Assignment # 2

Jannella Frea P. Capuz

Primary sex characteristics

These characteristics develop in an organism during the gestation period and male and female
differentiation takes place in sexually dimorphic organisms. The Y chromosome from the father has a
specialized gene responsible for the determination of testes during fetal development; otherwise, the
gonads will develop into ovaries. Therefore, the male and female primary sexual characteristics are same in
origin, but different in eventual appearance. External genitals are primary sexual characteristics, and those
are the only external clue about exact sex of a newborn of any animal. However, sexual organs do
not function fully, until puberty. However, without well-developed sex organs, secondary characteristics will
never operate. Examples for male and female primary characteristics include penis, testicles, epididymis,
prostate, scrotum, cervix, clitoris, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina…etc.

Secondary sex characteristics

These are the features with the capability to distinguish a male from a female of any organism. However,
these features are not completely related with the reproductive system. Despite the undoubted importance
of the primary characteristics, it would be a failure without secondary sexual characteristics. In the animal
world, there are many examples to describe secondary sexual characteristics. Mane of male lion, bright face
and rump of mandrills, horns of cattle, and the extravagant tail feathers of peacocks are some of the prime
examples of secondary characteristics. In humans, pubic hairs, genital hairs, breasts of females and facial
hairs of males are prominent physical secondary characteristics. These changes take place only after the
puberty, and it involves complex mechanisms based on hormonal influence inside the bodies of animals.

Female reproductive system (parts and function)

The main external structures of the female reproductive system include:

Labia majora

- The labia majora (“large lips”) enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. During
puberty, hair growth occurs on the skin of the labia majora, which also contain sweat and oil-
secreting glands.
Labia minora

- The labia minora (“small lips”) can have a variety of sizes and shapes. They lie just inside the labia
majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to
the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of
the body). This skin is very delicate and can become easily irritated and swollen.

Bartholin’s glands

- These glands are located next to the vaginal opening on each side and produce a fluid (mucus)
secretion.

Clitoris

- The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the
penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the
foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can
become erect.

The internal reproductive organs include:

Vagina

- The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also
is known as the birth canal.

Uterus (womb)

- The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus. The uterus is
divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main
body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A
canal through the cervix allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit.

Ovaries

- The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries
produce eggs and hormones.

Fallopian tubes

- These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as pathways for
the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Fertilization of an egg by a sperm
normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants
to the uterine lining.

Male reproductive system (parts and function)

The male reproductive system is responsible for reproduction. It is made of the following parts:

 Penis - the organ used for urination and sexual intercourse. It has spongy tissue which can fill with
blood to cause an erection. It contains the urethra, which carries both urine and semen.

 Scrotum — this is a loose bag of skin that hangs outside the body, behind the penis. It holds the
testes in place.
  Testes (or testicles) — these are a pair of egg-shaped glands that sit in the scrotum, on the outside
of the body. They produce sperm and testosterone, which is the male sex hormone.

 Epididymis — this is a highly coiled tube that lies at the back of the testes. All sperm from the testes
must pass through the epididymis, where they mature and start to ‘swim’.

 Vas deferens — this is a thick-walled tube joined to the epididymis. It carries sperm from the
epididymis up to the prostate gland and urethra.

 Prostate gland — this is a walnut-sized gland that sits in the middle of the pelvis. The urethra runs
through the middle of it. It produces the fluid secretions that support and nourish the sperm.

 Urethra — this is a tube that extends from the bladder to the external opening at the end of the
penis. The urethra carries both urine and sperm.

 Seminal vesicles — these are 2 small glands above the prostate gland that make up much of the fluid
in semen.

Methods of Contraceptive

NATURAL METHOD
- Certain methods used to achieve and avoid pregnancies.
- Based on observation of the naturally occurring signs and symptoms of the fertile and infertile
phases of a woman's menstrual cycle.
- No drugs, devices, or surgical procedures are used.

WITHDRAWAL

- Coitus Interrupts
- Removal of penis from the vagina before ejaculation occurs
- Effectiveness rate is 60-80%
- Failure due to Delay withdrawal
- Presence of sperm in the pre-ejaculatory fluid

RHYTHM METHOD

- Based on identification of the fertile period of a cycle and to abstain from sexual intercourse during
that period.
- Requires partner’s co-operation.
- Methods to determine:
o Calendar Rhythm
o Temperature Rhythm
o Mucus Rhythm
HORMONAL
- Hormonal compound taken in order to block ovulation and prevent occurrence of pregnancy.

COMBINED ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

- Oral contraceptives consist of a combination of an estrogen and a progestational agent:

Eithylestradiol (20mcg – 35mcg) and a progestogen (Levonorgestrel/ norethisterone/ desogestrel)
- Meant to be taken for 21 days with a pill-free week
o taken daily for 3 weeks and then omitted for 1 week, during which time there is withdrawal
uterine bleeding
- Low dose pills now more commonly used:
- Mercilon, Loette, Yasmin, Diane
- 99% effective if used correctly.

COOPER IUCD

- Copper effects are by causing a toxic effect to sperm and the egg
- Licensed for use for up to 10 years
- 99% effective
- Has an increased risk of infection associated with the first 3 weeks of insertion.
- Copper IUCD associated with increased menstrual loss
- Occasionally can have problem of missing strings, lost IUCD that may require investigation or
surgical exploration/ removal

EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

- Each pill contains Levonorgestrel and Ethinyl estradiol

- After unprotected intercourse
- Highly effective and decrease the risk of pregnancy by 75%
- 100 women had unprotected intercourse during the second to third week of their menstrual cycle, 8
would be expected to conceive.
- Contain high dose of contraceptive hormones

BARRIER METHODS
- Prevent pregnancy by blocking the egg and sperm from meeting
- Barrier methods have higher failure rates than hormonal methods due to design and human error.

MALE CONDOM

- Most common and effective when used properly

- Latex and Polyurethane
- Benefit
- risk of venereal infection
- Controlling the spread of HIV
- Perfect effectiveness rate = 97%
- Combining condoms with spermicides raises effectiveness levels to 99%
FEMALE CONDOM

- Made as an alternative to male condoms

- Polyurethane
- Physically inserted in the vagina
- Perfect rate = 95%
- Woman can use female condom if partner refuses

SPONGE

- The sponge is inserted by the woman into the vagina and covers the cervix blocking sperm from
entering the cervix.
- The sponge also contains a spermicide that kills sperm

STERILIZATION
- Medical techniques that intentionally leave a person unable to reproduce in the future.
- Generally permanent birth control techniques that surgically disrupt the normal passage of ova or
sperm.

TUBAL LIGATION

- A small incision is made in the abdomen to access the fallopian tubes.

- Fallopian tubes are cut, tied, cauterized, blocked, burned, or clipped shut to prevent the egg from
traveling through the tubes
- Recovery usually takes 4-6 days
- Failure rates vary by procedure, from 0.8%-3.7%
- May experience heavier periods

VASECTOMY

- A small incision is made to access the vas deferens, the tube the sperm travels from the testicle to
the penis, and is sealed, tied, or cut
- No-scalpel Vasectomy (NSV)
- Faster and easier recovery than a tubal ligation
- Failure rate = 0.1%, more effective than female sterilization
- After a vasectomy, a male will still ejaculate, but there won’t be any sperm present