1: Find the value of
2 2
3
Solution: (i) We want to ind the angle y, whose sine is
2
p p
=
⇒ sin y -, ≤ ≤
3
y
p
We observe that every horizontal line between the lines y = 1 and y= -1 intersects the 2 2 2
graph ininitly many times. It follows that the sine function is not one-to-one.However, if we ⇒ y=
3
2 3
We observe that every horizontal line between the lines y = 1 and y = -1 intersects the
3 p
)=
graph ininitly many times. It follows that the cosine function is not one-to-one. However, if
sin -1 (
2 3 we restrict the domain of y = cosx to the interval [0, p], then the restricted function y = cosx,
We want to ind the angle y whose sine is - 0 7x7p is called the principal cosine function; which is now one-to-one and hence will
1
(ii)
p p
2 have an inverse as shown in igure 5.
⇒ sin y =- , - ≤ y≤
1 This inverse function is called the inverse cosine function and is written as cos-1x or arc
p
2 2 2
cosx.
∴ - y= The Inverse Cosine Function is deined by:
p
6
y = cos-1x, if and only if x= cos y.
∴ sin -1 (- ) =
- where 0 7y7p and -17x 7 1.
1
Here y is the angle whose cosine is x . The domain of the function y = cos-1x is -17x 71
2 6
and its range is 07y7p .

13.3 The Inverse Cosine Function: The graph of y = cos-1x is obtained by relecting the restricted portion of the graph of
y = cos x about the line y = x as shown in igure 6.
The graph of y = cosx, -T< x < +T, is shown in the igure 4. We notice that the graph of y = cos x is along the x - axis whereas the graph of y = cos-1x
is along the y - axis .
Note: It must be remembered that cos-1x ≠ (cosx)-1
cos -1 1 cos -1 (- )
1
Example 2: Find the value of (i) (ii)
2
Solution: (i) We want to ind the angle y whose cosine is 1
⇒=
cos y 1, 0≤ y ≤p
⇒ y=
0
∴ cos -1 1 =
0
We want to ind the angle y whose cosine is -

1
(ii)
2
⇒ cos y =- , 0≤ y ≤p
1
2
4 5
2p -p p
∴ y= function y = tanx < x < , is called the Principal tangent function; which is now one-to-
3 2 2
one and hence will have an inverse as shown in igure 8.
2p
∴ cos -1 (- ) =
-
1 This inverse function is called the inverse tangent function and is written as tan-1x or
2 3 arc tanx.
The Inverse Tangent Function is deined by:
13.4 Inverse Tangent Function: y = tan-1x , if and only if x = tan y.
p p
where - < y< and - ∞ < x < +∞ .
2 2
Here y is the angle whose tangent is x. The domain of the function y = tan-1x is -T< x <
p p
+T and its range is - < y<
2 2
The graph of y = tan-1x is obtained by relecting the restricted portion of the graph of
y = tanx about the line y = x as shown in igure 9.
We notice that the graph of y = tanx is along the x - axis whereas the graph of y = tanx
is along the y- axis.
Note: It must be remembered that tan-1x ≠ (tanx)-1 .
Example 3: Find the value of (i) tan -1 1 (ii) tan -1 (- 3)
Solution: (i) We want to find the angle y, whose tangent is 1
p p
⇒=
tan y 1, - < y<
p
2 2
⇒ y=
p
4
The graph of y = tanx, -T< x < +T, is shown in the igure 7. ∴ tan -1 1 =
We observe that every horizontal line between the lines y = 1 and y = -1 intersect the graph 4
ininitly many times. It follows that the tangent function is not one-to-one. (ii) We want to ind the angle y whose tangent is - 3
-p p p p
However, if we restrict the domain of y = Tanx to the interval < x < , then the restricted ⇒ tan y =- 3 - <y <
2 2 2 2
6 7
which is one-to-one and has an inverse.

