RS&GIS_CE_2021/2022_LEC_1 RS & GIS: An Introduction Page 1 of 6

Remote Sensing (RS) & GIS

Course objectives:
The aim of the course is to introduce you to the remote sensing (RS) and Geographical
Information Systems (GIS). You will learn the ways in which remote sensing systems are used to
acquire data, how these data may be analyzed and how the information is used in studies of the
natural and human environments. What are the GIS, its definitions, concepts, functions, and
applications? At the end of the course, you should have a good knowledge of the different types of
remote sensing imagery that are available and the analysis procedures used for studying specific
environmental problems. You should also be capable of undertaking basic computer-assisted image
analysis and producing thematic images, in addition to efficiently use the GIS softwares.

Remote Sensing - An Introduction

What is Remote Sensing?
• Remote sensing is used to obtain information about objects utilizing ElectroMagnetic Radiation
( EMR). Data is collected with an instrument an then analysed. The instrument used is not in
direct contact with the object. The platforms used are located "at a distance" from the earth’s
surface (for example, aircraft and satellites). These contain carry sensors to observe and study
the earth, its land surface, the oceans, the atmosphere and the earth's dynamics from space.
• Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or
phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by an device that is not in contact with the
object, area, or phenomenon under investigation.

Characteristics and Components of a RS System

• The EMRis the energy that carries information through the atmosphere from the Earth's
surface to the sensing device (sensor).
• Sensor: It is a RS instrument that used to record the EMR signals are often to be
referred to a sensor (Camera, Scanner, Altimeters, etc).

Civil Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tishk Int. Prof. Dr. Ayad Mohammed Fadhil
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, IRAQ Email: ayad.alquraishi@tiu.edu.iq
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Platform
• A platform is the vehicle or carrier for remote sensors.
• They are classified into three categories. 1) Ground-
based 2) Airborne 3) Space-borne

The ElectroMagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

• Light and radiation are only some forms of electromagnetic
energy. The human eye can only see the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which contains the spectral
colours; but our skin can also sense temperature differences.

Types of RS systems
1. Passive RS vs Active RS (Energy based)
• Passive methods: recording naturally occurring EMR radiation coming from the (Sun) that is
reflected or emitted from the terrain -target.
• Active systems, microwave (radar), solar, laser sensors supply their own energy to illuminate the
scene, and then record the amount of radiant flux scattered back toward the sensor system.
2. Air-borne RS VS Space-borne RS (Platform based)
Airborne-based RS
1. High-spatial, more detailed view of the Earth’s surface;
2. Ground coverage is relatively small, and expensive to acquire;
3. Severe geometric distortion due to atmospheric turbulence and difficult to correct.
4. On less regular temporal basis.
Satellite-based RS (Space borne)
1. Satellite photographs and images provide synoptic, less detailed view;
2. Ground coverage is large, and relatively cheap;
3. On regular and consistent temporal basis;
4. Stable orbit, and better geometric integrity;

RS Process

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement that provides EM energy to the target
of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
happen a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

Civil Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tishk Int. Prof. Dr. Ayad Mohammed Fadhil
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, IRAQ Email: ayad.alquraishi@tiu.edu.iq
 RS&GIS_CE_2021/2022_LEC_1 RS & GIS: An Introduction Page 3 of 6

3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) – it is required a sensor
to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy
recorded transmitte digitally to a receiving and processing station where
the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is visually
interpreted to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
7. Applications (G) - the final element of RS process is achieved when we apply the information
extracted from the imagery about the target in order to better understand it.

Information extracted from RS

• Thematic information: Derive bio-physical variables, urban area, water bodies, mountains,
industrial area, bare land, dams locations, etc.
• Metric information: Determination of the precise x, y location and height z of an object,
stereoscopic aerial photography.

Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) Principles

Light and radiation are only some forms of electromagnetic energy (EM). The human
eye can only see a part of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS), which contains spectral
colors, but our skin can also sense temperature differences.

ElectroMagnetic Radiation (EMR) is one form of energy propagation. It is measured as

wave radiation and is characterized by frequency and wavelength. The radiation spreads
with the velocity of light (3x108 km/sec).

RS and EMR
• The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the
target. This energy is in the form of EMR.

• Remote sensing is concerned with the measurement of the EMR returned by the Earth's
natural and human-made features that first receive energy from the Sun or an artificial
source such as a radar transmitter.

