HIRT Fundamentals and Solving Methods in Metal Forming - Lecture Notes

𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Fundamentals and solving methods

in metal forming
Winter Semester 2018/2019

Institute of Metal Forming
Prof. Dr.-Ing. G. Hirt

Content - Overview
1. Introduction
2. Stress and equilibrium
3. Strain and strain rate
4. Yield criteria
5. Elastic behavior and flow laws
6. Deformation work/ Deformation power
7. Equivalent strain values
8. Heat conduction and heat transfer
9. Friction and friction models
10. Determination and modeling of flow curves
11. Determination of material properties and boundary values
12. Global parameters under simplification assumptions
13. Elementary plasticity theory
14. Slip lines theory and upper and lower bound method
15. Finite element method
16. Modeling of microstructural changes
17. Modeling of damage and strain limits
18. Similarity Theory
19. Visioplasticity
2
Content
1. Introduction
1.1. Processes / Target values / Scales / Overview, basics and methods
2. Stress
2.1. Definition
2.2. Stress tensor
2.3. Invariants
2.4. Symmetry
2.5. Coordinate transformation
2.6. Hydrostatic state of stress and stress deviator
2.7. Special state of stresses
2.8. Equilibrium conditions
3
Content
3.1. Introduction: Stress and strain in the tensile test up to uniform elongation
3.2. Description of small distortions:
Strain tensor / strain rate tensor
3.3. Large strains
3.4. True strain and total local strain
3.5. Volume constancy / Continuity equation
3.6. Volume constancy
3.7. Strain rate
4. Yield criteria
4.1. Definition flow stress / flow curve
4.2. Derivation Mises,Tresca
4.3. Equivalent strain
4.4. Yield locus/ Anisotropy
4.5. Strain hardening
5.1. Hook’s law
5.2. Levy-Mises
5.3. Prandtl-Reuß
4
Content
6. Deformation work/ deformation power
7.1. Equivalent strain rate
7.2. Global equivalent strain rate
7.3. Equivalent strain
7.4. Global equivalent strain
10.1. Material behavior during hot and cold forming
10.2. Test methods and standard evaluation
10.3. Influencing factors
10.4. Temperature compensation
10.5. Modeling of flow curves
5
Content
13.1. Upsetting
13.2. Incremental open-die forging
13.3. Flat longitudinal rolling
13.4. Drawing
13.5. Bar extrusion
14. Slip line theory and upper and lower bound method
16.1. Recovery, recrystallization and grain growth
17.1. Local and global formability
17.2. Damage models
17.3. Failure description in sheet metal forming
18. Similarity analysis
19. Visioplasticity
6
Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
7
Main goals of metal forming
Metal forming = Production engineering + Materials science
Main goals are:

1. Generation of the geometry
 Production engineering
2. Adjustment of material properties
(texture, anisotropy, mech. properties, ... )
 Material science
1. + 2. are always closely connected to each other in metal forming, because of the
influence of the plastic deformation on the microstructure of the material (grain
boundaries, grain stretching, grain orientation, ...).
Chapter 1 – General introduction

Necessary basic knowledge in metal forming
 Mechanics, mainly Strength of Materials (Elasticity and Plasticity)

 Materials science, mainly metals science
 Heat transfer
 Tribology
 Measurement and control techniques
 Mathematics / information technology (simulation)
 Environmental technologies
 Economics (basic)

Target values in metal forming technology I
Metal forming process target values method
force, energy, power, elementary

forming (global) global temperature, models
etc.
homogeneous local strain, strain rate, FEM

continuum flow stress,
temperature, etc.
-2
>10
polycrystalline phase boundary,

Materials phase transformation, FEM + material
etc. models
-2 -4
10 - 10
polycrystal microstructure FEM + material
(grain size, DRX, SRX,
grain growth, etc.)
models
-4
10
(scale in m)
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 2 10

Target values in metal forming technology II
Metal forming process target values method
texture, anisotropy, etc. FEM +

crystal crystal plasticity
10-6
dislocation distribution,
glide systems dispersion hardening,
etc.
10-8
atomistic
dislocation deformation
mechanisms
10-10
(scale in m)

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
12
Indexing of the stress components
 Stress = Force / Area
 Normal stresses: z
Fz Fz
σ zz  lim  σz (usual notation)
Az 0 Az
Az Fy
nz
Fx
y
1. Index =
 Shear stresses: surface normal
Fx
σ zx  lim  zx x
Az 0 A
z 2. Index =
direction of the load component
Fy
σ zy  lim  zy
 z 0 Az
13
Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Sign conventions

F j
 Signs follow directly from:  ij  lim 
Ai 0 A
i
 Normal stresses:
 
 Tensile stress = positive ( A same direction as F )
 
 Compressive stress = negative ( A opposite direction to F )
14

Notation of the stress tensor
 Normal stress e. g.: z instead of  zz
 Shear stress e. g.:  zx instead of  zx
 The state of stress can be given as a stress tensor:
  xx  xy  xz 
  i  x, y , z
σ i j    yx  yy  yz 
  j  x, y , z
 zx  zy  zz 
  x  xy  xz 
  i  x, y , z
σ i j   yx  y  yz 
  j  x, y , z
 zx  zy  z 

Symmetry of the stress tensor
 The stress tensor is symmetric:  ij   ji
  x  xy  xz 
  i  x, y , z
σ i j   yx  y  yz  (2)
  j  x, y , z
 zx  zy  z 
 The symmetry of the stress tensor results from the moment equilibrium
(3)

Principal axis system/Principal normal stresses
 For any state of stress ij there is a coordinate system in which all shear stresses will
vanish and the normal stresses are maximum.
 „Principal axis system“
F F
A
F
F •
F F • • F
FN Ft
 1 0    xx  xy 
•
σ ij    σ ij   

 0 0   xy  yy 
 Principal normal stresses should be shown with only one index
 1 0 0   I 0 0 
   
σ ij   0  2 0  or 0  II 0  convention:      (7)
0 0   0 
1 2 3
 3  0  III 

Invariants of the stress tensor
 1. Invariant
I1  σ x  σ y  σ z  σ k k (Trace of the stress tensor) (9)
 2. Invariant
I 2  τ  τ  τ  σ x σ y  σ y σ z  σ z σ x  σ ij σ ij  σ i i σ j j 
2 2 2 1
xy yz zx (10)
2
 3. Invariant
I 3  σ x σ y σ z  2τ xy τ yz τ zx  σ x τ yz2  σ y τ zx2  σ z τ xy2  det σ i j  (11)
 Right side notation uses the Einstein summation convention.

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 8/9 18

Coordinate transformation
 The 3 principal normal stresses 𝜎1 ,𝜎2, 𝜎3 are the solutions of the following cubic
equation:
 3  I1 2  I 2  I 3  0 (8)
 Where I1, I2, I3 are the basic invariants of the stress tensor
I1  σ x  σ y  σ z  σ k k (9)
I 2  τ  τ  τ  σ x σ y  σ y σ z  σ z σ x  σ ij σ ij  σ i i σ j j 
2 2 2 1
xy yz zx (10)
2
I 3  σ x σ y σ z  2τ xy τ yz τ zx  σ x τ yz2  σ y τ zx2  σ z τ xy2  det σ i j  (11)

Coordinate transformation in a plane state of stress
 In a plane state of stress
  x  xy 0 is I3  0
 
σ ij   yx  y 0
 0  3  I1 2  I 2  I 3  0
0 
from (8)
 0
 Solutions for the principal normal stresses
 x  y   x  y 
2
 1, 2       xy2 3  0 (12)
2  2 
 Angle between x-axis and first principal axis

2 xy
tan(2 )  (13)
 x  y

Mohr‘s circle
y
2 x 1 

Sign conventions for the Mohr‘s circle

F j
 Signs follow directly from:  ij  lim 
Ai 0 A
i
 Normal stresses:  
 Tensile stress = positive ( A same direction as F  )
 Compressive stress = negative ( A opposite direction to F )
 Shear stresses:
 In Mohr’s circle, other than in tensor notation according to this rule :
Rotating clockwise on the volume element: positive
Rotating counter clockwise on the volume element: negative

Example: Signs in Mohr‘s circle
 Stress tensor
  x  xy 0    700  200 0 
    N
σ ij   yx  y 0     200  100 0  2
 0 mm
 0 0   0 0 0 
 xy  0 (clockwise)
 yx  0 (counter clockwise)
2  (200)
tan(2 )   0.5
700  (100)
2  26.6

Hydrostatic stress component
 A state of stress where  x   y   z and  xy   xz   yz  0
 m 0 0 
 
 0 m 0 
 0  
 0 m
is called hydrostatic. It generally does not cause plastic deformation but changes the
formability. The hydrostatic component of a stress state is given by:
1 1
σ m  s  (σ x  σ y  σ z )  σ kk (14)
3 3
It is 1/3 of the first invariant of the stress tensor and thus independent of the chosen
coordinate system.

Stress deviator
 With the hydrostatic stress component  m , every stress state can be divided.
  x  xy  xz   ( x   m )  xy  xz    m 0 0 
     
 yx  y  yz     yx ( y   m )  yz    0  m 0 
            0  
 zx zy z   zx zy ( z m  
) 0 m
Stress tensor  Stress deviator  Hydrostatic stress

1
 ij  sij   kk  ij
3
 Only the deviatoric stress causes plastic deformation.
  1 0 0 
  
 ij  Kronecker symbol for  0 1 0 
  0 0 1 
 

Characteristics of the deviatoric stress tensor
 The trace of the deviatoric stress vanishes:
 ( x   m )  xy  xz   s x  xy  xz 
   
sij   ij    yx ( y   m )  yz    yx s y  yz  (15)
   (   )    s 
 zx zy z m   zx zy z 
skk  s x  s y  s z  ( x   m )  ( y   m )  ( z   m )
  x   y   z  3 m
(16)
  x   y   z  3 ( x   y   z ) 1
3
skk  0
 The shear stresses are equal in the deviator and in the stress tensor.

States of stress in cylindrical coordinates
 Cylinder coordinates are suitable for rotationally symmetric parts
 Axial symmetry is present if:

 all quantities of  ij are independent of  in the cylinder coordinate system and
 no circumferential shear stresses occur
z   z  0  r 0  rz 
or   (5)
r   r  0  ij   0  0
 zr   rz  0   z 
 zr 0
27
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 7

Axisymmetric example: Upsetting of a cylinder with friction
 In frictionless upsetting (uniaxial stress state) the specimen stays cylindrical
 In upsetting with friction, bulging occurs.
vrrel  R
R  z

Example: “Pure torsion”
 “Pure torsion” is not axisymmetric.
 shear stresses occur in the circumferential direction
0 0 0
 
 ij   0 0  z 
0  
 z 0 

Equilibrium conditions
 The three equilibrium conditions are:
 x  yx  zx
  0 (x-direction)
x y z growth
 xy  y  zy
  0 (y-direction) (93)
x y z
 xz  yz  z
  0 (z-direction)
x y z
 Example: Derivation in x-direction
 

 
area
 x  yx
x  x dx dydz   x dydz   yx  y dy dxdz (92)
  yx dxdz   zx   zx

z dz dxdy   zx dxdy  0
 Mass forces and inertial forces are neglected here in accordance with the conditions in
conventional forming processes. Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 92/93 30

Equilibrium under plane stress conditions
 Tensions in the thickness direction negligible:
z  0  x  yx
 0
x y
 yz   zy  0 (97)
 xy  y
 0
 xz   zx  0 x y
Example: Stretch forming (2D)
Punch
Sheet
Collet

Equilibrium in cylinder coordinates
 Equilibrium of forces
 r 1  r  zr  r   
   0
r r  z r
 r 1    z 2 r
   0 (96)
r r  z r
 rz 1  z  z  rz
   0
r r  z r

Equilibrium in the case of an axially symmetrical stress state
 Axial symmetry:
 All values independent of  and
 r = r = z = z = 0
 r  zr  r   
  0
r z r
1  
0 (99)
r 
 rz  z  rz
  0
r z r
 Examples: drawing, extrusion, compression of cylindrical bars and pipes


Equilibrium in torsion
 Shear stresses in radial direction = 0
r Mt  r   z    0
 z
Mt
0
R
z (101)
α ΨR  z
z 0

l

Summary
 The stress state during the forming process is represented in a 3x3 tensor.
 The normal stresses are indicated on the diagonal axis of the tensor.
 The diagonal axis of the tensor forms a symmetry axis for the shear stresses. This
symmetry can be derived from the equilibrium of moments.
 For each state of stress there is a principal axis system in which all shear stresses
disappear.
 For each stress tensor there are three invariants that describe the stress state
independent of the chosen coordinate system.
 The hydrostatic stress component is the first invariant, the trace of the tensor, and
describes an all-sided stress that does not cause any plastic deformation but contributes
to the forming capacity.
 If the hydrostatic stress component is subtracted from the stress tensor, the deviatory
stress component is created with a trace of zero.
 For axis symmetric parts it is advisable to use a cylindrical coordinate system.
 Stresses occurring on an element must be in equilibrium for the individual directions.
35
Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
36
Linear elastic behavior under small strains
 Reversible
 Strains related to the initial state (engineering strain)
 Hooke's law   E   (simplified)
 Stresses related to the initial cross-sectional area
F

A0
A0 A ≈ A0
l F

l0 37
Chapter 3 – Strain and strain rate

Engineering stress versus engineering strain in tension
Stress strain curve
elastic plastic
true stress 
F l flow stress kf
stress
0  l 
A0 l0
•
 Range 0 – 1: 2 • Engineering
0
 elastic = reversible 3
• stress
 Hooke's law : 1
  E 
Range 1 – 2:
• 𝐴𝑔

0 strain  l , l
 plastic = irreversible
 uniform deformation
 strain hardening until
uniform elongation Ag
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
 Range 2 – 3:
𝑙0 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
 area of necking 𝑑0
 further plastic deformation only within
the area of the necking 38

Small strains or plastic strain increments (related to change in length)
 The length change of the volume element y
ux+∆ux
corresponds to the difference in the ux
displacements “u” of its boundary surfaces.
∆x ∆x+∆ux
 The strain ε is defined as the length x  u x  x u x

change in relation to the initial length: x  
x x
u x u x
 For infinitesimal dimensions it is:  x  lim 
x 0 x x
Source: Spur, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, S.39 39

Small shear strains / shear strain increments (angular variations)
u y u x
A x B  x  x  2
x x y
1
u y A
A  x u y u y
1  tan 1    uy uy  x
B 1  u x x B x
x ux
x
u x
 2  tan  2  ... 
y ux 
u x
x
x
x
u y u x
  1   2  
x y
 The assumed approximations for 1
1  u x u y  and  2 are only valid for small angles!
 xy    
2  y x 
Source: : Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 16 40

Tensor of the strain increment
u x u y u
 xx  ;  yy  ;  zz  z
x y z 1  ui u j 
general  ij   
2  x j xi 
1  u x u y  1  u y u z  1  u x u z  distance increment
 xy    ;     ;     
x  2  z y 
direction
2  y 2  z x 
yz xz
 Tensor of strain increment
 u x 1  u x u y  1  u x u z  
      
x 2  y x  2  z x  
 xz  
Attention:
 x  xy
  1  u u  u y 1  u y u z   Valid only for small
 ij    yx y  yz     x  y      increments within the
  2 y x  y 2  z y  
 zx  zy  z     linear theory!
1 u u 1  u y u z  u z
  x  z     
 2  z
 x  2  z y  z 


Strain rate
 Strain increment:
u x
x 
x
 Strain rate:
   u x    u x  
x   x         vx  vx = velocity in x-direction
t t  x  x  t  x
(Schwarz`s / Young`s theorem for the
sequence of partial derivatives)
The strain rate of a volume element in the direction of a coordinate axis results from the
derivative of the velocity component in this direction according to this coordinate direction:
v x v y v
x  ;  y  ; z  z
x y z
Source: : Spur, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, S.39; Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, S.26 42

Shear rate
 Shear:
1  u x u y 
 xy    
2  y x 
 Shear rate:
   1  u x u y   1  v x v y 
xy   xy         
   vx = velocity in x-direction
t t  2  y x   2  y x 
The strain rate of a volume element in the direction of a coordinate axis can be adapted to
the expression of the shear rate:
v x 1  v x v x 
x     
x 2  x x 
Source: : Spur, Handbuch der Umformtechnik, S.39; Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, S.26 43

Strain rate tensor
vx v y v
xx  ;  yy  ; zz  z
x y z
1  v v 
general ij   i  j 
2  x j xi 
1  vx v y  1  v y vz  1  vx vz 
 xy  
   ; 
    ; 
    
2  y x  2  z y  2  z x 
yz xz
 Strain rate tensor
 v x 1  v x v y  1  vx vz  
      
x 2  y x  2  z x  
 x xy xz  
  1  v v  v y 1  v y vz  
ij    yx  y  yz     x  y     
   2 y x  y 2  z y  
 zx zy z    
1 v v 1  v y v z  v z
  x  z     
 2  z x 
 2  z y  z 


Strain rates in cylindrical coordinates
Axial symmetrical, i.e.
In general no tangential velocities. (n = 0)
independent from 
vr vr
rr r r
1 v vr vr
 r  r

r
v z v z
zz z z
1 1  1 vr v v 
r 2
r     
2  r  r z 
1
r  0
2
1 1  1 vz v  1
z 2
z   
2  r  z 

2
z  0
1 1  vr vz  1 1  v v 
zr 2
 zr  
 
2  z r 

2
z   r  z 
2  z r 

Derivation of the true strain (variant I)
 True strain by integrating the strain rate over the time.
 Requirements: vtool  const.

 Homogeneous deformation
 No shearing and rotating
x l1
l0
v x
 xx 
 pl
x
v x
t1 t1 t1 t1 t1
vtool vtool 1
 pl
  xx (t )dt   dt    dt   dt
x l  vtool t
xx
l l
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
vtool
t1
 l0   l0  t1  vtool   l1 
 ln  t   ...  ln   ln 
 vtool 0  l0   l0 
46

Derivation of the true strain (variant II)
 True strain by integrating the homogenous elongation from the initial length 𝒍𝟎
to the final length 𝒍𝟏
vtool  const.
 Requirements:
 Homogeneous deformation
x l1
 No shearing and rotating l0
 l1 
l1
dl
 pl
xx   d l    ln(l1 )  ln(l0 )  ln 
l0
l  l0 
47

Definition of the global true strain φ
If the spatial distribution of  ii is inhomogeneous, we define the global true strain 
pl

as the average of the local strain across the part dimension.
1 lx
x      xpl dx
pl
x
lx 0
e.g. in x - direction:
𝑝𝑙
𝜀𝑥 𝑥
𝜀𝑥 𝑝𝑙
𝜀𝑥ҧ
0 x
part
𝐼𝑥

Difference between l and l in case of homogeneous strain
l1
 Global true strain: dl l1
logarithmic strain based on the dimensions l   pl
xx    ln
of the workpiece l0
l l0
Related to current length
l1  l0
 Global engineering strain: l1 l
dl 1 1
linear strain based on the dimensions of  l   d l     dl 
the workpiece l
l0 0
l0 l 0 l0
Related to the initial length

 Convention for indexes:
 local strain:
(coordinates as index)  xxpl   x ,  yypl   y ,  zzpl   z or 1 ,  2 ,  3
 global strains:
(body dimensions as index)  l ,  h ,  w (engineering) or l ,  w ,  h (true)
49

Converting of the different strains
 Global true strain  and engineering strain εl
l l1  l0 l1
l    1
l0 l0 l0
l1 l1  l0
l  ln l 
l0 l0
l  ln(1   l )  l  e  1
l
 Examples
 Increase in length
( l  20%) : l  ln(1  0.2)  0.182

 Decrease in length
( l  20%) : l  ln(1  (0.2))  0.223

Global true strain φ and engineering strain
Cartesian coordinates True strain  Engineering strain
length l  ln l1
l0  l  l ll
1 0
 ln  
0
width w w1
w0 w  w1  w0
w0
height h  ln  
h1
h0 h  h1  h0
h0
 
Cylindrical coordinates r1  r0
radius (cylinder)  r  ln r1 r  r0
r0
 ln   s1  s0
wall thickness (tube) r s1
s0
r  s0
 ln   c1  c0
circumference*  c1
c0
  c0
 ln   h1  h0
height h h1
h0
h  h0
* In case of tube the mean diameter (d m    (d out  s )   ) should be used.


Multi-stage forming processes
Step 1 Step 2
 Warning: When changing between tension
and compression, absolute strain values
must be considered with respect to h0
material behavior, see “equivalent strain”. h1
h2
h2 h1 h2
 h ,tot  1   2  ln  h ,1  ln  h,2  ln
h0 h0 h1
n
 True strains can be added:  h ,tot    h ,i (i  step)
i 1
h1  h0 h2  h1 h2  h0
 h ,1   h,2   h ,tot    h ,1   h , 2
h0 h1 h0
 Engineering strains cannot be added directly.
Source: : Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 22/23 52

Volume constancy in plastic deformation
 Plastic deformation does not change the volume.
(Exceptions: Porosity, condensation of powder ...)
 Volume constancy: h0
h1
l1 w1 h1 l1
l1  w1  h1  l0  w0  h0 or   1 l0
l0 w0 h0 w0 w1
l1 w1 h1
 ln  ln  ln  ln 1  0 or l   w   h  0
l0 w0 h0
 With   ln(  1) results for engineering strain:
(εl  1 )  (ε w  1 )  (εh  1 )  1  0 or εl  ε w  ε h  0

Overview: states of strain
 2D- strain:
 If in one direction there is no strain at any time of the process: x  0
State of stress
State of strain upper roll
1D 2D 3D
One Impossible workpiece

dimensional (volume constancy)
Two
X  
dimensional
Three
  
dimensional
lower roll
X Impossible, because, for example, a tensile
stress in the length direction will cause
elongation, and at the same time a reduction in
the cross section.

Volume constancy
 Inflowing volume per time:
v x dydz  v y dzdx  v z dydz
 Outflowing volume per time:
v x
(v x  dx)dydz 
x
v y
(v y  dy )dzdx 
y
v
(v z  z dz )dxdy
z
 That becomes:
vx v y vz
  0 or x   y  z  0 (38)
x y z

Global strain rate 
 Local strain rate:   f (location, time)
 As a mean value in the deformation zone V :
⇒ 
 so:
1
 x  x   x dV
V V (42)
 y   y  ...
 z  z  ...
 Volume constancy:
 x   y   z  0 (43)

Typical values of strain rate
 The strain rate has influence on the material property e.g.:
 flow curve
 formability
 temperature field
Typical values of strain rate during some metal forming processes:
very slow, typical upsetting, high speed rolling,

quasi-static processes, rolling, sheet forming high speed wire drawing,
super plastic processes operations explosion forming
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
𝜑ሶ (𝑠 −1 )

Numerical examples for strain rates in compression test
vtool
  vtool
h
1 vtool
 1 ⇒ h1  h0
3
  1s 1 ⇒ 1s
  10 4 s 1 0.1ms ⇒
h0  h1 2 / 3 h0 2
vtool     h0  
t  /  3
mean tool velocity vtool for  
sample height
100s-1 10s-1 1s-1 0.1s-1 0.01s-1
h0 = 1mm 66.67mm/s 6.67mm/s 0.67mm/s 0.067mm/s 0.0067mm/s

Example: Strain rate variation and mean strain rate in compression
 Upsetting without friction:
mm
h0  30mm h1  12mm vtool  3  const.
s
vtool vtool 1 1
 z (t )  
    h0 
h h0  vtool t vtool  t 10s  t
t in s 0 2 4 6
h in mm 30 24 18 12
 z in s 1 0.1 0.125 0.167 0.25
 12  1
 zm   ln   0.153s 1

 30  6s
59

Summary
 In metal forming, the elastic deformation can usually be neglected compared to the
plastic deformation (exception: e.g. spring back in sheet metal forming)
 Plastic deformation does not influence the volume
 Only in the case of homogeneous deformation without rotations it is possible to integrate

the strain rate over the part dimension. It leads to a logarithmic measure for the global
true strain
 As strain increments changes in length in all coordinate directions as well as angular

variations in all section planes can occur
 We differ
 „engineering strain“ and „logarithmic“ strains
 local true strain (ij, logarithmic )
 global true strain 
and l,w,h (change in length, in percent)
60
Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
61
Flow stress / Flow curve
 Definition: Flow stress (yield stress) kf is the absolute value of the stress in a uni-
axial stress state which causes plastic flow
kf = 1 uniaxial tension
kf = 1 uniaxial compression
 kf depends on material (alloy, microstructure) as well as strain, strain rate and

temperature
 In case of multi-axis state of stress “equivalent stress” values must be determined to be

compared with the uniaxially measured yield stress
Chapter 4 – Yield criteria

Yield criteria according to VON MISES I
 Requirements on the yield criteria:
 Flow occurs when a function of all the coordinates of the stress tensor reaches the
flow stress.
 f ( ij )  k f (102)
 The hydrostatic stress has no influence on the beginning of plastic flow.
 k f  f ( sij ) (103)
 Isotropy: The yield criterion is independent of the chosen coordinate system.

 f ( I1, I 2 , I 3 )  k f
I The invariant refers to the deviatoric stress tensor


Yield criteria according to VON MISES II
 Additional requirements:
 I1  skk  0  f ( I 2 , I 3 )  k f (104)
 von Mises choses the second invariant, which for symmetric I 2 takes the form
I 2  12 sij sij  c1k 2f (105)
The introduced proportionality factor c1 is determined by inserting the values of the uni-axial
tensile test
Reminding:
  xy  yz  2 2
 xz 2
  
1 1 2 2 2 1 1
sij sij   s x  s y  s z  2 s xy  2 s xz  2 s yz  where sx   x   y   z
2 2 2 2 for
example
2 2 3 3 3
 
1
2
1
6
2

sij sij   x   y    y   z    z   x    xy   yz   zx
2 2 2 2 2


Yield criteria according to VON MISES III
 Uniaxial tension with plastic flow: 1 = kf
 1 0 0   23 k f 0 0 
   
 ij   0 0 0   sij (uniaxial )   0  13 k f 0 
 0 0 0  0  13 k f 
   0 
 In this case the second invariant of the deviator is:
1
2
1
6
2

I '2  sij sij   x   y    y   z    z   x    xy   yz   zx
2 2 2 2 2

1 2
 1 2
I 2   1   1  k f  k f  3I 2
6
2
3

 The outcome of this and with 1 = kf is the following yield criteria:
3
3I 2  sij sij  k f
2

Equivalent stress formulas according to VON MISES
 eq = kf ⇒ plastic flow eq < kf ⇒ elastic flow
 in general cartesian coordinate systems:
 eq 
1
2
  
 x   y 2   y   z 2   z   x 2  3  xy2   yz2   zx2  (112)
 In cylindrical coordinate system and in case of axial symmetry:  r   z  0
 eq 
1
2
 
 r    2      z 2   z   r 2  3 rz2 (113)
 in principal axis-system
 eq 
1
2

 1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2 
 k f  3  k  1.73  k

Yield criteria according to VON MISES IV
 Modification using the „shear flow limits“:
 Yielding takes place when the maximal shear stresses have
reached the typical for the material value k
 from I 2  c2 k 2 and  k
1 1
( sij sij )  (k 2  k 2 )  c2 k 2 c2  1
2 2
1
k sij sij (107)
2
Compared to
3
kf  sij sij results in
kf  3k (108)
2

Yield criteria according to VON MISES V
 Interpretation:
 von Mises: Derivation from the above mathematical consideration
 Hencky: Distortion energy hypothesis
 Experiment:
 Confirmed Von Mises criterion for many metals in good approximation

TRESCA: Shear stress hypothesis
 Yielding will occur when the largest shear stress max reaches a critical value (shear flow
stress k of the material, e.g. when the highest difference between principal stresses
reaches the value of the flow stress.
|  max | k 2 |  max | 2k   max   min (109)
Shear stress General state of stress Uniaxial state of stress
⇒  max   min  k f  2k (110 and 111)

Equivalent stress according to TRESCA
 Tresca in principal axis system (!):
 eq   max   min   1   3  2 |  max | (114)
for 1   2   3
 Accordingly: 2 has no influence on the onset of yielding

Comparison between VON MISES and TRESCA
 Equal when  2  1 or 2  3
1
 15% difference, when  2  ( 1   3 ) (valid for plane strain)
2
 1   3  eq,TRESCA
 eq  ... 
3
 1   3   
,MISES
2 1.15 1.15
𝜎𝑒𝑞 Tresca
von Mises

3  2 1 71

Geometric representation of the yield locus in principle stresses
 Points on the cylinder surface
 plastic flow Space
diagonal
 Points inside
 elastic
 Points outside are not possible
 Body diagonal
 also for large m no plastic flow

Geometric representation of the yield locus in principle stresses
 Points on the cylinder surface
 Plastic flow
 Points inside
 elastic
 Points outside are not possible

cut at σ2 = 0
 Body diagonal
 also for large m no plastic flow

Anisotropic material properties
 For some forming processes the direction-dependency of the material properties, the
anisotropy has to be taken into consideration
 Example: earing (end formation) in metal sheet deep drawing
 Elastic and plastic anisotropy as well as anisotropic hardening are important for the
forming technology
View A
QR = cross direction View A

SR = extrusion direction
Change of the front surface geometry Earing in deep drawing

of a bulged zinc material after upsetting
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen 74

Causes of Anisotropy
 Crystal anisotropy / texture WE: Rolling plane; WR: Rolling direction
quasi- isotropic (100)[011] – texture [111] – fibre texture

 Microstructure anisotropy
 Grain size and grain shape distribution, e.g. secondary structure of steel (sheet) (a)
 Crystallographic orientation of excised particles, e.g. Al-Cu alloy (b)
grain form
elongated grain
oriented
separated
a particles b
Source: Lange, Umformtechnik, Band I: Grundlagen 75

Measures of anisotropy (especially for sheet metal forming)
 Definition: Normal anisotropy (also R-Value or Lankford coefficient)
 w1 
ln 
w  w0 

r   (116)
s  s1 
ln
s   w
 0 
|r | = 1: isotropic, plastic behavior F
s
|r | > 1: anisotropic, plastic behavior
“More material flows from the width into the length of the metal strip, than from
the thickness”, e.g. a larger resistance of the sheet metal against a reduction of
its thickness
 high normal anisotropy is ideal for deep drawing of sheets
|r | < 1: anisotropic, plastic behavior

“More material flows from the thickness into the length of the metal strip, than
from the width”, e.g. a larger resistance of the sheet metal against a reduction of
its width.