2p
∴ y= The Inverse Cosecant Function is deined by:
y = csc -1 x, if and only if x = csc y
2p
3
∴ tan -1 (- 3) =
p p
3 where - ≤ y≤ , y ≠ 0 and x ≥ 1
2 2
13.5 Inverse Cotangent, Secant and Cosecant Functions
The students should draw the graph of y = csc -1 by taking the relection of y = cscx in
These inverse functions are not used frequently and most of the calculators do not the line y = x. This is left an exercise for them.
even have keys for evaluating them. However, we list their deinitions as below:
i) Inverse Cotangent function: Note. While discusspjpihe Inverse Trigonometric Functions, we have seen that there are in
y = cotx, where 0 7x7p is called the Principal Cotangent Function, which is one-to- general, no inverses of Trigonometric Functions, but restricting their domain to
one and has an inverse. principal Functions, we have made them as functions.
The inverse cotangent function is deined by:
y = cot-1x , if and only if x = coty
Where 0 < y < p and - ∞ < x < +∞ 13.6 Domains and Ranges of Principal Trigonometric Function
The students should draw the graph of y = cot-1 x by taking the relection of y = cotx in and Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
the line y = x. This is left as an exercise for them.
ii) Inverse Secant function From the discussion on the previous pages we get the following table showing domains
p
and ranges of the Principal Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
y = sec x, where 0 ≤ x ≤ p and x ≠ is called the Principal Secant Function, which is
2
Functions Domain Range
one-to-one and has an inverse.
y = sin x -p p -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
≤x≤
The Inverse Secant Function is deined by:
y = sec-1x. if and only if x = secy 2 2
p -1 ≤ x ≤ 1 -p p
where 0 ≤ y ≤ p , y≠ and x ≥ 1 y = sin -1 x ≤x≤
2 2 2
y = cos x 0≤ x ≤p -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
The students should draw the graph of y = sec-1x by taking the relection of y = secx in
the line y = x. This is left an exercise for them,
y = cos -1 x -1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤ x ≤p
iii) Inverse Cosecant Function
p p y = tan x -p p (-∞, ∞) or ℜ
y = csc x, where - ≤ y≤ and x ≠ 0 is called the Principal Cosecant Function, <x<
2 2 2 2
8 9
sin a = ⇒ a = sin -1
-p p
5 5
(-∞, ∞) or ℜ
Thus
y = tan -1 x <x<
13 13
cos -1 = sin -1
2 2 12 5
Hence
y = cot x 0< x <p (-∞, ∞) or ℜ
13 13
0< x <p
Example 5: Find the value of
y = cot x
-1 (-∞, ∞) or ℜ
sin (cos -1 cos (tan -1 0) sec [sin -1 (- )] Solution:
3 1
i) ) ii) iii)
y = sec x p y ≤ -1 or y ≥ 1
[0, p ], x ≠
2 2
3
2 i) we irst ind the value of y, whose cosine is
2
y = sec x x ≥ -1 or x ≤ 1 p = 0≤ y ≤p
[0, p ], y ≠
3
-1 cos y ,
p
2
⇒ y=
2
y = csc x p p y ≤ -1 or y ≥ 1
[- , ], x ≠ 0
6
p
⇒ (cos -1 =
2 2 3
)
2 6
y = csc -1 x x ≤ -1 or x ≥ 1 p p p 1
[- , ], y ≠ 0 ∴ sin(cos -1 = )=
3
sin
2 2 2 6 2
ii) we irst ind the value of y, whose tangent is 0
p p
Example 4: Show that cos -1 sin -1 tan= - < y<
12 5
y 0,
13 13 2 2
Solution: Let cos -1 a
=
⇒ = a ⇒ y=
12 12
cos 0
⇒ =
13 13
(tan -1 0) 0
 12  ∴ =
cos(tan -1 0) =
∴ sin a = ± 1 - cos a = ± 1 -  
2
cos0 1
 13 
2
we irst ind the value of y, whose sine is -

