Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

DESIGN OF A SOLID-STATE DC CIRCUIT BREAKER

BY USING IGBT

A thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the
degree of

Bachelor of Science
in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering

by
Abhijit Das
Roll No. : 1501083
to the

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

December, 2020
 Certificate

This is to certify that the thesis work entitled “DESIGN OF A SOLID-STATE DC

CIRCUIT BREAKER BY USING IGBT” by Abhijit Das (Roll No.: 1501083) has been
carried out under my direct supervision. To the best of my knowledge this thesis is an
original one and has not been submitted anywhere for a diploma or degree.

Thesis Supervisor

______________

Dr. S M Abdur Razzak

Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

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 Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I am thankful to Almighty for giving me the ability to work and for
helping me by his grace to successfully complete my thesis.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my respected supervisor Professor Dr. S M

Abdur Razzak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, RUET, for his
guidance, support and encouragement. His precious guidance and instructions always
inspired me in the most important moments of making the right decision. His willingness
and positive attitude to share thoughts, ideas and assistance have been invaluable. Without
his proper instruction, it would be impossible for me to complete my thesis. It is a pleasure
to acknowledge the supervision received from him.

Working for thesis was a hard task during COVID-19 pandemic. I am also very grateful to
my beloved parents for their support in this regard.

Author

Abhijit Das

RUET, Rajshahi

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 Abstract

From the very beginning of power transmission, circuit breaker has become an essential
element for protection. It ensures security and reliability of a transmission system. The
continuous uprising demand of electric power and economic factor of power distribution
has triggered the access of remote solar and wind energy which has brought interest on
multi-terminal HVDC systems. HVDC technology gives considerable amount of advantage
with some technical challenges. To achieve complete reliability and acceptance of DC
transmission systems, DC circuit breaking is a must.

As DC circuit breaker has become a vital part of DC transmission, a universal design can
solve vast amount of complexity. This research contains the description of different DC
circuit breaker, and procedure of making the right choice according to transmission
requirements. A MATLAB/Simulink model is implemented using basic solid-state DC
circuit breaker models. This designed model is implemented by using IGBT as switching
device. Fast breaking time and making time of the design makes it feasible for using with
voltage source converter based HVDC transmission method.

This thesis contains a low scale model of proposed DC circuit breaker model. Performance
analysis is also made to find the breaking time and making time of the breaker. Breaking
ability is also analyzed by testing with different voltage level. Finally performance
comparison ensures universality of the proposed design.

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 Contents

Certificate ⅰ
Acknowledgement ⅱ
Abstract ⅲ
Contents ⅳ
List of Figures ⅵ
List of Tables ⅷ

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1. Context 1
1.2. Thesis Background 1
1.3. Literature Review 3
1.4. Motivation 6
1.5. Objectives 7
1.6 Outlines of the Thesis 8
Chapter 2 DC Fault and Its Clearing Methods 9
2.1 HVDC Link Structure 9
2.2 Changes in Power System 10
2.3 DC Networks and Its Faults 13
2.4 Basic Construction and Working Principle of DCCB 18
2.5 Modern Approach of DCCB Design 21
2.5.1 Breaker, Topology and Control Optimization 21
2.5.2 Solid-state DCCB 22
2.5.3 Hybrid DCCB 22
2.6 Semiconductor Devices 23
2.6.1 Thyristor 23
2.6.2 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 25
2.7 IGBT Based Solid-state DCCB Models 27
2.7.1 Solid-state DCCB with a Paralleling Nonlinear Resistor 27
2.7.2 Basic Solid-state DCCB with Freewheeling Diode 29

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Chapter 3 Design Methodology and Operation of Solid-
state DCCB 30
3.1 System Configuration 30
3.2 Breaker’s Opening and Current Turn-off Operation 32
3.3 Breaker’s Reclosing or Turn-on Operation 35
Chapter 4 Modeling of Solid-state DCCB 36
4.1 Model Implementation 36
4.2 Subsystems 37
4.2.1 Snubber Subsystem 37
4.2.2 Transmission Line Subsystem 37
4.2.3 Virtual Fault Subsystem 38
4.2.4 Zener Diode Subsystem 38
4.3 Results 39
4.3.1 Comparison 42
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Future Work 46
References 48

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 List of Figures

Number Name Page

Fig. 2.1 Simplified structure of a HVDC link 9
Fig. 2.2 Comparison of cost between AC transmission and DC 11
transmission
Fig. 2.3 Comparison of tower height and span for 6000 MW power
distribution 12
Fig. 2.4 HVDC networks configuration comparison 16
Fig. 2.5 Basic arrangement for DCCB 20
Fig. 2.6 I-V characteristics of thyristor 24
Fig. 2.7 Internal structure of IGBT 25
Fig. 2.8 IGBT Characteristics curve 26
Fig. 2.9 Basic solid-state DCCB with a paralleling nonlinear resistor 27
Fig. 2.10 Basic solid-state DCCB with freewheeling diode 29
Fig. 3.1 Schematic circuit of solid-state DCCB using IGBT for unipolar
configuration 30
Fig. 3.2 Schematic circuit of solid-state DCCB using IGBT for bipolar
configuration 30
Fig. 3.3 Current transmission route in breaker A under normal operation 32
Fig. 3.4 Current transmission through breaker A when fault occurs in
transmission line 32
Fig. 3.5 Commutation path of fault current 33
Fig. 3.6 Current flow path after freewheeling diode turns on in breaker A 33
Fig. 3.7 Current transmission route in breaker B under normal operation 33
Fig. 3.8 Current transmission through breaker B when fault occurs in
transmission line 34
Fig. 3.9 Commutation path of diode current 34
Fig. 3.10 Current flow path after freewheeling diode turns on in breaker B 34
Fig. 4.1 Implementation of solid-state DCCB in MATLAB/Simulink 36
Fig. 4.2 Snubber subsystem model 37
Fig. 4.3 Model of transmission line 37
Fig. 4.4 Virtual fault subsystem model 38

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Fig. 4.5 Zener diode subsystem 38
Fig. 4.6 Input DC voltage of 400 V 39
Fig. 4.7 Voltage at each IGBT when breaker is open 39
Fig. 4.8 Fault current shape which is limited by DCCB 40
Fig. 4.9 Zoomed fault current 40
Fig. 4.10 Comparison of fault current 41
Fig. 4.11 Zoomed view of recovery voltage after breaker turns-on 41
Fig. 4.12 MATLAB/Simulink model for increased voltage 42
Fig. 4.13 Freewheeling diode subsystem 42
Fig. 4.14 Increased DC input voltage of 1000 V 43
Fig. 4.15 Voltage distribution on each IGBT at breaker turn off 43
Fig. 4.16 Fault current shape at increased voltage 44
Fig. 4.17 Zoomed fault current shape at increased voltage level 44
Fig. 4.18 Fault current comparison for different voltage level 45
Fig. 4.19 Voltage recovery time comparison for different voltage level 45

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 List of Tables

Number Name Page

Table 2.1 Comparison between CSC and VSC system 15
Table 2.2 Comparison of advantage and disadvantage between CSC 17
and VSC

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 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Context

High voltage DC transmission (HVDC) systems are used where distance is long and large-
capacity power is transmitted. It has become a key technology that utilize remote renewable
energy resources. Often offshore wind power and large-scale solar power are connected
through DC transmission lines. Linking more than two HVDC terminals to form a meshed
multi-terminal HVDC system (network) would have several advantages: the reduction in
the number of terminals (reduced costs and losses), power flow of any terminal is not
interrupted by outage of a dc line, different power and current at each terminal, and all ac
connection points can be fully controlled.

When a fault occurs in such grids, the fault current increases and the DC voltage collapses.
To maintain the normal operations of non-fault area in DC grids, DC circuit breakers
(DCCB) are expected to interrupt currents. There are significant differences between the
requirements of AC and DC circuit breakers, mainly due to the absence of a natural current
zero crossing in dc systems [1]. Currently DCCB has three categories which are mechanical,
solid-state and hybrid. Among them, solid-state DCCB are highly used for low and medium
voltage range because of their faster operational speed and a longer lifetime than mechanical
DCCB. Semiconductors are used to perform the switching operation and interrupt current
when a fault occurs in the grid [2].

1.2 Thesis Background

It was 1882 when transmission of electric energy began. The beginning was preciously on
DC transmission. Financial district of New York was provided electrical energy produced
by the pearl street station. In November-December of year 1887, a system for AC
generators, transformers, motors was introduced by marvelous electrical engineer Nikola

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Tesla. Alternating current transmission system has advantages over DC transmission. Over
next several years, AC transmission system took the lead [3].