Example: deep drawing of a cup – FEM simulation
 | r | < 1: Larger resistance of the sheet  | r | > 1: Larger resistance of the sheet
metal against a change of its width metal against a change of its thickness
 Significant change of the thickness  smaller change in thickness,
good deep drawing properties
punch
die blank holder
sheet
|r|<1 |r|>1
Change in
thickness in %
-10 +10
77

Yield locus with normal anisotropy
 In the case of normal anisotropy, the yield
locus curve is stretched / compressed along
the main axis of the ellipse σ2
 The yield criteria is then r>1
(acc. to Hill or Hosford and Backofen):
r<1
acc. to von Mises
2r (isotropic)
 eq  1  1  2   22
2 kf0
1 r
σ1
| r | > 1 : Typical for soft deep drawing steels
| r | ≈ 1 : Typical for high strength, isotropic steels
| r | < 1 : Typical for high-strength steels and

aluminum alloys
Source: Lange Lehrbuch d. Umformtechnik Band 3 Massivumformung S . 339 78

Average normal anisotropy
 The normal anisotropy depends on the position of the sample with respect to the rolling
direction (RD).
2.5
RD
2.0
r0°
Normal anisotropy in RD, r0

r45
MSt
1.5
r45°
St14
1.0
r90°
0.5
 Definition:
average normal anisotropy 𝒓ത
St13
r  r0  2  r45  r90 

1 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
4
Normal anisotropy 90° to the RD, r90
 Good deep drawing behavior for 𝑟ҧ > 1.25
Source: Pöhlandt, Hasek (Lange Bd.3 S.17ff); Groche; Schacher (Spur Bd.2/3 S.1133) 79

Planar anisotropy
 Definition: planar anisotropy 𝚫𝒓:
0.5·(r0° + r90°)
r   r0  2  r45  r90   2  r  r45 
1
r0°
2 r90°
r
 The planar anisotropy is a measure for the
earing in deep drawing caused by the r45°
directional dependency of r.
 For r > 0 it is:

 at the “top of the ear” the r- value is
high, i.e. the changes in sheet thickness
(= increase) are small.
Earing height
 “radial length” higher.
 at the “bottom of the ear” the r- value is
low, i.e. the changes in sheet thickness
(= increase) are high
 “radial length” smaller.
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 106, Pöhlandt, Hasek (Lange Bd.3 S.17ff); Groche
planar anisotropy 80

Example: deep drawing of a cup – FEM simulation
 isotropic sheet  sheet with planar anisotropy
Plastic strain
high
low
81

Yield locus with planar anisotropy
σ2
 For planar anisotropy, the yield locus
rotates around the origin tension 90º r0 = r90
r0 < r90
 The axis of anisotropy are no longer
collinear to the directions of the principle kf0,90°
stresses
kf0,90° r0 > r90
 A square yield criteria is then („Hill48“,
used for soft steels):
45º
σ1
2r0 r (1  r90 ) 2 tension 0º
 eq   12   1   2  0 2
1  r0 r90 (1  r0 ) kf0,0°
kf0,0°

Determination of material data for anisotropic sheet metal simulations
 Material behavior must be determined Biaxial
σ2
experimentally in accordance with the Uniaxial
tension
actual stress conditions tension
 Stress states, which are necessary for a
clear description of the yield locus in
σ1 − σ2 -space
σ1
Uniaxial
compression
Shear stress
Biaxial
compression
Source: Pöhland, K.: Werkstoffe und Werkstoffprüfung f. d. Kaltmassivumformung S. 81 - 109 83

Types of hardening
In general, a distinction is made between  2
Initial
yield
isotropic and kinematic hardening y locus
 1
 Isotropic hardening increases the yield
locus uniformly in all directions
Cause: Dislocation multiplication as a
result of plastic deformation.
Yield locus acc. to isotropic hardening
 Kinematic hardening leads to a
 2 Initial
displacement of the flow area in the
yield
stress area y locus
Cause: There are back stresses in the
material which are superimposed on the  1
external stresses.
Yield locus acc. to kinematic hardening

Source: www.AluMatter.info 84

Combined isotropic and kinematic hardening
Initial geometry Tensile Compression
20 % Elongation
kf 2 Yield locus after

combined isotropic-
Yield locos after
kinematic hardening
kf0 isotropic hardening
kf0
 1
'
kf'0
𝑘 ′𝑓0 < 𝑘𝑓0
Bauschinger effect: If a metal is first deformed in one direction so that it is

plastically deformed and then deforms it in the opposite direction, the flow stress
in the opposite direction is lower.
Source: Chaboche JL (1989) Constitutive equations for cyclic plasticity and cyclic viscoplasticity. Int J Plast 5:247 85

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
86
Characteristics of elastic and plastic behavior
 Elastic range:
 eq  k f
 Hooke’s law ( ij  f ( ij ))
 natural reverence state
 reversible after the removal of the load
 Plastic range:
 eq  k f
 flow rule (ij  f ( ij ))
 not a natural reference state
 not a natural reference state
Chapter 5 – Elastic behavior and flow laws

Elastic behavior according to Hooke
 Hooke‘s law gives a direct relation between the stress state and the elastic strain:
 ij 
1
sij (120)  ij  Strain deviator
2G sij  Stress deviator
E n Poisson‘s ratio
G
2(1 n ) G Shear modulus
1
E

 ij   ij  v íj kk   ij   (121)
1
E

 x   x  v y   z  ;  y  [...] ;  z  ...
1
E

(122)
1 1 1 1
 xy   xy  xy ;  yz  ... ;  zx  ...
2 2G 2 2

Description of plastic yielding
 During plastic flow there is no direct relation between the stress state and the total strain.
 The flow rule must describe:
strain increment = f (state of stress)
 For ideal-plastic behavior, Mises poses a "linear" relationship:
d ij  dsij
(123)
 In addition, the yield criterion must be fulfilled:
1 2
f ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  I 2  k f
3
(compare 106)
 Further assumptions concerning the material behavior are
 rigid plastic
 isotropic
 not viscous
 no hardening

Flow rule according to Lévy, von Mises
d ij  dsij  ij  sij (124)
x  s x    ( x   m )
 y  s y  ...
z  s z  ...
xy  12 xy   xy (125)
1
2  yz   yz
1
2 xz   xz

Determination of
 Flow rule: ij  sij (124)
 square: ijij  2 sij sij (A)
3
 Flow condition: kf  sij sij (106)
2
2 2 2
 (106) in (A):  ij ij    k f
 
3
1 3
  ijij (126)
kf 2

Properties of
 1 3
 ijij (126)
kf 2
 

1 3 2

2
2
 2

1 2
  2
 
2 
 x   y   z   xy   yz   zx 
  (127)
kf 2 
 The following applies:
  f (k f , location, time)
 because
ij  f (location, time)


Example: Flow rule in case of plane strain
 Plane strain.: 2  0 during the whole process
2    ( 2   m )
 Flow rule: 2  0    ( 2   m )  0
  0  ( 2   m )  0
2 m
 2   m  13 ( 1   2   3 )
2
3  2  13 ( 1   3 )
 2  12 ( 1   3 )
 Remember: In plane strain the stress  2 in the direction of zero strain is equal to  m :
 2   m  12 ( 1   3 )

Elastic-plastic material law
 Prandtl and Reuss combine Hook and Lévy-Mises in the case that the plastic
deformation is of the same order of magnitude as the elastic one
1 sij
 Elastic part  ij  sij => ij  (120)
2G 2G
 Plastic part ij  sij (124)
 Additive combination:
“The total strain rate is the sum of the elastic strain rate and plastic strain rate”
sij
ij   sij (128)
2G

Summary
 The yield stress under uniaxial load is equal to kf.
 In the case of multi-axis states of stress, the stress components must be converted to
the equivalent stress. This is done using the flow condition. If the equivalent stress kf is
reached, plastic flow occurs.
 The flow condition can be represented as a yield locus curve as a function of the main
normal stresses.
 There are various flow conditions, which can be selected depending on the material. The
most common isotropic flow conditions are those according to Tresca and von Mises.
 The start of plastic flow is independent of the hydrostatic pressure and, for isotropic
materials, independent of the choice of the coordinate system.
 Anisotropic flow conditions (e.g. Hill48) take into account the directional dependency of
the beginning of plastic flow, which can, for example, lead to ear formation during cup
drawing.
 After reaching the start of plastic flow, there are different types of hardening. Two basic
models are isotropic (uniform spread of the yield locus) and kinematic hardening
(displacement of the yield locus)
 According to Hook's law of elastic deformation, Lévi's and von Mises's laws of flow apply
to the relationship between the state of stress and the increase in deformation. 95
Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
96
Calculation of forming work from stress and strain
 Work in the entire body (1D):
work = force • displacement = ... = stress • volume • strain
 Work increase in the volume element (1D):
(48)
work increase = volume • stress • strain increment
Chapter 6 – Deformation work/ Deformation power

Internal work (plastic dissipation)
 “deformation work”, by integrating equation (48) for x-direction
dWx    x d x dV or   xx dtdV

(V ) (V )
 Consequently for three dimensional loading
dW    ij d ij dV or   ij ij dtdV
(V ) (V )
 Or with equivalent values
dW    eq d eq dV   eqeq dtdV
(V ) (V )

Internal work
 With eq = kf it follows:
dW   k f d eq dV or   k f eq dtdV (146)

(V ) (V )
 The work for the overall process
 eq t
W   k f d eq dV or   k 
f eq dtdV (147)
(V ) 0 (V ) 0
or using kfm
W   k fm eq dV (148)
(V )
Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 119 99

Specific deformation work and power
 Specific deformation work W
(Deformation work density): w
V
 W
 Deformation power: W    ijij dV (57)
t V
w
 Specific power:
w    ij ij (58)
t

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
101
Local equivalent strain rate
 Defining eq such that the power density is equal to the calculation from  ij and ij :
w   ij ij  k f eq (133)
w   ij ij  sij   m ij  ij  sij ij   m ij ij
 1 0 0   xx xy xz 

   
 ij ij   0 1 0     yx  yy  yz   xx   yy  zz  0
 0 0 1    zy zz 
   zx
Because of the volume consistency:
x   y  z  0   ij ij  0
It follows that:
w  k f eq   ij ij  sij ij (134)
Chapter 7 – Equivalent strain values

Case A: Local equivalent strain rate acc. to Lévy - v. Mises
 Introducing the flow rule in (134):

 ij
 
 1 3 sij sij 3
w  k f  eq  sij sij   sij sij
 ij ij  eq  ij ij (A)
 kf 2 k 2f 2
ij 

3 2 2
k  sij sij
2
f  sij sij  k f (B) (yield criteria acc. to v. Mises)
2 3
(B) in (A):
eq 
2
3
ij ij 
2 2
3
 
x   y2  z2  2 xy2   yz2  zx2  (135)

Case B: Local equivalent strain rate according to Tresca
 According to a similar derivation, for Tresca
eq   max (in principal axis system) (137)
 Numerical comparison von Mises and Tresca:
given: 1  15s 1 ; 2  5s

1
; 3  10s 1
 von Mises:
eq , Mises 
3

2 2

1  22  32  ...  15.3s 1
 Tresca:
eq ,Tresca   max  1   15s 1  15s 1
 For plane strain (2  0 ) it follows that:

2
eq , Mises  eq ,Tresca  1.15  eq ,Tresca
3

Global equivalent strain rate
 In analogy with the global strain , the same follows for the whole volume
1
eq 
V  
V
eq dV
 In principal axis system without shearing:
 According to von Mises:
eq 
2 2
3

1   22  32  (138)
 According to Tresca:
eq   max (139)

Local equivalent strain
 eq 2
 eq   d eq   dt   eq dt   ij ij dt (140)
t 3
 eq is
 the integral of equivalent strain rate over time
 a local variable
 measure for the performed plastic work
 important for material behavior.
 Only in case of proportional strain (= constant ratio of the 𝜺ሶ 𝒊𝒋 -values) the following
equations hold:
 According to von Mises
 
t1
2 2 2 1 2 2 
 eq   ij ij     2
  2
    2
 
3 
x y z xy yz zx  (141)
t0
3 2 
 According to Tresca
 eq   max
(142)

Global equivalent (true) strain
 In case of homogeneous strain follows
1
 eq 
V 
V
eq dV
(143)
 Only in the case of a proportional strain change without shearing:
 According to von Mises:
 eq 
2 2
3
1   22  32  (144)
 According to Tresca:
 eq   max
(145)

Examples: Equivalent values
ε eq Local equivalent strain (exact), Eq. (140)
1.5 Local equivalent strain (approx.), Eq. (141)
Global equivalent strain (exact), φeq = 0.729, Eq. (143)
Global equivalent strain (approx.), φeq = 0.693, Eq. (144)
1.0
ϕeq
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 115/116
Element number 108

Summary
 The same power density must result from the equivalent strain rate and the flow stress,
as from  ij and ij
 The equivalent strain rate is calculated from the squares of the strain rate of the tensor,
so that a positive value is always obtained.
 The equivalent strain rate according to Tresca shows the maximum deviation in the
plane strain state ( 2  0 ) and is in this case 15% larger than the equivalent strain rate
according to von Mises.
 Due to the constant volume, the following applies: x   y  z  0
 Under the condition of proportional deformation, the equivalent strain is calculated by
integrating the equivalent strain rate over time.
109
Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
110
Heat transfer
 Material properties depend on temperature
 Metal forming means among other things:

 high temperatures
 supply of forming energy  heat dissipation
 friction heat
 high temperature gradients
within the workpiece
between workpiece and tool
between workpiece and the surrounding
 Heat transfer has an important influence on the forming process
Chapter 8 – Heat conduction and heat transfer

Types of heat transport
 Within the body  heat conduction
 By mass transportation (e.g. fluid flow)  convection
 At boundary areas:  heat transfer
 between work piece and fluids  convective heat transfer

density differences  natural convection
pressure differences  forced convection
 between two bodies which have contact to  heat transfer

each other
 without contact (vacuum)  radiation

Heat conduction I
Q 1  2
 One dimensional, stationary, without heat
sources:  q    
A 
 1
𝐴= Area
Q 𝛿= Thickness
𝑄ሶ = Heat flow [W]
𝑞ሶ ′′ = Heat flow density [W/m²]
2 𝜆= Heat conductivity [W/(m∙K)]

x

 As differential equation: q    (Fourier‘s law)
x 113

Heat conduction II
 Change of energy in one volume element:
dU d
   c p  dx  dy  dz  (a)
dt dt
 Incoming heat flux (x-direction)
 
dQx     dy  dz (b)
x
 Outgoing heat flux (x-direction)
 ( dQ )
dQ x  dx  dQ x  x
dx (c)
x
  
 dQx  (  )dxdydz
x x
 Equations similar to (b) and (c) can be also written for y and z-directions.
 Net energy balance can be formulated.
114

Heat conduction III
 The energy balance related to a volume element results in the equation for transient heat
conduction:
Change of Sum of Sum of
thermal energy in = incoming heat - outgoing heat + Heat sources
volume element flows flows
d               
  cp                   
dt  x  x  y  y  z  z  
 where:  = const.; cp = const. und  = const.
d    2  2  2 
   2  2  2   sources
dt   c p  x y z 

a is called “thermal diffusivity” [m²/s]
  cp (≠ heat conductivity)
 Examples for heat sources: dissipation, forming heat, melting heat, other phase
transformation energy 115

Heat conduction and convection
To correspond to energy transport by mass transport new terms will be added to the
previous equation as the following
 Without derivation (for , , cp = const.):
d          2  2  2 
 v x  vy  vz     2  2  2   sources
dt  x y z     c p  x y z 
convection conduction
 where nx, ny,, nz, are the velocity components
 Important for simulation of continuous processes like rolling or extrusion if material flows
through an Eulerian mesh which is fixed in space (ref. chapter FEM).
116

Reference values for typical material data
Material Density  Specific heat cp Heat conductivity 

(temperature)
[kg/dm3] [J/(kgK)] [W/(mK)]
Low alloy steel
20 °C 7.84 460 39
900 °C 7.57 600 27
1300 °C 7.38 715 32
Al-Si-alloys
20 °C 2.7 900 240
300 °C 2.6 1000 230
400 °C 2.6 1100 230
Cu-alloys Depending on alloy
20 °C 8.9 360 25 to 400
700 °C 8.6 490 60 to 360
1000 °C 8.4 490 70 to 340

Convective heat transfer and heat transfer between solid bodies
 Convection to a fluid:
Q  = Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²K)]
q      w     = f (geometry, material properties, velocity)
A 𝜗𝑤 = Surface temperature of the wall
α in W/(m²K) Cooling medium

Natural convection, gases 3 to 20
water 100 to 600
Forced convection, gases 10 to 100
water 500 to 10.000 Body
Boiling water 2.000 to 25.000
Condensation of water vapor 5.000 to 100.000
 Heat transfer between solid bodies: ϑ

q     s1  s 2  Body 1 Body 2
 In this case the heat transfer coefficient depends on the ϑs2

surface structure and also the contact pressure. ϑs1
metal - metal 200 to 20.000 W/(m2K)
 At high contact pressure: up to 100.000 W/(m2K) x
Source: VDI-Wärmeatlas 118

Heat transfer by radiation I
 According to the Stefan Boltzmann‘s law, a “black body” emits the following heat flow
density due to radiation
 = 5.67·10-8 W/(m2K4) ; Stefan Boltzmann constant

    T
q rad 4
T = absolute temperature [K]
 Alternatively, the following useful notation is valid:
   * 
T  * = 5.67 W/(m2K4)
qrad  T = absolute temperature [K]
 100 
 Because of the 4th power of the temperature, heat losses caused by radiation are
significant at high body temperatures.
119

Heat transfer by radiation II
 For a closer examination of the heat losses caused by radiation, the following
aspects have to be considered:
 interaction between the bodies: received radiation  emitted radiation

 spatial orientation of the radiating surfaces
 radiation properties of the respective technical surface
(emissivity ε, directionality, ...)
 There is a simplified estimation for “small” radiating bodies in a “large”

surrounding: 2
q [W / m ]
2
  20 [W / m K ] radiation
  0.8
q rad 
      Tbody
4
 Tsurroundin
4
g
   20C convection
0
0 781 1000
surface temperature w [C ]
120

Heat transfer by radiation II
 For a closer examination of the heat losses caused by radiation, the following
aspects have to be considered:
 interaction between the bodies: received radiation  emitted radiation

 spatial orientation of the radiating surfaces
 radiation properties of the respective technical surface
(emissivity ε, directionality, ...)
 There is a simplified estimation for “small” radiating bodies in a “large”

surrounding:   20C
2
q [W / m ]  radiation
  0.8

      Tbody
q rad 4
 Tsurroundin
4
g
 convection
  20 [W / m 2 K ]
  3 [W / m 2 K ]
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
surface temperature w [C ] 121

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
122
Friction
 Friction affects
 Stress state, deformation state, temperature
 Force, torque, power
 Wear
 Friction is often unwanted because of

 Force increase, wear, ...
 Friction is sometimes essential for

 Rolling, prevention of wrinkles in deep drawing , ...
Chapter 9 – Friction and friction models

Parameters influencing the friction
 Surface topography of the contact partner
 Nominal contact area, hooking
 Contact pressure
 Change of the surface topography and
increase of effective contact area through
flattening of roughness peaks
 Relative displacement
 Flattening and grooving
 Relative velocity
 hydrodynamic lubrication
 Lubricant:
 Viscosity =
f(temperature, pressure,…)
 Thickness of the lubricant layer
 Layer structure
 Surface enlargement

Friction conditions
 Friction conditions are classified as:
 solid state friction ↔ fluid friction
 boundary friction ↔ mixed film friction
 Metal Forming:
 Mainly mixed friction, because in the
contact zone the normal stress is
usually very high (p > kf)

Coulomb’s friction model
 Coulomb (1870) formulated the following
common friction law: FN
F fric   FN
Ffric
 fric    N Anom Anom = nominal contact surface
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
 In metal forming, the occurring shear 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘
stress has to be limited to the shear flow μ= 0.8 .
stress 𝑘 due to the possible high normal μ= 0.4 .
stresses.
𝜎𝑁∗
For 𝜎𝑁 > 𝜎𝑁∗ , it is: 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑘

Friction factor model
 For rough estimation, the following equation is used:
 fric ,max  mk  m  0.5k f (TRESCA) 0  m 1
 Attention! m  f (N), this is not based on physical principles.
 fric
 fric ,max  k m 1
m  1  sticking m 1
m  0  no friction
 Better is m = 1 with combination of Coulomb N

Combined friction models
 Combined Wanheim-Bay model 1974
 Parameter µ and m
 fric
 Combination of the previous models Combined model
Friction factor model
 Friction stress depends on σN, as long as:
 fric  mk , after that constant mk
Transition model
 Transition models (Bernhardt 1998, Doege 2003)
 fric
 As an approximation to the combined model Coulomb model
128

Liquid (hydrodynamic) friction
 Hydrostatic: Pressure is applied and maintained from outside („air cushion“ boat)
 Hydrodynamic: Pressure due to relative velocity (e. g. sliding bearing)
 Transition from solid state friction to hydrodynamic friction:

 Decrease of  with v up to the start of liquid friction
dv vrel
 Then increase of    / p according to   h   (viscous fluids)   
dy h
vrel
Solid state friction
y Boundary friction
h
Friction coefficient μ
Mixed friction
Liquid friction
(hydrodynam. lubrication)
h = Viscosity of the lubricant

nrel = Relative velocity between the friction pair h  vrel
p = Normal pressure in the contact area p

STRIBEK- Diagram 129

Consideration of surface topology
 In metal forming, the friction coefficient  also depends on the
normal pressure and the tangential displacement.
 This can be described qualitatively via changes of the surface
topology during the metal forming process. It is distinguished
between:
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
 nominal contact surface 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚
 real contact surface 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚
 For example, plastic deformation of the

roughness peaks increases the ratio of
real contact surface.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
130
Selected friction models for metal forming
Model Description Parameter
Coulomb [1] 𝜏fric = µ𝜎N µ
Reibfaktor [1] 𝜏fric = 𝑚∗ 𝑘f 𝑚
∗
Kombiniertes 𝜏fric = µ𝜎N für 𝜎N < 𝑚 𝑘f /µ µ, 𝑚
Modell [1] 𝜏fric = 𝑚∗ 𝑘f für 𝜎N ≥ 𝑚∗ 𝑘f /µ
Wanheim und Bay 𝑓
(1974) [2–5] 𝜏fric = 𝑓𝛼𝑘
Shaw, (v. Betten) 𝑛, µ

(1963-75) [6] 𝑛 µ𝜎N 𝑛
𝜏fric = 𝑘 tanh
𝑘
Bernhardt (1998) [7] 2 -
1 𝑘f 2 1 − 2𝜈
µmax = 2
−
3 𝜎N 1−𝜈
Chen und 2 𝑣rel 𝑚, 𝐶
Kobayashi (1978) 𝜏fric = 𝑚𝑘 arctan
[8] 𝜋 𝐶
Neumaier (2003) [9] 𝜎N 2 𝑣rel 𝑚0 , 𝐶
𝜏fric = 𝑚0 𝑘 1 − exp − arctan
𝑘f 𝜋 𝐶
𝑠2
Alasti (2008) [10] 𝜎eq 𝜎eq 𝜎N 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 ,
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 0.15 ∙ 1 − 𝜎N + 𝑘 1 − exp −𝑠1 ∙ 𝑓(𝑣rel ) 𝑓(𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 )
𝑘f 𝑘f 𝑘f
IFUM (2009) [11] 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚, 𝐶
𝜎eq 𝜎eq 𝜎N 1 𝑣rel 2
= 0.3 ∙ 1 − 𝜎N + 𝑚𝑘 1 − exp − ∙ exp −
𝑘f 𝑘f 𝑘f 2 𝐶
𝜏R : shear stress, 𝜎N : normal stress, 𝜎eq : equivalent strain, 𝑘f : flow stress, 0 < m* < 0.5
𝑘: shear flow stress,𝜈: Poisson, 𝑣rel : relative velocity, 𝛼: ratio of the true and theoretical contact surface 0<m<1
131

References of the friction models
[1] E. Doege, B.-A. Behrens, Handbuch Umformtechnik: Grundlagen, Technologien, Maschinen, Springer Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007.
[2] T. Wanheim, N. Bay, S. Petersen, A Theoretically Determined Model for Friction in Metal Working Processes,
Wear 28 (1974) 251–258.
[3] N. Bay, T. Wanheim, Real Area of Contact and Friction Stress at High Pressure Sliding Contact, Wear 38 (1976) 201–209.
[4] N. Bay, Friction Stress and Normal Stress in Bulk Metal-Forming Processes, Journal of Mechanical Working Technology 14
(1987) 203–223.
[5] N. Bay, T. Wanheim, Contact Phenomena under Bulk Plastic Deformation Conditions, in: Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Technology of Plasticity: Advanced Technology of Plasticity. ICTP, Japan Society for
Technology of Plasticity, 1990, pp. 1677–1691.
[6] E. Doege, C. Bederna, T. El-Dsoki, D. Seibert, N. Werner, Struktur zur Beschreibung lokaler, geschichtsabhängiger
Zwischenschichtgesetze: Gemeinschaftsprojekt "Prozeßsimulation in der Umformtechnik". Teilprojekt 8, in: K. Lange (Ed.),
Abschlusskolloquium des Projektes Prozesssimulation, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1993, pp. 87–102.
[7] R. Bernhardt, Ein Beitrag zur experimentellen und numerischen Analyse lokaler Kontaktspannungen und
Kontakttemperaturen in der Wirkfuge von Gesenkgravuren unter besonderer Beachtung des Randreibungsproblems.
Dissertation, Freiberg, 1998.
[8] C.C. Chen, S. Kobayashi, Rigid Plastic Finite Element Analysis of ring Compression, in: H. Armen, R.F. Jones (Eds.),
Winter annual meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1978, pp. 163–174.
[9] T. Neumaier, Zur Optimierung der Verfahrensauswahl von Kalt-, Halbwarm- und Warmmassivumformverfahren.
Dissertation, Hannover, 2003.
[10] M. Alasti, Modellierung von Reibung und Wärmeübergang in der FEM-Simulation von Warmmassivumformprozessen.
Dissertation, Hannover, 2008.
[11] B.-A. Behrens, A. Bouguecha, J. Mielke, G. Hirt, M. Bambach, A. Demant, R. Salomon, S. Widdermann, Untersuchung und
Erweiterung bestehender Ansätze zur verbesserten Beschreibung von Reibung und Wärmeübergang in der FEM-Simulation
von Warmmassivumformprozessen: Abschlussbericht IGF 15204N, 2009.
132

Friction heat
 Frictional work at the surface 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 : displacement
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 : displacement velocity
𝒔𝒓𝒆𝒍 FN
𝐹𝑁 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
W fric  F fric  srel 𝜎𝑁 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
Ffric 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚
W fric
⇒   fric  srel
Anom Anom 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇 ∙ 𝜎𝑁
Anom = contact surface
 Frictional power at the surface
W fric Pfric
Pfric   F fric  rel ⇒   fric  rel
t Anom
 Heat flux density = Power / Area
Pfric
q ''
fric    fric  rel
Anom

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
134
Flow curve
 The plot of the function k f  k f (,, ) is called flow curve:
k f 0  0 ! because only plastic deformation is regarded
kf kf
φሶ =const.
Recovery only
ϑ = const Recovery and
recrystallization
kf0,cold
φሶ =const.
kf0,hot
ϑ = const
φ φ
 Typical cold flow curve (strain hardening)  Typical hot flow curve (strain hardening,
recovery, recrystallization)
k f 0,cold  k f 0,hot
135
Chapter 10 – Determination and modeling of flow curves

Classification of materials behavior I
The flow curve allows statements about:
 Strain hardening of the material
 Calculation of forces, energy, power, stress, strain, temperatures
 Categories for the modeling of the behavior of metals:

σ σ
ε ε
 Rigid-perfect plastic  Elastic-perfect plastic
σ σ
ε ε
 Rigid-linear hardening  Elastic-linear hardening 136

Classification of materials behavior II
σ σ
ε ε
 rigid-realistic hardening  elastic- realistic hardening
σ σ
ε ε
 rigid-hardening and softening  elastic- hardening- and softening
σ
𝜀ሶ
ε
 rigid-(elastic)-viscoplastic
137

Flow curve determination methods
 Standard tests  Special tests
 compression test  torsion test
 tensile test  bending test
 bulge test
 …
 Sometimes big differences between the test methods (up to 30 % in extreme situations)
because of the following reasons:
 influence of the hydrostatic stress (m)
 inhomogeneous state of stress or strain
 Hypotheses for equivalent values are necessary.
 accuracy of the test conditions (e.g.  ,  )
138

Tensile test to the point of fracture
 For the material characterization the initial
cross section will be often considered: uniaxial
τ
Stress:  0  F / A0 kf σ
Tensile strength: Rm  Fmax / A0 multiaxial
 To determine the flow stress the actual cross

fracture
section must be regarded.
φtot
 Above the uniform elongation F/A is larger than or ,φ
kf due to radial stresses in the necking area tot
until tot : kf =  necking

kf  F / A above that kf < 
139

Tensile test until the beginning of necking
F F l F l0  Δl
kf    2 
A A0  l0 πd 0 / 4 l0
d0 F
4 F  Δl 
k f  2 1  
πd 0  l0 
 Δl 
  ln1  
l0  Δl  l0 
F vtool
 
l
 For  = const. : vtool t   l0    e t or vtool    l0  Δl 
Advantages: - It is relatively easy to carry out the test.
- The target values kf and  can be calculated without difficulty.
Disadvantages: - The state of stress is only uniaxial before the beginning of necking.
- The preparation of the specimen is complex.