1
iii)
= ± 1-
p p
144 2
sin y =- , - ≤ y≤
169 1
169 - 144
±= ±= ±= p
25 5 2 2 2
169 169 13 ⇒ -y =
p
6
a cos a is +ve and domain of a is [0, p], in which sine is +ve. ⇒ sin -1 (- ) =
1
-
2 6
10 11
∴ sec[sin -1 (- )] =  -2   1 
cot -1 (-1) cosec -1   sin -1  - 
1 2
 3  2
vii) viii) ix)
2 3
Example: 6 Prove that the inverse trigonometric functions satisfy the following identities:
Without using table/ Calculator show that:
p p
2.
sin -1 x = cos -1 x cos--1 x sin -1 x = -
= sin -1 =
i)
tan -1 2cos -1 sin -1
and 5 5 4 24
i) ii)
p p
2 2
tan -1 x = cot--1 x = -
12 13 5 25
cot -1 x tan -1 x
=
ii)
cos -1 cot -1
and 4 4
iii)
p p
2 2
sec -1 x = csc--1 x = -
5 3
iii) csc -1 x and sec -1 x
2 2 3. Find the value of each expression:
Proof:
Consider the right triangle given in the igure Angles a and b are acute and complementary.  1   1  3
cos  sin -1  sec  cos -1  tan  cos -1 
 2  2
i) ii) iii)
p  
a +b =
csc ( tan -1 (-1) ) tan ( tan -1 (-1) )
⇒
2
 1 
sec  sin -1 (- ) 
p p  2 
2 iv) v) vi)
⇒ a =- b and b =- a ...(i)
sin ( tan -1 (-1) )
 1   1 
sin  sin -1 ( )  tan  sin -1 (- ) 
p
2 2
 2   2 
vii) viii) ix)
Now sin a= sin( - b=
) cos b= x (say)
2
=
∴ a sin -1 x = and b cos -1 x 13.7 Addition and Subtraction Formulas
Thus from (i) we have:
p p
sin -1 x = cos --1 x = -
1) Prove that:
cos -1 x sin -1 x
sin -1 A + sin
= -1
sin -1 ( A 1 - B 2 + B 1 - A2 )
and
2 2 B
In a similar way, we can derive the identities (ii) and (iii). Proof: Let sin -1 A = x ⇒ sin x = A
and sin -1 B = y ⇒ sin y =B
= ± 1 - sin 2 x = ± 1 - A2
Exercise 13.1
Now cos x
 p p
In sinx = A, domain =  - ,  , in which
1. Evaluate without using tables / calculator:
 2 2
 3
sin -1 (-1)
Cosine is +ve,
sin -1 (1) cos -1  
∴ cos x = -
i) ii) iii)
 2  1 A2
 1  1  1  Similarly, cos y= 1 - B2
tan -1  -  cos -1   tan -1  
 3 2  3
iv) vi)
Now sin( x += sin x cos y + cos x sin y
v)
y)
12 13
= A 1 - B 2 + B 1 - A2 A+ A
tan -1 A + tan -1 A = tan -1
⇒ x=
+y sin -1 ( A 1 - B 2 - B 1 - A2 ) ∴ 1 - A2
⇒ 2 tan -1 A = tan -1
sin -1 A + sin
= B sin -1 ( A 1 - B 2 + B 1 - A2 )
2A
-1
1 - A2
In a similar way, we can prove that
Exercise 13.2
2) sin A - sin
-1
= B sin ( A 1 - B - B 1 - A )
-1 -1 2 2
3) cos -1 A + cos= B cos -1 ( AB - (1 - A 2 )(1 - B 2 ))