But in 1930 transmission systems got a boost and dc transmission system was again taken
into consideration. But it was used for high voltage only in then. In 1950’s commercial
feasibility of HVDC was achieved. By 1980, multi-terminal HVDC systems were
introduced. But the fact was that only two three-terminal system was made [4], [5]. But
advantage of HVDC transmission made researchers to be interested to renew HVDC
transmission networks. Presently available networks can be classified in two types based on
their converter. They are the voltage-source converter (VSC) and the current-source
converter (CSC). Conventional HVDC were line commuted CSC systems. They comprised
of Thyristor. But due to advantage of control VSC consisting of IGBTs are also used. They
have a significant effects in recent projects. These systems are self-commutated. They have
also reduced ac filters.

Finally CSC is not as superior as VSC if we consider advantage. But the VSC has a major
drawback. Within the DC circuit it has less current control capability when short-circuit
occurs. This drawback can be overcome by using AC circuit breakers but it will make a trip
of all lines in a multi-terminal system for a short circuit fault in a single line. Thus, healthy
sections will also become non-functional. Using separate DCCB in each lines of a multi-
terminal DC transmission system will easily solve all the problems [1].

Conventional mechanical DCCB are summation of AC circuit breaker and parallel resonant
circuit. They are used with CSC systems because current interruption time is typically 30-
100 ms. For low impedance dc network this time of operation is too long. The fault current
will rise rapidly by this time. VSC can’t take such current for such long time. So, mechanical
DCCB can be used with CSC but they are not feasible for VSC [6], [7]. Solid-state DCCB
can provide a speedy operation which is a must in VSC based multi-terminal systems [7].
By this method, VSC can restore its operation and power transmission within milliseconds
by clearing fault and in multi-terminal system, it will only remove faulty section. Though
there is always a problem of surge voltage across the breaker during current interruption,
this solid-state DCCB are getting popularity now-a-days. A DCCB can be structured by
using conventional AC circuit breakers series and parallel combinations, inductor capacitor
resonant circuits, semiconductors, resistors, varistors, charging units, free-wheeling diodes.
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This research focused primarily on design of a solid-state DCCB where insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT) is used as switching element. To bypass fault current free-
wheeling diode is used. The operation time is kept as very low to achieve advantage in VSC
based HVDC. To operate a higher voltage than the test voltage of this design, we only have
to increase number of valves in series along with snubber circuits to maintain a voltage
balance. Elimination of DC faults in a VSC HVDC system can be occurred without ac
breakers.

1.3 Literature Review

Every research needs some prior work to find the present status of that concept. Solid-state
DCCB is one of the newest concepts for research. In 2000s, two-level and three-level
voltage source converter based DC transmission systems was installed. Thus, necessity of a
separate DCCB was felt not so earlier but concept of introducing a separate DCCB was
introduced much earlier. Different research was done by using different concepts and
various objectives.

T. Senda et al. (1984) proposed a method to minimize the fault current occurred in a HVDC
line. They have used a hybrid model which comprised of a SF6 circuit breaker (GCB) and
a vacuum circuit breaker (VCB). The principle was to create a current zero point which was
created by high-frequency super imposed current. A non-linear resistor provided with VCB
and GCB have a capacitor in parallel with it. They have found a suitable method to get
solution of respected problem. Resulted average rate of decrease of current 100-250 A/µs
and transient recovery voltage 2~3 kV/µs [8].

B. Bachman et al. (1985) presented a successful prototype of air blast HVDC circuit breaker
of 500 kV, 2000 A. The concept have based on passive commutation technique. It could be
used in multi-terminal systems also. Metal oxide (ZnO) resistor is used as energy absorber.
No additional switches or arc gaps have been used. When the current crossed their safety
limits, line would be commuted through energy absorbers, thus current would be brought to
zero [9].

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B. Pauli et al. (1988) designed a 500 kV, 4 kA operating mechanical DCCB where
conventional AC circuit breaker was used with a supplement consisted of parallel resonant
circuit. In this circuit breaker the current rating is only 1.6 times the rated nominal current.
For CSC systems, rate of rise of fault current have been limited by large inductance.
Breaking time was 35 ms, which is sufficient fast for a CSC system [10].

H. Ito et al. (1997) tried for an optimization in beaker which was necessary for less power
consumption under normal condition. They have committed examinations on characteristics
of arc on various conditions. After examination it was realized that for economy and
reliability, passive elements are most reliable [11].

H. Nakao et al. (2001) designed metallic return transfer breakers (MRTB) for a converter
station. For 3.5 kA, the MRTB was designed. Nominal path have been developed by SF6
circuit breaker. The GCB has a parallel LC circuit. A self-excited oscillating current has
been superimposed on DC arc to produce a current zero point [12].

C. Meyer et al. (2004) introduced the idea of using solid-state switches instead of
mechanical switches for medium voltage grid. They have used different topology of power
electronics switches. It has proved that disadvantage of slower operation can be eliminated
by using solid-state switches. It can operate within 100 µs where mechanical DCCB will
need 100 ms for a system of 20 kV. This paper passes on that different switching schemes
and made a comparison between them to make an economical choice [13].

J.M. Meyer et al. (2006) proposed a model of hybrid circuit breaker which is comprised of
a high speed mechanical switch and integrated bi-directional gate controlled thyristor.
Bypass mechanical switch and insulated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) have been used
to make a prototype of 4 kA, 1.5 kV. Progress is achieved by this model in sense of opening
time reduction which has a 300 µs limit [14].

K. Sano et al. (2014) presented a model of solid-state DCCB which uses insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT) for switching element. This model can be used with multi-terminal
VSC based HVDC systems. The breaker has a conduction loss of 0.045% at normal
condition of rated power. They considered the model for a 300 MW, 250 kV power
transmission system and to test the results in low scale, a 10 kW 360 V prototype has been
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made. Finally an incredible result is achieved with opening time under 30 µs. When fault
was cleared, the system can restore within 100 ms and continue to supply [15].

D. Lawes et al. (2014) designed a DCCB for rail transport system which uses IGBT for
switching. Metal Oxide varistor has been used as absorber of mechanical energy. As light
rail system operates voltage of 750 V, 500 A, the design implements with that operating
voltage. Thermal condition of the breaker has been observed also. Decrease of current from
60 kA to 2 kA is achieved on 0.8 s [16].

M. H. Rahman et al. (2016) proposed DCCB model for large multi-terminal DC networks
which are modular multi-level converter (MMC) based. They have tried to reduce the size
of DCCB and have tried to implement this model along with DC-DC converter. It will
minimize expense on DCCB and also reduce capital cost. After implementing the model, it
uses about 1% and after fault recovery 80-100 ms time is needed to become steady-state
[17].

R. Kimura et al. (2016) presented a model for bulk power voltage source converter based
HVDC network. They have given priority on low energy consumption of DCCB. A 600 km
transmission line is considered with 2.4 GW power supply, 250 kV and effect of DCCB is
observed. Free-wheeling diode is also used in this model to remove switching surge. This
model will face 50 µs operating time lag for increase 0f 0.1 per unit current. Energy
consumption at the sending end was 4.25 MJ. [18].

W. Li et al. (2018) presented a model of DCCB analyzing characteristics of DC faults. Two

different methods are implemented using Z-source CB. A prototype has been made to
analysis the result of the proposed model. Effect of load change is also analyzed as the model
is focused mainly on micro-grid systems. Selecting techniques of parameters of DCCB are
also discussed. This model also solved the problem of switching surge in DCCB [19].

S. Liu et al. (2019) presented mechanical DCCB modeling with real time operation is also
replicated in it. Injection of active current is applied and external voltage-current
characteristics of the design is observed. Finally in result, robust system mechanical DCCB
is constructed and time step of small increment is used to perform the switching actions.
RTDS data and PSCAD data is compared [20].
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P. Cairoli et al. (2019) proposed a model for a commercial shipboard where a DC network
is used with high current. Reverse blocking insulated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) and
metal oxide varistor (MOV) is used which presents an excellent result. Metal oxide varistor
was used in parallel with reverse blocking IGCT. It delivers an efficiency of 99.99% with
fault current detection under 10 µs and limiting in 20 µs. Energy is dissipated through MOV
within 500 µs [21].

1.4 Motivation

With the development of modern power system, long distance transmission has taken a
significant part. This transmission can be AC or DC. Both techniques has own merits and
demerits. After invention of AC transmission system by Nikola Tesla it became popular,
but in the decade of 1950, DC transmission came into consideration for certain advantage
of transmitting high voltage.

For DC transmission, only two wire can establish power supply. There is no phase
displacement. Inductance and capacitance formation problem is also solved. Drop voltage
over the line is less. As there is no skin effect, conductor’s cross-sectional area can be
reduced. DC system does not need synchronization. It does not have any corona effect.
HVDC transmission is free from dielectric loss. After so many advantage of high voltage
DC transmission, it also has some disadvantages. One of the major disadvantage is circuit
breakers of DC systems have their own limitations.

From the beginning of power transmission, fault and overload has become a major concern
for engineers. It has become one of the major parts of power systems protection. For AC
transmission, a fault in transmission line will cause instability of power system which might
cause blackout if proper measures are not taken. As my research is based on DC
transmission, I also felt necessity of proper fault protection for such type of transmission.
When a high voltage DC transmission line gets fault or overload, current will increase. As
this line is connected with converter station, this increasing current will produce overload
for the station and consequently to the generators which are connected with the converting
stations. Thus the whole system will malfunction consequently.