Tensile test to the point of fracture
Standard test method  tensile strength Rm
ultimate elongation A
To determine the flow curve, the neck geometry must be measured, and the following
corrections must be applied
 = “outer radius of the necking area”
F  According to Siebel:
kf 
F 
with A d2
A(1  8d ) 4

l0  Δl  According to Bridgeman:
kf 
F 
d
A(1  4d ) ln(1  4d )
with A d2
4
 For both
F   ln(d 02 / d 2 )  2 ln(d 0 / d )
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S 43 141

Tensile test on pre-strained material
1. step: N samples are produced and strained to different amount of pre-strain (1, ..., n)
by using compressive state of stress (e.g. sheet rolling)
2. step: Several tensile tests are carried out to determine the yield stress
3. step: Flow curve will be plotted point-wise
Advantages: high  possible

Disadvantages: large effort (rolling + tensile test)
for each point of the curve
142

Cylinder upsetting without friction
 Decrease of the friction via lubricant pockets
 Sample remains (almost) cylindrical Lubricant
(e.g. glass)
 Lubricants
A A Section A - A
cold  paraffin t0
up to ~ 300°C  teflon
up to ~ 400°C  graphit paste d0
up to ~ 800°C  bornitrid paste
u0
800°C up to ~ 1300°C  glass
Edge thickness u0  0.05d0
Edge depth t0  0.02d0

Evaluation of the compression test
 With good lubrication conditions
approx.  =1.5 (h/h0  0.78)
F F  h 4 F  Δh 
kf    2 1  
A A0 h0 πd 0  h0 
h0  1 
    ln  ln 
h1  1  Δh/h0 
vtool
 
h
 In case of  = const. the tool velocity
must be controlled accordingly.
vtool    h    h0  Δh   h0    e  t

Compression test with friction I
 Low influence of friction  High influence of friction
 homogeneous strain and  inhomogeneous strain and
microstructure formation microstructure formation
φ = 0.7 φ = 0.7
Without friction With friction
Area of high Area of low

Material: S235 strains eq strains eq
145

Compression test with friction II
Material: S235
 The typical compression test with Temperature: RT
slender specimens starts at

h0/d0 = 2.0 (buckling limit) Without lubrication
µ = µsticking
 Up to h/d = 1.0 there is almost no
difference in the force profile.
Upsetting force
With lubrication
 For 1 > h/d > 0.5, the difference of the µ≈0
force is only very small (3 to 5%)
 For smaller h/d the force difference

becomes large:
 1 d
F  Ac k f 1   
 3 h Upsetting Course
 The influence of the friction on the h0/d0 ≈ 2 h/d ≈ 0.5
compressive force depends on the h/d = height/diameter
h/d ratio of the compression test

Cylindrical compression test with layered specimens
 Testing of sheet metal under  „ideal“ compression test
compression
force
upper die
specimen
lower die

Failures during layer compression tests
 Slipping of the individual parts is possible
 Inhomogeneous deformation of the individual parts
 No reliable evaluation of these failed tests is possible
Sectional image of a layer sample (failed test) 148

Plane strain upsetting test
 Requirements for plane strain Advantages:
A/h0 > 6  high  ( max  2)
 Contact area  B  A  const.  high  ( max  103 s 1 )
for thin sheets and vtool  1 3 ms
 Evaluation
Disadvantages: High requirements on the
F h0
kf  ;   c  ln ) measuring technique
cB A h
upper die
Tresca: c = 1, v. Mises: c = 1.15 sheet
lower die
A
B
Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S 48 149

Torsion test using full cross section cylinder specimen I
 Twisting of a cylindrical Advantage: high   3
specimen without bending
Disadvantage:
 Measurement of:
 inhomogeneous
 angle of rotation α
 torque Mt  complex evaluation
 Shear at the edge

R
R 
l
 Edge shear stress (after complex derivation)
1  M t M t 
 R ( R , R )   3M t   R
3 
 R 
2R   R R 
 Conversion into equivalent stress and strain by the
criteria of von Mises or Tresca 150
Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 49-50

Torsion test using full cross section cylinder specimen II
1  M t M t 
From  R ( R , R )   3M t   R
3 
 R 
2R   R R 
follows k f ( edge )  k f ( ,  )
Condition: homogeneous material properties, no deviating boundary layer
The following measurement values are required according to the above equation:
Advantages:
M t 
Mt ;  ;
 high
 R  Without friction
M t
 Several tests with variations of R
R

Torsion test using full cross section cylinder specimen III
 Inverse modelling for flow stress determination in the torsion test
 FE modelling of the torsion test
 Input of estimated flow curve
 Optimization of model parameters to match experiment and model
Flow curve Torque- rotation angle curve
torque Mt in Nm
Equivalent stress in
1200 35
Vergleichsspannung
1000 30
25
800
MPa
20
Drehmoment
600 Experiment
Experiment
First assumption
erste Berechnung 15
400 First Berechnung
erste calculation
Final assumption
finale Berechnung 10 Last calculation
finale Brechnung
200 5
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 FE-model 0 200 400 600 800
Vergleichsdehnung
Equivalent strain Drehwinkel
Rotation angle α in
152

Torsion test using cylindrical tubes
Ro
M t    (r )  2  r  r  dr Ro
Ri
with ( r )    const Ri
Ro 2
M t  2  R  r dr 
2
 R ( Ro3  Ri3 )
Ri 3
3 Mt
R 
2 ( Ro3  Ri3 )
Disadvantages:
with s  Ro  Ri  R simplified
 Buckling
Mt
M t    2  R  s  R or   Complex sample preparation
2  R 2 s

Bulge test, room temperature I
Test procedure: t
 Sheet is clamped between blank holder and

Die p
die (no material flow within the contact area)
ρ
 Loading of the sheet by a incompressible
liquid Blank
holder
 Sheet is bulging to bursting
 Measurement variables: Experimental setup: Bulge test
 Pressure in the bulge (p)
 Radius of curvature (ρ)
 Sheet thickness (t)
Evaluation:
 Membrane theory assuming spherical bulge
top p
kf 
2t State of stress in the center
(for isotropic material behavior) of bulging 154

Bulge test, elevated temperature II
Necessary adjustments of the bulge test at Hot-Gas-Bulgetest at the IBF
high temperature
 Sample heating
 e.g. resistance heating
 Temperature-resistant forming medium

 gas
 Stored energy within the compressible gas

 Safety technology
Hot-gas-bulge test at IBF
 Testing at constant strain rates
 complex control technology required,
because of the compressibility of the gas
155

Determination methods for different forming processes
Basic requirements:
 In general, a test with uniaxial loading is better for accurate evaluation (exception: sheet
forming).
 Rolling: Cylinder compression test, sheet compression test, and

plane strain compression test
 Drawing: Tensile test (cylindrical compression test)
 Deep Drawing: Tensile test on a flat specimen (if necessary multi-axis)
 Extrusion: Torsion test, because only in this test the required high
strain can be reached (  5)

Factors affecting the flow stress
The flow stress kf is a function of
 material
 strain  eq ,  eq
 strain rate eq , eq
 temperature 
 microstructure (e.g. grain size)

= 𝑓 (forming history); dependent on the temporal changes of  eq , eq ,  ,
157

Influence of strain
 Strain hardening because of the increase in dislocation density
Interplay of
 Strain hardening
 Thermally activated softening processes:
 dynamic recovery
 recrystallization
cold flow curve hot flow curve

kf kf
φሶ = const.
Recovery only
ϑ = const. Recovery and
recrystallization
kf0,cold
kf0,hot φሶ =const.
ϑ = const
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S 39
φ φ 158

Effect of strain rate
 Stronger effect of  on kf in hot forming:
Thermally activated softening processes need time
 with high   less time for softening
 higher kf
kf
high  kf
Flow stress kf
low 
True strain φ 
 Slight effect of  on kf in cold forming:
Standard value for 0    100s 1 :
kf increases about 3% - 10% if  increases 10 times

Effects of the state of stress
 The flow curve usually depends on the state of stress
 Important:
 Uni- or multiaxial state of stress
 Hydrostatic state of stress (compression stress or tensile stress)
 State of stress is not homogeneous
 Standard values: kf (compression test) is 5 – 10% higher than kf (tensile test)

 1 kbar (100 MPa) difference m brings about 1% difference in kf
 Various metal physical explanations, e.g. very small increase in volume during metal
forming

Description of flow curves
Usual simplification: k f  f ( eq , eq ,  )
Formulation as a function of the following parameters
Target values Flow curve description
continuum mechanics based  ij , ij ,  ij , k f  f ( eq , eq ,  )
 ij , ij ,  ij , ,
metal physics based, Grain size, grain k f  f ( ,  (t ),  (t ), d 0 )
microscopic based orientation
d0 = initial grain size

Approximation of cold flow curves
 According to REIHLE the following
approximation could be used for unalloyed
and low-alloyed steels:
k f  a n (63)
a  k f (  1)
n hardening exponent fracture
 Only if the measured curve accurately

follows the formula a and n can be or
determined directly
n tot = el + pl
e Rm 
Fmax
a  Rm   with tensile strength
n A0
n  g with  g  ln(1  Ag ) uniform strain
 Otherwise use least square curve fitting


Derivation of the direct determination of a and n
F F A A n A
0    kf  a  a n e  (A)
A0 A A0 A0 A0
  g  d 0  n  g (B)
 For :   0 
 d   g
 In addition:
Fmax Fmax A0  (C)
k f ( g )    Rm e g
A( g ) A0 A( g )
g
k f ( g )  a gn  Rm e
Insert (B) and (C) in (A) and solve for a:

g g
 e e  e
n
a  Rm n  Rm    Rm  
g   n
 g
 163

Approximation formulas for cold flow curves I
 Example: cold upsetting test with AlMgSi1
450 Regression for
interpolated extracting experimental
400
area
values up to φ = 0.2
350
according to Hollomon
Flow stress in N/mm²
300 and Ludwik

extrapolated
250 area Hollomon
k f  a n
200
Messung
test a = 397.4
150
Hollomon n = 0.26
100
Ludwik
Ludwik
50
0 k f  k f 0  a1 n1
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
kf0 = 59.7 N/mm²
True strain
a1 = 397.4
Warning :
n1 = 0.26
In the extrapolated area, large deviations may occur!
164

Approximation formulas for cold flow curves II
Flow stress in N/mm2
True strain φ 165

Approximation formulas for cold flow curves III
 Considering the strain rate 
k f ~ A m with 0.001  m  0.07
 The influence of  on cold flow curves is usually small.
 Summarized equations:
k f  A n A m or
k f  A n m
166

Description of hot flow curves (via Hensel-Spittel) I
 Strain hardening: k f ~ A n
m
 m 
 Softening: kf ~ e or kf ~ e 

k f ~ A
Strain rate: m
 Temperature: k f ~ A e  m
 Together:
(  m  )
k f  KA n e A  A e (  m )
m
(71)
Source: Hensel, A.; Spittel, T.: Kraft und Arbeitsbedarf bildsamer Formgebungsverfahren 167

Description of hot flow curves II
 To determine the coefficients enough
k f  KA n exp( m ) A  A exp( m )
m
supporting points are needed
kf
 Example k f ( ,  ,  ) :
0    0.8
1s-1    10s-1
1000 °C    1200 °C measured
estimated
 minimum 3 x 3 = 9 tests
φ
Warning:
The described equation can not describe all measured data good enough!

Consideration of the forming history
 Procedure:
 Introducing one or more variables, which characterize the instantaneous

microstructure:
k f  f (S , , )
 Specification of evolution equation for the microstructure
dS
 f ( S , , )
d
 Step-by-step determination of S for each time and volume element (e.g. with FEM)

Example: Material behavior during hot rolling of steel
dynamic recrystallization
Initial grain size

Grain growth
a e f
b c d
Roll gap
a) Initial microstructure (coarse) d-e) static recrystallization

after the forming
b) High dislocation density
f) fine grained recrystallization
c-d) dynamic recrystallization structure
during the forming process

Hot flow curve with dynamic recovery
Recovery:
 Dislocation will be eliminated
 Regular rearrangement of the dislocations
( Substructures) Dislocations in a bended crystal
 No new grain boundaries / old grain
boundaries move
Extension of initial grains
Density of dislocation Constant density of dislocation Dislocations after polygonisation

rises sub-structure remains globulitic
Flow stress
sub-structure constant size

develops constant disorientation
Dynamic recovery is typical for metals with
high stacking fault energy:
e.g.
 Al-alloys
 Ferritic steels
εmax
Many bcc metals
Equivalent strain

Hot flow curve with dynamic recrystallization
 Recrystallization:
 Formation of new grains in the already
Extension of initial grains
formed grains rising density of dislocation
formation of a sparsely
 Displacement of the grain boundaries deformed substructure
 Typical for fcc metals with low stacking Initial grains

fault energy (e.g. nickel, copper, are consumed
Dynamic recrystallization
austenitic steels)
Recrystallized grains:
 Dynamic recrystallization: constant grain size,
globulitic,
Flow stress
 starts after reaching a critical strain heterogeneous substructure.
Recryst. Fraction %
 leads firstly to a decrease of the flow
stress
 can lead to a stationary equilibrium
 is influenced by temperature and strain
rate
Equivalent strain

Hot flow curve with dynamic recrystallization
A
Primary grain growth with
dislocations increasing and
generation of subgrains
Consumption of 100µm
primary grains
kfmax Dynamic recrystallization B

Flow stress kf
A B
kfs C 100µm
rekrist. fraction in %
100
50 C
crit peak stat

100µm
173

Microstructure simulation model STRUCSIM
kf strain distribution
D E F G (inhomogeneous)
B C
[S1]
kfmax [S2]
[S3]
A [S4],[S5]
[S6],[S7],[S8]
kfs
Resulting flow stress
strain
strain
DRX
S1 S4 S4
S1 S1
S3 S3 S3 S1 critical strain
S5
S2 S2
S2 S2 S4 S4 S5 S5 No DRX
174

Compression test to characterize the DRX
Compression Flow curve RX-kinetic
flow stress
XDRX
εc εss εc εss
true strain true strain
Compression test
 Determination of flow curves under different deformation conditions (combinations of  ,T )
 Flow curve analysis, identifying the characteristic points.
 Metallographic investigation to obtain the microstructural information, DDRX, XDRX…
175

DRX-Model example and parameters
 Deformation condition Material: 25MoCrS4 𝜺 = 0.01 s-1
𝑄𝑊 45
𝑍 = 𝜀ሶ ∙ exp T = 1150 °C
𝑅∙𝑇 40
kf,max
 Characteristic points
35
𝜀𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝑎4 ∙ 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 kf,stat
stress ininMPa
MPa
𝑎 30
𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 ∙ 𝑑0 2 ∙ 𝑍 𝑎3
𝜑
𝜀𝑠𝑠 = 𝜑1 ∙ 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 + 𝜑2 ∙ 𝑑0 3 ∙ 𝑍 𝜑4
Fließspannung
25
 Kinects of recrystallization 20 50µm
𝑑2
𝜀 − 𝜀𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
Flow
𝑋𝑑𝑦𝑛 = 1 − exp 𝑑1 ∙ 15
𝜀𝑠𝑠 − 𝜀𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
Experiment
 Flow stress 10 Model
𝑓2 Experiment
𝑍 = 𝑓1 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑓3 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 Beynon / Sellars
5
mit StrucSim
𝐶
𝑘𝑓 𝜀 𝜀 0
= ∙ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 1 −
𝑘𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 0,0 εcrit εpeak 0,2 εss 0,4 0,6
 Grain size Formänderung
True strain
𝑑𝐷𝑅𝑋 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑘𝑓,𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝑏1 ∙ 𝑍𝑏2 parameters determined from regression and from experiments
176

Stress relaxation test to characterized the SRX
Compression & holding Deacrease of stress Softening kinetic
Stress
XSRX
Time Time
Stress relaxation test

 Determine the softening kinetic
 Only one test for each parameter combination  ,  ,T
 Metallographic investigation to obtain microstructural information
177

SRX Model example and parameters
Material: 25MoCrS4
 Characteristic points 1
𝜺 = 0.2
𝐹 𝐹3 𝐹4
−𝑄𝑔𝑔 0,9
𝑡50 = 𝐹1 ∙ 𝑑02 ∙𝜀 ∙ 𝑍 ∙ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝜺 = 0.01 s-1
𝑅∙𝑇
0,8 T = 1100 °C
static recrystallized part

 Kinetic of RX 0,7
𝑛 0,6
1 𝑡 t50
𝑋𝑆𝑅𝑋 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑙𝑛 ∙ 50µm
2 𝑡50 0,5
0,4
 Flow stress → softening
0,3
𝑘𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓 − 𝑋𝑆𝑅𝑋 (𝑡) ∙ (𝑘𝑓 − 𝑘𝑓,0 )
0,2
 Static recrystallized grain size Modell
0,1 Experiment
𝑐
𝑑𝑆𝑅𝑋 = 𝑐1 ∙ 𝑑02 ∙ 𝜀 𝑐3 ∙ 𝑍 𝑐5 0
0,01 0,1 1 10 100
parameters determined from regression and from experiments time in s
178

Modeling of grain growth
 Grain growth 40 T = 1200 °C
1
𝐻 𝐻4 𝐻1
𝑑𝑔𝑔 = 𝑑0 2 + 𝐻3 ∙ 𝑡 35
T = 1150 °C
30
−𝑄𝑔𝑔
𝐻4 =
Grain size in µm
𝑅∙𝑇
25
 Material (25MoCrS4) shows Modell
abnormal grain growth above 20 Experiment
Experiment
1150°C, that can not be mapped
with the formula given above 15
 Modeling of the grain growth model T = 1100 °C
separately for two different 10

temperature ranges
T = 1050 °C
5
0 50 100
Annealing time in min
parameters determined from regression and from experiments 179

Integration of material models in FEM
FEM Analysis kf Material model
Iterative appropriation  , , Calculation of actual flow stress
. values kf, calculation of
of the local , ,  -values
microstructural change
FEM result Microstructure information

force, temperature, geometry, Recrystallized grain fraction XRX,
stress, strain, etc. recrystallized grain size dRX
Process optimisation, material choice, etc

180

StrucSim - Microstructure simulation: compression of Inconel 706
 Compression of Inconel706 at 950°C and   10s 1
Dynamic recrystallized
average grain size in m
dDRX = 13µm
44
41
1 38
35
32
30
27
3 2 24
21
19
16
13
10
8
5
2
dDRX = 19µm dDRX = 7µm
LARSTRAN/Shape
181

Example case: forging of a turbine disk - process design
Process steps of the simulation
 Heating the cylindrical billet from 20°C to

1040°C
 Transport from the furnace to the press
 Forming of the billet in an one step closed

die forging process
182

Forging of a turbine disk: boundary conditions
Boundary conditions
 Material Inconel 718
 Tool velocity 20mm/s
 Tool temperature 650 oC
 Friction (Coulomb ) 0.25
 Heat transfer () 0.002W/(K · mm2)
 Emissivity () 0.9
 Surrounding temperature 30oC
 Time for closed die operation 8.7s
183

Forging of a turbine disk: heating
 A heating time of 2000s (about 33 minutes) is sufficient to reach the core temperature of
1040°C.
Temperature [oC]
t<2000s t=2000s
184

Forging of a turbine disk: closed die operation
 Up to 100 °C temperature increase in the centre due to dissipation
 Initially cold corner remains cold and enters into the die corner
Temperature [oC]
before forging after forging

185

 Beginning: plastic strain concentrates in the centre of the forging
 End: disc centre contains cooler and less deformed material
 Cold upper corner undergoes almost zero strain
Equivalent plastic strain [ - ]

186

 Almost 100 % recrystallization in the centre
 But almost 0% recrystallization in the upper corner and some surface areas
Dynamic recrystallized
fraction [%]

187

 Significantly refined grain size in the centre of the ring
 Original grain size remains near the surface.
 Average  knowledge  about min. and max. grain size is also required
Average grain size [m]

188

 In the upper right corner, 90 microns is also the minimum grain size
 In recrystallized areas, the minimum grain size is in the range of 6-12 m.
Minimum grain size [m]

189

 Even in the recrystallized areas some large grains may occur.
Maximum grain size [m]

190

Validation
 Agreement with data from measurement is very good.
 The process design is not safe concerning points of interest 1 and 8.
Average grain size

[m]
191

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
192
Determination of material properties and boundary values
Friction 
Thermal conductivity 
Radiation  Specific heat capacity cp
density 
Young‘s Modulus E Convection 
Flow stress kf
Microstructure
Heat conduction 
Source: IBF, Walske 193
Chapter 11 - Determination of material properties and boundary values

Material properties and boundary values
 Process independent parameters e.g.:  Process dependent parameters e.g.:
 - density  - radiation coefficient
cp - specific heat capacity  - heat transfer coefficient
 - thermal conductivity  - friction coefficient
E - Young‘s modulus kf - flow stress

Dependencies of the boundary conditions
 - (radiation) = f (surface finish)
 - (work piece) = f (surface finish, hardness, pressure, type and viscosity of lubricant)
 - (tool) = as above + relative velocity

Direct methods to determine material properties
  gravimeter
cp  heat flow-difference-calorimeter
  measuring the temperature conductivity


a (e.g. Laser-Flash-Method)
  cp
E  tensile test, bending test, torsion test
196

Flow chart to determine material data and boundary values
 Considering the measured material
parameters (, , cp, kf, E), the boundary
conditions will be determined by successively
comparing of experiments and simulations: Process independent variables
Literature,
experiments lab
1st level
Process dependent variables

 1. step: Radiation experiments   measurement,
FEM, FDM
2nd level
 2. step: Contact experiments   measurement,
FEM, FDM
3rd level measurement,

metallography, math. and
semi-empiric models
4th level
 3. step: Friction experiments   measurement, FEM

Determination of the flow curves
 kf, d0 (initial grain size) must be determined under test conditions similar to the real
process conditions.
upper
upperpunch
punch
electrical
electricalradiation
radiation
furnace with
furnace withisolation
isolation
ceramic
ceramicplate
plate
sample
sample
ceramic   100 / s
ceramicplate
plate
  10 / s
  1 / s
movable
movable
punch
punch
experimental setup measured flow curves

198

Factors influencing temperature increase
 Friction heat between work piece
and tool
 Dissipation of the forming work

Friction
Reibung
 Heat transfer to the tool
Radiation Heat conductivity
 Slow forming processes Specific heat capacity
elastic deformation convection
 too much heat transfer, microstructure
low temperature increase
 High speed forming processes Heat transfer

 little heat transfer, possibly
high kf, , higher temperature
increase
199

Temperature increase due to dissipation
 95 % of the mechanical energy is released as heat
 Assumptions: 100 % transformation, adiabatic relationship
 Dissipation work Wdef  V  k f  
 Change of internal work: U  V    c p  sample, D

dissipation
kf
Wdef  U  sample, D    D
D: Dissipation factor (0.9 < D < 1)   cp
cp: heat capacity of the material*
ρ: density of the material
* for cp phase transformation have to be taken into account

Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S 62 200

Temperature change due to heat exchange with the tool
 Assumption: homogeneous temperature distribution, a major part of the heat flows to the
tool plates.
 Heat loss to the tool: Q  2  A    (sample  tool )
U sample
 Change of internal energy:  V    cp 
t t
U
 Balance  Q
t
sample, HT A 2
  (sample  tool )
t V   cp
1 2 
α: heat transfer coefficient sample, HT   (sample  tool )  t
h   cp
Δt: time increment
Heat transfer
201

Consequences of both effects in the forming process
sample  sample, D  sample, HT

Consequences :
 Hot forming
 Dissipation heat D favors isothermal transformation, as it compensates temperature
losses due to heat conduction
 Cold forming
 Dissipation heat D leads to undesired heating of the workpiece
 Dissipation heat D influences the flow curve determination
( e.g. multiple-stage tests)
 Limit curves for cold forming: kf
isotherm (low 
or multiple-stage tests)
adiabatic (high 
or isolated)
Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S 63 φ 202

Typical order of magnitude for the temperature increase during cold
forming
Assumptions :
 Adiabatic forming processes
 No friction heat
 (  upsetting to 1/3 of the initial height)
 Cold forming processes
 cP kfm  
[kg/dm3] [J/(kgK)] [N/mm2] [-] [°C]
steel  7.8  500 400 – 1200 1 100 – 300

Al- alloys  2.7  1000 100 – 300 1 35 – 100
Cu- alloys  8.7  400 200 – 400 1 50 – 100
Ti- alloys  4.5  600 750 – 1500 1 250 – 500

Computational method to compensate the specimen heating
(temperature compensation)
kf
1. Determination of the function kf () through
measuring a completely flow curve field
2. Measurement or calculation of the specimen

heating  by dissipation
kf
(T-comp.) kf

theoretical actual specimen

  const.
3. Reading the
T-compensated   const.
kf –value  Temperature compensated
measured 204

Influence of the dissipation of the flow curve field
Influence of dissipation is higher at high strain rates:
 High strain rate  Process almost adiabatic

 Low strain rate  Process almost isothermal tool  sample, HT
φሶ =10/s
φሶ =0.1/s
measured
temperature compensated
Material: In718
Temperature: 970 °C 205

Determination of the emissivity I
 Stefan-Boltzmann-law

q ''      Tsurf
4
 Tsurr
4

 = Stefan-Boltzmann-constant = 5.67  10-8 W/(m2K4)
 = emissivity q  = Heat flow density
Tsurf = Surface temperature Tsurr = Surrounding temperature
 Important influences on the radiation coefficient

in metal forming are:
 Surface color
 Surface condition
 Scaling
 Determination is realized by inverse modeling of an

experiment which is dominated by radiation.
206

Determination of the emissivity II
 Given: , cp, 
 Variation:  (emissivity)
temperature in °C
Simulations:
ε = 0.6
‘‘
sample
Measured
ε = 1.0 cooling curve
thermocouple
time in s
 Combined value for emission and natural convection!