-1 Prove the following:
4) cos A - cos=
-1
B cos ( AB + (1 - A )(1 - B ))
-1 -1 sin -1 + sin -1 = cos -1 tan -1 + tan -1 =tan -1
5 7 253 1 1 9
2 2 1. 2.
13 25 325 4 5 19
5) Prove that:
 12 
A+ B = sin -1 =
=
13 
2 tan -1 : Let tan -1
2 12 2
tan -1 A + tan -1 B =
3.
tan -1
Hint x.and shown sin 2 x
1 - AB
3 13 3
Let tan -1 A = x ⇒ tan x = A p

tan -1 = 2cos -1 sin -1 + cot -1 3 =
Proof: 120 12 1
tan B = y
-1
⇒ tan y =B
4. 5.
and 119 13 5 4
tan x + tan y A+ B
tan(=
x + y) = sin -1 + sin -1 = - sin -1 =
1 - tan x tan y 1 - AB sin -1 sin -1 cos -1
Now 6.
3 8 77
7.
77 3 15
5 17 85 85 5 17
A+ B
⇒ x+ y =tan -1
1 - AB 8. cos -1
63
+ 2 tan -1 =
1
sin -1
3
65 5 5
A+ B
∴ tan -1 A + tan B =
tan -1
1 - AB 8 p
tan -1 + tan -1 - tan -1 =
3 3
9.
4 5 19 4
In a similar way, we can prove that
A- B  
tan -1 A - tan -1 B =  Hint : First add tan 4 + tan 5 and then proceed 
-1 3 -1 3
tan -1
1 + AB
6)
16 p
sin -1 + sin -1 + sin -1 =
Cor. Putting A - B in 4 5
A+ B
10.
tan -1 A + tan -1B =
5 13 65 2
tan -1
1 - AB
, we get
14 15
13. Inverse Trignometric Functions eLearn.Punjab
tan -1 + tan -1 = tan -1 + tan -1

1 5 1 1
11.
1 p
11 6 3 2
2 tan -1 + tan -1 =
1
12.
3 7 4
13. Show that cos(sin -1 x) = 1 - x2

14. Show that sin(2cos -1 x=
) 2 x 1 - x2
15. Show that cos(2sin -1 x) = 1 - 2 x2
16. Show that tan -1 (- x) - =
tan -1 x
17. Show that sin -1 (- x)- =
sin -1 x
18. Show that cos -1 (- x) p cos -1 x
-=
tan(sin -1 x) =
x
1 - x2
19. Show that
Given that x = sin -1 , ind the values of following trigonometric functions: sinx, cosx,
1
20.
2
tanx, cotx, secx and cscx.
version: 1.1
16
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
14 Solutions of Trignometric
Equation
14. Solutions of Trigonometric Equations eLearn.Punjab 14. Solutions of Trigonometric Equations eLearn.Punjab
Example 2: Solve the equation: 1 + cos x = 0

14.1 Introduction
Solution: 1 + cos x = 0
⇒ cos x = -1
The Equations, containing at least one trigonometric function, are called Trigonometric
Since cos x is -ve, there is only one solution x = p in [0, 2p]
Equations, e.g., each of the following is a trigonometric equation:
Since 2p is the period of cos x
= ,= - x=+ sin 2 x sec x 1
∴ General value of x is p + 2np, n∈Z
2 3
sin x Sec x tan and
Hence solution set = {p + 2np}, n∈Z

5 4
Trigonometric equations have an ininite number of solutions due to the periodicity of the
Example 3: Solve the equation: 4 cos2x - 3 = 0

trigonometric functions. For example
If sin q = q then q = 0, ± , ± 2 ,...

Solution: 4 cos2 x - 3 = 0
= as q ∈n , where n Z .
⇒ cos 2 x =⇒ ± cos x =
which can be written 3 3
4 2
In solving trigonometric equations, irst ind the solution over the interval whose
If cos x =
3
length is equal to its period and then ind the general solution as explained in the following i.
2
Since cos x is +ve in I and IV Quadrants with the reference angle
examples:
Example 1: Solve the equation sin x =

1
2 x=
where x ∈ [ 0, 2 ]
6
sin x = =∴= -and x = 2

1 11
Solution: x
6 6 6
As 2p is the period of cos x.
2
sin x is positive in I and II Quadrants with the reference angle x = .