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To protect a power system from such difficulties, circuit breaker was invented by Thomas
Edition in the year of 1879. Circuit breakers operate automatically to protect an electric
circuit elements from any kind of overcurrent like overload and short-circuit. Circuit breaker
operation can depend on relay, or it can be detect and operate by its own (like: Miniature
Circuit Breaker). But after studying various research papers, I found that, construction of
DCCB is certainly different from construction ACCB. It happens because, DC fault current
does not have a zero point normally. So design and construction of a circuit breaker which
will protect from DC overload and short-circuit is a challenging one.

Time of operation and energy absorb technique is main concern for a circuit breaker. After
fault clearing, power supply restoration and time to become steady-state is also concern.
After analyzing, it was clear to me that, solid-state switches can be used to diminish
operation time and also power consumption will be low. As an electrical engineer, I am
constantly avid to make our power system more protected. Power demand in world is
increasing rapidly. To full-fill this high demand in an economical way, HVDC transmission
is increasing rapidly. Yunnan – Guangdong HVDC transmission has voltage of 800 kV and
it supplies 5 GW [22]. China is currently constructing a 1200 kV Ultra-high HVDC
(UHVDC). Belo Monte – Rio de Janeiro transmission line, Brazil which is 800 kV and 2543
km long crossing over 11 cities is also a HVDC line supplying 11.2 GW [23]. So HVDC
transmission will prevail in future of power system. Design of a fast operating low power
consumption DCCB will make over the disadvantage of DC transmission. This concept
motivated me to select such an enhancing topic for my thesis.

1.5 Objectives

Multi-terminal HVDC system must need separate DCCB for separate lines if we want to
make a line independent to other during malfunctioning. Solid-state switch IGBT will be
used for switching operations. Main objective of my research is to design a solid-state DC
circuit breaker. More specific objectives defining the scope of this research are:

 To simulate a design of solid-state DC circuit breaker by using

MATLAB/SIMULINK platform. Circuit breaker blocks will be designed such that
if operating voltage increases, it will only need to increase number of blocks in
series.
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  To make performance analysis of the design.

 As main concern of a circuit breaker is its operation time like, breaking time, making
time, my objective is to reduce breaking time and making time. The faster the
operation is, the more reliable the system is.

 To check the design with different input voltage and compare the performance.

1.6 Outlines of the Thesis

The following chapters of this thesis can be marked as:

Chapter 2 gives a brief description of DC fault and its clearing methods. Basic DCCB
models and their fault clearing methods are described. Freewheeling diode techniques and
nonlinear technique for absorbing energy is described.

Chapter 3 represents methodology of new approach to a solid-state DCCB using IGBT.

Chapter 4 represents simulation of new approach for IGBT based solid-state DCCB.
Simulation are carried under specific parameters and output performance of the designed
DCCB are analyzed.

Chapter 5 describes the conclusion and the future work of this thesis.

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 Chapter 2
DC Fault and Its Clearing Methods

This chapter gives an overview of DC transmission links, DC faults that can occur, methods
of clearing these faults, DCCB construction and energy absorbing, solid-state elements
which are used for constructing DCCB. Detailed explanation of basic solid-state DCCB is
also included to realize further methods.

2.1 HVDC Link Structure

A HVDC link is composed of three parts, an AC and a DC circuit and the VSC or CSC. In
the figure 2.1 a simplified diagram of HVDC link is shown. The link is connected with three
phases to the ac transmission network through a step down transformer on both sides. The
step down transformer transforms the AC voltage to the desired for the VSC.

Figure 2.1: Simplified structure of a HVDC link [24]

A three phased phasor reactor, drives the AC current in order to have a current source
characteristics on the AC side. The VSC rectifier converts the AC voltage to DC and the
VSC inverter back to AC. For each converter there are two control degrees. The rectifier
controls the active power over the DC link as well as the reactive power to the AC side of
the converter. This is equivalent to controlling the AC voltage at the converter. The inverter
is also able to control the reactive power at the AC side of the converter. In addition, it also
controls the DC voltage at the DC side of the converter. Large capacitors are installed at the
DC side of both converters. They smoothen the DC voltage and make sure that the DC side
reacts like a voltage source. Both converters are connected with either bipolar overhead line,
underground cable or sea-cable. Therefore a VSC-HVDC link is able to connect two distant

9
points in an AC grid and is able to control the active and reactive power at the terminal. This
is why these transmission lines are very interesting not only for power transmission, but also
for power system control.

2.2 Changes in Power System

Two prominent factors for leading the major changes of implementation are environmental
rules and electricity markets by the methods of how systems of transmission are designed,
and also how they are constructed and operated. In example, this vast markets which have
made many utilities to establish an optimization. This optimization of the assets is needed
to remain competitive and also to survive. On the other hand strong environmental rules
have made it more difficult to obtain licenses for the construction of new electrical projects,
overhead transmission lines specially.

Power systems are becoming more stressed by the presence of low frequency
electromechanical oscillations because the number of interconnections with other power
systems increases every day. Furthermore, long distance power trading puts more stress on
the existing transmission system. As a result, low frequency oscillations involving weakly
damper inter area modes become more pronounced risking system security and lowering
transmission capacity. Large disturbances in heavily stressed power systems result in
voltage drops and often to voltage instability and collapse. Some examples are the blackout
USA and Canada on August 14, 2003 [25]; the blackout in Greece on July 12, 2004 [26];
and the even the daylong blackout in Bangladesh on November 1, 2014.

In addition, reliability, controllability and security margins have been negatively affected
due to these stringent operation conditions. Power systems are more vulnerable and operate
with more risk of not fulfilling the N-1 criterion, as the case of the blackout. One of the root
cause of blackout is the disconnection of a transmission line under heavy loading conditions.
This disconnection will led to a cascading effect in HVDC line and more transmission line
tripping will occur and finally the result will be blackout.

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Two HVDC converter connected without any line or cable are called back-to-back HVDC
systems. They are able to transfer power between two asynchronous AC systems or even
between systems with different frequencies. Point-to-point HVDC systems connect two
distant points in either synchronous or asynchronous AC systems. The two converters are
connected either overhead lines or cables. One of the egregious issues for a power system
is to control its reactive power and voltage.

Figure 2.2: Comparison of cost between AC transmission and DC transmission [27]

The overall costs of the HVDC transmission system for the transmission of bulk power over
long distances is lower and the losses are lower than AC transmission. A major advantage
of the DC link is that there is no stability limit related to amount of power or the transmission
distance. The line with small dots depicts total cost of AC transmission and the line with
large dots depicts total cost of DC transmission. It shows that initial DC cost is much bigger
than the AC transmission cost. This is because the higher valve cost of the HVDC
converters. In addition, the DC line cost per km are lower compared to the AC line cost. In
case of the AC transmission, additional shunt capacitors must be installed every 100 km to
200 km. Thus for the same amount of power, AC overload line transmission is favorable for
distance less than about 450 km and high voltage DC overhead-line transmission is
favorable if the distance exceeds 450 km [27]. For the transmission of power with cables
the break-even distance is much shorter. Generally AC cables are economical feasible up to
a distance of about 50 km.

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Another major advantage of HVDC systems is the controllability of the power flow. In AC
systems the power over a line depends on the angle difference at the sending and receiving
end of the line. This angle difference cannot be influenced and therefore the power flow is
given by the operating point of the system. In HVDC systems the flow of active power over
the HVDC link is controlled and therefore independent of the operating point of the system.
It is also possible to control the reactive power injection or absorption of the HVDC
terminal. Due to the availability to control the reactive power, the HVDC link can also be
used for voltage control.

Figure 2.3: Comparison of tower height and span for 6000 MW power distribution [28]

Another advantage of HVDC systems is the environmental benefit. The visual impact for a
DC line is lower, because the towers are smaller compared to the towers of an AC line with
the same power rating. Figure 2.3 shows the height and span to transmit 6000 MW for AC
and DC systems. For a 765 kV AC system three single circuit lines are needed which use
about 183 m of land. On the other hand, a HVDC system with 500 kV needs only 100 m.
This is much less compared to AC line. A HVDC system with 800 kV only needs 80 m
which is about three times less than the corresponding AC system.

A HVDC system not only uses less land, but also much less copper because fewer
conductors are needed. The process of getting a transmission corridor approved is getting

12
longer and longer, due to political and legal reasons. Therefore HVDC is a very promising
solution since the smaller height of tower or cable solution can help to shorten the approval
process. There are as well as disadvantages of HVDC systems. High voltage DC systems
are still not economical feasible for short distances. The converter control with its valves is
quite complex with possible risk for mal-operation. One biggest challenge is to find a
DCCB. A DCCB will be needed to build meshed DC grids. This gives the possibility to
better integrate the renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic or wind power.