207

Determination of the emissivity III
 Oxidation condition (color) of the surface affects the radiation coefficient clearly.
 Temperature influence only indirectly over oxidation degree available
Radiation coefficient
11 Bei 1250°C
At 1250 °C forfür
33 Minuten
minutes
pre-oxidized
voroxidiert
0,9
0.9 Direktaufgeheizt
Directly heated up
scaling
0,8
0.8
Strahlungszahl
0.7
0,7
0.6
0,6
0.5
0,5
0.4
0,4
850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300
Temperatur
Temperature in in
C °C
material: 1.3974
(austenitic steel)
surface roughness: Ra = 0.6 µm
lubricant layer: n/a
208

Determination of the heat transfer coefficient I
 Heat transfer law: 
tool
sample tool
Q O1 O 2
q     O1  O 2 
sample
isolation
A lower tool
x
 The temperature level in the chosen

specimen is dominated by heat transfer to the tool.
Induction coil
 The main influencing parameters are:

 Surface roughness Ceramic
 Interface layer (Scales, lubricant,…) insulation plate
 Contact pressure
Lower tool
209

Determination of the heat transfer coefficient II
 Experiment is simulated with a FEM-model.
 Heat transfer coefficient is varied.
 Heat transfer coefficient is determined when the simulated temperature profile agrees
with the experiment.
material: 1.3974
(austenitic steel)
1100
 = 0.0025 W/mm2K
Wärmeübergangskoeffizient surface roughness: Ra = 1 µm
1000 0,0025 W/mm²K; simuliert
 = 0.002 W/mm2K
Wärmeübergangskoeffizient
0,002 W/mm²K; simuliert lubricant layer: n/a
°C
Temperature in °C
900  = 0.003 W/mm2K

Wärmeübergangskoeffizient
0,003 W/mm²K; simuliert tool: 2.4668
Measurement (Ni-based alloy)
Temperatur
Messung
800
Contact pressure: 60 MPa
700
 = 0.0025 W/mm2K
600
500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time
Zeit in in s
Sekunden 210

Influence of the contact pressure on the heat transfer
 Heat transfer reaches a constant level at about 0.6 kf.
 Value depends on the material combination and situation in the contact area.
0.012
Heat transfer coefficient
material: 1.1302
/(W/mm2K)
0.008 (micro-alloyed FP steel)
initial temperature: 800°C

work piece: 1.2367
0.004 (hot-working steel)
without lubricant
with lubricant
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
211

Direct measurement of µ by strip drawing tests (SDT)
 Goal: Similar conditions at the contact zone compared to the selected process
(i.e. materials, surfaces, lubricant, temperature, pressure, velocity)
 Strip drawing test (flat drawing test according to VDA 2008)
 Operating principle  Test principle and setup
die-plate Die-plate
(top tool) FN
Blank holder
Ffric,t FZ Drawing
Cleaning and
system
lubrication
Ffric,b Decoiler system Motor Recoiler
blank holder
(bottom tool)
Source: Spur – Handbuch Umformen, S. 88 212

Direct measurement of µ for plastic deformation
 Goal: To achieve similar conditions in the plastic zone similar to the conditions in
the real process (material, surfaces, lubricant, temperature, pressure, velocity, ...)
 Bar draw test according to PAWELSKI  Wedge-draw test according to REIHLE
Ffric
Ffric

Indirect determination of µ with ring upsetting test (Burgdorf – ring
test)
 Experimental procedure -0.6
 A ring specimen is compressed between two 0.6
0.5
parallel dies.
0.4
 Friction is determined by nomogram. -0.4
0.3
 Model: upper and lower bound method
 Assumptions
(d1 – d0)/d0
-0.2 0.2
 Geometry is suitably chosen, so that no 0.15
further material values have influence. 0.12

0.1
 Both of the contact area are the same. 0
0.08
0.06
 Limitations
0.04
 Identical contact areas are available only 0.2
under isothermal conditions. 0.02
 Sticking friction can arise (see below)

0.4 0
 Systematic error is difficult to estimate. 0 0.1 -0.2 0.3 -0.4 -0.5
 Test was developed for the Coulomb model (h1 – h0)/h0
and constant friction model.
 µ is not purely “physical”, but also model-
dependent.
214

Conical tube compression test
 Experimental procedure
 A tube specimen with drilled cone will be
compressed by a conical die.
 Friction will be determined by inverse
modelling.
 Modell: FEM
 Assumption
 By choice of a suitable cone angle the
sticking friction is excluded.
 Only the upper contact area will be
evaluated.
 Coulomb- model
 physically interpretable
 Limitations
 Experiments are complex and expensive.
215

Comparison of ring test and conical tube compression test
Simulation of ring test and conical tube x-coordinates of the contact node x-coordinates of the contact node
compression test with similar specimen
Relative displacement in mm
geometries.
μ = 0.1
 With low friction (µ = 0.1):
 Sliding friction in both method
 Scatter of the relative displacement in
conical tube compression test is lower
x-coordinates of the contact node x-coordinates of the contact node
 With high friction (µ = 0.4):
μ = 0.4
 Sticking friction in ring test
 Scatter of the relative displacement in
conical tube compression test is lower
216

Determination of µ in a real process
 Example wire drawing:
 elementary model:
  2 
F1  A1k fml  1   
  3l  Ffric,α
Ffric
 F1  2  
    1     

 A1 k fm l  3 l  
Ffric,α Ftot
Ffric
 In this case µ is a mix of friction A1 - wire cross section at the outlet

factor and correction factor!
kfm - mean flow stress
 Alternative: µ - Variation in FEM
l - strain in the length direction
 - die inclination angle

Summary - Determination of material and boundary values
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4 step 5
Process independent material
input data for process

Process dependent boundary parameter
parameter
thermal parameters plastic material radiation heat transfer friction
behavior coefficient coefficient
ρ cp λ kf ε α μ
design
direct direct inverse inverse inverse
CALPHAD analysis incl. Temperature °C Temperature °C Rad. mm
correction of 1200 1200 3,2
determination
di0
dissipation:
parameter
G  H  TS
 E  PV  TS di
kf
dG  dE  PdV
VdP  TdS  SdT
φ
T T(t,ε) 850 T(t,α) 850 -1,1
experiments
material
chemical
composition
218

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
219
Global technological target values
 Important technological target values (e.g. for the design of a forming machine)
are:
 deformation force (= forming force) e.g. for hydraulic press, rolling mill, ...
 deformation work (= deformation energy)
e.g. for hammer, energy restricted machine  weight, drop height
 deformation power e.g. hydraulic press  pressure, oil volume flow;
rolling mill  torque, rotational speed
 Moreover, for the feasibility of a forming process
 formability of the material (forming limit)
 temperature increase during forming
are relevant.
Chapter 12 – Global parameters under simplification assumptions

Forming force and power
F
 Direct pressure: F Md
 upsetting (F: active)
 rolling (F: passive, Md: active)
 Indirect pressure:
 drawing
F F
 extrusion
 Machines and tools must be able to

 supply the maximum force and
 supply the power to achieve the desired
velocity
 withstand the loading without damage.

Force-displacement diagram of compression and tensile test
Force
Feff
t
t
Compression
forming
Feff Tensile forming
Displacement
Compression forming: Tensile forming:

 The force is the integral of the normal  The force is the product of 𝑘𝑓 and the
stress over the contact area. current cross section of the specimen.
 The force increases with strain  The force increases first due to strain
hardening and increasing contact area. hardening and then decreases during
necking.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41/118/124

Power-time diagram of compression and tensile test
Power
Peff
t
t
Compression
forming
Peff Tensile forming
Time
 Since the tool velocity vt is constant, in the same diagram the force (F) can be
substituted by power (P) and the displacement by time.
 In general: deformation power is the dissipation energy per time.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41/118/124 ff

Work during compression and tensile test
Power
Peff
t
t
compression test
Peff tensile test
Time
 Deformation work is the integral of
 power over time,
 force over displacement.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 41/118/124 ff

Calculation of the technological target values
 For real metal forming processes, i.e.
 complex geometry  influence of temperature
 influence of friction  strain hardening / softening
a numerical simulation (FEM) is necessary for the “precise” calculation.
 However, an estimation with elementary models is sufficient for most practical

purposes. In metal forming, usually the following partitioning is applied:
1. Ideal part: based on “inner” stress and strain
assuming a deformation without shear
2. Friction part: based on friction and relative movement
in the contact area
3. Shear part: based on “unwanted” shear as far as
neglected in1. Drawing

Assumptions taken by the elementary theory
 Volume elements strip
 fitted to the geometry of the workpiece in two
directions
 infinitesimal thin in the third direction
 The coordinate system is the principle axis

system.
 Prescribed kinematic:
 strips, discs and tubes do not bulge tube
 As a consequence:
 Shear is neglected.
 Stress and strain are homogeneous along
the finite directions. => use of average strain  disc

Calculation of ideal work and power
The work increment is 𝑑𝑊 = ‫𝑗𝑖𝜀 𝑗𝑖𝜎 𝑉׬ = 𝑉𝑑 𝑗𝑖𝜀𝑑 𝑗𝑖𝜎 𝑉׬‬

ሶ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉
with equivalent quantities 𝑑𝑊 = ‫𝑞𝑒𝜀 𝑞𝑒𝜎 𝑉׬ = 𝑉𝑑 𝑞𝑒𝜀𝑑 𝑞𝑒𝜎 𝑉׬‬

ሶ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉
with eq = kf and integration over the total strain follows for the internal work:
𝑊 = ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑞𝑒𝜀 𝑓𝑘 𝑉׬‬ (𝑘𝑓 as local value)
in the special case of homogeneous forming without shear it is:
for the ideal work: 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 (𝑘𝑓𝑚: mean flow stress)
𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑑
for the ideal power: 𝑃𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞 𝑃𝑖𝑑 = 𝜕𝑡
 “ideal” because shear and friction are not considered

Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 119

Friction part
𝒔𝒓𝒆𝒍 FN
𝐹𝑁 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 for the friction work and power:
𝜎𝑁 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
Ffric 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
Anom 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇 ∙ 𝜎𝑁
Anom = contact surface 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 : displacement
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 : displacement velocity
 Generally:  fric  f ( place, time) and n rel  f ( place, time)
W fric     fric dAds (152) Pfric    fricn rel dA (153)

S A A
 The friction work is transformed into heat in the contact surface between work piece and
the tool.

Shear part
dW    ij d ij dV
V
dα1 y
dW    xy d xy dV
τxy x
V
1 1
𝑑𝜀 𝑥𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝛼1 + 𝑑𝛼2 = 2 𝑑𝛾𝑥𝑦 dW   k d xy dV
τyx dα2 V
Assuming homogeneous shear

and introducing the shear strength k gives:
for the shear work: 𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦
for the shear power: 𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦

ሶ
1
(𝑘: shear flow stress; 𝑘 = 2 𝑘𝑓 acc. to Tresca)

Summary:
Approximate formulas for deformation energy and deformation power
Work Power Simplifications

homogeneous strain,
Ideal part 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞 𝑃𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑ሶ 𝑒𝑞
without shear
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
Friction part 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
homogeneous strain,
Shear part 𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘 ∙ 𝛾𝑥𝑦
ሶ
ideal plastic material
𝑉 = volume; 𝑘 = shear flow stress; 𝑘𝑓𝑚= mean flow stress; 𝑠 = displacement
Total deformation work and power

of the forming process:
Force for compression test:
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑊𝑠ℎ
1 𝑑
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑑 + 𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑃𝑠ℎ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑓 1+ 𝜇
3 ℎ
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 118/122

Resistance to forming at direct pressure
 The resistance to forming 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 is defined to include all parts.
 For direct pressure (upsetting, rolling), it is defined by the force:

𝐹 Force
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑐 Projection of contact area on a plane being normal to the direction of force
 For the required force it is:

𝐹𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑓 ∙ 𝐴𝑐
kres 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝐴𝑐
fric kf
 Thus, 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 is: 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘𝑓 ∙
𝐹𝑖𝑑
 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 is not a material property but a value

c
which combines the flow stress as well as
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 123-127 process characteristics (shear and friction).
Approximation of curved or non perpendicular contact areas
 If Ac is curved or not  to F the projection of the contact area must be used
 i.e. rolling:
 with
lc = contact length
True contact area
Ac  lc  w F
lc
Projected contact
area Ac

Resistance to forming at indirect pressure
 The resistance to forming 𝑘𝒓𝒆𝒔 is defined to include all parts.
 For indirect pressure (e.g. drawing), it is defined by the deformation work:
𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝜑𝑒𝑞
Drawing 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡
⇒ 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙
𝑊𝑖𝑑
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 123-127

Deformation efficiency
 The deformation efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual effort (power,
work) to the virtual minimum effort, assuming that the forming result could be
achieved without friction and shear:
Example:
 Currently, i.e. at every 𝑃𝑖𝑑
time in the process, it is: 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
Drawing
𝑊𝑖𝑑 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑖𝑑 + 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑠ℎ
 Overall, i.e. averaged 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
over the process, it is: 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝜇 2𝛼
𝐹 = 𝐴1 ∙ 𝑘𝑓𝑚 ∙ 𝜑 1 + +
𝛼 3𝜑
𝑘𝑓𝑚 1
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
 This generally means: 𝜇 2𝛼
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 1+ +
𝛼 3𝜑
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 127

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
235
Overview of solution methods
Solution methods of
plastomechanics
Analytical and numerical Empirical and analytical

methods methods
Elementary Slip line Upper and lower Error comparison Similarity Visioplastic
theory theory bound method theory theory theory
Finite element Boundary element

method (FEM) method (BEM)
Finite difference
method (FDM)
Chapter 13 – Elementary plasticity theory

Elementary theory
 Elementary plasticity theory:
 Collection of equations of simplified solution methods
 Sources:
 Fink, Siebel, von Kármán for forging, rolling, drawing, ...
 Unified by:
 Lippmann, Mahrenholtz

Simplification assumptions
 Volume elements adapted to the work piece
strip
 Coordinate system is the principle axis system
 Predefined kinematics:
 Homogeneous deformation,
i.e. no bulging
 Plane surfaces stay plane
tube
 Tube will not bulge
 Homogeneous state of stress at element areas
 Friction affects only the surface disc

Kinematics and statics in elementary theory
Strip
Disc
Tube
Strip model Disc model Tube model

Kinematic:
vx  vx x, t  vz  vz  z , t  vr  vr r , t 
Static:
 x   x ( x, t )  z   z ( z, t )  r   r (r , t )
 z   z ( x, t )  r   r ( z, t )  z   z (r , t )
 y  ( z   x ) / 2*    r    r
 r   zr  0**
* Due to plane state
of strain ** cf. eq. (96)

Approach and application fields
Approach:
1. Predefinition / Determination of the kinematics
2. Setup equilibrium at the element
 Differential equations for stress distribution along the considered direction
3. Flow condition
 Stress distribution to the originally considered direction
Application fields / Result:

 Formulas for the target parameters, which allow a direct interpretation of the influences
 Quantitative accuracy depends on the acceptance of the simplification/assumption

Content
13.1. Upsetting
13.2. Drawing out
13.4. Drawing
13.5. Profile extrusion
19. Visioplasticity
241
Upsetting (Strip model)
 Open die forging: upsetting and cogging or drawing out
Goal: Goal:
Reduction of the height Large elongation with low spreading
Source: links: Saarschmiede 242

Geometrical relations of upsetting and incremental forging
 Upsetting  Drawing out
Schmiedesattel
die block
B TBw
b1
> b
1
LL >
s
SB b
sSBw
0
l0 initial
0
b
bb11
(d 0 ) geometry A0
h0 z A1
h0 h0 h h hh11
final z y
h1 l1 geometry y
(d1) x l
x l
Stauchen Recken

Forming kinematics of upsetting (plane strain): velocity field
z z
v z  vtool (39) y
h vtool
x
b  l : plane strain -vtool
   0 (A)
y
volume constancy
x   y  z  0
with (A)
v x v z
x    z (171)
x z Vtooll/2h
x  vtool / h
vtool vtool vtool
vx   dx  xC  vx  x (172)
h h h

Strain rate in upsetting
vtool
x  z   f ( x, y, z ) mit h  h(t ) (173)
h
i.e. with the assumption that the strain rate is homogenous in the whole
body, due to the flat parallel tools
 strain rate:
cylinder
h
w
r    
2
 h
w >> l wl   w  l  
2
vtool
Tresca eq |  |max |  h |
h vtool
eq 
h
von Mises eq 
2 2
3
 2
 2

l   w   h  1.15

vtool
h

Strain in upsetting
w w
b >> l w=l
l cylinder
h1 h1 h1
 h  ln  h  ln  h  ln
h0 h0 h0
l1 l1 h r1
l  ln l  ln  r    ln
l0 l0 2 r0
w1 w1 h C1
 w  ln  w  ln     ln
w0 w0 2 C0
Tresca: Tresca und v. Mises: Tresca und v. Mises:
 eq |  |max |  h |  eq |  h |  eq |  h |
von Mises:
 eq  1.15 |  h |

Engineering strain and other measures in upsetting
w
w
w >> l w=l
l cylinder
 Engineering strain:
h1  h0 h1  h0 h1  h0
h  h  h 
h0 h0 h0
l1  l0 w1  w0 d d
l  w   r    1 0
l0 w0 d0
w  0 b  l
 Upsetting rate
h0
  ups 
h1

State of stress in (plane strain) upsetting I
σσNN=σz
 Equilibrium of loads in x-direction :
𝜏IτRI = µ IσN I
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
  x hb  ( x  d x )  h  b  2dFx  0 (A)
z σx σx +dσx dFx    dFz

h
x dFx    |  z | dx  b (B)
 (B) in (A)
x dx d x h  2 |  z | dx    0 (C)

State of stress in (plane strain) upsetting II
 Tresca:  eq   max   min  k f
 Question: Which stress is  max and which is  min ?

 We know: (182)
  max and  min are compressive stresses
   (   ) / 2 is neither  max nor  min (for plane strain)
y x z
   0 and   0
z z
  x  0 and  x  0
 It follows: z  x
 Tresca:  x  z  k f
or   z |  z | k f   x (D) (183) 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥

State of stress in (plane strain) upsetting III
 (D) in (C)
d x 2
 (k f   x )    0
dx h
d x 2 2
  x  kf  0 (191)
dx h h
(After long calculations the following simplified solution is achieved)
  2  
 x  k f exp  (l / 2  x)   1 (194)
  h  

Plane strain upsetting ( = 0): z-distribution
𝜎
 Tresca:
1
z x kf 2
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝜎 𝑧𝑚
 2  l  𝜎𝑥 (𝑥) 𝜎𝑥𝑚
 z  k f exp    x  3
 h 2  𝜎𝑧 (𝑥) = 𝑘𝑓 + 𝜎𝑥 (𝑥)
𝑘𝑓
(197) 𝑥
or
0
 2  l  
 z  k f     x   1 h
 h 2   l
z
1 center 2 average 𝜏
3 corner
𝜏 𝜎𝑧𝑚 = −𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝜏
𝜎𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑚
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 = 0
𝜎𝑧 = −𝑘𝑓
Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 151/152 251

Derivation of resistance to forming
 Tresca:
 2  l  
 z  k f     x   1
 h 2  
l
1
kres   zm    z ( x)dx
l0
 l 
kres   zm  k f  1   (198)
 2h 
 Replacement of Tresca by von Mises, because of plane strain :
 l 
kres  1.15  k f  1  
 2h 

Upsetting of a quadratic cross section
 For l  b the same equation can be applied
both in x- and y – direction: or
2  l 
 x  k f   x (195)
h 2 
2  b 
 y  k f   y 
h 2 
 From Tresca: z = x – kf
follows the „Pyramid“- trend with
 l 
(200)
kres |  zm | k f  1  
 3h 
Quelle: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 150-153 253

Upsetting of a flat circular cylinder h/d < 0.5
a) With friction, b) Upsetting with friction,
series expansion exponential function
 2  d   2  d 
 z   k f 1    r   z  k f exp   r 
 h 2   h 2 
 d 
with 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠  |zm| it is valid for case a): k res |  zm | k f  1   (201)
 3h  254

Remarks to upsetting
 Cylinder:
h  d  Material: S235
 0.5 : k res  k f  1  
Temperature: RT
d  3h  Without lubrication
(202)
h µ = µsticking
 0.5 : k res  k f With lubrication
d
Upsetting force
µ≈0
Due to radial stress caused by bulging (cf.

chap. “flow curve”)
Upsetting Course
h0/d0 ≈ 2
h/d = height/diameter

Upsetting force
 Plane strain b > l:
 l 
F  blk res  blk f 1  
forming force F
 Cylinder:
 2h  Increase of the area
 2  d  strain hardening
F  Ak res  d k f 1  
4  3h  (206)

F d 2k f forming stroke s
4
 Force progression due to strain hardening and area increase:
 Plane strain
h0    l0  h0 1  h0  l0
F ( s )  A0  kf  1    with h  h0  s and l
2  (h0  s )
h0  s  2 (h0  s ) 
 Cylinder:
h0    d 0  h0 /(h0  s )  h0
F ( s )  A0   k f  1   with h  h0  s and d
h0  s  3 ( h  s )  (h0  s )
 0 

Upsetting work and temperature
Upsetting work (207)
h1 h1 h1 k res dhh1
W  Fds   F (dh)   Ak res dh  A0 h0 
h0 h0 h0 h0 h
 With average value kres,m
W  Vk res ,m |  h | (208)
 Temperature
k res ,m |  h |
  (211)
c p

Content
13.1. Upsetting
13.2. Drawing out
13.4. Drawing
19. Visioplasticity
258
Geometry parameters in drawing out (strip model)
w0 / w1 : Initial / final width of the work

piece TBw
1
b
>
b
L
sSBw
w: Change in width, w = w1 - w0
0
b
b1
A0
Tw: Tool width A1
h0 h h1
h0 / h1: Initial / final height of the work
piece l
h: Change in height, h = h0 - h1

sBw
b
bw : Bite width: length of the contact
surface between tool and work
piece
bw/h: Bite ratio

Terms in drawing out
Bite width bw: Part of the tool width which is in contact with the
work piece; corresponds to the manipulator feed
rate
Bite ratio bw/h: Most important characteristic of the forming

geometry in drawing out, on which many
technological target values depend; Ratio of bite
width to the height of the forging part
Forging pass: Sequence of bites over a partial length or the whole

length of the work piece

FEM Simulation of drawing out
Equivalent strain
0.7
0.001
(201)
Source: Lange 261

Strain in drawing out
 Globale values:
 h  ln(h1 h0 )  0  eq |  |max |  h | (Tresca)
l  ln(l1 l0 )  0 if  w  l (216)
 w  ln(w1 w0 )  0  eq  1.15 |  h | (von Mises)
 Engineering strain TBw
1
b
h
>
b
h 
L
sSBw
0
b
h0
b1
A0
l h0 h1 A1
l  h
l0
l
w  0 für w0  bW 0

Ratio of extension in drawing out
 Stretching rate draw (measure for total strain):
l1 A0 A0 A1
draw   1 (217)
l0 A1
l0 l1
without spreading at n forging operations:

n
draw, tot   draw,i (218)
i 1
Attention:
The ratio of extension can be considered as a relevant quality criterion only
in relation with the bite ratio and bite offset etc.
.

Total stretching rate and total forging rate
 (geometrical) total forging reduction ratio
 forg  ups  draw,tot

h0 h1 ups
Product of upsetting reduction ratio
and ratio of extension by stretch forging
The technical meaning of this value is doubtful!