∴ + 2n + 2n , n∈Z
a 11
where x ∈ [ 0, 2 ]
6 General value of x are and
=
∴ x and =x= -
5 6 6
,
6 6 6
if cos x = -
3
ii.
∴ General values of x are + 2n , n ∈ Z

2
Since cos x is -ve in II and III Quadrants with reference angle x =
5
+ 2n and
6 6
  5 
where x ∈ [ 0, 2 ]
6
Hence solution set = + 2n  ∪  + 2n  ,n ∈ Z ∴ x= - = and x = x + =
6  6 
5 7
As 2p is the period of cos x.

6 6 6 6
2 3
∴ General values of x are + 2n , n ∈ Z sin x cos x =

5 7 3
+ 2n and Example 2: Find the solution set of: .
6 6 4
  11  5  7  sin x cos x =

3
set = + 2n  ∪  + 2n  ∪  + 2n  ∪  + 2n 
Solution: .
6   6  6  6 
Hence solution 4
⇒ ( 2sin x cos x ) =
1 3
2 4
⇒ sin 2 x =
14.2 Solution of General Trigonometric Equations 3
2
When a trigonometric equation contains more than one trigonometric functions,
trigonometric identities and algebraic formulae are used to transform such trigonometric a sin 2x is +ve in I and II Quadrants with the reference angle 2 x =
3
equation to an equivalent equation that contains only one trigonometric function.
∴ 2x = and 2 x = - = are two solutions in [ 0,2 ]

The method is illustrated in the following solved examples: 2
3 3 3
As 2p is the period of sin 2x .

Example 1: Solve: sin x + cos x = 0.
∴ + 2n and + 2n , ,
Solution: sin x + cos x = 0 2
General values of 2x are nU Z
⇒ + = ( Dividing by cos x ≠ 0 )
3 3
sin x cos x
0
⇒ General values of x are +n +n

cos x cos x
⇒ tan x + 1 = 0 ⇒ tan
- x = 1 and , nU Z
tan x is -ve in II and IV Quadrants with the reference angle
6 3
   
Hence solution set = =  + n  ∪  + n 
a
6  3 
, nU Z
x=
where x ∈ [ 0, ]
4
Note: In solving the equations of the form sin kx = c, we irst ind the solution pf sin u = c
∴ x= - = (where kx = w) and then required solution is obtained by dividing each term of this
3
,
As p is the period of tan x,

4 4
solution set by k.
∴ +n ,
3 Example 3: Solve the equation: sin 2x = cos 2x
General value of x is nU Z
4
3 
∴ Solution set =  + n 
Solution: sin2x = cos2x
4  ⇒
,n U Z.
2sinx cos x = cosx
⇒ 2sinx cos x - cosx = 0
⇒ cosx(2sinx - 1) = 0
4 5
∴ cosx = 0 or 2sinx - 1 = 0 As 2p is the period of cos x

p 3p
∴ General values of x are + 2np and + 2np , nUZ
i. If cosx = 0
⇒ x= x= [0,2 p]
2 2
3
and where x U
2 2
⇒ x = 0 and x = 2p where x U [0, 2p]
ii. If cos x = 1
As 2p is the period of cos x .
As 2p is the period of cos x
,
p 3p
∴ General values of x are + 2np and + 2np, nUZ, ∴ General values of x are 0 + 2np and 2p + 2np, nUZ.
If 2 sin x - 1 = 0
2 2
p   3p
+ 2n p  ∪ {2np } ∪ {2p + 2np } , n ∈ z

ii.
∴ Solution Set = + 2n p  ∪ 
⇒ 2   2 
1
sin x =
{2(n + 1)p } ⊂ {2np } , n ∈ z

p
2
Since sin x is +ve in I and II Quadrants with the reference angle x =

p p 5p
where x U [0, 2p]
6
∴ x= p   3p
+ 2n p  ∪ {2n p } , n ∈ z
and x = p - = 
Hence the solution set =  + 2np  ∪ 
2   2 
6 6 6
As 2p is the period of sin x.