2.3 DC Networks and Its Faults

There are mainly two uses of HVDC systems: 1) Back-to-back connections which will
connect two different frequencies or 2) for transmitting large amounts power in long
distances. Two converter technologies which I have mentioned earlier conventional CSC
technology, based on thyristors and VSC technology which is self-commutated based on
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).

As thyristors are gate controlled turn-on device, active power flow of CSC systems are
controlled by using turn-on firing. Sending end rectifier and receiving end inverter
consumed reactive power. Filters and additional condensers on the ac side must compensate
this. The reactive power consumption always varies considerably under transient conditions.
The movement of power is unidirectional. For this, polarity changing will cause reversal of
power flow. It will be problematic where polymeric cables are used for establishing links.
This CSC technology is well enough and ~0.7% of rated current is the loss in which
transformer of converter contributes ~50%. The CSC technology is still advancing.
Thyristor switches voltage and current rating are uprising. Further development is occurring
for capacitor-commutated technique which required less reactive power. Active DC filter
and continuous tuned AC filter will make a reduction on filter size.

Power semiconductor elements increasing availability of high-power transistors like IGBT,

pulse-width modulation (PWM) and multilevel techniques are now used in transmission of
power using HVDC. Large capacitors are used for VSC technique and self-commutated

13
VSC has a DC voltage stiff. Filters will be considerably smaller due to use of PWM. Only
high-frequency harmonics will exist. VSC HVDC fulfills required reactive power in both
the sending end and the receiving end. Filter size reduction is also allowed. It has a loss of
~1.6% on single terminal. Converter valves will contribute ~70% of this loss. This principle
is used for high power transmission but limited mainly by XLPE DC cables voltage
constraints. If DC-side fault occurs, parallel connected diode of IGBT will act as an
uncontrolled rectifier. It will happen even if IGBT module is blocked. AC system only limits
current of short-circuit. Small DC inductance of the DC side will lead to rise DC fault current
very high. Discharge of DC capacitor will add this complexity. So the AC and DC sides
must be decoupled fast to limit fault current. Uncontrollable converter in fault case will lead
use of DCCB. Because of this complexity to DC fault, VSC HVDC are normally used for
overhead transmission where it becomes less vulnerable to environmental issues. In the
comparison of CSC and VSC, most importance one is the capacitance and inductance size
difference between them and loss of control during fault. Different size of inductor and
capacitor results different rise rate of fault current.

Newer concepts of VSC technology is advancing rapidly which is initially at small scale.
This is proposed such a model that can reduce losses to <1%, lower harmonics component
and better ability to diminish and control fault current for a fault over DC side. For fully
achieve the advantages of VSC, an excellent design of DCCB is required which will make
a better controllability at DC side fault. It will also ensure multi-terminal operation.

14
Table 2.1 Comparison between CSC and VSC system

Property CSC based VSC based

Element Thyristor IGBT

Harmonics Low-order but intense High frequency but weak

Active and Large amount of reactive Both active and reactive power
reactive power power is consumed flow can be fully controlled at
both ends
loss ~0.7% ~1.6%
Power rating Up to 6400 MW for 400-800 MW at 300 kV
bipolar at 800 kV, 4 kA
AC grid Converter transformer Transformer and series reactor
connection
Control during Phase angle control Loss of control
DC fault
DC side Large Small
inductance
DC side Small Large
capacitance
DC short-circuit Controllable and small Large
current rise rate
Power flow Pole voltage change Keep voltage and adjust PWM
direction reversal

Today’s maximum HVDC transmission are point-to-point or only two terminal. For multi-
pair in practice, it is possible connecting AC nodes with point-to-point. If we connect these
on DC side, several advantages can be gained. This can construct a true HVDC network.
First, converter number can be reduced as single converter is used for AC connection. This
will significantly reduce the cost of connection and also reduce entire power loss of the
system. Each node station will be independent to transmit power. Power can also be
transmitted even if a line is lost. This will ensure reliability of operation. So faulty lines can
be easily removed. DCCB have limitations of size and capacity. They are comparatively
more expensive and larger in sizes compared to AC circuit breakers. Newest concept of

15
point-to-point connection ensures DC lines fault removal at the converter but this is limited
only for CSC. For non-sustained faults, lines, stations will be re-energized. Complete de-
energizing is required but it is 3-4 terminal limited.

Figure 2.4: HVDC networks configuration comparison

Figure 2.4 represents comparison of configuration between HVDC networks. The network
on left represents on point-to-point systems and network on right represents after using
HVDC CB. Here converter terminal marked as white squares and circuit breakers marked
as black squares. Network on the right side represents a true HVDC network.

Though CSC has high power rating with comparatively lower loss, but an AC side fault will
lead towards commutation failure. This will result in DC line voltage collapse. Thus CSC is
vulnerable to AC side fault. On the other hand, VSC is highly vulnerable to DC side faults.
VSC can used to strengthen the region and also can work with weaker AC systems. In CSC
if the voltage polarity changes it will effect subsequent power flow of all the terminals. This
argument of which of the network system should be chosen is an unterminated one, but
Table 2.2 is comparing advantage and disadvantages of both the networks. Choice of a
network technology is awfully necessary as the network system will determine DCCB
characteristics and its construction and also the power rating time, power loss parameters is
a fact for solving the problems. Thus decision will be made of which elements and which
design of DCCB is to be followed for protection, reliability and economical operation of a
HVDC transmission network.

16
Table 2.2 Comparison of advantages and disadvantages between CSC and VSC

Advantages Disadvantages
CSC Voltage and power ratings are Risk of collapse of DC voltage and
high commutation failure
Loss is low Reactive power consumption and
strong AC side is necessary
Short-circuit current rise rate is AC side fault causes great
lower vulnerability
VSC DC side has voltage stiffness Power rating is lower
Power reversal can be made Loss is higher
with reversal of voltage
More fitted for use over cables DC side fault causes great
vulnerability

In this research, a solid-state based DCCB is designed, which will have a faster operation.
As impedance is small due to DC capacitance parallel to DC line. At the time of line-to-line
or line-to-ground fault occurs, this capacitor will discharge in the way of fault. This results
rapid increase of fault current. VSC can’t interrupt by using gate blocking mechanism as
current flow will go to reverse direction by the reverse conducting diodes of the VSC during
fault. AC current will increase, and fault will also affect the AC side. Most common
technique which was used conventionally is using AC circuit breaker, but the operation time
of such e breaker will not be beneficent for VSC which requires a fast operation.

For enabling reliable and economical operation, perfect designed DCCB is a must. DCCB
with faster terminal control has undoubtedly advantageous for VSC which requires a faster
decoupling. Thus, network design will ensure DC circuit breaker’s design and selecting
parameters. If DCCB permits clearing fault current before its DC capacitor discharge, multi-
terminal networks can continue their operations. Solid-state DCCB is always faster
operation than others because there is absence of moving parts and arc discharge. Hybrid
DCCB has both fast operation and low conduction loss. In this basis a solid-state DCCB
will be a perfect match for multi-terminal VSC based HVDC and mechanical or hybrid
DCCB will match with CSC based HVDC transmission.

17
2.4 Basic Construction and Working Principle of DCCB

At the present time, DC interrupters are being used for performing different switching work
for a point-to-point HVDC system. Some of these switches are neutral bus switch (NBS),
neutral bus ground switch (NBGS), metal return transfer breaker (MRTB), ground return
transfer breaker (GRTB), high-speed bypass switches (HSBS) which are used for line
switching and also for parallel switching [1]. But these interrupters ability to break of short-
circuit current is limited. Their maximum ratings are limited to range of 250 kV, 8 kA or
500 kV, 4 kA [11]. These ratings are not upper than 1.6 times of nominal current. 35 ms is
the order of breaking current, but as in CSC based system, rise rate of the fault current is
limited by the large inductance, and such operation time is sufficiently fast enough for using.
But using this type of DC switches is not feasible enough because by using these, breaker
size will be much larger and cost will also increase comparing to required voltage and
current rating. For point-to-point DC connections, instead of DCCB, de-energizing of
converter stations technique is used where station control action is performed. Operating an
AC breaker in the AC side and isolation switch opening. For low to medium voltage level,
current interruption is performed by solid-state switches or switching arcs.

As it is mentioned earlier, main complexity of designing the breaker is caused because

neutral current zero crossing is absent in DC systems. Basic requirements of a DCCB are:

1. A current zero crossing point is created for interruption of the current.

2. Energy dissipation of the system which is stored by the system inductance.
3. After the current interruption, the DCCB has to withstand response of voltage.

These requirements are leading towards very strong difference with conventional AC circuit
breaker specially first two requirements. Secondary additional criteria which should also be
considered during design are depended on applications. They are also discussed in previous
sections like:

 HVDC breakers of VSC systems must operate faster than other systems.
 Generated maximum voltage by DCCB should not be small enough for complying
the DC systems insulation coordination.