Better: to consider ups and draw separately!
 Generally follows draw

draw,tot  1  2   n
l0 l1

Forging force in drawing out
F  Fid  F fric  Fshear (220)
 Upsetting without shearing strain:
  bw 
 Fid  Ffric  1.15k f  bw w  1   TBw
 2 h 
1
b
>
b
L
sSBw
0
b
b1
contact surface Ac A0
h0 h1 A1
h

Drawing out: shearing part I
 Shearing work in the boundary area:
 Assumptions:
vtool/2
Shearing field sZ according to the sketch
shearing areas
z
sz   z 
h2
kf
 k 
2
vtool/2
h2 1
WSi  2 s z w dz    whk f z
0 4
upper half, left & right sides


Drawing out : shearing part II
 Inner shearing work:
1
WSi  whk f z
4
 External shearing work:
!
WSa  FS   z  WSi (221)
1  h 
FS  whk f  bw wk f   


4  4bw 
contact surface

Spreading during drawing out
 According to Tomlinsen and Stringer

w1  h0 
   with
w0  h1 
(213)
bw0
  0.14  0.36
w0
w1
 increases if
w0
 h increases
inhomogeneous spreading after a bite stroke
bw0
 increases
w0
bw0
(In case of high , elongation is significantly reduced due to friction)
h

Force in drawing out
 bw h 
F  bw  w 1.15k f  1    (222)
 2h 4bw 
bW, w increase during the stroke

TBw
1
b
>
kf increase (work hardening) b
L
sSBw
0
b
b1
A0
bW / h increase during the stroke
h0 h1 A1
z h
h / bW decrease during the stroke y
l
x
 F increases due to the increase of kf and contact surface

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 157/161/162 269

Resistance to forming
 bw0 h0 
F1  bw1w1 1.15k f  1    (223)
 2h0 4bw0 
 With kres = F / Ac follows
𝜇 𝑏𝑤 1 ℎ
𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (1.15)𝑘𝑓 ⋅ 1 + + (224)
2 ℎ 4 𝑏𝑤
Friction Shear
or as an average approximation over the stroke

 bw0 h0 
k res ,m  1.15k fm  1    (225)
 2h0 4bw0 

Forming resistance - Indices
Force at the beginning of a stroke: Force at the end of a stroke:
 bw0 h0   bw1 h1 

F0  bw0 w0  (1.15)k f 0  1    F1  bw1w1  (1.15)k f 1  1   
 2h0 4bw0   2h1 4bw1 
Faktor 1.15 only for the case w0 ≈ w1 (plane strain)
h bW
decreases during the process, increases during the process (bw ↑, h ↓)
bW h
 Generally the friction coefficient is μ < 0.5, therefore the influence of h on the
bw bw
magnitude of F will be more than
h bw0 h0
 The estimation of the maximum force depends on and .
h0 bw0
 Yet, the compressed surface is calculated through the equation Ac1  bw1  w1

Deformation work
h1 h1 h1
W   Fds   F (dh)   bw wk res dh
h0 h0 h0
 With the average value kres,m
dh h1
W  bw0 w0 h0 k res ,m  bw0 w0 h0 k res ,m |  h | (227)
h0 h
W  bw0 w0 h0 kres ,m | h |

Temperature increase in drawing out
 Change in temperature
k res ,m |  h |
  (229)
c p
 Example of the values for steel: kres = 200 N/mm² h = -0.2

cp = 600 J/(kg°C)  = 7800 kg/m³
 = 8.6 °C (Temperature increase during one stroke)

Distribution of equivalent strain in drawing out
 Distribution of equivalent strain in the core area and surface area after one pass
2. stroke 1. stroke
eq 5. stroke 4. stroke 3. stroke
1.4
eq, surface
0
1.4
1.2 eq, core
1.0
eq
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
b0 = h0 = 160 mm, ϑ = 1200°C, Material C45,h = 30%, bw0/h0 = 0,5 274

Influence of bite offset on the strain distribution in the core
 With bite offset, a more homogeneous strain distribution in the core of the work piece
can be achieved
 1st stroke is shifted by a 1/2 bite, following bites have full width
bw
εeq,core
cumulative curve
2nd pass without

bite offset
1st pass
x
bw
εeq,core
bw
cumulative curve
2nd pass with

bite offset
1st pass
x
275

Choose of the suitable bite ratio
 With a large bite ratio, a higher strain at the core can be achieved
 Disadvantage: large bw  large Ac  high force
Equivalent
strain (eq)
h,core
1.0
bw
0.8
bw
bw0/h0 = 0.8 0.7
0.4
0.3
0.1
x
bw0/h0 = 0.3
276
Kapitel 13 – Grundlagen des Reckschmiedens (Streifenmodell)

Defects in drawing out
In case of unfavorable overlap of the individual forging passes, typical defects

may occur
Surface cracks in a
drawn out forging
Material overlap on a
drawn out forging
Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, S.667 277

Defects in drawing out – overlap
bwb/wh0 = 0.2 bw / h0 = 0.7
Overlap in drawing out

C15, 1200 °C
εh = 47 %
Material flow in case of large bite ratio Material flow in case of small bite ratio
278
Increase of the bite ratio
 Increase of
bw during the bite:
h
TBw
1
b
 Under assumption of a plane strain follows the estimation:
>
b
L
sSBw
0
b
b1
A0
bw1 bw0
 1 |  h |2 (212) A1
h1 h0 h0 h h1
bw l
 And consequently h increases
bw
| h | increase
h
z
5% 10 %
y
10 %  20 %
x
15 %  30 %
279

Effective bite ratio I
 An important characteristic for the
forming geometry for stretch forging;
many technological values depend on it. tool 2. stroke
 Ratio of the tool width to the height
bw,0
sB0 -R tool 1. stroke
reduction
R
bsw,0
B0
0,5
0.5hh
00
bw0 = bite workpiece

R = tool edge radius
bw0  R
h0 = initial height of the work h0  effektive bite ratio
piece
Source:Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, S.660 280

Effective bite ratio II
Choice of tool radius
 Increasing tool radius reduces the risk of

cracking at the contact surface between tool sB0
R bw0-R-R
effective bite ratio (bw0-R)/h0

0.7 R = 10
and workpiece. However the risk of cracks due
bw0
sB0
to shear increases, because the effective bite 0.6 R = 20
ratio is small and thus the shear is large. 0.5 h0 = 100mm
0.4 R = 40
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

bite ratio bw0/h0
Side surface cracks in the direction of the

maximal shear stress 281

Classification of the common geometries of the tool block
Forging tools
In length In width In length - width

Non-profiled
direction profiled direction profiled direction profiled
Flat tool Funnel tool Angular tool Angle funneled

tool
Ball shape tool Round tool Round funneld

tool
Source: Dissertation Holl, S. 126 282

Einfluss der Werkzeugform auf die Formänderung
 Linear increase in the core

Core
Surface area
eq
Equivalent strain éq V
0.65
Vergleichsformänderung
 Uniform core deformation
is smaller than flat tool
 Areas close to the surface

0,04 are well formed
 Almost no strain
distribution in the surface
region
related height reduction
Source: Dissertation Nieschwitz, S. 169 283

Advantages and disadvantages of different tools
Tool class Tool type Advantages Disadvantages
Non-profiled Good strain distribution in the Crack risk by local

core. Very flexible
deformation maxima
in length direction Improves upsetting effect Bad strain distribution in

profiled the core
Consistent surface Strong form binding
in width direction Good stretching effect Necessarily smooth

profiled
Crack risk by local
Centering effects
deformation maxima
in width - and Large  A with one bite Strong form binding
Length direction
profiled Round material from rectangle. Strong form binding
cross section possible
Source: Dissertation Holl, S. 127 284

Radial forging
 Axially-symmetric materials are formed Work principle tools
radially
 High pressure allows good strain
distribution in core
 Negligible / no tension
 No cavities and pores in the core of the
work piece workpiece
Source: Dahl, Kopp, Pawelski, S.660 285

Content
13.1. Upsetting
13.2. Drawing out
13.4. Drawing
19. Visioplasticity
286
Flat longitudinal rolling
General goals
upper roll
 Thickness reduction
 Increase of the strip length
rolling stock
w
 for  10 w
h
h0 h1
 Plane strain
lower roll
 Strip model to calculate force, torque, ...


Flat rolling geometry I
 Terms:
A0  w0  h0 Entry cross section
A1  w1  h1 Exit cross section
Ac  lc  w Projected contact area
lc
h  h0  h1 Thickness reduction
lc lc Roll gap ratio
bzw.
hm h0 (similar meaning as
bw / h in stretch forging

Flat rolling geometry II
 Related thickness change:
h1  h0
h 
h0
 Spread ratio:
w1
 (  1)
lc w0
 Upsetting reduction ratio:
h0 (  1)

h1
 Ratio of extension:
l1 (  1)

l0

Flat rolling geometry III
h( )  h1  2r (1  cos  )
2
cos   1 
2
h( )  h1  r 2 (230)
 x 2 
lc h( x)  h1  2r 1  1  2 
 r 
 
with:
x2 x2
1 2  1 2
r 2r
x2
h( x)  h1  (230)
r

Flat rolling geometry IV
h  2r (1  cos  0 )  r   02 (231)
 Length of contact
h 2
lc  r  h   r  h (232)
lc
4
lc  r  h
r  h ˆ chord EA
For α  20° the error is  ± 1.5%

Bite conditions
A) Fulfilled Required: 𝑭𝒇𝒘 > 𝑭𝒃𝒘

 F fric
Fbw = backward FN
Ffw = forward Fbw   FN  cos  0  FN sin  0
Ffric Ffw   tan  0
with tan  0   0
  0 (235)
lc
B) Not fulfilled with tan  0 
FN r
Fbw
h
Ffw 
Ffric
r
hmax   2 r
Without strip tension !

Pass condition
 Assumption:
Both normal force and friction force are
applied in the center of the roll gap (0 / 2).
 analogous to the bite condition:
0
  tan
2
 1 h
or  0 
2 2 r
and hmax  2   2  r (236)
 The „pass“ condition is easier fulfilled

than the „bite“ condition

Factors influencing spread I
Section A – Influence of w/h
w/h = small w/h = large

 A significant change in width is possible  Very low bulding is possible.
via bulging  Spreading must be done via "sliding" along
the roll across the rolling direction.
 b/lc is important
Section B
w0
h1/2
h0/2
w1
Section A lc
294

Factors influencing spread II
Section B – Influence of w/lc
w w w
lc
lc lc
w >> lc w ≈ lc w << lc
Stretching is easier than Resistance to flow in length/width spreading is easier than

spreading direction is approximately equal stretching
Section B
w0
h1/2
h0/2
w1
Section A lc
295

Measures to describe spread and influencing factors
 Change of width:
w  w1  w0
With increasing The spreading will
 Spreading ratio: h/w increase
w1
 lc / w increase
w0 |h| increase
d increase
 Strain (Spreading strain):
µ increase
 w1 
 w  ln  kf increase
 w0   decrease
n decrease
 Related change of width:
w1  w0
w 
w0

Spreading contour
 The spread cannot be described by the elementary theory
 For small lc / h0  less

5
deformation of the core.
4
 Surface evades
3
w0/h0
2
 For large w0 / h0 the core can

easily evade in the width 1
direction
0
0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8
lc/h0

Definition „Average width“
w1max w1max
w1min w1min
w1m w1m
A1 2w1, max  w1, min

w1m  w1  
h1 3
w1, max  w1, min

or rough estimate: w1 
2

Selected empirical formulas to calculate the spreading
Spreading according to
Geuze w1  w0  C  h; C  0.35 for steel
Tafel and Sedlaczek w1  w0  0.17 h r h0 for steel

Siebel w1  w0  C  h  lc h0 ; C  0.35
Bachtinow and Schternow w1  w0  0.58  h  (lc  h 2 ) h0
w1  w0  (h0 h1 )W
Hill
W  0.5 exp( w0 2lc )
w1  w0  (h0 h1 )W
Wusatowski 1.27 ( w0 h0 )( h0 2 r ) 0.56
W  10
Sander
w1  w0  (h0 h1 )W
0.76 ( w0 h0 ) 0.39 ( w0 lc ) 0.12 ( w0 r ) 0.59
W  10

Roll flattening
 According to Hitchcock:
  CH F 
r  r 1   (237)
 wh 
lc  r h (238)
 with CH
16 1 n 2
CH   (239)
 E lc
 Since F = f(r´), an iterative solution l‘c

might be required

Embedding of the rolling strip
 r must be compensated during the roll
gap adjustment
 Embedding causes band edge
sharpening

Deflection of rolls
Deflection and embedding can cause defects in the strip:
 Strip profile defects

 Flatness defects
roll deflection back up roll
lc

Strip flatness defects
Flatness defects are caused (among others) by
1. deflection of rolls
2. flattening of rolls
3. thickness profile of the initial material
Different thickness reductions over the width cause varying elongations

 waves or buckles development
centre buckles plane strip egde buckles
303

Forming kinematics
Assumption :
 Plane strain
 Plane cross sections stay plane
Geometry:
x2
h( x)  h1  (230)
r
h0  v0  h( x)  v x ( x)  h1  v1
h0 h1 v1
v x ( x)  v0   v1   (242)
h1  r
x2
h1  r 1  h1r
x2 x2
with ( 0  x  lc )

Rolling stock velocity nx
x
with x  (242)
lc
v1
v x ( x)  (243)
1  x 2 h
h1
nu = Circumferential velocities of the roll

lcd
vux  vu neutral point
vr vrx
Es gilt vrx
v0  vux
xn vrx
Backward slip zone
BSZ FSZ
v1  vux Forward slip zone Entry Exit
xn
FSZ – forward slip zone

at x = xF , nx(xF) = nu :neutral point BSZ – backward slip zone

Location of the neutral point
 Hoff and Dahl:
lc  lc 
xF  1  
lc
2  2r 
Neutral point
or
xF 1  lc 
xF   1  
lc 2  2r  (244)
BSZ FSZ
Entrance Exit
and with lc /r  0
1  0 

xF  1  
2  2 
 Limit cases: a) large angle, small friction  x‘F < 0.5
b) small angle, high friction  x‘F  0 (end of the roll gap)


Forward slip
 Forward slip = relative velocity at roll gap exit
v1  vC  v1  dn
 Related forward slip:

v1  vC v1 h 2
1   1  xF (245/ 246)
vC vC h1
Examples h0 [mm] h1 [mm] d [mm] µ xF 
Hot rolling of slabs 250 190 800 0.4 0.26 2.1%
Hot rolling of strip 3 2.1 400 0.2 0.42 7.5%
Cold rolling of strip 1 0.7 400 0.05 0.31 4%
Cold rolling of strip 1 0.7 80 0.05 0.07 0.2%

Static friction zone in case of high friction
 In case of high friction a static friction zone
might arise instead of a neutral point (e.g.
in hot rolling)
lc
static
friction
BSZ zone FSZ
Entrance Exit

Strain rate
 Plane strain
v x
 z  x  (247)
x
 with n(x) from (242)  (248)
 z ( x)  x ( x)
2v1 x

h1r  1   x2
h1r 2
x/lc
lc

Strain rate
 According to the definition
1
  z   x  xm    x ( x)dVC (249)
VC VC
 Approximations
 h   z 
z

z
 v xm 
z
 v1 
ln   v
h1
h0
(250)
rh
1
t lc lc
 Tresca eq |  |max |  h ||  z |

ln   v
h1
h0
rh
1 (251)
eq  1.15 |  |max    1.15 

ln   v
h1
h0
 v. Mises:
rh
1

Examples of strain rates in rolling processes
Process h0 [mm] h1 [mm] d [mm] v1 [m / s] eq [ s 1 ]
Hot rolling of
250 190 800 2.5 4.4
slabs
Cold rolling of
1 0.7 400 25 1324
strip
Cold rolling of
1 0.7 60 25 3418
strip

Local strain
 Assumption: plane strips stay plane
 h( x )   h1  xr 
2
 z  ln    ln  

 h0   h0 
x/lc
lc
or
 h0  h1 2 
 z  ln 1  (1  x )
 h0 

Global strain
With spread Without spread
Thickness h  ln h1 h0 
Length l  lnl1 l0   ( h   w )
Width  w  lnw1 w0  w  0
Tresca  eq |  |max |  h |
v. Mises  eq 
2 2
3

 h   w2  l2   eq  1.15 |  h |

Important ratios in rolling (extension ratio)
l1 A0
 Extension ratio:   (254)
l0 A1
h1
 Reduction ratio :  (255)
h0
b1
 Spreading ratio:  (256)
b0
 A series of n rolling passes:

n
ln l1 l2 ln
tot        i (258)
l0 l0 l1 ln 1 i 1
analog:  tot ;  tot

State of stress
 Equilibrium in x-direction and substitution of σN
σZ by the TRESCA yield criterion leads to σz
α
d x 2
 [tan   tan(   )] x 
dx h σx
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
2 (260)
 k f tan(   )  0
h
where σN
ρ
+: forward slip zone

- : backward slip zone
τfric = μσN
BSZ FSZ
 Approximations from:
Siebel, von Kármán, Zelikov, Nadal, Orowan, Without strip tension!
Bland, Ford und Ellis

Solution according to Siebel (distribution of x)
 Assumptions and simplifications:
  tan    tan(   )        
x
  sin  
r
|  x ||  z |  |  fric |  |  N | k f

 Foward slip zone (0  x  x F )
 k fm  x 2  (264)
 x , FSZ    2 x 
x2 
h1  r  r 
 Backward slip zone ( xF  x  lc )
 k fm  1 2 2 
 x , BSZ  x2 
2   (l  x )  (l  x ) (265)
h  
c c
1 r r 

Distribution of z I
 z can be calculated from the yield criterion
k f  max min   x   z (Tresca)

k f  1.15( max min ) (v. Mises at w = 0)
 This leads to
 Forward slip zone (0  x  x F )

 x2 r 2 x  (266)
 z , FSZ  k fm  1   
 h1  x r h1  x r 
2 2
 Backward slip zone ( x F  x  lc )

 2   (lc  x) lc2  x 2 
 z , BSZ  k fm  1    (267)
 h1  x r
2
r  (h1  x r ) 
2

Distribution of z II
 The linear slope progress of (269) is
obtained, if the rolling process is modelled
as an upsetting processes.
 x  x
lc
 z , FSZ  k fm  1  2  
2
 hm 
xF/lc
 lc  x  lc
 z , BSZ  k fm  1  2   x
 hm  2
 kf was so far assumed to be constant
x/lc

Distribution of z in case of strain hardening
 Slope of z with the
assumption that kf increases
linearly between the entrance
and the exit

Rolling force and resistance to forming
F   |  z | dA
Ac
 Approximation
σz(x)
kres
kfm
F  Ac k res  wm rh  k res
kf
kres from the approximation of Siebel, assuming
plane strain compression instead of rolling (269)
entry exit
1  xF lc

kres |  zm |    z , FSZ dx    z , BSZ dx 
BSZ FSZ lc  0 xF


 Approximation according to Siebel
  lc 
kres |  zm |  zm  1.15k fm  1   (276)
 2 hm 
 (There are tables for materials, h1/d, lc /hm, rolling temperature, h, rolling velocities, ...)

Introduction of geometric factor (correction factor)
lc  l 
F  lc  w  k res ,m
- contact length
F  1.15  k fm 1  
w - width of the plate  2  hm 
k res ,m  k fm  QP k res ,m - resistance to forming kfm (Material) QP (Process)
 The flow stress kfm describes the behavior of the material with respect to the chemical
composition and the parameters:  ,  , 
 The geometric factor QP includes the influence of geometry and friction according to
the assumtions of the model.
 Approximate solutions by: Siebel, von Kármán, Zelikov, Nadai, Lugovskoi, Orowan,
Bland, Ford und Ellis
321

Comparison of different approximations
h0 = 50 mm
 Model according to Siebel (1920s)
 - friction coefficient
1 l h0 = 400 mm
QP  1  c lc - length of roll gap
2 hm hm - mean plate thickness
thick plate thin plate

 Model according to Lugovskoi for the 3.0
parameter range lc / hm < 1
2.5
 hm 
geometric factor QP
lc
QP  1.25  1.25 ln   0.25 2.0
hm  lc 
1.5
 The FE simulations supply a set of QP
1.0
data for the whole parameter range of FE simulation
plate rolling 0.5 Siebel
Lugovskoi
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
shape factor l𝑙d𝑐 /h m
Source: Seuren, 2009 IOM Communications 5th European Rolling Conference 322

Effect of strip tension
 Longitudinal tensions:
 reduction of z, e.g. rolling force
 simplify the guidance of the strip and the
coiling of the strip
 l 0   l1
 Average longitudinal tension:  la 
2

Approximation formulas to estimate the rolling force
 Without strip tension:
F  Ac  kres  wm r h  kres (281)
 With the longitudinal strip tension reduces the required rolling pressure: (280)
 1  Z0 Z1   Z0 Z1
F  Ac   kres   la   wm r h  kres    
 2  0 0
w h w1 1 
h
 If required roll flattening must be considered iteratively

Rolling force direction
 Direction for symmetrical rolls:
 For Z1, Z0 = 0, Fv is vertical
 For (Z1 - Z0)  0, there is a horizontal centerline of the rolling mill
component:
2 Fh  Z1  Z 0

Rolling torque
 Determination from the friction forces (282):
0 F
M d    |  N ( ) | wrrd    |  N ( ) | wrrd (282)
F 0
0 F

M d  wrr    |  N ( ) | d   |  N ( ) | d  (282)
 F 0 
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 (𝛼)
BSZ FSZ

Rolling torque
 Determination from z distribution:
ld
M d  b  |  z | xdx (283)
0
 Without strip tension:
M d  b  |  z , FSZ | xdx   |  z , BSZ | xdx 

 xF lc
(284)
 0 xF 
BSZ FSZ

Lever arm method to estimate the rolling torque
 Without strip tension:
Fh  0
M d  Fa (285)
 With strip tension:
M d*  Fv a  Fh r  0
1
M  F a  ( Z 0  Z1 ) r
*
d
* (286)
2
 Be aware that the drive must provide the torque for both rolls

Determination of the lever arm ratio m
 Hot rolling of steel without strip tension  Cold rolling of steel strip
0.8 0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
lc
0.6
0.4
0.5 0.3
lc
0.2
0.4 0.1
0.3
lc
0.2
0.1

Consideration of roll flattening
 Attention: To calculate the torque it is
not sufficient to replace lc in
(287), (288) with l‘c
 more complicated formula according to

Troost (Kopp, pp. 201 - 202)
lc
l‘c

Rolling power and temperature
 Power: P  M d , tot  M d ,tot 2n
(without considering strip tension!)
 Cold rolling: Heating of the work piece and rolls through dissipation
 Equilibrium condition at temperatures above the room temperature
 Hot rolling: very high initial temperatures

 Looses due to radiation, conduction and convection are larger than
the dissipation
 Temperature decreases

Elastic behavior of the rolling mill
 Under load the roll gap will defect
elastically according to the mill stand
characteristic curve:
F
c
s
named as „modulus of the mill stand“
 If necessary.:
c  c(F )

Rolling stock characteristic curve
 Rolling stock characteristic
curve depends on:
 kres  f (k f ,  , r , hm ,  la )
  r h 
 F  wm r h 1     la
 2 hm 

Rolling force / strip thickness diagram
 The thickness at the exit of the
roll gap can be calculated
from:
F1
h1  s0  (296)
c
(„gage meter equation“)

Rolling force / strip thickness diagram in case of pre-loading
 Under certain conditions a pre-load might be
necessary
rolling force F

Effect of disturbances on rolling force and resulting strip thickness
 kf - fluctuation or  Thickness fluctuations of  Eccentricity of the
strip tension fluctuations the initial material bearings or adjustment
of the roll gap

Content
13.1. Upsetting
13.2. Drawing out
13.4. Drawing
19. Visioplasticity
337
Types of (through-) drawing
Drawing:
 tensile- / compressive forming
 wires, tubes, bars, profiles
Drawing through:
 drawing through a fixed die
Roll drawing:
 drawing through an opening or a
gap formed by two or more rolls

Drawing of tubes
Internal tools may be used to calibrate the inner diameter:
 plug
 rod

Arrangement for wire drawing (simplified)

Drawing dies and typical dimensions
Drawing tools for wire drawing are standardized according to DIN 1547 (Tungsten carbide
drawing dies) and according to DIN 1546 (Diamond drawing dies). They are characterised
through the following two basic components:
 Drawing die with the following parts
 Entrance opening
 Drawing cone
 Cylindrical pass
Core
 Exit opening
 Frame of the Drawing die Core
Core
Cylindrical holder
Typical dimensions in wire drawing of Cu-materials:
 rough pass 20 – 1.5 mm
 middle pass 1.5 – 0.4 mm
 fine pass 0.4 – 0.15 mm
 more fine pass 0.15 – 0.05 mm
 super fine pass 0.05 – 0.01mm
Source: Lange, S. 318/334 Lange, S. 318/334 341

Examples of profiles produced by drawing
 Profiles from circular and square  Profiles which must be pre-formed by
sections rolling
342

Drawing geometry (wire drawing)

Entry cross-section A0  d 02
4

Exit cross-section A1  d12
4
(d 0  d1 )
Length of the forming zone l FZ 
2 tan 
Drawing die angle 

lFZ
Drawing force F
Entry velocity v0
A0
Exit velocity v1  v0 (volume constancy)

A1 343

Forming kinematics
 Assumption: plane cross sections (discs) stay plane!
v0  A0  vz ( z )  A( z )  v1  A1 (297)
with A( z )  R 2 ( z )
R( z )  r0  z  tan 
lFZ
2
A1 r
vz ( z )  v1  v1 1
A( z ) (r0  z tan  ) 2 (298)
volume constancy leads to
r02 r tan 
vr (r , z )  v0
(r0  z tan  )3 (299)

Local strain rate I
 The local strain rate can be calculated from the velocity field
(asymmetry, cf. Kopp, p. 27):
v z 2v1r12 tan  (300)

z  
z (r0  z tan  ) 3
vr  v1r12 tan  z
r 
   (301)
r (r0  z tan  ) 3
2
vr  v1r12 tan 
      r (302)
r (r0  z tan  ) 3
 Remark: z  r    0


Local strain rate II
 Shearing rate
 Assumption:
 sudden change of the
angle ( * r / r0) at the
entrance and the exit
1  vr v z 
 | rz |     
2  z r 

Local strain rate III
 according to (300)
1
 r      z
 
2
 transition zone rz

Global strain rate
1 1 l FZ
z 
    z dV 
  z ( z )R 2 ( z )dz
VFZ VFZ VFZ 0
 with (300) follows
2
6v1 tan   d0 
 z    d 02
ln 
(d 0  d1 )(1  dd10  d2 )  
d1 

(303)
1
 z  l
 z
 r    
2

Equivalent strain rate
 z
 Because  r     there is no difference between Tresca and von Mises:
2
eq   max 
2
 z ²  r ²   ²    z (304)
3
Attention: Shearing rate is neglected !
 Examples
Example d 0 [mm] d1 [mm] v1 [m / s ] 2 eq s 1 

Rod drawing 20 17 1 14° 22.4
Wire drawing 2 1.7 50 14° 11200

Local strain: elongation
 Elongation:
A0 d0
 z  ln  2 ln (305)
A( z ) d ( z)
r0
 2 ln  f (r )
r0  z tan 
z lFZ
 r      f (r ) (306)
2
 Elongation is constant over the cross section but depends on the z-coordinate

Small shear strains / shear strain increments (angular variations)
u y u x
A x B  x  x  2
x x y
1
u y A
A  x u y u y
1  tan 1    uy uy  x
B 1  u x x B x
x ux
x
u x
 2  tan  2  ... 
y ux 
u x
x
x
x
u y u x
  1   2  
x y
 The assumed approximations for 1
1  u x u y  and  2 are only valid for small angles!
 xy    
2  y x 

Local strain: shear
 Angle change at the entrance and exit:
r
   
r0
1
  rz  (1   2 ) (20)
2
 entry:
r
 rz , 0  
2r0
 exit:
r
 rz , 1    To calculate material strain hardening
2r1
 rz , tot  0 |  rz , tot ||  rz , 0 |  |  rz , 1 |

Global true strain
 r  lnd1 d 0   r  lns1 s0 
  lnC1 C0  d1  s1
  ( r   z )  ln
 ln d1 d 0  d 0  s0
 z  lnl1 l0   2 lnd 0 d1   z  lnl1 l0   2 ln A0 A1 
 z  d m 0  s0

 r      
 2
d m1  s1 353

Global deformation: equivalent true strain
 Elementary theory: separation of shearing and elongation
 eq , tot   eq 0   eqFZ   eq1 (309)
Shearing at exit
Forming zone
Shearing at entrance
 Forming zone: (solid bodies)
2  2 2 z2 
 eqFZ 
2 2
3
2

 z   r   
2
3
  z     z2   z
4 
(According to the assumptions homogeneous, i.e. eqFZ = eqFZ)

Global deformation: equivalent true strain II
 Shearing:
r
|  rz | and  eq 
2
 ij  ij 
2  2 1 2

  z   r       zr   r2   2z 
2 2
 (141)
 
2r0 3 3 2
 entry
   r 
2
2 1 2  2 r
 eq 0    rz , 0  
 2 
 
3  2 ( 2 ) 2  3  2r0  3r0
 rz , 0 
1 r0 2 r0 2 r0 1 r 2 1
 •••
 eq 0 
A0  0
 eq 0  2rdr  2
r0 
0
 eq 0 rdr  2
r0 
0
 rdr 
3 r0
 
3 3
2 1
von Mises:  eq 0   Tresca:  eq 0   (310)
3 3 3

Local and global equivalent true strains
2
 von Mises:  eq , tot  z  2  2 r
3 3  eq   z  
3 r1
2
 Tresca  eq , tot  z  
3 forming zone: shearing at
  entrance and
at exit = f(r)
 z  l 
2 r

2 lnd 0 / d1 
3 r1
 eq  eq ,  eq
 eq

State of stress (ideal part and friction contribution)
 Equilibrium in z-direction and introduction
of the Tresca yield criterion:
d z 2
𝜏𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 =
 tan(   )  tan   z 
dz r
2
 tan(   )k f  0 (318)
r
tan   
 Solution (319):
 1 
 tan(   ) 
2
tan(   )   r0  z tan    tan  
 z  k fm ( z ) 1    
tan(   )  tan    r0  
 

Ideal part via drawing work consideration
 Ideal part:
d (Wid )  A z ds 
 2R( z )s |  r |  | dr |
with  z  r  k f
follows : Wid  V  k fm  l (325)
 Ideal drawing force: Fid  A1  k fm  l (327)
 Ideal drawing stress:  z1, id  k fm  l (328)

Friction part via friction work consideration
F fric  F fric ,  cos     FN cos  (331)
 Assumption:
|  Nm | k fm 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,α = 𝜇 ∙ 𝐹𝑁
FN  k fm  AM (332) 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
with 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐,α
l 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
Ashell  A1 tan   
sin 
Ashell: shell surface
 F fric 
 F fric  A1  k fm  l  (333)  z1 fric   k fm  l  (334)
 A1 

Drawing work: Shearing part via shearing work consideration
Wsh  Wsh 0  Wsh1  Vk f 0 eq 0  Vk f 1 eq1
entry exit
1 kf 0  kf1
with  eq 0   eq1   and  k fm
3 2
2
Wsh  V  k fm    Fsh  l1 (335)
3
( A1  l1 )
2 FS 2
 Fsh  A1  k fm   (336)  z1sh   k fm   (337)
3 A1 3

Drawing force and drawing stress
 Drawing stress
 z1   z1,id   z1, fric   z1, sh
 Drawing force
F  Fid  F fric  Fsh
 Connect all parts together

  2 
 z1  k fm  l 1   
  3l 
ideal part friction part shear part F   z1  A1

z – stress distribution
 (319) contains only the friction N
k f  (200  280 0.4 )
part driven from the equilibrium mm2
'conditions, but not the shear parts d 0  2 mm d1  1.7 mm
l  0.325
  5.71 1
 z1, sh  2  k fm  (337)
3
 At z = Exit, the shear parts are
  0.05
added, which are driven from the 
 z1, fric  2  l (334)
work considerations described 
above.
 The comparison with (319)  z1,id  2  k fml (328)

shows that z1f,ric is too high,
i.e. “safe” estimation
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

entry exit

Radial and circumferential stresses
 Solid body:
r     r  
 z   max
 r      min
 Tresca
 z  r  k f (339)
entry exit
 Tubes: For tubes, apply process specific formulas in which the friction and shear parts
are adjusted accordingly.

