Ramakrishna Mission, Vidyamandira, Belur Math

Date: 17/11/2021
Department: History Department (Honours)
Year: 1st Year
Roll Number: 91
Name: Amrik Biswas
Semester: III
Course: CC – V
Module: M-I
Professor: Prof. Santanu Dey
Subject: Introductory Class

Tahrik al Hind By Al-Biruni

Edward Sachau

He is trying to accommodate different types of opinions, different types of scholars

and different types of perspectives in his book.

Contents of the Tahqiq al-hind, investigation of India, reflects his won scientific
disposition which in its translated form has 80 chapters.

It means an investigation about how India thinks about themselves or about

India as a whole.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: On the Hindus in general, as an introduction to our
account of them.
Chapter 2: On the Belief of the Hindus in God.
Chapter 8: On the different classes of created beings, and on their
names.
Chapter 9: On the castes, called “colours” (varna), and on the
classes below them.
Chapter 11: About the beginning of idol-worship, and a description
of the individual idols.

Some have regarded Al Beruni as the first Islamic anthropologist.

The chapters of Al-Beruni’s work are thematically organized.

The next twelve chapters discuss the literature of India, and other important topics
such as the beliefs of the Hindus.

Indian customs, manners, festivals, etc. are discussed by Al-Biruni.

When the Islamic world and the knowledge system which is encompassed within
Islam is gradually expanding.

Some historians such as Pakistani historians say that Al=Biruni should not be
considered just as a traveller or an astronomer. He should be regarded as the first
Islamic anthropologist.

Logic: The logic for this conclusion cannot be considered as quite faulty.

Al-Beruni was a many-sided genius in an Islamic age that produced others like him. It
was the age of Firdausi (973-1020), Abu Sina (980-1037) and Ibn Haitham (965-1039)

Al Beruni had access to translations of such works in his library.

Besides Alfazari and Yakub Ibn Tarik, he learned from the Persian astronomer
Alkhwarizmi (780-850), from Abulhasan of Ahwaz, from the Iraqi philosopher
Alkindi (801-873) and the Persian astrologer cum philosopher Abu-Ma’shar (787-886)
of Balkh, etc.

He was one of the first to attempt a synthesis of the different ideas in Greek, Islamic
and Hindu thought.

He refers to Greek philosophers Plato, Aristotle, the Greek geometer and astronomer
Apollonius of Perga, the Physician Hippocrates of Kos, the theologian of Alexandra
named Protrepticus, the philosopher of Tyre (Lebanon) named Porphyry, etc.

The book is not just important for India but also important for the knowledge tradition
that was developing in India during this period.

Nature of Al Biruni’s Writing

Al-Biruni’s methodology is rigorous: ‘it is the method of our author not to speak
himself, but to let the Hindus speak… He presents a icture of Indian civilization as
painted by the Hindus themselves’ (Sachau’s preface)

The object which the author had in view, and never for a moment lost sight of was to
afford the necessary information and training to “any one (within Islam) who wants to
converse with the Hindus, and to discuss with them questions of religion, science, or
literature, on the very basis of their own civilization”.

Independent in his thoughts about religion and philosophy, he is a friend of clear,

determined, and manly words.

He emphasizes on the language of the people.

 He comes across as a good observer and en even better analyser of events.

He always asks questions and then tries to answer them.

He does not believe whatever he hears.

He doesn’t say half-truths. He says whatever he says with conviction.

Every anthropologist has to be and needs to be a very good and keen observer.

He emphasizes that “No one will deny that in question of historic authenticity hearsay
does not equal eye-witness”

Value judgement of other people’s customs and cultures are strictly avoided. As he
time and again states that “The task is to ‘simple relate without criticizing’”.

Al-Biruni throws a wide net for comparative purposes referring to Jews, Christians,
Parsis and the ancient Greeks for whom he has undisguised admiration. And his
sympathy for universal mysticism is reflected in the comparison he makes between
Sufi, Hindu, and Christian mystics.

He says of Mahmud (i. p. 22):

He utterly ruined the prosperity of the country (of India), and performed those
wonderful exploits by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all
directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people.”

Limitations –
He contrasts the Islamic and Hindu customs.

He sometimes takes an occasion for pointing out to reader the superiority of Islam
over Brahmanic India.

At certain places of his work although perhaps unwittingly he is doing it.

He contrasts the democratic equality of men with the castes of India, the matrimonial
law of Islam with degraded forms of it in India, the cleanliness and decency of
Muslims with filthy customs of the Hindus. With all this, his recognition of Islam is
not without a tacit reserve.

He dares not attack Islam, but he sometimes attacks the Arabs (when commenting on
their pre-Islamic customs) and he also attacks certain traits of Hindus such as their
“haughtiness”.

Edward Sachau considers that:

The work of Al Beruni is unique in Muslim literature as an earliest attempt to study an
idolatrous world of thought, not proceeding from the intention of attacking and
refuting it, but uniformly showing the desire to be just and impartial…’

Another historian Jarret considers that Al Biruni’s work was ‘like a magic world of
quiet, impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns and
plundered temples’.