18
A vast amount of research was done in the decades of 1980s. Interest over DCCB dropped
after 1985 but in recent year it has also picked upped interest. Now requirements which are
mentioned previously will be discussed and basic design of DCCB is implemented. First of
all, current has to be made zero. In DC circuit, current can be made zero by generating a
voltage of opposite polarity with same or larger amplitude. Counter voltage should be
produced by resistance and inductance which will be on current path. Energy stored in the
DC system will then dissipate through these devices. For a large voltage smaller breaking
time is needed, but dissipation of energy will be larger. Current limiting and dissipation of
energy is used for low to medium voltage systems but they are really very efficient in
practical examples.

Another approach is to make several path in parallel of the breaker and it will reduce
different element requirements. Simplest path is said to be nominal path and the parallel
path will be comprised of linear resistive element or a nonlinear resistive one. An interrupter
is available on the nominal path which has less resistance at normal closing condition and
small ohmic loss. It has only mechanical movable contact. When this mechanical contact is
opened, it will produce an arc. To prevent this arc, line commutation is used to the parallel
resistive path where system energy will dissipate. In this procedure the advantage is made
that the nominal path interrupter needs only to produce sufficient voltage for commutation
rather than full system voltage countering. Along thing advantage, the breaker does not need
high energy dissipation, it will improve capability of interruption typically. When the
commutation path consists only nonlinear on linear resistors, developing arc voltage will
still be high for interruption. But if we gradually increase the linear or nonlinear resistor
voltage of commutation will be better. Additional elements like capacitors will take current
flow temporarily and process of commutation can be eased. Latest developed designs are
using controllable active resistances of solid-state switching devices.

19
 Figure 2.5: Basic arrangement for DCCB [1]

Figure 2.5 depicts the practical realization of a DCCB, where separate line commutation
and system energy absorbing path is used. The line commutation path contains a series
capacitance 𝐶𝑐 and inductance 𝐿𝑐 . Oscillation of current between commutation and nominal
1
path occurs at natural frequency of oscillation 𝑤02 = 𝐿 . Oscillating current amplitude is
𝑐 𝐶𝑐

denoted by 𝑖𝑛 which is larger in amplitude than DC current of the system 𝐼0 . Current zero
crossing point occurs at nominal path and interrupter 𝑆𝑛 will make current interruption. In
the commutation path, current 𝐼0 flow continues and charges capacitor 𝐶𝑐 . A voltage limit
is previously preselected which is equal to the voltage capability of the breaker. When
capacitors voltage exceeds this preset value, energy absorber path causes the system to
𝑑𝑈
decrease 𝐼0 . is the differential of arc resistance. When it is negative, oscillation current
𝑑𝐼

between commutation and nominal path with increased amplitude occurs. This is started by
arc voltage natural fluctuation.

When a fault occurs 𝐼0 fault current starts to increase. Nominal paths interrupter contact
then separates. Due to the characteristics of the arc voltage instable oscillation occurs. When
amplitude of oscillation is sufficiently large, 𝑖𝑛 makes zero crossing and interrupter 𝑆𝑛
interrupts. Current then charges 𝐶𝑐 quickly. Charging continues till voltage level reaches to
the voltage threshold level of energy absorber in the third path. Linear or nonlinear resistor
is inserted in this third path with a switch 𝑆𝑒 . Nonlinear resistors like ZnO can be used which
are partly conductive when certain amount of voltage is applied. These elements limits
voltage and current 𝐼0 is forced to flow through energy absorber and it ceases.
20
Alternative of self-exciting oscillation, in commutation path, passive components are used
purely. These passive components are used along with active components like closing
switch 𝑆𝑐 . For pre-charged capacitor 𝐶𝑐 , nominal path gets injection of current after closing
𝑆𝑐 then counter current induced.

This total basic model can be arranged in a single unit or in a series combination of small
voltage and current rating. Nominal path interrupter can be oil break circuit breaker (OCB),
air-blast circuit breaker (ABCB), vacuum circuit breaker (VCB) or SF6 gas circuit breaker
(GCB). For pre-charged capacitor in commutation path, it inserts a spark gap. This capacitor
can be charged using external dedicated charging by using isolation switch or by the line
directly. Modern simulations are used to optimize the arcing conditions. After current
𝑑𝐼
interruption, slope of current rating before current zero, and across 𝑆𝑛 rate of rise of
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈
transient recovery voltage (RRTRV) which is noted by is determined by the DCCB rather
𝑑𝑡

than by network. Oscillating frequency and growth amplitude makes vary of current slope
to a large range. Voltage of capacitor which is charged by the 𝐼0 in parallel path, makes
stress on arc gap. This basic design of DCCB needs interruption time about 500 ms. Modern
approaches need much less time than this

2.5 Modern Approach of DCCB Design

Optimization of elements will ensure faster operation, reliability, economy and lower
conduction loss. Thus researcher always tried for system optimization

2.5.1 Breaker, Topology and Control Optimization

Multi-terminal scheme and DCCB has particular point of aspect during research. Sometimes
breaker characteristics are known and network is designed with respect to this. Other times,
system control characteristics are known and DCCB is designed for this particular network
control. From previous researches, no attempts was made for breaker, topology and controls
combined optimization. But control system optimization to complete the requirements of
the DCCB according to network structure is a most practical one. Additional inductor adding

21
to DC side of a VSC network can limit rising rate of short-circuit current. It can complete
slower operating time requirement but at normal operating condition, control is slower.
During line to ground DC fault, current of short-circuit is limited by grounding through high
impedance. Nothing but combined optimization can lead to an optimum operation. Another
combined optimization technique for VSC based schemes is to use multilevel converter.
Fraction of voltage level of DC line can make possible for interruption on these levels. Thus
DCCB rating can be minimized and be constructed like valves. For increase of voltage level,
multiple valve combination is used. Valve topology needs redesigning to integrate with
DCCB requirements.

2.5.2 Solid-state DCCB

Present researchers are designing solid-state DCCB not only for low to medium voltage DC
but also for high voltage transmission lines. Switching time can be made as low as a few
microseconds which ensures the fastest breaking time of all comparing mechanical DCCB
which needs to disconnect metal contacts. But cost is a major drawback in this design
approach. During conducting mode, these DCCB has resistance of few mΩ which is higher
than mechanical DCCB. Conduction loss can be ~0.10%-0.4%. This limited application of
semiconductor switches. High PQ and lowest breaking time is an absolute need. For a high
rising rate in short-circuit current, like VSC schemes, nothing but solid-state DCCB has
only breaking time in 1 ms order. Thus it has become only feasible method for solving
problems. Though one semi-conductor device alone can’t withstand with high current and
voltage of the system but series or parallel combination of solid-state switches can be used.
Further researches are made to find the perfect switching element on solid-state field to
minimize the conduction loss, which brings the concept of designing hybrid DCCB.

2.5.3 Hybrid DCCB

As mentioned earlier, due to conduction loss of solid-state DCCB, hybrid DCCB is

implemented. Nominal path is created by mechanical breaker, which has metal
contacts of low resistance. These contacts separate quickly which makes the current
commutating by the parallel path containing semiconductor switch. After
22
transferring current, and dielectric strength of the contacts being recovered, operation
of semiconductor switch starts. Here primary aim is not about operating speed. These
hybrid DCCB are becoming principle of interest now-a-days, but complexity of
designing and different elements use has made difficulties. Moreover, at coupling,
detailed models need to be understand and working principle needs to be carefully
considered.

2.6 Semiconductor Devices

Performance of a solid-state DCCB depends on the performance of the semiconductor

switches. This semiconductor switch performance has highly developed till now. This
development has occurred on both voltage rating and current rating of the semiconductor
under a single chip. By using these chips, in future, solid-state DCCB can be made with
high performance rating and lower conduction loss. Though all devices are made from
silicon now, but in near future, semiconductor materials will be changes. Materials of wide
band gap can be used. Diamond, SiC, GaN are currently under consideration. Comparing
Si, materials of wide band-gap has larger field breakdown strength. By this, chips will be
thinner decreasing conduction losses. No wide band-gap solid-state device is available till
now. That’s why thyristor and IGBT is mainly used for solid-state DCCB designs. Progress
in area of solid-state switches will also make progress in solid-state DCCB. Now the devices
which are used at present is discussed.

2.6.1 Thyristor

Alternating four layers of P-N junction makes a solid-state device which is named as
thyristor. It is a gate turn-on three terminal device, that is, thyristor will begin its conduction,
when a gate signal is applied to the gate terminal. It continues to conduct till voltage across
its anode and cathode is reverse biased or being removed by another ways. In a thyristor
having three leads or terminals, a small current in the gate terminal, will control large current
in the anode to cathode path. Four layers of P type and N type material are placed alternative
to each other. Main anode and cathode terminals are placed at end of two sides of the P-N

23
terminal and the gate control is placed to the nearest P layer of the cathode. Thyristors
operation contains three mode:

1. Reverse blocking: When voltage is applied, it is blocked by reverse biasing of a

diode
2. Forward blocking: When voltage is applied in forward biasing of the diode, it will
conduct, but gate is not triggered for conduction.
3. Forward conducting: Gate is triggered and voltage is applied on the forward biasing
of diode. Thyristor continues to conduct until forward current becomes less than
holding current.