Deformation work and power
W  F  l1
P  F  v1 (343)
 M d    M d  2n
D
Md  F 
2
  2 
F  A1  k fm  l 1    (341)
  3l 
  2 
W  V  k fm  l 1    (342)
  3l 
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 224/225/226 364

Resistance to forming and deformation efficiency
Weff  V  k res  l leads to (345)
  2 
k res  k fm 1    (346)
  3l 
Wid V  k fm  l
h def  
 
(347)
Weff V  k fm  l 1    32l
1

1    32l 
Shearing is considered as loss!

Temperature
k fm   eq
m 
  cp
k fm ( eq )   eq
 (r )  with  eq  f (r )
  cp
Wsh Wfric

Optimum drawing die angle
  2 
F  A1  k fm  l 1    (341)
Fid
  3l  Ffric
Fsh
F
0

3
 opt  l (348)
2
Fsh
 Example:
for µ  0.05 und l = 0.2 follows opt = 7°
Ffric
 Optimal drawing die angle 2opt = 14°

Drawing risk of breakage factor
 The out coming wire must be able to withstand the drawing force:
  2 
A1  k fm  l 1     A1   z , max
  3l 
 Definition of the drawing risk of breakage (in German: Anstrengungsgrad)
F F
a 
Fmax A1  k f 1
 For more safety:
a  amax  0.75

Force limit ratio and max. true strain
a
F

k fm  l 1    32l   (352)
Fmax kf1
Risk of breakage can be reduced through:
 reducing l
 reducing 
 choosing opt
Rearranging (352) gives the true strain limit:
amax  k fmf1  23 
k
(354)
lG 
1  
(typical: lG = 0.5, therefor d/d0  22%)

Drawing with backward tension
Advantages of backward tension:
 reducing of radial compressive stress
 reducing fric
 less tool wear
Disadvantages of backward tension:

 reducing the hydrostatic pressure m
 reducing B
 increasing z1
 increasing the strain coefficient
 decreasing lG
entry exit

Content
13.1. Upsetting
13.2. Drawing out
13.4. Drawing
19. Visioplasticity
371
Profile extrusion (concept)
Specific characteristics:
 higher hydrostatic compressive stresses
 high strain
 hot working
billet
direct profile extrusion (solid forward)
billet
indirect profile extrusion (solid backward)


Products of profile extrusion
a Extrusion profiles have the same cross-section

area over the entire profile length.
a. Profiles of Al-material
b. Profiles of Cu-material
c. Profiles of steel
b c

Material Flow during drawing, extrusion and bar extrusion
Drawing Extrusion Bar extrusion
tool

Characteristics of bar extrusion processes
Reducing Extrusion Profile extrusion
Principle
Forming primarily cold primarily cold primarily warm

temperature
Product primarily single single parts  profiles 

parts finished parts semi-finished
parts
Max. strain 𝜑 small direct extrusion direct profile
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 1.4 to 1.6 extrusion
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 7
Tool without support container, die and container, die and
by container punch punch
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 254-260 375

Direct profile extrusion (solid forward)
 Billet and punch move in the same
direction
 Pushing the ingot forward
demands high friction force and work
billet

Indirect profile extrusion (solid backward)
 no relative movement between the
billet and the container
 Friction forces between billet

and container are negligible
Indirect profile extrusion (solid backward)

Lateral profile extrusion
Solid lateral extrusion Hollow lateral extrusion

Variants of direct profile extrusion
a solid direct extrusion without shell 1 punch 5 die

b hollow- direct extrusion without shell 2 container 6 die holder
c solid direct extrusion with shell 3 dummy block 7 extruded profile
d hollow- direct extrusion with shell 4 billet 8 mandrel

Hydrostatic profile extrusion
 Forming assisted through
hydrostatic pressure of a liquid
 minimal friction
billet

Geometry of the forming area I
Flat die:
 2α = 180°
 no extrusion of the ingot‘s surface
flat
Conical die: die
 80° < 2α < 120°

 surface defects due to extrusion of the
conical
block‘s outer surface die
 smaller press forces inserted billet
(if necessary with lubrication)
initially pressed billet

Geometry of the forming area II
dz: dead zone
Dead zone:
 max =k (elastically) loaded area
 αdz depends on
 Temperature distribution deformation
zone
 Friction between block and F
container 2 v1
v0
conical die
 Elementary theory αdz mostly 45°
 Extrusion with shell decreases

surface defects
dz
shell

Forming kinematics I
 Volume constancy:
v0  A0  v1  A1 (363)
A0
v z ( z )  v0  αdz
A( z ) Flat die
A1
 v1  (364)
A( z ) lfric lFZ = ldz
entry exit
with entry exit
A( z )  R 2 ( z ) Conical
R( z )  r0  z tan  die
r02
v z ( z )  v0  (365)
(r0  z tan  ) 2

Forming kinematics II
 For α or αdz = 45° folloes
r02
vz ( z )  v0 (366)
(r0  z ) 2
 Volume constancy for full cross-sections leads to integration of
r tan  r  r02 tan 

vr (r , z )  vz ( z )  v0 (367)
r0  z tan  (r0  z tan  )3
 or for flat dies and αdz = 45°
r r  r02
vr (r , z )  vz ( z )  v0 (368)
r0  z (r0  z )3
(velocity field is a rough approximation!)

Strain rate
 Analogous to drawing it follows from αdz = 45°
v z 2v0 r02
z   (371)
z (r0  z ) 3
v0 r02 z
r       (372)
2 (r0  z ) 3
 Entry: z0
 Exit: z  l FZ

Examples of strain rate
 Presets for easily extrudable alloys and simple profiles:
d0  200mm l1 A0
  1000  l  7
m l0 A1
v1  2
s
z0 2v0 r02
 Entry z 0  3    0.04s 1
r0
z 0
r 0    0     0.02 s 1
2
 Exit z  lU 2v0 r02

z1  3    1266s 1
r1
z1
 r1   1  
   633s 1
2 386

Strain rate
 Average value determination by integrating in z-direction:
1 1 l FZ
 z 
VFZ VFZ z dV  VFZ 0
z ( z )R 2 ( z )dz
2
6v0 tan   d0 
 z     ln 
(d 0  d1 ) 1   d1
d0  d2 d12
0
  

d1 

(373)
 z  l

Approximation for the deformation velocity
 For higher press ratio l1/l0 is valid d0 >> d1
6v0 tan 
 z   z (374)
d0
 For flat dies with dz = 45°
6v0
 z   z (375)
d0
and
z  z
r       r     (376)
2 2

Equivalent strain rates (neglecting shear)
 According to Tresca and von Mises
eq |  |max 
2 2
3
 
 z   r2  2   z (377)
 Example 1: hard extrudable, complicated profile
d0  200mm l1 A0 l  3 v1  10
mm
  20 
l0 A1 s
eq  0.045s 1
 Example 2: easily extrudable, simplified profile

l1 A0 m
d0  200mm   1000 l  7 v1  2
l0 A1 s
 
 eq  0.42 s 1

Local strain rates and equivalent strain rates
 Example:
 Entry z 0  0.04s 1

 Exit z1  1266s 1
eq  0.42s 1
eq is so small because only in very
small volume parts there is a high
value of z
eq

Local strain: local elongation
 Like in drawing, the assumption that flat discs remain flat is valid here as well:
z A0 r0
 z  ln  ln    2 ln (378)
 z0 A( z ) r0  z tan 
z
and  r     (379)
2
αdz
for  = 45°: Flat die
r0
 z  2 ln
r0  z lfric lFZ = ldz
(380)
r0 entry exit
 r      ln
r0  z (381)

Local strain: local shear strain
 Analogous to drawing (see sketch), shear stresses involving angle alterations at the
intake and outlet are formed in the deformation zone
r
 rz 0   (382)
2r0
r
 rz1  (383)
2r0
 Attention: the equation used so far for shear strain determination

is for small angles.
 Consequently rough approximation!

Equivalent strain
 Elementare Theorie
 eq , tot   eq 0   eq , FZ   eq1
Shear strain at the exit
Strain at the forming zone
Shear strain at the entry
 Analogous to drawing, the following approximations are valid:
Tresca von Mises

1 2
 eq 0  
3 3 3
 eqFZ 2 ln(d 0 d1 )
1 2
 eq1  
3 3 3

Equivalent strain
The shear strain components in bar
kf
extrusion are:
 definitely considerable bigger than those in
drawing (in terms of absolute value)
 normally smaller than the longitudinal strain
component in bar extrusion
 eq
 Approximation (387)
d0
 eq  l  2 ln
d1
 Sufficient for the determination of kf in hot

flow curves

State of stress
Assumptions FZ: forming zone
 The geometry of the deformation zone

according to the sketch
 Constant stresses in one disc dead

zone
 Axial symmetry to all main normal FZ

stresses z, r, 
entry exit
 Yield criterion according to Tresca

State of stresses in the forming zone
 Entry  z1  0
 FFZ
 Exit:  z0  0
A0 dead
zone
 Progression considered to be linear
 Axial symmetry of the solid body: FZ
 Tresca:  r  
 z  r  k f entry exit
r z

Stresses in the billet at the end of the upsetting (before extrusion)
  
 FFZ
z  kf0
A0
 no plastic flow
 eq   max   min  k f 0
  max   r   
|  r ||  z | k f 0
(z is the „active“ stress)
possible
range for
r

Stresses in direct profile extrusion
dead
zone
 Decrease of z due to friction fric
FZ
 “Strong increase“ of r at the
entrance to the deformation zone
−𝐹𝐹𝑍
Possible
range for r

Stresses in direct tube extrusion
Dead
zone
 In the deformation zone it follows

FZ
 z     r
Mandrel
(  r, due to the hollow body)

Forming work in extrusion
 In drawing it was shown that:
Wid  V  k fm  l (325)
 For the ideal part
Wid  VP  k fm  l (388)
Dead
zone
where
FZ
VP  VB  VPR Mandrel
V press rest
press rest
Vbillet
V product

Friction work in the die I
 Work needed for the shifting of a disc
with thickness s by a displacement dz:
s dz
d (W fric ) |  fric | 2R( z ) 
cos  cos 
 Coulomb
|  fric | k fm
V  dA
s  2R( z )  dz 
A tan 
 dA  dr 
 A  r 2
  2r ; tan   
 dr dz 

Friction work in the die II
 Applying in (389) brings for the shifting a disc about s :
dA 1
d (W fric )   k fm  V
A cos
sin 
 d l 2
sin 2
 For the entire expression, it follows:
2
W fric  VP  k fm  l  (390)
sin 2
 In comparison with drawing:
  2 
W  V  k fm  l  1    (342)
  3l 

Shearing work with flat dies
Flat dies
 Shearing along the boundaries of the dead zone (dz  45°)
dead
k fm
|  fric | k fm  max 
zone
Instead on 
2
FZ
In addition: sin 2 dz  1
 Wsh ,dz  VP  k fm  l (391)
 The shearing work is as big as the ideal work term

Friction work at the die exit and shearing work
 There is friction work at the die outlet, but its fraction of the entire work is small.
 For the shear work at inlet/outlet of the deformation zone the following rough
approximation is valid:
2
Wsh  VP  k fm  
3 (392)

For flat dies: 2  180,  dz  45 
4
dead

zone
Wsh  VP  k fm   0.5  VP  k fm (393)

6 FZ

Total deformation work
 Conical dies:
Wdef  Wid  W fric  Wsh
 2 2  (394)
Wdef 
 VP  k fm  l 1   
 sin 2 3l 
 Flat dies:
Wdef  Wid  Wsh ,dz  Wsh
 0.5  (395)
Wdef  VP  k fm  l  2  
 l 

Notes to the equations for the deformation work
  must be estimated
 Due to the big angle  there are (unlike drawing) considerable uncertainties at the
friction and shearing parts
 Alternative: Empiric determination of the deformation efficiency (measurement)
Wid VP  k fm  l
Wdef   (396)
h def h def

Friction work at the ingot surface I
dead
Displacement of the block by the distance dlfric zone
0  lfric  l0 – lFZ FZ
dW fric  F fric  dl fric |  fric | d 0l fric  dl fric
 Total friction work at the contact surface between block and container
l0 l FZ (l0  l FZ ) 2
W fric   |  r | d 0  l fric dl fric   |  r | d 0 (397)
0 2

Friction work at the ingot surface II
l0 l FZ (l0  l FZ ) 2
W fric   |  r | d 0  l fric dl fric   |  r | d 0 (397)
0 2
 The approximation |r| = kf is not realistic due to the high hydrostatic pressure. Under
the assumption that fric = max = k = kf0/2 it follows:
It follows

W fric  k f 0  d 0  (l0  l FZ ) 2 (398)
4

Friction work at the ingot surface III
 With indirect profile extrusion (solid backward), there is no friction work on the surface,
because there is no relative motion between the ingot and the die.
billet

Total work
 Direct profile extrusion (solid forward)
k fm 
Wtot  Wdef  W fric  VP  l  k f 0 d 0 (l0  l FZ ) 2 (399)
h def 4
 Indirect profile extrusion (solid backward),
k fm
Wtot  Wdef  VP   l (400)
h def

Deformation resistance
 Methods with indirect pressure action
 definition of kres concerning the work:

Wid  VP  k fm  l Wdef  VP  k res  l (404)
 According to this relationship follows:
 2 2 
 For conic dies: k res 
 k fm 1    (405)
 sin 2 3l 
 0.5 
 For flat dies: k res  k fm  2   (406)
 l 

Forces during forward bar extrusion I
1. Elastic compression until
FA0  A0 B  k f 0
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
2. Plastic compression until the ingot 𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓
reaches the diameter of the container
FA, max  A0  k fA

  d 02  k fA
4
 A0  k f 0

Forces during forward bar extrusion II
Pressing with
F  Fdef  F fric (411)
k fm 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
 A0   l  𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓
hU
1
 k f 0   d0  l
2
 4. Force increase at the end l g lU

(increasing shear part)

Press force during backward bar extrusion
 Because of Ffric  0 the press force
Fdef is constant except for the
𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑓
transient
areas at the entry and exit.
 The total work in both methods is

equal to the area under the force
function.

Temperature during bar extrusion
 The ingot will be applied at the temperature for hot forming:
Al- alloys: 400°C – 500°C
Cu- alloys: 700°C – 950°C
 Preheating of the tools almost to the temperature of the ingot, when dealing with Al;
when dealing with Cu heating is done in accordance with the allowable drop in strength
of the recipient.
 The deformation heating

k fm   eq
m 
h def    c p
is significant and should be considered.
 To compensate the heat transfer and friction heat, a temperature profile over the total
length of the block must be established.

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
416
History of the slip line theory
 Father of the theory:
Levy (1871), Hencky (1923), Prandtl (1923), Hill (1950), Prager Hodge (1951)
 Basic concept:
 Equilibrium conditions
can be transferred from partial differential
equations to hyperbolic system.
 Flow conditions
 Analytical solution provides orthogonal curves

(characteristic curves, slip lines)
 The slip lines set the directions of maximum shear stress in which the material slips.
Chapter 14 – Slip lines theory and upper and lower bound method
Slip line theory (approach and requirements)
Approach:
 The equilibrium conditions and the yield criterion can be attributed to a hyperbolic
system of partial differential equations.
 As solutions, orthogonal sets of curves also known as characteristics result. These
sets of curves determine the directions of the maximum shear stress in which the
material slips (slip lines).
Requirements and assumptions:

 Rigid-ideal plastic material behavior
 𝑘𝑓 = constant, i.e. neither strain rate (hot forming) nor work hardening is considered.
 Plane strain
(except for some axially symmetric applications)
 No friction in the contact area (contact with the tool)
(Exceptions are possible with considerable additional work)
418
Slip line theory (application and limitations)
Advantages:
 The basic equations are solved exactly (with the aforementioned assumptions).
 Local distribution of stress and strain can be determined reliably.
Using FRY’s etching,

Slip line field for the plastic zone in the
plain drawing deformation area
according to Hill (during drawing) is
made visible.
Disadvantages:
 High graphic effort and considerable limitations due to the assumptions that have to be
made.
Today:
 Has mostly been replaced by FEM.
Source: Kopp, Einführung in die Umformtechnik, p. 274 419

Example: Frictionless plane strain upsetting test
 Frictionless plane strain upsetting according to Hill
due to frictionless upsetting
slip line on
the edge due to Symmetry
symmetry plane
Typical slip line fields
Straight line
 Straight line field  - slip line
field
 Φ = const.
 homogeneous state of stress
 - slip line
 Circle fan
 homogeneous state of stress
along each straight line
 inhomogeneous state of
stress along the circular Circle fan
arcs
 Curve field
 inhomogeneous
state of stress
Curve field
Results from variation of parameters
Example: incremental forging (drawing out)
A) Bite ratio sB/h = 1
related stress z/kf under the middle of die block

related stress x/kf
related stress y/kf

𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
= 0, = −0.5, = −1
𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑓
tension
compression
bite ratio sB/h

Results from variation of parameters
Example: incremental forging (drawing out)
B) Bite ratio sB/h = 0.2
related stress z/kf under the middle of die block

= 1.1, = 0.6, = 0.1
related stress x/kf
related stress y/kf

= 0, = −0.5, = −1
= −1, = −1.5, = −2
compression tension
bite ratio sB/h
Upper and lower bound method (approach and requirements)
 Approximate solutions by localizing the exact solution with an upper and a lower
bound for the deformation power
 Requirements and assumptions:

 knowledge of the plastic region
 knowledge of the flow stress in the plastic region (if necessary iteratively)
 knowledge of the boundary conditions (boundary stresses and velocities)
 Lower bound: For each (guessed) statically admissible stress field, the calculated
deformation power is smaller than the power of the actual (unknown) stress field.
(statically admissible: equilibrium condition, yield criterion, stress boundary conditions).
 Upper bound: For each (guessed) kinematically admissible velocity field, the
calculated deformation power is greater than the power of the actual (unknown)
velocity field.
(kinematically admissible: volume constancy, velocity boundary conditions, compatibility condition)
424
Upper and lower bound method (application and limitations)
 Stress fields are difficult to guess  lower bound is difficult
 Velocity fields can be described easier (visioplastic investigations are compared with
idealized operations)  upper bound is easier
 Often, the upper bound is sufficient because the results are conservative (e.g. when
designing or selecting a forming machine)
 Often, the deformation power can be determined realistically with very simple approaches
for the velocity field. The realistic material flow and stress field cannot be calculated with
these simple approaches.
 Local target values can be Velocity field in drawing
calculated more reliably with velocity
fields that are determined or verified tool
by visioplastic methods.
 The upper and lower bound method
has lost its importance compared to
FEM.
425
Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
426
Goal of this chapter
 Introduction to the basic steps when using a commercial FEM program system to simulate
metal forming processes
 Mathematical fundamentals will be here and in the following chapters only so much
simplified addressed, as they are required for a correct use of commercial programs.
427
Chapter 15 – Finite element method

Physical and thematic problem
Task of the process simulation:
 Solution of differential equations
 Stationary, transient field problems
 The usual distinct nonlinearities, e.g. large displacement, solution-dependent
material parameters, varying boundary conditions, varying contact…
 Coupled problems,
e. g. flow and heat transport, plastic deformation and heat transport
 Complex and changing geometry
428

Basic concept of the finite elemente method
1. Dividing the volume in geometrical simple elements (Discretization)
2. Choosing a suitable approach for the functions in each element, which describe the
problem.
3. Establishing a system of equations for the functional values at each node in consideration
of:
 a suitable extremal principle
 the boundary conditions
 the continuity requirements
4. Solving the equation system (if necessary iteratively)
429

Development of the FEM
 50’s: Origins in the structural design (supporting formwork, Problem: complex
equation system however no computer available)
 1956: Computation of swept airplane wings through BOEING
 End of 60’s: Computation of the roof of Munich Olympic stadium
 70’s: Nonlinear problems were taken into account; the associated

fundamentals (material laws, numerical methods etc.) were created
 Since 80’s: Widespread application in the engineering disciplines among other

things for structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics,
electro technology, metal forming technology, geology and
astrophysics…)
430

FEM: Terms and definitions
Discretization:
 Discretization is the division of the structure volume in geometrical simple elements with
finite dimensions.
 Finite Element Method (FEM)
431

Element-types
 The edges of the elements are connected Beam element
with nodes.
 Inside the element, the desired solution
variable (ex. displacement) is Plane
approximated through the solution at the Element
nodes using shape functions.
Axial-sym.
Element
Volume-
element
Source: Mayr/Thalhofer 432

 Series connection of 2 springs
1 2 1
1 2 3 1 2
K1
u1, F1 u2, F2 u3, F3 u1(1), F1(1) u2(1), F2(1)
 For spring 1 it is valid:

F1(1)  K1 u1(1)  u2(1)  mit F2(1)   F1(1) (equilibrium)
F2(1)  K  u
1
(1)
1  u2(1) 
Element stiffness matrix
 K1  K1   u1(1)   F1(1) 
    (1)    (1)  Node displacement vector
  K1 K1   u2   F2  Node load vector

 Similarly the following is valid for spring 2:
2
 K2  K2   u1( 2 )   F1( 2 )  1 2
    ( 2 )    ( 2 ) 
  K2 K2   u2   F2  K2
u1(2), F1(2) u2(2), F2(2)
 Assembly under utilization of :
1 2
1 2 3
F 1
(1)
 F1 u(1)
1  u1
u1, F1 u2, F2 u3, F3
F 2
(1)
F 1
( 2)
 F2 u (1)
u ( 2)
 u2
2 1
F2( 2 )  F3
u2( 2 )  u3

1
 K1  K1   u1(1)   F1(1)  1 2
    (1)    (1) 
  K1 K1   u2   F2  K2
u1(1), F1(1) u2(1), F2(1)
 K2  K2   u1( 2 )   F1( 2 )  2
   ( 2 )    ( 2 ) 
1 2

  K2 K2   u2   F2  K2
u1(2), F1(2) u2(2), F2(2)
F1(1)  F1
1 2
F 2
(1)
F 1
( 2)
 F2 1 2 3
F2( 2 )  F3 u1, F1 u2, F2 u3, F3
 K1  K1 0   u1   F1  F1 
(1)
     (1) 
  K1 K1  K 2  K 2    u2    F2  F1  F2 
( 2)
 0  
 K2 K 2   u3   F2  F3 
( 2)


 The application of FEM leads basically to equation systems of the shape
* * 0 0 0  0
 
* ** * 0 0  0
0  u1   F1 
* ** * 0  0    
   u2   F2 
0 0 * ** *  0 u  F 
0  
 0 0 * **  0

 3  3
     
       u  F 
   n  n
0 0 0 0 0 ** *
0 *
 0 0 0 0 * 
Total stiffness matrix Vector of nodal Vector of loads
variables
 The whole stiffness matrix is symmetrical (exception: e.g. friction) and shows band
structure. The resulting band width depends on the numbering of the elements and
nodes. It influences significantly the solution effort and computing time.

 For linear problems (the example of spring) the equation system can be solved directly
after application of the boundary conditions.
 For nonlinear problems (in the example of spring, e.g. for a progressive spring with
K1 = f(u1 – u2)  const.) the equation system changes depending on the solution.
 The solution must be found iteratively.
 For transient problems the time must be divided in small time steps. For each time step
the equation system will be established depending on the results of previous time step
and then solved (if necessary iteratively).

For linear spring element the stiffness matrix can be determined exactly. However this is
generally not possible for continuum elements.
In this general case the element stiffness matrix can be obtained through:
 Developing suitable shape functions
 Application of variational principles (e.g. stat. value of potential energy)
In this way elements arise, which represent the physical interrelations and possible
simplifications (e.g. plane state of stress).