Sometimes it is necessary to square both sides of a trigonometric equation. In such
p p
∴ General values of x are and + 2np and 5 + 2np, nUZ, a case, extaneous roots can occur which are to be discarded. So each value of x must be
6 6
checked by substituting it in the given equation.
For example, x = 2 is an equation having a root 2. On squaring we get x2 - 4 which gives
p   3p  p   p 
Hence solution set =  + 2np  ∪  + 2n p  ∪  + 2n p  ∪ 5 + 2n p  , two roots 2 and -2. But the root -2 does not satisfy the equation x = 2. Therefore, -2 is an
2   2  6   6 
n∈ z extaneous root.
Example 4: Solve the equation: sin2 x + cos x = 1. Example 5: Solve the equation: csc=
x 3 + cot x.
Solution: sin2 x + cos x = 1 Solution: csc=

x 3 + cot x .......(i)
⇒ 1 - cos2 x + cos x = 1
⇒ - cos x (cos x - 1) = 0 ⇒ = 3+
1 cos x
⇒ or cos x - 1 = 0
sin x sin x
⇒
= 3 sin x + cos x
cos x = 0
1
⇒ 1 - cos x =3 sin x
i. If cos x = 0
p 3p
⇒x= and x = where x U [0, 2p]
⇒ (1 - cos x) 2 =
,
2 2 ( 3 sin x) 2
6 7
⇒ 1 - 2cos x + cos 2 x =
3sin 2 x
Exercise 14
⇒ 1 - 2cos x + cos 2 x = 3(1 - cos 2 x)
1. Find the solutions of the following equations which lie in [0, 2p]
⇒ 4cos 2 x - 2cos x - 2 =
sin x = - sec x = -2 cot q =
0
3 1
i) ii) cosecq = 2 iii) iv)
⇒ 2cos 2 x - cos x - 1 =
2 3
0
⇒ (2cos x + 1)(cos x - 1) =
2. Solve the following trigonometric equations:
0
tan 2 q = ii) cos ec 2q = sec 2 q = cot 2 q =
1 4 4 1
⇒ cos
- x = or =
1 i) iii) iv)
cos x 1 3 3 3 3
Find the values of q satisfying the following equations:

2
If cos x = - 3tan 2 q + 2 3 tan q + 1 =

1
3.
tan q - secq - 1 =
i. 0
2 2
4.
2sin q + cos q - 1 =
0
p
Since cos x is -v e in II and III Quadrants with the reference angle x =
2
5.
2sin q - sin q =
0
2
6.
p 2p p 4p
0
3cos 2 q - 2 3 sin q cosq - 3sin 2 q =
3
⇒ x =p - = and x =p + = , where x U [0, 2p] 7. 0 [Hint: Divide by sin2q]
3 3 3 3 Find the solution sets of the following equations:
4 sin2q - 8cosq + 1 = 0
4p
8.
Now x = does not satisfy the given equation (i). 9. 3 tan x - sec x - 1 =0
[Hint: sin3x = 3sinx - 4sin3x]
3
10. cos 2x = sin 3x
4p 2p
∴ x = is not admissible and so x =
11. sec 3q= secq
is the only solution. 12. tan 2q + cotq = 0
3 3
Since 2p is the period of cos x

13. sin 2x + sinx = 0
14. sin 4x - sin 2x = cos 3x
2p
∴ General value of x is + 2n p , nUZ
15. sin x + cos 3x = cos 5x
16. sin 3 x + sin 2x + sin x = 0
sin 7x - sin x = sin 3 x
3
and x = 2p where x U [0, 2p]

ii. If cos x = 1
⇒ x= 0
17.
18. sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x = 0
sin q + sin 3q + sin 5q + sin 7q = 0
Now both csc x and cot x are not defined for x = 0 and x = 2
∴ x= 0
19.
cos q + cos 3q + cos 5 q + cos 7q = 0
and x = 2 are not admissible.
20.
 2p 
Hence solution set =  + 2n p  , nUZ
 3 
8 9

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version: 1.