Romila Thapar states that –

Al Biruni was ‘perhaps the finest intellect of Central Asia’.

And his ideas on India and the Hindus are probably the most incisive made by any
visitor to India’.

The Hindus turned inward as a result of the Turkish invasions that took place during
this period.

CA, Tutorial – December 17th-23rd 2021.

Ramakrishna Mission, Vidyamandira, Belur Math

Date: 18/11/2021
Department: History Department (Honours)
Year: 1st Year
Roll Number: 91
Name: Amrik Biswas
Semester: III
Course: CC – VII
Module: M-I
Professor: Prof. Santanu Dey
Subject: Introductory Class

Iqta System

Tar janye pratidan swarup as salary in lew of salary a grant gulo kora hoto.

Dan pratha, jomi hostarantorito… Dirgho tin char sho bachar dhore cholche.

Porinoto akar e dhukche.

It was obvious that the iqta system not in India but outside of India and it came to
India with the help of the Turkish invaders who came within the 10th, 11th and 12th
centuries.
 A. K. Lampton er lekha “The evolution of the iqta in medieval Iran”. The preface
to how the iqta evolved is also important.

Dominant institution ghore hoye uthechilo Seljuk Rashtrer madhye.

Regularized institution.

Al Mawardi –

Iqta-I tamliq (iqta under private ownership) and iqta-I istighlal (iqta as salary,
iqta in return for renumeration)

The latter…

Speaks of the comparison between iqta and agrahara

Khalisa, wakf, inam, etc. These were religious grants? These terms describe different
systems of land grants.

Khalisa (crown lands) (it was an iqta-I istighlal)

Wakf, Inam, etc (religious grants)

Tripartite Division

All the evolution of these systems were tied together at a single point.

Kharaj Tax – Delhi Sultanate Revenue Tax

The collection of this tax was an extremely big responsibility during the days of the
Sultanate and the Mongols.

It was obvious that the state that emerged had to tax its farmers.

Gurutwa purno kaj hisebe toiri hoyechilo.

It was obvious that it had to be organized in a neat system through which the peasants
would be able to give their surplus and where somebody would be able to collect them
from the frontier zones.

The peasant surplus was…

The third advantage was not obvious to the people of that time.
Iqta grants were given for a specific period of time or a certain period of time. Thus it
was not hereditary unlike the Rajput bhoga-samanta.

Characteristics of Iqta System

It most likely arose during the Abbasid Caliphate situated around Baghdad.

A K S Lampton tells us that the iqta system’s introduction was linked with an area of
change in the empire?

Related to army.

Citizen Army?

These citizens were given salary from booty.

They were not paid salaries through land during this phase of the evolution of
Islam.

However when Islam had expanded-

The Citizen army no longer could be run.

Mercenary army.

Tribal society determination.

Because there was not enough salaries to be given in the shape of monetary grants.

Cash revenue.

The Gold standard which was there existent in the Middle East began to collapse in
lieu of salaries being paid in the form of land.

These grants were not hereditary.

These could be transferrable to any other person. One iqta holder being transferred
from one region to another every three or four years.

Therefore iqta should not be equated with the fief of medieval feudal Europe, which
were hereditary and non-transferrable.

Iqta assignments could be large (a whole province or a part)

There used to be confrontations due to differences in opinion regarding the
determination of iqta.

Assignments even to nobles carried administrative, military, and revenue collecting

responsibilities. Thus, provincial administration was headed by the muqti or wali,
amir? They sent the surplus (fawasil) to the centre.

The nobles therefore began to play an important administrative (political), military

and societal role.

Diwani-I Wizarat

Fawazil is extremely important.

The centre was always on the lookout to increase its revenues.

Ramakrishna Mission, Vidyamandira, Belur Math

Date: 20/11/2021
Department: History Department (Honours)
Year: 1st Year
Roll Number: 91
Name: Amrik Biswas
Semester: III
Course: CC – VII
Module: M-I
Professor: Prof. Santanu Dey
Subject: Introductory Class

Iqta System

The Iqta system had acquired the essential characteristics before coming to India.

It is usually thought that the Iqta system under the Delhi Sultans only began to emerge
in a proper manner under the Sultan Iltutmish (1211-36).

The initial years of the Delhi Sultan was a timeframe when the system was just being
implemented.

There were initial hiccups in the system as is to be expected.

These were certain problems or tendencies of the iqta system as the system was
emerging during the time of Iltutmish.

We find that there are several instances where several individual iqtadars had to be
punished.
Currency system of the Delhi Sultanate.

The political success of Iltutmish played an important role in the construction of the
iqta system as well.

Weak timeframe after the death of Sultan Iltutmish, thus the iqta system became rather
non-functional.

There was a contestation between the nobility and the kings of this period.

The political uncertainties did not allow the Delhi Sultans to establish the iqta system
on a strong and stable foundation.

Early Turkish Empire/Early Turkish Dynasty.

Khalji kings were a new dynasty of rulers who came into the Delhi Sultanate and
began to establish their rule from 1290 onwards until around 1320.