Element types
Plane 4 nodes element with linear

approach of displacement
Plane 8-nodes element with quadratic

approach of displacement
Linear 3-D cube element
439

Element-library
Element shape Assumptions of deformation Material laws
 Rectangle  Plane state of stress  Elastic

 Triangle  Plane state of strain  Elastic-plastic
 Hexahedron  Axial-symmetry  Rigid-plastic
 Tetrahedron  Bar-, plate- and shell  Viscous behavior
 ... theory  Heat conduction
 3D-continuum mechanics  ...
 ...
Rectangle Triangle Hexahedron Tetrahedron Pyramid

Pentahedron
440

Basic modules of a finite element program system
Organization and data management

Library of mathematic Pre- and post-
Element library Algorithm library
operations processors
 geometrical element  linear statics  matrix operations  mesh generation
shapes  nonlinear statics  visualization of
 assumptions of  linear dynamics the results
deformation
 nonlinear dynamics
 material laws
441

Consistent units in FEM
 Overview of typical values
SI-System mm-t-s mm-g-ms m-kg-ms

Value unit unit factor unit factor unit factor
Length m mm 103 mm 103 m 1
Mass kg t 10-3 g 103 kg 1
Time s s 1 ms 103 ms 103
Temperature K K 1 K 1 K 1
Area m² mm² 106 mm² 106 m² 1
Velocity m∙s-1 mm∙s-1 103 mm∙ms-1 1 m∙ms-1 10-3
Density kg∙m-3 t∙mm-3 10-12 g∙mm-3 10-6 kg∙m-3 1
Pressure, stress Pa = N∙m-3 MPa = N∙mm-2 10-6 MPa = N∙mm-2 10-6 MPa = MN∙m-2 10-6
Force N=kg∙m∙s-2 N 1 N 1 MN 10-6
Heat conduction W∙m-1∙K-1 mW∙mm-1∙K-1 1 W∙mm-1∙K-1 10-3 GW∙m-1∙K-1 10-9
Source: https://www.archytas.ch/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/archytas_einheiten_2016.pdf 442

Tasks of the program users
Before the Simulation: model construction:
 Topology
 Presetting the node numbers and coordinates
 Selection of the element type
 Assignment between element number and nodes number
 Setting of the boundary conditions
 Setting of the characteristic data of the material
Control the computing progress:

 Setting of the load history
 Controlling of the step size of the integration
 Setting of the convergence criterion
 Selection of the desired output
443

Tasks of the program users
After the Simulation:
Interpretation / verification of the results
 Plausibility check
 Graphical representation of the results
 Comparison experiment and literature
 Execution of controlling calculations
(Convergence analysis) to set the confidence interval of the solution
444

Influencing variables in the FEM-Simulation
Physical influencing factors

Material law
Approach of Friction
Material characteristic data
Thermal data
Target values
Numerical influencing factors

Spatial Discretization
FEM-Simulation
Temporal Discretization
Element type
Additional conditions
Other influencing factors
Element degeneration
Process modeling
445

Error sources
Physical problem
Mathematic problem Simplifying assumptions

(2D, axisym., isotropic)
Discretized model
Replacement of a continuum Program
mechanical model with a Programming errors
discrete model Integration algorithms
Computer
Input-Data
Limited number of elements
Inaccurate input value of:
Output
• material data
• Boundary condition Post processing
• Tolerance Interpretation
user
446

Influence of the boundary conditions I
 Heat transfer coefficient correct
W
Initial temperature 1200ºC,  = 2000
m2 K

tool
 Temperature
 Equivalent strain
447

Influence of boundary conditions II
 Heat transfer coefficient incorrect
W
Initial temperature 1200ºC,  = 4000
m2 K
tool
 Temperature
 Equivalent strain
448

Secured FEM application
Determination of numerical parameters with the help of a convergence study
 Element type
Simulation task  Spatial Discretization
 Temporal Discretization
 ...
Are exact boundary Yes

conditions and material characteristic
data available?
No
Basic experiments such as Estimation

 Displacement measurement
 Temperature measurement
 Flow curve determination Determination of the possible
Possibly, extra FEM-calculation error range due to variation of
to determine , ,... the parameters
Nein
Nein
FEM-simulation maybe under presetting of different process conditions

449

Influence of discretization in contact problems I
Error type: Penetration
 The contact regulation is effected  Thereby, edges overlap may arise in

in most FEM-Systems based on the process of simulation due to
the nodes. insufficient discretization of the contact
zone between tool and workpiece.
450

Influence of discretization in contact problems II
Error type: lacking of form filling
 The forging die is not filled completely  A discretization corrected by the model
during the simulation because of the diagnostic enable the form filling of the
insufficient discretization die.
451

Example: Upsetting of a cylinder with longitudinal bore
   z
Given values are:

Initial height: H 0  150 mm
Initial-Ø: D0  100 mm
d0  20 mm
Height reduction: H max  50 mm
Flow curve: k f  k f ( eq )
E-Modulus: E  2.1 105 N / mm2
Poisson’s number: n  0.3
Friction coefficient:   ?
452

Use the advantage of symmetry conditions
a) b)
Since the actual process outlined in figure a) is equivalent to the process shown in figure b),
so the central plane (z = 0) is the plane of symmetry. The following model is adequate (upper
right quarter of the cross section) for the calculation:
axisymmetrical ring element

symmetry at the axis (ur(r=0) = 0)
symmetry condition at the median plane uz(z=0) = 0

radial displacement for z = 0 is free
453

Discretization
Discretization involves the following steps:

1. Dividing the basic area in a sufficiently large
number of elements
2. Presetting the number of the nodes and the
coordinates
3. Presetting the correlation of the element numbers
and node numbers
454

Example geometry for the input-file
Punch and “Surface of

Reference point of the punch the punch”
Contact area
“Edge of the upper right
quarter”
Symmetry plane:
“central plane”
Coordinate system in
cylindrical coordinates
(1 = r, 2 = z)
455

Input-file: geometry
*Heading
** Job name: example1-8 Model name: Job name and model name
Model-1
** ------------------------------------------------------
**
** PART INSTANCE: Stauchprobe-1
**
*Node
1, 10., 0.
2, 13.3333, 0.
Node number and the corresponding
... coordinate
169, 50., 75.
*Element, type=CAX4H Element type
1, 1, 2, 15, 14
2, 2, 3, 16, 15
Element number and the corresponding
... node number
144, 155, 156, 169, 168
*Nset, nset=Stauchprobe-1._G2, generate
1, 169, 1
Summary of the nodes and elements of
*Elset, elset=Stauchprobe-1._G2, generate the upsetting specimen “Stauchprobe”
1, 144, 1
**
** SECTIONS
**
** Section: Body
*Solid Section, elset=Stauchprobe-1._G2, Assignment of the material “steel” to the
material=Stahl
1., body of the upsetting specimen
** ---------------------------------------------------- “Stauchprobe”
456

Input-file: characteristic material data
** PART INSTANCE: Stempel-1
**
*System Define a local coordinate system for
0., 75., 0., 1., 75., 0.
*Node the punch
170, 0., 0.
*Nset, nset=Stempel-1-RefPt_
170, Reference point for the punch
*System
*Nset, nset=Mittelebene, generate
1, 13, 1
*Elset, elset=Mittelebene, generate Define the symmetry plane “central plane”
1, 12, 1
*Nset, nset=Ref-Punkt Stempel
170,
**
** MATERIALS
*Material, name=Stahl Material data of a kind of steel „Stahl“: E-
*Elastic
210000., 0.33
Modulus and Poisson's number
*Plastic
240., 0.
240., 0.015
424., 0.1
547., 0.3
Flow curve
582., 0.4
670., 0.8
700., 1.
457

Input-file: calculation and output
** INTERACTION PROPERTIES
*Surface Interaction, name=Reibung
1. Define the friction coefficient
*Friction
0.01,
** BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
** BC: Mittelebene fixieren Type: Displacement Boundary conditions (restraint) :
*Boundary
Mittelebene, 2, 2 central plane „Mittelebene“:
** BC: Stempel fixieren Type: Displacement
*Boundary no displacement in 2-direction
Ref-Punkt Stempel, 1, 1
Ref-Punkt Stempel, 2, 2 Punch „Stempel“:
Ref-Punkt Stempel, 6, 6 no displacement in 1-direction
*Elset, elset=_Rand oben+rechts_S2, generate
12, 144, 12 no displacement in 2-directon
*Elset, elset=_Rand oben+rechts_S3, generate
133, 144, 1 Define the contact area
*Surface Definition, name=Rand oben+rechts
_Rand oben+rechts_S2, S2
upper and right edge „Rand oben+rechts“
_Rand oben+rechts_S3, S3
*Rigid Surface, type=SEGMENTS, name=Stempelflaeche, ref
node=Stempel-1-RefPt_
START, 80., 75.
Define the punch
LINE, 0., 75.
** Interaction: Kontakt Probe mit Stempel
*Contact Pair, interaction=Reibung
Definition of the contact between punch
Rand oben+rechts, Stempelflaeche „Stempel“ and upper right edge „Rand
oben+rechts“ 458

Input-file: calculation and output
** -----------------------------------------------
----
**
** STEP: Stauchen Define the calculation steps: max. number
** of the increments
*Step, nlgeom, inc=200
Stauchen Size of the first increment etc.
*Static
1., 66.66, 0.01, 10.
**
** BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
**
** BC: Stempel fixieren Type: Displacement
Movement of Punch:
*Boundary 25 mm in negative 2-direction
Ref-Punkt Stempel, 2, 2, -25.
**
** OUTPUT REQUESTS
** Define the output
*Restart, write, frequency=500
*Output, field, op=NEW, frequency=5 Output of the displacement U for each node
*Node Output
U,
*Element Output
S, E
Output of stress S and strain E for each
*End Step element
459

Simulation with different friction coefficients
60.86 52.02 50.13
11.95 9.96 9.98
170
170
friction  = 0.01 friction  = 0.25 friction  = 0.5
S, Mises
Ave. Crit: 75%
h 25mm
 Height reduction:   33%
h0 75mm
 h1  50mm
 True strain:   ln   ln  - 0.4
 h0  75mm
460

Comparison between simulation and experiment
calculated net ( = 0.25) experiment ( = 0.25)
 : is the friction coefficient between workpiece and die
461

Hot forming
Influence of boundary conditions and material data in hot forming
V Furnace temperature: 1150 °C

Manipulation time: 12.2 s
h = 36.0 mm
  0.05s 1  v  u(t )
Material: C 15
Temperature of dies: 23 °C
k f  k f ( ,  , ) from upsetting tests to determine
the flow curve
=?
=?
=?
k f  k f 0  e  cT    eq  eq
m h
462

Temperature distribution and experimentally determined contour
 Isothermen:  = 700 °C
 = 750 °C
 = 800 °C
 = 850 °C
 = 900 °C
 = 950 °C
 = 1000 °C
 = 1050 °C
h = 36 mm
t = 24,9 s
463

Temperature dependence
 The temperature dependence of flow stress on the material flow
k f  e cT T  e cT  1000C 
cT   0.0025 cT   0.0055
e cT 8001000 
~1.6 ~3.0
464

Influence of Strain rate
 The dependence of the flow stress on the strain rate
k f   n
n = 0.0 n = 0.2
465

Heat transfer coefficient
 W 
 The dependence of the material flow on the heat transfer coefficient  w  2 
m k 
 w  3000  t / 1s  0.25
 w  0.0
With heat transfer between No heat transfer between

workpiece and tool workpiece and tool
466

Influence of heat transfer coefficient
 W 
 Influence of the heat transfer coefficient  w  2  between workpiece and tool on the
temperature distribution m k 
temperature
location of
T1 and T2
experiment
FEM - with
FEM - with
time
467

Nonlinearity and solving methods
The equation systems involved in the simulation of metal forming processes obtain generally
the following nonlinearities:
1. Geometrical nonlinearity (large deformation)

2. Material nonlinearity (solution dependent material properties)
3. Variable contact (  change of the boundary conditions)
4. Friction
468

Geometrical nonlinearity
In contrast to the most linear elasto-static calculations with small strains, arise during metal
forming always large strains, i.e.
 large elongation
 large rotation
 portions of rigid body movement
 force application points vary depending on the solution
 ...
 Geometrical nonlinearity requires iterative solution
F
l1
l0
469

Example of geometrical nonlinearity:
Preforming during
hydroforming Tools of preforming:
Upper part
tube Lower part
In consideration of S, Mises
Geometrical nonlinearity
geometrical nonlinearity Ave. Crit: 75%
neglected
470

Material nonlinearity
Typical material nonlinearity in metal forming are:
 Transition of elastic to plastic behavior
 kf = kf (eq,eq, )
 , cp, , depending on 
(Only important when considering thermal effects, e.g. hot forming or for calculation of the
temperature increase during the forming process; if necessary the phase change is to be
considered.)
 Change of the microstructure

 Phase transformation
 Recrystallization
471

Example: Material nonlinearity in tensile test
Material-nonlinearity (flow curve)
considered
Not considered
kf = kf (eq,  eq) Initial mesh kf = 100 N/mm2 = const.
(strain hardened!)
472

Contact nonlinearity
Contact situations between work piece and tool are:
 Elementary component of forming processes.
 Varying contact changes erratically

 mechanical boundary conditions and
 thermal boundary conditions.
 often a cause for the convergence problems

 special (robust as possible) contact algorithms are indispensable for
metal forming FEM-programs
473

Contact types in metal forming
In simulations of metal forming the following are distinguished:
 Contacts with a rigid tool, i.e. the tool is idealized by a line / surface.
 Advantage: simpler handling, smaller model
 Disadvantage: deformation and temperature field of the tool can not be
considered.
 Contact with deformable tools, i.e. the tool will also be discretized by elements
 complex computation
 Self-contact (e.g. during wrinkling)
Self-contact
474

Friction
 Friction is nonlinear:
 As long as      N  Sticking friction
     N  Slide friction,
i.e. changing the boundary conditions.
(Friction leads also to asymmetrical equation system, which means increased

calculation complexity and memory requirement.)
475

Solution and time integration
For the simulation of metal forming the following two solutions will be employed depending
on the problem to be treated and the FEM-program itself
 Implicit method (unconditionally stable, iterative, high computational effort)

or
 Explicit method (only conditionally stable, small time steps, no iteration, possibly less
computational effort)
476

Implicit method: example for the Newton-Raphson-Method
 Nonlinear spring with stiffness K(u) u
 The starting point is a position of equilibrium P
(here with the displacement u0)
K = K(u)
 Firstly a part P (Increment) of the load is F
applied.
Ka
 With the tangent of the stiffness K0 at the point u0 a
the displacement correction ca will be calculated. P
 At the point ua a new tangent of the stiffness Ka Ra
will be applied, with which the internal force Ia Ia
can be calculated. P K0
 The difference between the applied load P and
the internal force Ia will be named as residual Ra :
Ra = P - Ia
 If Ra will locate in each freedom degree of the
ca
model within a certain Tolerance, the solution is
in equilibrium. u0 ua u
 the solution converges
Ia = internal force calculated with Ka
 If not converged: further iteration necessary
Source: Abaqus Manual
Ra= P – Ia (residual) 477

Execution of further iterations
 The tangent of the stiffness Ka and the residual Ra will be used to calculate a further
displacement correction cb .
 subsequently the new residual Rb will be compared with the adjusted tolerance in order
to be able to check, if the solution converges.
 This procedure will be so long repeated, until all the residuals within the tolerance are
through or the maximum iteration steps were accomplished (abort). 478
Source: Abaqus

Execution of a calculation step
 Usually the computation of a simulation will be F
divided into several calculation steps, which
again consist of several increments. P2
 At the end of a time step (increment) the
equilibrium between internal and external Iteration
loads must be reached via iterations P1
(convergence).
 In principle the applied time step can be

arbitrarily large. To be treated is a
unconditionally stable process.
u1 u2 u
 However large time steps lead often to the fact
that, either a lot of iterations are needed, or the increment 1 increment 2
process converges not. step
Source: Abaqus 479

Explicit solution method
Explicit FEM-methods
 originate from the simulation of explosion/crash
 consider the forming process as dynamic problem
acceleration (  u
)
velocity ( u )
displacement
M an  C vn  K un  Fn external forces
stiffness matrix
damping matrix
mass matrix
480
Kapitel 15 – FEM Anwendungen

Explicit solution method
Explicit FEM-technique
 calculate the target value at the end of a time step explicitly based on the preceding value, e.g.:
u (t ) t  u (t  t / 2) u (t  t )
u (t  t )  u (t )  t  u (t  t / 2) 
t
t t
2
t  t
 t  t t  t   t t 
u : displaceme nt
u (t  t / 2)  u  t    u t  u : velocity
 2 2 u : accelerati on
t t
u (t  ) u (t )  t u (t  )
2 2
u (t  t / 2)  u (t  t / 2)  t  u (t )

t t
t t t t  t
t (t  t 2)  t (t ) 2 2
In case of non-constant step width Δt: t 
2
 no iteration
 numerically stable only for sufficiently small time steps
481

Time step in explicit solution method I
 The largest allowable time step for a stable solution with explicit solution method depends
on:
 the highest eigen frequency (max) occurring in the system
 and its damping ()
tm 
max
2
 1  2
 
 Estimation of sonic velocity c and smallest element length Le:
E
t  Le / c with c

 with usual element sizes in der range of mm the time steps obtained for metals (wave
propagation in steel ~ 5.000 m/s) locate within the range of microseconds.
 too small for typical, relatively slow forming processes
482

Time step in explicit solution method II
To compensate the disadvantage of the extremely small time step, the eigen frequency will
be purposely reduced. e.g. through
 E
c  
 Increase the density (mass scaling)
  
or 
 to shorten the process time (time scaling)
 Problems/caution with thermally coupled calculation

 Currently application with priority in sheet metal forming
483

Process time scaling - Example deep-drawing simulation
 Tool velocity 10 m/s (quasi-static) 350
Internal
Innere Energieenergy IE
300 kinetische Energie
Kinetic energy KE
250
[J]
Energie [J]
200
Energy
150
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Zeit
 Tool 40 m/s (dynamic effects!) Time in s
Internal energy IE
Kinetic energy KE
Energy [J] Time in s

 The KE/IE ratio should be < 5% to avoid dynamic effects. 484
Explicit-implicit illustrated
Explicit solution functional value functional value
 Use of the initial properties of the
component to set up the GS
 Tangent at the starting point
 Load leads to point A
 Using the new load leads from point A to explicit explicit
point B.
time time
 many very small steps, little computing effort per step, no convergence control in
between
functional value functional value
Implicit solution
 Use of the initial properties of the
component to set up the GS
 Tangent at the starting point
 Load leads to point A implicit implicit
 Iteration up to Ak
time time
 few steps, high computational effort per step, convergence control 485
http://www.cae-wiki.info/wikiplus/index.php/Explizit-implizit_anschaulich
Computational time required for explicit/implicit methods
 Implicit: complexity ~ number of freedom degrees x wave front2
 Explicit: complexity ~ number of freedom degrees
(Calculation time)
complexity efficiency
explicit
implicit
implicit
explicit
model size statics structural dynamics highly

dynamic
486

LAGRANGE’s method of approach
 mesh is bound to the material,
 with increasing deformation the mesh will be distorted.
+ intuitive evaluation of the material flow and local strain

- numerical errors and convergence problems
initial net distorted structure
487

EULER‘s method of approach
 The mesh is specially fixed.

 The material flows through the fixed mesh
(cf. casting simulation).
+ no errors due to net degeneration

- more difficult to recognize the free surface
- more difficult to trace a material point
(deformation history affects the material values)
Material flow through Euler-net
488

Application of eulerian mesh in the simulation of strip casting
489

ARBITRARY-LAGRANGE-EULER (ALE) I
Some programs (e.g. ABAQUS) offer also the possibility of a combination from the
approaches according to LAGRANGE and EULER:
 Lagrangian
 ALE
 Eulerian
490

ARBITRARY-LAGRANGE-EULER (ALE) II
Example: axialsymmetrical forging LAGRANGE-Simulation:
 Net degeneration
 Contact overlap
Initial net
70% height reduction with Lagrange
ALE-Simulation:
70% height reduction with ALE
100% height reduction with ALE
491

Remeshing/ Rezoning
 The most FEM-programs for metal forming use a LAGRANGE-formulation
 The net must be regenerated after a certain distortion

 only local: “Refining”
 overall: “Remeshing”
 Proceeding: 1) Generation of new regular net on the deformed geometry

2) Transmission of the previous results (,  ,) on the new net
492

Automatic remeshing
 Mesh degeneration is not exactly predictable.
 Mesh generation and data transmission are complex and time consuming.
 Algorithms for automated model diagnosis/remeshing are required:

 Diagnoses of mesh degeneration
contact situation
FEM-solution
 Automatic mesh smoothing

mesh optimization (relaxation)
new mesh regeneration
 Automatic data transmission
493

Example 3-D-remeshing
1-stage forging of a universal joint:
 large strain
 25 times remeshing
 Requirements: 3-D-mesh generator working

automatically
494

Methods for data transmission in case of remeshing (examples)
HABRAHM/RACHE Element identification
Rmax
Rmin
old net
new net
The data of all the old nodes with After finding the reference elements the
distance Rmax will be transferred data of these reference elements will
distance weighted on the new be transmitted by the basis functions of
nodes element.
495

The contact between workpiece and tool
The contact
 is of fundamental importance for metal forming simulation.
 is a discontinuous nonlinearity.
 convergence problems with implicit methods
 is generally associated with friction.
 must be considered in the discretization.
496

Contact with explicit and implicit methods
Implicit simulation:
 iterative determination of the equilibrium at the moment t + t
 Risk of divergence/oscillations due to varying states of contact from iteration

to iteration (connection or detachment of nodes)
Explicit simulation:
 extremely small time steps, no equilibrium iteration
 generally no problems in handling of the contact situations
497

Improvement of convergence in implicit methods
Soft contact
 Introduction of a distance depending “soft” pressure build-up to reduce the discontinuity
 hard contact  soft contact
Normal-pressure Normal-pressure d
0<P<
In case of contact
P = 0 without contact
distance distance
Discontinuous with small t continuous if
d  v  t
498

Friction
Coulomb-friction

 cr
tangential displacement  discontinuous, nonlinear

 maybe convergence problems
with implicit methods
 possibly, depending on normal
pressure, relative velocity,
temperature
   cr     N  sticking
   cr  sliding
499

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
500
Simulation of microstructure using StrucSim
true strain Ausgangsgefüge
Formänderung Initial microstructure

spannung
spannung
Description
DRX
Fließ-
Fließ-
Experiment
Semi-emp.
 Homogenous initial state crit [S0] Gleichung
0 Umformgrad
Dynamische
dynamic recrystallization
Verfestigung Rekristallisation
strain hardening
 Consideration of metal-physical effects by
[S0]
separation of substructures [S1]
100µ
[S1] [S0
spannung
Fließ-
 Averaging over all substructures
[S2] [S2]
[S0]
[S1]
cr p Umformgrad s
stress
stress
Formänderung Ausgangsgefüge

spannung
spannung
DRX
Fließ-
Fließ-
experiment
Experiment
experiment
Experiment
Consideration of
flow
flow
Semi-emp.
crit [S0] semi-emp.
Gleichung
equation
StrucSim
StrucSim
0 true strain
Umformgrad true strain
Umformgrad
Dynamische
Verfestigung Rekristallisation
 Dynamic recreation
 Dynamic recrystallization [S0] 100µ 100µ
[S1]
 Static recrystallization [S0]
stress
[S1]
spannung
 Grain growth Fließ- 100µ
flow
 Grain refining by recrystallization[S0] [S2] [S2] Resultierende
resulting flow stress
Fließspannung
[S1]
cr p true strain
Umformgrad ss 501
Chapter 16 – Modeling of microstructural changes

0. 6
Häuf
0. 5
0. 5
0. 4
0. 4
0. 3
0. 3
0. 2
0. 2

0. 1
0. 1
0
0
0 20
60 80
Korngröße
1.1.Stauchen
upsetting Halten
holding2.2.
Stauchen
upsetting
Application
 Calculation of yield stress taking into
account the microstructure evolution
Kraft
force
Experiment
Experiment
 Calculation of the microstructure evolution Simulation
Simulation with StrucSim
mit StrucSim
in addition to the FE simulation Simulationohne
Simulation without
StrucSim
StrucSim
 Consideration of static recrystallization
Umformgrad
true strain
Requirements Ergebnisverbesserung
process simulation
Prozesssimulation
 Material data is available (partial) model
must be parameterized
Häufigkeit
0. 9
0. 9
0. 8
0. 8
0. 7
 Course of the degree of deformation,

0. 7
0. 6
0. 6
0. 5
0. 5
0. 4
0. 4
0. 3
0. 3
temperature and deformation rate are

0. 2
0. 2
0. 1
0. 1
0
0
0 20
60 80
Korngröße
available 1. Stauchen Halten 2. Stauchen
Limitations
Kraft
Experiment
 Use of semi-empirical models Simulation
mit StrucSim
Phase transformation not considered Simulation ohne
StrucSim
Umformgrad 502

Material model
 Flow stress and dynamic recrystallization
𝑐 𝐶
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀𝑐 2
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚 ⋅ ⋅ exp 1 − 𝑋𝐷𝑅𝑋 = 1 − exp 𝐶1 ⋅
𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑐
𝐴3 𝐵 𝐵
𝐵4
𝜎𝑚 = 𝐴1 ⋅ arcsinh 𝐴2 ⋅ 𝑍 𝜀𝑝 = 𝐵1 ⋅ 𝑑 ⋅ 𝜀ሶ ⋅ exp
2 3
𝑅⋅𝑇
800
800 600
600
700 10 /s 500 1 /s
600
600
400
400
 Static recrystallization 500
400
400 300
𝐷1 300 200
200
𝑡 200
200
100 100
𝑋𝑆𝑅𝑋 = 1 − exp ln 0.05 ⋅ 000 000 0,1
𝑡95 0,1
0.1 0,2
0.2 0,3
0.3 0,4
0.4 0,5
0.5 0,6
0.6 0,7
0.7 0.1 0,2
0.2 0,3
0.3 0,4
0.4 0,5
0.5 0,6
0.6 0,7
0.7
Fließspannung [MPa]
flow stress [MPa]
300
400
400 250
250
0,1 /s 0,01 /s
300
300 200
 Grain growth 200
200
150
150
𝐸 𝑄 100
𝑑 𝐸1 = 𝑑0 1 + 𝐸2 ⋅ 𝑡 ⋅ exp 100
100 50
50
𝑅⋅𝑇 000 0,1
0.1 0,2
0.2 0,3
0.3 0,4
0.4 0,5
0.5 0,6
0.6 0,7
0.7 000 0,1
0.1 0,2
0.2 0,3
0.3 0,4
0.4 0,5
0.5 0,6
0.6 0,7
0.7
920 °C
160
160 970 °C
 Grain refining by recrystllization 120
120 0,001 /s 1020 °C
𝑑𝐷𝑅𝑋 = 𝐹1 ⋅ 𝑍𝐹2
1070 °C
80
80 1120 °C
1170 °C
40
𝑄𝑆𝑅𝑋
40 measurement
Messung
𝐺 𝐺
𝑑𝑆𝑅𝑋 = 𝐺1 ⋅ 𝑑 ⋅ 𝜀 ⋅ exp
2 3 ⋅ 𝑍 𝐺4 000 0,1
0.1 0,2
0.2 0,3
0.3 0,4
0.4 0,5
0.5 0,6
0.6 0,7
0.7
𝑅⋅𝑇 true strain
Umformgrad [-] 503

 Forging of a bevel gear dynamic recrystallization
100
upper tool x 1.5

75
in %
50
25
lower tool average grain size

42
35
ejector in µm
28
21
14
504

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
505
Formability
 local: eq,fracture – strain of fracture
 global: eq,fracture – true strain of fracture, formability
 eq,fracture, eq,fracture depend on

 material (alloy, mictrostrucure)
 temperature
and changes over time:
 state of stress, strain “deformation history”
 strain rate
Chapter 17 – Modeling of damage and strain limits

eq,fracture: Temperature dependence
 eq,fracture increases with increasing
eq,fracture
temperature because of recovery and
recrystallization
 Exception:
 blue brittleness in some steels

eq,fracture: Influence of the state of stress
 Pressure influence: Effect of stress state on formability,
schematic according to STENGER
m
  eq, fracture  if   eq, fracture
kf
 2- influence:
 The closer 2 to 3 (min!),
the higher eq,fracture
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 132/133; Stenger S. 65 508

eq,fracture: Effect of pre-forming under high pressure
 Deformation under high hydrostatic 2.5
pressure (here 11.4 kbar) arise the AISI
AISI
maximum possible achieved total true
2.0
strain significantly
1.5
pre
1.0
 eq , fracture   pre   residual
φresidual
0.5 pre at
at at at
residual
1.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
pre
11.4

eq,fracture: Dependence on the forming history
 eq,fracture depends on forming history :
 In general:  eq, fracture  if eq 
 Time history: ij(t), ij(t)
 specially m, 2
 Test to determine eq,fracture must at least represent the forming history.

eq,fracture : Dependence on the load history
 Load history for the crack- 1.2
endangered points (FEM

computation) with different
1.0
specimen geometries.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
equivalent strain eq 511

Macro-mechanical, time-independent damage criteria
 independent on the deformation history considering the actual state
 Considering only one time point in the deformation process

 Criteria only meaningful applicable, if good agreement of the load art in basic test
and in the practice exists
Hypotheses:
1
C Z &K   θf   xf (Zhao & Kuhn)
2
C   fracture (crit. Equivalent strain)
Cσeq  σ eq (crit. Equivalent stress)
 σm 
Cσ m   (crit. Instantaneous stress)
k
 f 
512

Macro-mechanical, time-dependent damage criteria
 The deformation history will be considered through integration of process- and process-
time-dependent local state variables
 According to this approach the plastic work will be determined, which must be brought
into the material, so that the crack initiation can take place.
 Only one work brought into the material during deformation will be calculated.
 e.g. the formation and growth of the pore will not be considered
Hypotheses:
 max  σ1 ,0 
C NormC&L   d (normalized Cockcroft und Latham)
σ eq
0
 σm Pore formation Pore growth Pore joining
C Ayada   d (Ayada)
σ eq
0
 2σ1
C Brozzo   d (Brozzo)
3  σ1  σ m 
0

C Freudenthal   σ eq d  (Freudenthal)
0 513

Micromechanical damage criteria
 based on the model conception of formation of ductile fracture.
 Slight variation of the material related parameters can lead to significant change of the
prediction of damage.
Hypotheses:
 3  3 1  n    σ a  σ b   3 σ b  σ a
C McC   sinh    d v (McClintock)
2( 1  n)  2σ v  4 σv
0  
 σm 

COyane   1 A  d  v (Oyane)
σ
0 v 

 3 σm 
C Rice&Tracey   exp   d  v (Rice & Tracey)
 2 σ v 
0
Material related parameters: e.g. n and A (empirical factor)
 must be identified previously !