Figure 2.6: I-V characteristics of thyristor [29]

For conventional thyristors, once the gate is triggered, thyristor will continue to conduct
until anode current is exceeding latching current 𝐼𝐿 . Holding current is denoted by 𝐼𝐻 . As
far anode is positive biased, thyristor can’t turn off without its current going below 𝐼𝐻 .
Negative bias of anode, turns off the thyristor. This turning off method makes an external
circuit to make anode voltage negative. Method is popularly known as forced commutation.
Forced commutation is made to switching another thyristor and discharging capacitor to the
anode of first thyristor.

In HVDC transmission field, thyristor has become prominent element, as it is the main
element to make converter stations. Solid-state DCCB can also be designed by using
thyristors

24
2.6.2 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

IGBT is three terminal device which is mainly used for power electronics operations. IGBT
comes with combined operation of fast switching and high frequency. It combines P-N-P-
N layer which are controlled using MOS (metal oxide semiconductor) gates. Though
physical structure of IGBT resembles to thyristor, it has difference such like a thyristor is
controlled by using MOS gate. It can be considered as a summation of a MOSFET, a PNP
transistor and a NPN transistor.

Figure 2.7: Internal structure of IGBT [30]

Collector and gate is made of metal. Gate is insulated from the main structure by Silicon di-
oxide (SiO2). Thus it is insulated gate. Capacitance is formed between semiconductor
material and the metallic gate due to insulating material. P + layer which is beside the
collector metallic plate is known as injection layer. N- layer which is after the P+ layer is
known as drift layer. IGBT is a continuous pulse gate turn on and off device that is it is in
conduction for that long when gate is on or have positive voltage. To give positive potential
to gate, gate is connected to positive terminal of a battery and emitter is connected to
negative terminal of same battery. Collector must also be in positive bias for conduction
operation. Collector is connected to positive terminal of battery and emitter is connected to
negative terminal of the battery. Junction between P+ and N- is J1 and junction between N -
and upper P+ is J2. When voltage is applied to collector, but gate voltage is not applied yet,
junction J1 is forward biased but junction J2 is at reverse bias. Now if we increase the gate
voltage then, negative ion will form at SiO2 near gate plate and positive ion will be formed
near the internal arrangement. Due to this ion formation in the internal arrangement,

25
negative charge insertion makes a channel through the internal semiconductor and current
starts to flow from collector to emitter. Increase of gate will increase conduction current.

Figure 2.8: IGBT Characteristics curve [30]

IGBT is used in VSC based systems for converter formation. Due to its fast switching
ability, IGBT is an invincible choice for making solid-state DCCB. Wide use of IGBT is in
inverter construction. These inverters are used for home appliances like refrigerators and
air-conditioners.

26
2.7 IGBT Based Solid-state DCCB Models

Due to fast switching and high frequency capability of IGBT, it has become a prominent
element to design DCCB using solid-state device. Next approach of this research will search
for basic arrangement, construction and working principle of a solid-state DCCB.

2.7.1 Solid-state DCCB with a Paralleling Nonlinear Resistor

Figure 2.9: Basic solid-state DCCB with a paralleling nonlinear resistor

Figure 2.9 depicts a basic circuit arrangement of a solid-state DCCB using IGBT. DC power
to a resistive load is supplied through the way 𝐿𝑑𝑐 by voltage source 𝑉𝑑𝑐 . Overall inductance
of DC circuit is 𝐿𝑑𝑐 . This inductance is including the DCCB, line and load. 𝑄 is the
semiconductor valve and it consists of a IGBT, and 𝑄 is placed between source and load. A
varistor or surge arrester 𝑅𝑣 is placed in parallel with the valve 𝑄. At normal operating
condition, 𝑄 is in ON-state and load current 𝑖𝐿 is supplied from source 𝑉𝑑𝑐 to load. When
short-circuit occurs in the load side, 𝑄 is turned to off state. Current 𝑖𝐿 is then forced to
commute and flow through varistor 𝑅𝑣 . Surge voltage of 𝑄 is suppressed at varistor 𝑅𝑣 . This
voltage is clamping voltage. Clamping voltage higher than 𝑉𝑑𝑐 . It is equal to 𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 .
Then 𝐿𝑑𝑐 takes a reverse voltage, and thus decrease of fault current occurs.

We have assumed that fault point impedance value is negligibly small. At time 𝑡 = 0, valve
𝑄 is turned off and 𝐿𝑑𝑐 gets 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 applied on it. If 𝐼0 is amplitude of fault current at time
𝑡 = 0, then

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝐿 = 𝐼0 − 𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2.1)
𝐿𝑑𝑐

27
Time required to open semiconductor valve 𝑄 and limit fault current 𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 can be derived
using 𝑖𝐿 = 0 to equation 2.1:

𝐿𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝐼0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2.2)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛

Thus, 𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 has inverse proportional relation to 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 . The absorbed energy in varistor
𝑅𝑣 in time 𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 can be calculated from

𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑊𝑅 = ∫ (𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 )𝑖𝑅 𝑑𝑡 … … … … … … … … … (2.3)
0

Where, 𝑖𝑅 = current flow through 𝑅𝑣 . Because 𝑖𝐿 and 𝑖𝑅 are equal for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 . 𝑖𝐿
from equation 2.1 and 𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 from equation 2.2 is substituted to equation 2.3. Then absorbed
energy by 𝑅𝑣 is

𝐿𝑑𝑐 𝐼0
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑅 = ∫ (𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 ) (𝐼0 − 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0 𝐿𝑑𝑐

𝐿𝑑𝑐 𝐼0
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 2 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
= (𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 ) [𝐼0 𝑡 − 𝑡 ]
2𝐿𝑑𝑐 0

𝑉𝑑𝑐 1
=( + 1) 𝐿𝑑𝑐 𝐼02 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2.4)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 2

In equation 2.4, 𝑊𝑅 is greater than 1, and stored energy in 𝐿𝑑𝑐 is much smaller than 𝑊𝑅 .
Suppression voltage of 𝑄 will increase energy absorption of varistor.

28
2.7.2 Solid-state DCCB with Freewheeling diode

Figure 2.10: Basic solid-state DCCB with freewheeling diode

Figure 2.10 gives the circuit arrangement of a solid-state DCCB with freewheeling diode.
Across DC line varistor 𝑅𝑣 and freewheeling diode 𝐷 are connected. This arrangement
reduces absorbed energy in normal conduction. It reduces this by suppressing surge voltage
of valve 𝑄. At normal operating condition, 𝑄 is at ON-state through which load current 𝑖𝐿
flows. After a fault detection, at time 𝑡 = 0 fault current 𝑖𝐿 is forced to commute to 𝐷.Hence,
current flow from 𝑉𝑑𝑐 becomes zero immediately. 𝐿𝑑𝑐 is the overall inductance of the circuit
containing inductance of DCCB, line and load. Inductance 𝐿𝑑𝑐 demagnetizes through 𝑅𝑣 .
Fault current denoted as 𝑖𝐿 decreases gradually. If 𝑅𝑣 has a clamping voltage of 𝑉𝑣 . Then,
surge voltage of 𝑄 will be 𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉𝑣 . In this, 𝑉𝑑𝑐 expresses source voltage and 𝑉𝑣 is clamping
voltage.

As 𝑉𝑑𝑐 will not supply power after 𝑄 turns off, absorbed energy of DC breaker during turn
off is equal of energy storage by 𝐼0 in inductor 𝐿𝑑𝑐 . Thus total energy absorbed is:

1
𝑊𝑅 = 𝐿 𝐼 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … (2.5)
2 𝑑𝑐 0

𝑊𝑅 in equation 2.5 is less than 𝑊𝑅 in equation 2.4. Thus the volume and rating of 𝑅𝑣 can be
reduced by using freewheeling diode method. As measuring 𝑊𝑅 does not depend on
clamping voltage 𝑉𝑣 , surge voltage of 𝑄 can also be diminished by low value of 𝑉𝑣 rather
increasing 𝑊𝑅 . This method of sufficient advantage of using low power and thus design of
following section is based on this.

29
 Chapter 3
Design Methodology and Operation of Solid-state DCCB

As basic solid-state DCCB with freewheeling diode has aforementioned advantages of

lower power consumption and this freewheeling diode can reduce volume and rating of
varistor, so in this research a model based solid-state DCCB with freewheeling diode is
proposed. Designing of a DCCB gets the main challenge when it is used along with VSC
based network. As in VSC, fast switching is the main concern, IGBT is used as switching
element for this proposed model. This design of DCCB can be used for unipolar, bipolar
configuration and for both unidirectional and bidirectional power flow.