Animation 1.1: Complex Plane

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Example 1: Squaring both sides we get;

3.141592654... is an important irrational number called it p(Pi) which

An approximate value of p is ,a better approximation is

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

3. Multiplication - Addition Law c) [ a,b,c,dU_ and a,b,c,d are all positive.

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

The symbol ⇔ stands for if i.e.. if and only if.

Example 6: Prove that 1 1

3. Name the properties used in the following inequalities:

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Thus 2i, -3i, 5i , - i are all imaginary numbers, i which may be

1.4 Complex Numbers i4 = i2 % i2 = (-1)(-1) = 1

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

= (a - c, b - d) v) (a, b)[(c, d ) ± (e, =

Solution: Sum = (8 + 5, 9 - 6) = (13, 3)

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

- z =-a - ib, z =a - ib and - z =-a + ib

∴= 02 + (-5)= ∴ z.z = (a + ib)(a - ib)

(iv) Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, then

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

z + z = (a + c) + (b + d)i and OB= z1 + z2 .

From (1) and (2), we have 1 2

= (ac - bd ) 2 + (ad + bc) 2 Also in the same triangle, OA - AB < OB

= z1 . z2 Combining (1) and (2), we have

This result may be stated thus: -

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Example 3: Show that, " z1 , z2 ∈ C , z1 z2 =

become collinear with B. This will be so when =

Example 4: Express the complex number 1 + i 3 in polar form.

 x1 + iy1   r1 cos q1 + r1 i sinq1  r1n (cosq1 + i sinq1 ) n

=+ (cosq1 i sinq1 ) n (cos

= n (cosnq1 + isin nq1 ) ( cos ( - nq ) 2 + i sin ( - nq 2 ) ) ,

= + 1 n ,[ ( cos nq1 cos nq 2 sin nq1 sin nq 2 )

+ i ( sin nq1 cos nq 2 - cos nq1 sin nq 2 ) ]

= n [ cos (nq1 - nq 2 ) + isin(nq1 - nq 2 ) ] cos (a - b )= cosa cosb +sina sinb

= - 1 n [ cos n(q1 q 2 )+ isinn (q1 - q 2 ) ]

= rn(cosnq + isinnq) ( By De Moivre’s Theorem)

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

and sin( - q ) = - sinq

⇒ r2 = (1) 2 + ( 3) 1 + 3 = 2 and q 2 tan -1

 2 ( cos( - 60o ) + isin( - 60O ) ) 

= ( cos( - 60 ) + isin( - 60 ) ) ( cos(60 ) + isin(60 ) )

= ( cos( - 300 ) + isin( - 300 ) )( cos( - 300 ) + isin( - 300 ) )

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

7. Simplify the following

Animation 2.1: Function

O = The set of all odd integers = { ± 1,± 3,±5,...}.

= The set of all real numbers = Q ∪ Q’

P (B ) = {Φ , {1} , {2} , {3} , {1,2} , {1,3} , {2 ,3} , {1,2 ,3}}

In general if n (S) = m, then, n P(S) =2m

Thus if A = {1, 2, 3}, B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}, then A~B ={1,2,3,4,5}

version: 1.1 version: 1.1

Example 1: If U = set of alphabets of English language,

Symbolically, A-B = { x x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} and B-A = { x x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A}

Example 2: If A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B = {4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, then

Notice that A-B ≠ B-A.

2.3 Venn Diagrams

In the adjoining igures, the shaded circular region represents a set A