• Different objects return different types and amounts of EMR.

• Differences in reflected EMR make it possible to identify and assess a broad range of
Civil Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tishk Int. Prof. Dr. Ayad Mohammed Fadhil
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, IRAQ Email: ayad.alquraishi@tiu.edu.iq
 RS&GIS_CE_2021/2022_LEC_1 RS & GIS: An Introduction Page 4 of 6

surface features and conditions.

ElectroMagnetic Energy
• Electromagnetic energy (radiation) is one of many forms of energy.

• All natural and synthetic substances above absolute zero (0 Kelvin, -273°C) emit a range
of electromagnetic energy.

Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)

• In the absence of matter (vacuum condition), EMR moves at the

speed of light (3x108 m/s);

• In a matter, traveling speed becomes slower. The dense matter, the slower speed.
• ElectroMagnetic Radiation "EMR" consists of an Electrical field (E), and a
Magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical
field. Both of them travel at the speed of light (c).

• Two characteristics (Wavelength & Frequency) of

electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for
understanding remote sensing.

Wavelength
1. It is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between
successive wave crests.

2. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ), and measured in
meters (m) or nanometers (nm, 10-9 meters), micrometers (μm, 10-6 meters) or
centimeters (cm, 10-2 meters).

Frequency
1. Refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.

2. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent

to one cycle per second.

3. Wavelength and frequency are related by the

following formula:

4. Wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other.

5. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.

Civil Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tishk Int. Prof. Dr. Ayad Mohammed Fadhil
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, IRAQ Email: ayad.alquraishi@tiu.edu.iq
 RS&GIS_CE_2021/2022_LEC_1 RS & GIS: An Introduction Page 5 of 6

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

• The EMS is divided into several sections starting with a very short wavelength and high-
frequency range i.e., x-rays (around 0.01 µm).
• The part of the visible light, which is visible to the human eye, spans from 0.38 µm to
0.78 µm and ranges from the colors violet, to Red.
• Infrared (IR) wavelengths are divided into near-infrared (NIR), mid-infrared (MIR), and
thermal infrared (ThIR).
• The invisible spectrum can not see it by our eyes, but other remote sensing instruments
can be detected and used to our advantage.

Primary Colors; Blue, Green, and Red are the visible spectrum's primary colors or
wavelengths.

Visible
• Small portion of the EMS that humans are sensitive to includes: 1) Blue (0.4-0.5 µm), 2)
Green (0.5-0.6 µm), and 3) Red (0.6-0.73 µm).

Infrared (IR) wavelength

1. It covers the wavelength range from 0.7 µm to 1 mm.
2. The infrared region divided into 2 categories; reflected IR, and emitted or thermal IR.

Microwave region: The more recent interest to RS is the microwave region from about 1
mm to 1 m.

Polarized EMR
1. The electric and magnetic vibrations associated with an y orientation at right angles
to the direction of propagation.
2. If there is one direction by some means, the radiation becomes polarized plane,
horizontal or vertical polarization.

Sources of EMR
• Sources of EMR are the Sun, the Earth with their infrared radiation, and also active satellite
sensors.

Civil Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tishk Int. Prof. Dr. Ayad Mohammed Fadhil
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, IRAQ Email: ayad.alquraishi@tiu.edu.iq
 RS&GIS_CE_2021/2022_LEC_1 RS & GIS: An Introduction Page 6 of 6

• All matter in the universe that is warmer than 0K (-273C) emit continuous electromagnetic
radiation.
• All objects in everyday life emit EMR.
• The amount and type of the emitted energy depend on the temperature of the object.
• The hotter objects emit more energy with shorter wavelengths.

Irradiance

Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of EMR in
the wavelength range of the measuring instrument.

Radiance

Radiance is the amount of radiation coming from an area

and measured by a sensor..

Reflectance
Reflectance is the ratio of the amount of light leaving a target
to the amount of light striking the target. It has no units.

Remote Sensing Reflectance

It is a ratio of upwelling radiance to the downwelling
irradiance. This is defined as the remote sensing reflectance.

Reflectance
Reflectance is the proportion of the radiation striking a surface to the radiation reflected off
of it.

Civil Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tishk Int. Prof. Dr. Ayad Mohammed Fadhil
University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, IRAQ Email: ayad.alquraishi@tiu.edu.iq