3.1 System Configuration

Figure 3.1: Schematic circuit of solid-state DCCB using IGBT for unipolar configuration

Figure 3.1 represents a proposed DC breaker using IGBT for a unipolar configuration
bidirectional power flow system. If we want to test performance of circuit breaker only, then
we can use this for a unidirectional power system also.

Figure 3.2: Schematic circuit of solid-state DCCB using IGBT for bipolar configuration

30
Figure 3.2 depicts the same arrangement with a bipolar configuration. For a fault in the
transmission line or an overload condition, DC breaker A and DC break B both has to be
operated. But if the system is a unidirectional one, then only DC circuit A is used for
interruption. This topology of DCCB is based on the basic arrangement which has been
depicted on figure 2.10. That whole arrangement is just placed between a converter terminal
and a transmission line so that it can clear a DC fault. 𝑄 is the valve device which consists
IGBTs and conducting diodes in reverse direction so that bidirectional power flow can
occur. Snubber circuit is made of capacitor 𝐶𝑄 and resistor 𝑅𝑄 . Each set of valve is made of
an IGBT, a diode in reverse direction, a capacitor and a resistor. Without using a valve of
large capacity and rating elements, a series of low capacity and rating element is used for
each valve. After this series connection is made between valves and thus if the voltage
changes, only required valve number changes. For increased voltage, we need more valves
in series.

Freewheeling diode is denoted by 𝐷. Both 𝐷 and 𝑄 have resistors 𝑅𝐷 and 𝑅𝑄 in parallel so

that at steady state in the series-connected device, voltage balancing can be maintained. In
supplementation, snubber capacitor 𝐶𝑄 is placed with 𝑄 so that voltage balancing can be
maintained on turned-off transient using realization of zero-voltage switching. For DCCB,
a semiconductor with self-power supply is being developed for this circuit breaker. It has
its own built-in sensor. By applying this device, system configuration is simplified.
Mechanical switch 𝑆𝐷 is in parallel with 𝐷. This switch keeps line voltage with ground whrn
breaker opens. Which basic DCCB circuit in figure 2.9 has varistor 𝑅𝑣 in parallel with solid-
state switch 𝑄. But in this proposed design, varistor 𝑅𝑣 is is series connected with diode 𝐷
and across DC line. It reduces surge voltage along with clearing fault current.

31
3.2 Breaker’s Opening and Current Turn-off Operation

Breaker opening operation and current turn-off mechanism of proposed schematic DCCB
is described assuming that power is flowing from converter A to converter B. Converter A
is working as an rectifier and converter B is working as an inverter. As the design in figure
3.1 is symmetrical, for opposite power flow, breaker will behave in same sequence.
Following figures will describe the current transmission route such that breaker A is located
near sending end and breaker B is located near receiving end. First working procedure of
breaker A is discussed which is near the sending end.

Figure 3.3: Current transmission route in breaker A under normal operation

Figure 3.3 represents current transmission route through breaker A when it is placed near
sending end. It shows the route of regular current flow before fault occurs. For normal power
flow, 𝑄 remains on-state and load current flows from source to load through converter and
circuit breaker.

Figure 3.4: Current transmission through breaker A when fault occurs in transmission line

Figure 3.4 shows route of current just after DC line gets a short-circuit fault. Then the DC
capacitance will discharge by using fault point. Due to this discharging, fault current will
increase rapidly. When increase of current is detected, valve 𝑄 is turned off immediately by
turning off the gate signal. Fault current is then forced to commute and flow through
capacitor 𝐶𝑄 .

32
 Figure 3.5: Commutation path of fault current

Figure 3.5 depicts current flow after fault current is commutated to capacitor 𝐶𝑄 . Each valve
in series turns-off because of 𝐶𝑄 with switching at zero-voltage. If there exists a small
difference between turn-off timing, voltage across IGBTs of 𝑄 gets equally balanced. If 𝐶𝑄
becomes enough charged, freewheeling diode 𝐷 turns on.

Figure 3.6: Current flow path after freewheeling diode turns on in breaker A

Figure 3.6 presents the route of current flow after freewheeling diode 𝐷 turns on. After diode
turns on, line inductance then demagnetizes through varistor 𝑅𝑣 and after certain period of
demagnetization, fault current will turn off. Now route of current transmission through
breaker B which is on the receiving end side.

Figure 3.7: Current transmission route in breaker B under normal operation

Figure 3.7 presents current transmission route in breaker B under normal condition or before
a fault occurs. This is the regular current flow path. For such case, the current will flow
through the reverse conduction diode which is in parallel with valves of 𝑄. Though forward
current does not flow through IGBTs of 𝑄, gate signal of transistors are kept on-state so that

33
in case power flow direction reverses, no time lag occurs before power reversal and breaker
B can instantly work as sending end breaker.

Figure 3.8: Current transmission through breaker B when fault occurs in transmission line

Figure 3.8 shows rote of current transmission through breaker B just after short-circuit fault
occurs in the DC transmission line. As a part of DC current which was flowing previously
through reverse diode now flows through fault point. Thus inductor current of breaker B
will decrease. Detecting this decrease of current, gate signal of 𝑄 is turned off. As there is
no current flow through transistors of 𝑄, transition does not happens at that time.

Figure 3.9: Commutation path of diode current

After continuous decrease of current through inductor, current will become zero. When it
becomes zero, reverse connected diode of 𝑄 turns off and the state becomes like figure 3.9.
Then snubber capacitor 𝐶𝑄 will be charged by the current flowing through it.

Figure 3.10: Current flow path after freewheeling diode turns on in breaker B

After 𝐶𝑄 becomes enough charged, freewheeling diode 𝐷 is turned on. This is depicted in
figure 3.10. Fault current will be diminished by varistor 𝑅𝑣 after certain period.

34
3.3 Breaker’s Reclosing or Turn-On Operation

When fault current is turned off, transmission line will maintain low voltage. This continues
for certain amount of deionization this low voltage continues. Deionization time is time off
insulation recovery. 𝑆𝐷 is a mechanical switch which is connected in parallel with diode 𝐷.
It is turned on after detection of fault. 𝑆𝐷 has lower current rating than other elements
because current flows through 𝐷 rather than 𝑆𝐷 . 𝑆𝐷 bypasses current flow through 𝑅𝑄 and
bypass it to ground line when fault current is turned off. DC voltage of line is maintained
the 𝑅𝑣 clamping voltage. This clamping voltage is much smaller than DC line nominal
voltage.

When mechanical switch 𝑆𝐷 turns off, by using way of 𝑅𝑄 , DC line begins to charged again.
Increase of voltage level can be decided by ratio of 𝑅𝑄 and 𝑅𝐷 . DC line needs to be charged
as high as nominal voltage. It can be charged as such with setting 𝑅𝑄 ≪ 𝑅𝐷 . Then reclosing
occurs by turn on operation of 𝑄 on zero-voltage switching.

Now sensor will check if line fault in transmission line is still existed. If fault still continues,
current will flow through fault point after 𝑆𝐷 turns off. DC line voltage can’t increase then.
Thus, breaker can suspend its reclosing procedure by observing line voltage when 𝑆𝐷 turns
off.

35
 Chapter 4
Modeling of Solid-state DCCB

The schematic design of solid-state DCCB is implemented by using MATLAB/Simulink

environment. Without using a valve of large capacity and rating elements, a series of low
capacity and rating element is used for each valve. Each valve is designed such that it can
safely operate for 200 V. Due to this reason, lower scale design is being implemented.

4.1 Model implementation

Figure 4.1: Implementation of solid-state DCCB in MATLAB/Simulink

Figure 4.1 represents the model of solid-state DCCB using IGBT. Source voltage is 400 V
which is a low scale model. Each valve of 𝑄 has breaking limit of 200 V. Thus for 400 V,
two set of valve is put into series and implementing the model. Different subsystems are
also designed. These subsystems internal structure and models are also given in the
following sections. Different gate signals of IGBT are observed and main focus is on the
fault clearing time and recovery time. Voltage at breaking time at each valve of IGBT is
also observed to predict voltage distribution on IGBT. A comparison of fault current shape
between without breaker and with breaker arrangement is also added which can represent
the need of DCCB.

36
4.2 Subsystems

Different subsystems are used to minimize the blocks. Descriptions of these blocks are
asserted in following sections.

4.2.1 Snubber Subsystem

Figure 4.2: Snubber subsystem model

Snubber subsystem is placed in parallel with IGBT. It consists of a parallel connection of

capacitor 𝐶𝑄 and resistor 𝑅𝑄 . This subsystem is placed in parallel with each of the valves.
Line current and commuted through capacitor 𝐶𝑄 and charges it. After 𝐶𝑄 is charged enough,
freewheeling diode turns on.

4.2.2 Transmission Line Subsystem

Figure 4.3: Model of transmission line

Figure 4.3 depicts the subsystem model of transmission line. It is equivalent to T-model of
a transmission line. Though inductor is short and capacitor is open at normal operating
condition, nut as fault is cleared of virtual zero-voltage switching method, these line
inductance and capacitance also effects clearing time.

