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Table of Contents

Classical Conditioning
First described by Ivan Pavlov, a
Russian physiologist

Focuses on involuntary, automatic

behaviors
Involves placing a neutral signal
before a reflex

Operant Conditioning
First described by B. F. Skinner,
an American psychologist
Involves applying reinforcement
or punishment after a behavior

Focuses on strengthening or
weakening voluntary behaviors

Classical Conditioning
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Table of Contents v

Bobo Doll Experiment

In the Bobo dollexperiment, Bandura
demonstrated that young children may
imitate the aggressive actions of an
adult model. Children observed a film
where an adult repeatedly hit a large,
inflatable balloon doll and then had the
opportunity to play with the same doll
later on.

Children were more likely to imitate the

adult's violent actions when the adult
either received no consequences or
when the adult was rewarded. Children
who saw the adult being punished for
this aggressive behavior were less likely
to imitate them.

Observational Learning
Examples
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Spearman's General
Intelligence (g)
General intelligence, also knownm as g
factor, refers to a general mental
ability that, according to Spearman,
underlies multiple specific skills,
including verbal, spatial, numerical
and mechanical.

Charles Spearman, an English

psychologist, established the two
factor theory of intelligence back in
1904 (Spearman, 1904). To arrive at
this theory, Spearman used a
technique known as factor analysis.

Factor analysis is a procedure through

which the correlation of related
variables are evaluated to find an
underlying factor that explains this
correlation.

In the case of intelligence, Spearman

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WAnalytical intelligence, also

referred to as componential
intelligence, refers to intelligence that
is applied to analyze or evaluate
problems and arrive at solutions. This
is what a traditional1Q test measure.

Creative intelligence is the ability to

go beyond what is given to create
novel and interesting ideas. This type
of intelligence involves imagination,
innovation and problem-solving.

Practical intelligence is the ability

that individuals use to solve problems
faced in daily life, when a person
finds the best fit between themselves
and the demands of the environment.
Adapting to the demands

environment involves either utilizing

knowledge gained from experience to
purposefully change oneself to suit
the environment (adaptation),
changing the environment to suit

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X Observational Learni..
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Observational learning is sometimes called

shaping, modeling, and vicarious
reinforcement. While it can take place at
any point in life, it tends to be the most
common during childhood.

It also plays an important role in the

socialization process. Children learn how to
behave and respond to others by observing
how their parent(s) and/or caregivers
interact with other people.

Observational Learning
Behavior is learned through watching and replicating others

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Classical Conditioning
Even if you are not a psychology student,
you have probably at least heard
about Pavlov's dogs. In his famous
experiment, Ivan Pavloy noticed dogs began
to salivate in response to a tone after the
sound had repeatedly been paired with
presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized
that this was a learned response and set out
to further investigate the conditioning
process.

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Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Just two years later, in 1985, Robert
Sternberg proposed a three-category
theory of intelligence, integrating
components that were lacking in
Gardner's theory. This theory is based
on the definition of intelligence as the
ability to achieve success based on
your personal standards and your
sociocultural context.

According to the triarchic theory,

intelligence has three aspects:
analytical, creative, and practical
(Sternberg, 1985).

Analytical intelligence, also

referred to as componential
intelligence, refers to intelligence that
is applied to analyze or evaluate
problems and arrive at solutiorns. This

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-u-

Observational learning describes the

process of learning by watching others,
retaining the information, and then later
replicating the behaviors that were
observed. There are a number of learning
theories, such as classicalconditioning and
operant conditioning, that emphasize how
direct experience, reinforcement, or
punishment can lead to learning. However,
a great deal of learning happens indirectly.

For example, think about how a child may

watch adults waving at one another and
then imitates these actions later on. A
tremendous amount of learning happens
through this process. In psychology, this is
referred to as observational learning.

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In the case of intelligence, Spearman

noticed that those who did well in one
area of intelligence tests (for example,
mathematics), also did well in other
areas (such as distinguishing pitch;
Kalat, 2014).

In other words, there was a strong

correlation between performing well
in math and music, and Spearman
then attributed this relationship to a
central factor, that of general
intelligence (g).
Spearman concluded that there is a
single g-factor which represents an
individual's general intelligence
across multiple abilities, and that a
second factor, s, refers to an
individual's specific ability in one
particular area (Spearman, as cited in
Thomson, 1947).

S
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