37
4.2.3 Virtual Fault Subsystem

Figure 4.4: Virtual fault subsystem model

Figure 4.4 represents the subsystem model of crating virtual fault. To observe the
performance of DCCB, IGBT is used and it is turned on to increase the line current. Voltage
and current from this fault point is observed. A virtual fault is created at time 𝑡 = 1 sec using
this subsystem.

4.2.4 Zener Diode Subsystem

Figure 4.5: Zener diode subsystem

Zener diode subsystem which is depicted on figure 4.5 is used as an energy absorber.

38
4.3 Results

Figure 4.6: Input DC voltage of 400 V

Figure 4.7: Voltage at each IGBT when breaker is open

Figure 4.7 represents the voltage distribution on each IGBT during cut off period. It shows
that both IGBT has equal voltage, thus voltage is equally distributed. The peak indicated a
switching surge. As the input voltage is 400 V, each of the valves withstand at 200 V.

39
 Figure 4.8: Fault current shape which is limited by DCCB

Figure 4.8 depicts the fault current wave shape of the circuit arrangement. When the DCCB
detects an increase of current, weather it is due to overload or line to ground fault, DCCB
quickly operates to isolate the section and prevents further complications. As the operating
time is very small, the breaking time can’t be detected from figure 4.8. So a zoomed axes is
provided in next figure to find the breaking time.

Figure 4.9: Zoomed fault current

Figure 4.9 represents the fault current in a zoomed scale. From this figure we can find out
the breaking time of the DCCB. As this DCCB is solid-state based, its main advantage is of
fast breaking time. From the above figure, it can be found that the breaking time is 4 ms
which is enough faster for a VSC based system. Typical AC circuit breakers need 3~5 cycle
for a 50 Hz system. This is 0.06s to 0.10s. Previously designed DCCB has a breaking time
of 10~50 ms. A 4ms breaking time is much smaller and safer than that. A comparison of

40
fault current shape between without breaker and with breaker arrangement is also added
next.

Figure 4.10: Comparison of fault current

Figure 4.10 represents a graphical comparison of the fault current shape between without
breaker and with breaker arrangement. It shows that without using the breaker, the fault
current will increase unboundedly and thus it makes breakdown of the system. Using the
DCCB diminishes the fault current.

Figure 4.11: Zoomed view of recovery voltage after breaker turns-on

Figure 4.11 represents the insulation recovery voltage of the DCCB. At time 𝑡 = 1.5 s, fault
is being cleared and the system restarts to supply the load. Time required to reestablishes
the system voltage. From the figure above, it can be found that the making time is 0.025 s
approximately. This response is faster than other solid-state and mechanical DCCB which
requires about 100 ms for insulation recovery.

41
4.3.1 Comparison

It is said previously that is input voltage changes, it only needs to increase the number of
valves in series and increase the number of freewheeling diode. To test this saying, a test
design model is also implemented with source DC voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1000 V. As each valve or
IGBT can tolerated voltage 200 V, thus 5 consecutive stage of IGBT and corresponding
snubber circuit in parallel is used. Also a series connection of 5 freewheeling diode is used.

Figure 4.12: MATLAB/Simulink model for increased voltage

Figure 4.12 is akin to figure 4.1. The online difference is that the input voltage is increased
to 1000 V or 1 kV, as a result, number of valve is also increased.

Figure 4.13: Freewheeling diode subsystem

Freewheeling diode system in figure 4.13 is same as freewheeling diode in figure 4.1, only
number of diode is increased.
42
 Figure 4.14: Increased DC input voltage of 1000 V

Figure 4.15: Voltage distribution on each IGBT at breaker turn off

Figure 4.15 represents the voltage at the time of breaker is open. When fault is detected
IGBT instantly turns off and 1000 V is equally distributed to all the five valves. Each valve
cut off period voltage is 200 V which is similar to figure 4.7.

43
 Figure 4.16: Fault current shape at increased voltage

Figure 4.16 depicts the fault current wave shape for increased voltage of 1000 V. This shape
is similar to figure 4.8. Fault current peak is increased to peak level of 50 A. A zoomed view
can easily find the respective breaking time.

Figure 4.17: Zoomed fault current shape at increased voltage level

Figure 4.17 represents a zoomed view of fault current shape. At input DC voltage of 1000
V, the fault current peak is increased to 50 A, but the breaking time is almost same like
figure 4.9. That is, breaking time is about 4 ms for voltage 1000 V and fault current of 50A.
The result verifies the saying that if the input voltage increases, the DCCB can also work
appropriately if number of valve in series is increased and number of freewheeling diode is
also increased. So in practical implementation, if the breaker operating voltage increases, it
needs a simple modification to DCCB and work appropriately for higher level voltages also.

44
 Figure 4.18: Fault current comparison for different voltage level

From figure 4.18 it can be easily compared between fault currents of different DC voltage
system. Thus it is clear that increased voltage level will only increase fault current peak, but
not the breaker operating time. Breaker will operate at same time and does not depend on
fault peak.

Figure 4.19: Voltage recovery time comparison for different voltage level

Figure 4.19 depicts the insulation recovery or voltage recovery time for different voltage
level. Both recovery voltage wave shape resembles to each other. It shows that recovery
time is 0.025 s which is for both voltage level. Thus it can make a result that, the recovery
time at making or turn-on operation of the DCCB does not depend on the operating voltage
level. In conclusion, it can be said that the designed DCCB is universal for all voltage level
with a very simple modification.

45
 Chapter 5
Conclusion and Future Work

The final chapter of this thesis consists a conclusion of the overall design. It also suggest
the further research that can be pursued as a continuation of this design. This thesis mainly
contains the construction, working principle of different types of DCCB and using basic
DCCB model to initiate a universal model of solid-state DCCB. Complexity of designing a
DCCB is a primary concern which is taken into consideration.

Voltage source converter used in HVDC transmission has some definite advantage in
transmission system. But the main problem associated with this transmission method is the
requirement of a fast fault clearing technique. Diminishing this disadvantage is the main
motivation of designing a faster operating solid-state DCCB. These advantage and
disadvantage of different DC transmission systems are discussed in this research. By
considering these pros and cons, choice of DCCB type can be made. IGBT is used instead
of thyristor because the design mainly focuses on fast operation.

Different types of DCCB design is also discussed in this research and cause of using solid-
state DCCB for the VSC based system is also presented vastly. After making a proper choice
main concern comes to set the parameters of the design. Between two methods this research
follows designing with transmission requirements. From the basic two models of solid-state
DCCB, basic model with a freewheeling diode is selected due to less energy absorbed during
conduction mode. Value of different elements is set according to timing requirement. Circuit
design is made according to basic model and working procedure of this new developed
design is also described vastly. Simulation result describes the performance of the proposed
model.

This research successfully designed a configuration of DCCB which can be used with VSC
based HVDC system so that it can clear a fault which is occurred on a sophisticated DC line.
This designed breaker is also able to restore power transmission when fault is cleared. The
proposed DCCB design can block high voltage by connecting more IGBT in series along

46
with parallel snubber circuits. Freewheeling diode causes the bypass of fault current. After
designing the model, it is tested with certain voltage levels for performance analysis.
Universality of the design is also proved from different voltage level observation. Breaking
time and making time of the proposed design is also found from the MATLAB/Simulink
block models. Following points are finalized by simulation:

1. Faster fault clearing and restoration of DC power transmission;

2. Voltage balance is equal among series connected semiconductors;
3. High voltage level systems fault is also interrupted by using simple modification.

The work reported in this thesis shows that the objectives have been fulfilled successfully
and performance evaluation satisfies the basic requirement of a circuit breaker. A successful
design has been implemented, performance analysis has been performed in this research.
MATLAB/Simulink model also finds the breaking time and the making time. Two different
voltage level is used for performance evaluation of the designed solid-state DCCB. Practical
implementation of this model can be used in DC systems for safety and reliability. An upper-
scale practical design with power electronics elements can interrupt the fault and overload
conditions in VSC HVDC transmission systems.

Moreover, in further scope, this research can be extended to higher HVDC transmission
voltage levels. A time delay can also be added with the DCCB design so that it can allow a
certain amount of overload for specific period of time. Conduction loss may be investigated
and this on state conduction loss should be limited to economical limit. Power flow direction
and power level restoration period can also be observed using models. A bidirectional VSC
based transmission system can also be designed. IGBT based rectifier and converter stations
can be designed along with the design and implement a practical HVDC transmission. After
that, DCCB performance can also be evaluated and reactive power condition of the
converter stations can also be observed. From the voltage wave shape of the valves at
breaker turn off period we have observed that there is a switching surge. Due to this
switching surge we have to use elements of higher capacity. If this switching surge can be
eliminated that lower capacity elements can also be used which produces cost reduction. A
better control mechanism of this DCCB can also be designed.

47
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