514

Damage places according to different criterion with different
geometries
Initial geometry
(Damage places
according to the
damage criterion with
cone specimen)
(Damage places
according to the
damage criterion with
flange specimen)
The highest damage value is

comparable neither in place nor in Approach of fuzzy analysis method
amount over specimens with e.g. artificial neural nets
different geometries.
515

Example of application I: Damage model integrated in Simufact.forming
 Tensile test with round Tensile strength
specimen
Fracture stress
R fracture
 If necessary through inverse Critical damage under
determination based on FE uniaxial loadcase
simulation of a tensile test
Uniform elongation under

uniaxial loadcase
R fracture
D1c  1 
Rm
Rm
critical damage
yield strength Rm 2 Rm 2
S 
resistance to damage D D1c  0
2E 2E
plastic uniform elongation   Bpl .   Rpl .
m
elastic uniform elongation

 Rplm  ln(1   )
516

Example of application II: prediction of damage using Simufact.forming
 Cockroft Latham  Lemaitre
max
damage
min
Formation of “Chervons” in cold-upsetting of screws
Source: Simufact 517

Example of application III: Crocodiling
The diagram of Turczyn: hi/R0
 Crocodiling
h0: initial thickness Crocodiling
 Internal cracks hi: final thickness
R0: roll radius

 Save zone internal cracks
safe zone
k/k0=1
ξf = ξb =0
h0/hi
ε
Source: Herbert, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2007. ; Turczyn und Pietrzyk, Journal of Material Processing Technology, 1992 518

Crocodiling:
Norm.
Brozzo Cockcroft & Latham
Rice & Tracey

Oyane
519

Rice & Tracey separation
 Criteria of separation: 15% kf

 Critical value of damage: 0.8
520

Example of application IV: Damage during caliber rolling and flat rolling
Influence of the geometry on the load path
 Caliber pass round-oval-round with different
oval geometries
triaxility triaxility
Lode parameter
Lode parameter
 Load path description by stress-triaxialty η
and Lode parameter ξ
𝜎
 η = − 𝜎𝑚
𝑒𝑞
27 𝐽3
 ξ= ⋅ 3 → I3: 3. Invariant of the stress deviator
2 𝜎𝑒𝑞
521

Prediction of damage using damage criteria
 Different damage criteria provide different results about damage distribution
522

Influence of the rolling parameters on the load path
 Variation of height reduction and roll diameter
point P
εeq εeq
Roll diameter
Height reduction
Line color
523

Example of application V: Damage in ring rolling
Different types of cracks edge crack
 edge cracks
 surface cracks
 internal cracks
 Due to process variations, component defects

occur
 How big are these scatters, until it comes to
the crack?
surface crack
 Systematic investigation of the causes of
cracking necessary
 Identify damage models
Source: Rothe Erde (2014). 524

Example of application V: Damage in ring rolling
Application of damage criteria
Abaqus-
 Implementation via a user-defined Abaqus CAE
Simulation
subroutine
 The course as well as the location of the
maximum damage values differ with Damage VUSDFLD
values Subroutine
different criteria
 Further investigations regarding Ring cross section at the end of the process
 suitable criteria / models for ring rolling
 critical values for the onset of injury
Cockroft-Latham Freudenthal Oyane
525

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
526
Similitude theory/model process:
 Goal: To find the solution for a physical problem through experiment and measurement
on a suitable model (usually geometrically scaled down)
compressed Plunger Transfer laws

specimen
Specimen
support
Model process Main process
527
Chapter 18 – Similarity Theory

Basic question of model scaling I
W
 Heat dissipation over the surface with heat transmission coefficient  6
m2 K
Q P 160W
  2
   (Thuman  Tsurroundings )
A A 1.67m
 Temperature increase T = (Thuman – Tsurroundings)  16K
h
Human: h · w · d = 175 · 30 · 15cm³
= 0.08m³
 Power dissipation ploss = 2·103W/m3
P = ploss·V = 160W
w
b dt
528

Basic question of model scaling II
 What characterizes large animals?
 Low total energy expenditure and better cooling:
e.g.: Whales  in water
Elephant  big ears
giant
10 x larger
V = h · w · t = 80m3
10 ·h P = 160 ·103W
A = 167m2
T = 160K,
 The giant can not survive!

·t
w
10·b 10
529

Historical overview
 Investigations to the transferability of the model results are already old.
Aristotle: Elastic behavior of geometrically similar wooden sticks.
Galileo: Loading capacity of the machine parts depending on the size.
Newton: „mechanical similarity “ (1687)

Cauchy (1829) Application in problems of
Bertiend (1847) vibration,
Froude (1869) flow,
Helmholtz (1873) heat conduction,
Reynolds (1883) elasticity,
Pawelski (1964) plasticity
… …
and much more etc. 530

Basic questions of model scaling III
 The scale is ml = lM / lm = 10, then it’s valid:
3
am  l M 
 Same force:     1000 x acceleration
aM  lm 
3
Fm  lm 
 Same Acceleration     0.001 x force
FM  lM 
Newton: F = m · a
m =  · l3
F a
Fm   lm3 am lm3  am
   3
FM   lM aM lM  aM
3
Index M = main execution

l
Index m = model version
531

Example of scales I
 Note: If experiments will be conducted with certain geometrical scales, other scales,
which are valid for the remaining physical values, must be determined
according to the physical dependencies.
 In the example from the previous slides:
lm 1
 Scale of geometry ml  
lM 10
F 1
 Scale of force mF  m 
FM 10 3
am Fm lM   M
3
 1  M
 Then the scale of acceleration  ma   3  mF    
can be determined as
aM FM lm   m  ml  m

Index m = model version
532

Example of scales II
Case A): the same material M = m
am 1
  ma  1000  100
aM 10
Case B): if am = aM, then it must be valid
3
am  1  M M
 1  mF      100 
aM  ml  m m
 m  100  M

Index m = model version 533

Example: model airplane (highly simplified)
 Lifting: FL  cL · surface · L · v2 cL = lifting coefficient
 Weight: FW  airplane · V · g Index M = main execution
 Condotion required for flying: FL = FW Index m = model version
 A down scaled model in scale ml = 1/10 has to be constructed, i.e.

the requirements: l 1 v 1
ml  m
 mV  m

lM 10 vM 10 FL
FL , m cL , m 1 1  airplane 1
 Lifting:     
FL , M cL , M 100 100  airplane 10000 FW
FW , m  airplane , m 1 m 1  airplane , m
 Gewicht:     
FW , M  airplane , M 1000  M 1000 M
 d.h. FL,m = FW,m means airplane,m = 1/10airplane,M
 airplane  v  l
 Remark: The adherence of Reynolds number Re  is not given for the
required ml, mv (  other profile or cL) h
534

Limits of the transferability
 Wanted: FH
 Assumption: frictionless compression
 v
 Known is: F d 2  k f ;  
4 h
 The flow curve is unknown: k f  k f ( ,  ,  )
 Problem of the model process
  const.  vm  vM  same forming time
hm hM FM
 not transferable, because the vM
small model cools down much faster Fm
vm
hm hM
dm
dM
535

Cooling down of a steel specimen
 The cooling down of a specimen (> 800°C) takes place mainly through heat radiation.
 Energy content: E ~   c p V  T
 Energy loss: Q 
dE
dt

~   A  T 4  Tsur
4
 dE
dt
   c p V 
dT
dt

~   A  T 4  Tsur
4

    
 Same Material 
  c 
   
  c 
dT A 
~ 
dt V   c p

 T 4  Tsur
4

 p m  p M
 flow stress: Tm  TM
lm 1  A  A
 Because of chosen ml   it follows    10   
lM 10  V m  V M
 Modell cools down about 10x faster  Problem for „slow“ process
 Solution: increase the surrounding temperature
 Tsur , m  779C if T  800C
536

Scales for investigations in model processes
 The geometrical and physical values in the main process (M) and the model process (m)
are connected suitably through scales.
Basic scales Example of derivative scales

Mass (m) Surface (l2)
Length (l) Velocity (lt-1)
Time (t) Force (mlt-2)
Temperature () Power (ml2t-3)
 For certain problems the scale of force for example will be used as basic scale.
537

Introduction in the derivation of models, scales and characteristic
factors
 Requirement for physical similarity is the combination of
 Geometrical similarity and
 The model laws, which are represented generally through dimensionless
characteristic values, that describe the considered problem.
 Characteristic values are dimensionless products of powers of the influencing

variables, which describe essentially the considered problem.
 The systematical derivation of the characteristic values can be achieved through

 Analysis of the (differential) equations (insofar as known) describing the problem
 Dimensional analysis of the influencing variables
538

Example: Frictionless, isothermal flow
 Frictionless flow can be described by the Bernoulli equation:
1 g
  v 2  p    g  z  const
2
z
 = density v = velocity p = pressure
transformation to a dimensionless form
1 p gz
   const *
2   v2 v2
p Pressures
= Euler’s number =
  v2 Inertial forces
1
gz Characteristic velocity
 v2  = Froude number =
  Gravitational
wave velocity
539

Dimensional analysis I
Buckingham Theorem:
 A physical relationship of the shape
f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn )  0 [xi = influencing values with dimension]
can be always written in the form
~~ ~ ~
 f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , , ~
xm )  0 [~
x i = dimensionless characteristic values]
 The number m of the characteristic values is m = n – q.

q = number of the involved fundamental units (i.e. length, mass, time, temperature)
n
Product approach:   x  x  x  x  or
a
1
b
2
c
3
d
4 x
i 1
ai
i
 a, b, c, d,... should be determined in a way that Π becomes dimensionless. This leads to

a system of linear equations for the determination of the characteristic values.
540

Dimensional analysis II
 Example „Bernoulli-flow“
 a  vb  zc  gd  pe

 kg  m   m  s   m  m  s   kg  m
3 a 1 b c 2 d 1
s 2 e

 m  l   l  t   l   l  t   m  l
3 a 1 b 2 d 1
t 
2 e
c
 a+e = 0 (kg)
–3a + b + c + d – e = 0 (m)
–b – 2d – 2e = 0 (s)
chose e.g. d = e = 1
 a = –1; b = –4; c = 1
z  g  p  z  g   p  Eu
   2    
2 
 v 4
 v     v  Fr 541

Example: Frictionless upsetting I
 For example: frictionless upsetting of a
work piece:
kf = const. and independent ,,,...
F
 1.) Analysis of the equation
d 2 FM k f , M d M2
F  kf     2 h
4 Fm k f , m d m
 i.e., besides the geometrical similarity it is

required for the plasto-static similarity
d
FM Fm
 2
l M  k f , M lm  k f , m
2
542

Example: Frictionless upsetting II
 2.) Dimensional analysis of influencing variables
it is known, that F = f(kf , d, h)
 Dimensions:
 [F] = l ∙ m ∙ t-2 (length · mass · time-2)
 [kf] = l ∙ m ∙ t-2 ∙ l-2 = m ∙ t-2 ∙ l-1
 [d] = l
 [h] = l
 The combination gives the following dimensionless
characteristic values:
d
h = (geometrical similarity)
F
d 2  k f = (plasto-static similarity)
543

Example: Transfer of the forming force
 In the down scaled, geometrically similar model process
dM
with ml  5 and a softer material
dm
1
with k fm  k fM
10
the scale of forming can be calculated as

FM kf M
mF   ml ·
2
 52 ·10  250
Fm kf m
If the forming force in model process is measured of 4 kN, so

the forming force in the main process should be expected of
1000 kN
544

Systematical steps of the dimensional analysis
 1. Step: Compiling of the influencing variables
 2. Step: Analysis of the dimensions of the influencing variables
 3. Step: Selection of the reference variables
 4. Step: Determination of the characteristic values
545

1. Step: Compiling of the influencing variables
 Pressure loss in a viscous stationary pipe

flow
d1 d1
d2
l2
 p = f (, v, h, d1, d2, l1, l2)
l1
with  = density
p=?
v = velocity
h = viscosity
546

2. Step: Analysis of the dimensions of the influential variables I
m
 (m = mass, l = length, t = time) [ ]  3
l
l
[v ] 
t
m  N  s kg  m  s kg 
[h ]   2   
lt  m s m
2 2
ms 
m  N kg  m kg 
[p ]  2  2  2 2  2 
lt m s m ms 
d1, d2 , l1, l2   l
ρ v η d1 d2 l1 l2 Δp
m 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
l -3 1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1
t 0 -1 -1 0 0 0 0 -2 547

2. Step: Analysis of the dimensions of the influential variables II
    v h  d  d 2  l  l2  p h
a b c d e r g
1 1
m : 1 a  0  b  1 c  0  d  0  e  0  f  0  g  1 h  0
l :  3  a  1  b  1  c  1  d  1  e  1 f  1  g  1  h  0
t : 0  a  1 b  1  c  0  d  0  e  0  f  0  g  2  h  0
 All coefficient are in the matrix
 The right side of the equation is equal to 0 due to the requirement of dimensionless
description = 0
 Rows can be added etc. without to changing the results.

8 influencing variables
3 reference variables  5 characteristic values
548

3. Step: Selection of the reference variables
 The reference variables are to be selected in such a way that all used basic dimensions
are (here. v, , d1)
reference variables
v ρ d1 Δp η d 2 l1 l2
m 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
l 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
t 1 0 0  2 1 0 0 0
 It is useful to select variables, which perform the largest influence on the dependent
variables.
549

4. Step: Rearrangement of matrix
 The reference variables are to be selected in such a way that all used basic dimensions
are (here. v, , d1)
v ρ d1 Δp η d2 l1 l2
m 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
l 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 +3·m+t
t 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 · ( –1)
m 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
l 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
t 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0
t 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0
m 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
l 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
 Rearrangement the matrix in such a way, that the unit matrix arise
550

5. Step: Determination of the characteristic values
 Dimensionless description of the physical interrelation from
p = f(, v, h, d1, d2, l1, l2)
v ρ d1 Δp η d2 l1 l2
t 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0
m 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
l 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
 Re
 
 h d l l 
Δp
 f ; 2; 1 ; 2 
v² · ρ  v    d1 d1 d1 d1 
 
 
551

Characteristic values of the example
Δp
2
 Eu Euler number
v ·ρ
d 2 l1 l2
; ;  geometrical similarity
d1 d1 d1
h 1

n    d1 Re Re: Reynolds number
Δp  d 2 l1 l2 

Eu  2  f  Re; ; ; 
v ·ρ  d1 d1 d1 
 The Reynolds number and the geometrical similarity must be maintained.
552

Compilation of general characteristic values: heat transfer
equation Relevant for
α l
Nusselt-number Nu  Convection at interfaces
λFluid
α l
Biot-number Bi  Boundary conditions
λsolid
η  cP
Prandtl-number Pr  Convection at interfaces
λ
l 3  g  β  Δ Interpretation
Grashof-number Gr  Natural convection Uplift pressure
ν2 Frictional force
λ t
Fourier-number Fo  Non-stationary heat
ρ  cP  l 2 conduction
: Heat transfer coefficient l: Length : Heat conductivity coefficient
v: Velocity cp: Heat capacity : Density
g: Gravity acceleration : Coefficient of expansion : Temperature difference
h: Dynamic viscosity n: Kinematic viscosity
Source: Dibelius, Lackmann 553

Plasto-mechanical problems
Equation
Formel Relevant for
für
F F
Hooke’s number HoE  ; Ho  Elastostatic problems
E l2 G l2
G
Number of plastostatic F
K plastostat.  Plastostatic problems
similarity k f l2
F t2
Newton-number Ne  Inertial force
ρ l4
Number of tribological
Ktrib.  μ Tribological problems
similarity
Number of thermal F thermal problems

K therm.  2
similarity l  Δ  ρ  c p in metal forming
F: Force kf: Flow stress cp: Heat capacity

E: E-Modulus t: Time : Temperature difference
l: Length : Density µ: Friction factor
Source: Lackmann 554

Introduction in the similitude analysis in metal forming processes
 The similarity numbers (characteristic numbers) for technological problems in metal
forming can be deduced from the basic equations.
 The following similarity numbers are relevant:
F
 Characteristic number of the plastostatic similarity K plastostat. 
k f l2
F F
 Characteristic number of the elastostatic similarity HoE  ; HoG 
E l 2
G l2
F t2
 Characteristic number of the dynamic similarity Ne 
ρ l4
 Characteristic number of the tribological similarity 
λ t α l
 Characteristic of the thermal similarity Fo  Bi 
ρ  cP  l 2
λsolid 555

Dimensional analysis of cold rolling without strip tension
Example: cold rolling without strip tension
Main influencing variables are:
R
 Strip thickness before rolling h0
 Strip thickness after rolling h1 F w
 Strip width b
h0 kf h1
 Friction factor µ
 Roll radius R
 Flow stress of the strip material kf F
 Rolling force F F = f (h0, h1, w, R, kf)
556

Analysis of the dimensions, reference values and reading the
characteristic numbers
 For the similarity analysis of technical problems in metal forming it is reasonable, to
consider the force as basic dimension.
h0 , h1, b, R l
[F ] K
K
reference values
[k f ]  2
l
R kf F h0 h1 b R kf F h0 h1 b
l -1 -2 0 1 1 1 l 1 0 2 1 1 1
K 0 1 1 0 0 0 K 0 1 1 0 0 0
F  h0 h1 b  Besides the geometrical similarity the

  f ; ;  characteristic number Kplastostat. for plasto-
 R R R
2
k f ·R
 static similarity must be maintained
K plastostat.
557

Determination of the scales
 F   F 
2
Fm k f ,m  Rm 
 Determination of the force scale:        
kf R 
2 kf R 
2
 m  M FM k f , M  RM 
 The same material in main and model process: k f ,m  k f , M
Rm 1
 Selected geometrical scale 
RM 10
 In case of a down scaled model around the factor 10, the forces in the model process
are around 100 times smaller than in the main process while maintaining the material.
Source: Pawelski 558

Similarity in cold rolling process
 If a cold rolling process of sheet metal with the sheet thickness of 0.2 mm and working
roll diameter of 600 mm will be transferred in a mode process with the scale ml = lM/lm ,
so a sheet thickness of 0.02 mm must be selected for the model process with a roll
diameter of 60 mm.
However:
!  The rolling of a 0.02 mm thick sheet metal is only possible under large experimental and !
material-technical effort and complexity.
Reason :
 Elastic deformation of the rolls is no longer negligible in this order of magnitude!
Sensitive scales for rolling process:

 Rolling of sheet metal: ml = 2 to 4
 Rolling of thick products : ml = 4 to 8

Determination and definition of scales of metal forming processes
 Besides the geometrical scale the time and velocity in the model process must also be
defined, e.g. to chose the time scale mt = tM/tm. For this purpose it has to be considered,
which physical sub-processes may influence the forming process significantly.
 because k f  f  ,  ,  , Material , 
 Similarly to the definition of the time scale mt = tM/tm the following scales may still have to
be determined and defined:
 Velocity scale mv = vM/vm
 temperature scale mT = M/m
560

Example 1: Hot forming
 In order to maintain the dependence of flow stress kf on temperature T and strain rate 
, the same material must be present both in the main process and model process and
the forming process at the same temperature must isothermally conducted. If the
process can be regarded as isothermal, the following is valid:
k f ,m  k f , M  m  M  m  1
and
 m   M  m  1
m  1  mt  1 mv  ml
 In the model process reduced velocities are to be chosen for the length scale ml.

Example 2: forming process in consideration of heat conduction
 Keep the Fourier number consistent : (Fo)m = (Fo)M
  t   
2
m t m  m c p ,m  lm 
     t       
  c l2    c l2  
M t M  M c p , M
 p m  p M  lM 
2
t m  lm 
   mt  ml
2
 The same material in model
process and main process:
t M  lM 
 lm 
2  
 Determination of the velocity t m  lm   t m   vm  l M 1
scale     or mv 
t M  lM   l M  vM lm ml
 
 tM 
 If the model is about the scale ml smaller than the main process, the velocity in the
model process must be about ml larger than in the main process.
 Problem: k f  k f ( , ...)
562

Limits of transferability in metal forming processes
 If a model should be according to the similitude theory established for a metal forming
process
 the plastostatic similarity

example 1: mv = 1
 the dynamic similarity
 the thermal similarity
example 2: mv= 1/ml
(heat conduction)
 must be ensured. This leads to contradiction of the interrelations under the scales.
Conclusion :
 For many metal forming processes a complete representation of the process in a
simplified and down scaled model is impossible. Therefore usually only a part of the
forming problems can be investigated with the model approach. (partial similarity)

Model materials and technology
 In the model technology for metal forming there are generally two methods available:
 1. reduced scale  smaller machines
but: real, i.e. often the same material

the same forming conditions
 Application of the regularities of the similarity mechanics
 The results are quantitatively transferable.
 2. using model materials and if necessary under deviant forming conditions (e.g.
concerning temperature,..)
 Mainly qualitative results
(with more exact knowledge of the model materials, also quantitative results)
564

Model materials for metal forming processes
 The model materials for metal forming processes can be classified in three groups:
Metals: Polymers: Pastes:

 Aluminum  Paraffin wax  Plasticine
 Lead  techn. wax  Clay
 Sodium  Mixtures of wax
 Tin  Polyethylene
 Pb-Sn-Alloys  Plexiglas
 Depending on the problem to be investigated a suitable model material has to be

selected
565

Metals as model material
 The advantage to chose metals as model material is that similar material behavior as in
the main process can be maintained.
 More or less distinct yield stress

 Cold work hardening
 Anisotropy after large deformation by generation of texture
 Similar characteristic of the flow curves
 Disadvantage: high flow stress and accordingly high requirement of tools

flow stress kf in N/mm²
30
Compared with AlSi1 at 375 °C, Lead
has similar flow stress level at room
20
temperature.
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
true strain φ 566

Observation of plane state of strain
 Plane plate applied with mesh as model
 Tool consists in principle of a smooth lower plate and a transparent front plate for the
observation of the forming process
 Deformation is realized by the tools, the thickness of which corresponds the distance
between lower and front plates
 The observation of the marked net can be photographically recorded.
 Requirement:
Compression stresses between glass plate and
model must be existent, otherwise there is a risk
that the model separates from the glass plate.
Tools for the experiments with plane state of strain

(front glass plate removed)
567

Observation of axial symmetrical states of strain
 Similar conditions as with plane state of strain
 If tangential compression stresses are present, it is possible to divide the work piece
along a symmetrical plane and to observe the forming process e.g. through a glass plate.
 If tensile stresses at the glass plate arise, this above mentioned method can not be used.
Schema of a testing site for Examples of model work pieces Wax model from differently
experiments of axial with different kinds of mesh colored layers to simulate the
symmetrical state of strain die-forging process
568

Observation of three-dimensional state of strain
 If three-dimensional state of strain is existent, a mesh must be generated in such a way,
that the former mentioned state of strain is able to be observed.
 After the deformation the model work piece must be cut into thin disks for the evaluation.
 Initial model work piece for real three-dimensional

deformation, made from multi-color cubes.
569

Observation of stationary and transient model processes
 Stationary process:
 The process will be aborted in stationary state and then analysed.
Examples: Extrusion, rolling, wire and profile drawing
 Transient process:
 Several models are generated in different process stages with different strains and the
analysed.
 Examples for transient process:

 Die forging of a axial symmetrical work piece
To be seen on the left is the formed model with implemented net mesh, on the right
the real work piece from aluminium.
570

Expense of model process
State of strain
simple
Plane strain or axis symmetrical Three dimensional
stationary
• direct observation • observation through “cutting”

• 1 Experiment provides all the • 1 Experiment provides all the
information (stopping the process information (stopping the process at
at a certain moment) a certain moment)
Process
• direct observation • observation through “cutting”

transient
• stepwise several experiments and • stepwise several experiments and
extensive
comparison from stage to stage comparison from stage to stage
e.g. by photographic shots e.g. by photographic shots
simple extensive
571

State of stress with special mode materials
 With special model materials it is possible, beside the information about plastic strain,
information about the state of stress to obtain.
 Model materials, with which the state of stress can be observed, are e.g.:
 slip line wax: direction of maximum shear stress

 brittle paraffin wax: information of maximum tensile stress
572

Observation of maximum shear stress with flow line wax
 Slip line wax is a special mixture from microcrystalline paraffin, resin and kaolin. After
some time a brittle layer arises on the surface. If the wax is deformed, this layer breaks
and a pattern like a slip line field before deformation will be generated.
Deformation zone of a bar Theoretical slip line field of Process simulated with slip
section between two the process line wax
parallel tools.(etched)
573

Measurement in model process: Displacement, Loads, Stresses
 Displacement
On the basis of the applied markers or line mesh the displacement can be directly
measured on the model or via a copy (photocopy, photography, etc.)
If the flow curve of the model material is known, further values can also be determined
according to the distribution of strain.
 Loads
The loads and their direction can be measured via conventional force measuring sensors
(e.g. load cell)
 Stresses
Normal compression stresses between work piece and tool can be recorded with
diaphragm -sensor. These consist of a diaphragm with a strain gauge. The diaphragm is
fixed to its contour with a measuring body.
574

Possible errors with the physical model technology
Error sources are:
 Inhomogeneity of the model material
 Anisotropy of the model material
 Variation of the flow stress of the model material due to temperature, pause time, cooling
speed, etc.
 Insufficient ductility of the model material
 Elastic deformation of the model material
 Creep of the model material
 Adhesion between model work piece and tool
 Friction between model work piece and tool
 Locked-in air
 Vacuum
 Elastic deformation of tools and/or machine
575

Content
1. Introduction
4. Yield criteria
19. Visioplasticity
576
Evaluation method visioplasticity
 The visioplastic method is an experimental - theoretical solution, i.e. a part of the
unknown functions of the plastomechanical problem will be measured and with these
results the remaining functions are to be calculated.
 The visioplastic method was introduced in 1954 by THOMSEN
Chapter 19 – Visioplasticity
Visioplastic method
To determine:
Application of a  Strain rate
Measurement of
suitable grid  Strain
the velocity field
 (Stress)
 (Integral target values:
Forces, Power, Energy, ...)
Pressure Disc
Container
Work piece with line mesh

(Initial state) Marked
ingot
Die
Visioplastic method in metal forming processes
Stationary forming processes:
 The information about the velocity field of the whole
process can be determined through “freezing” the forming
process and evaluation of the applied grid.
 The continuous process may not be represented exactly
due to the need of stopping the process
Transient processes:
 The transient velocity field can be determined through
repeated measurement of the line mesh in small time
intervals.
Requirements and assumptions
 The sections, in which the line mesh is applied, stay plane during the deformation.
This occurs in case of:
 plane strain deformation
 in the symmetry plane of axial symmetrical forming processes
 In case of forming process with multi-axial state of strain also the displacement
perpendicular to the section must be determined.
For that, in defined drills pins of the same material will be inserted
 The forming process is not influenced by the visioplastic method.

 no shear stress in the parting line
 no tensile stress, which is perpendicular to the parting surface
 stresses in parallel to the parting surface may not lead to cracks
Examples
 Example of an investigation with the visio-
plastic method in the case of a plane strain
deformation:
The In-situ recorded line mesh of a rolling
process can be observed.
 Example of an investigation with the

visioplastic method in the case of a 3-axis
state of strain in a stationary process:
Copper-clad pins shall be introduced into the
appropriate drill-holes.
Since it is a stationary process (profile rolling),
the model process will be stopped at a certain
moment and the model must be separated
perpendicularly to the rolling direction.
Example: sheet metal forming
 Applying an irregular grid on the  Applying a regular dot pattern on the
undeformed sheet sample (left) undeformed sheet sample (right)
 Calculation of the elongation by analysis  Detection of the grid after forming and
of the distorted grid during forming calculation of the elongation by
comparison of the dot displacement
before and after the forming
0.60
major strain in log

0.45
0.30
0.15
0.00
Hot tensile test Deep drawn cup 582
Experimental technique
Applying the line mesh to the separated symmetry plane of the work pieces
 mechanically
 photo mechanically
 electrochemically
Measurement of the initial coordinates (e.g. intersection points of two lines)
Measurement of the new coordinates after cutting the model at a certain process time
(stationary) or after appropriate time intervals (transient)
 The measurement of the work piece can be realized via image processing system.
 Microvisioplasticity
For the visioplastic investigations in micro-level (e.g. the state of strain of one single
crystallite of the microstructure) a grid pattern can be achieved with up to 500 lines/mm
through photolithographic techniques.
Basics
 Determination of the velocity field vi(x,y,z,t) through measuring the line mesh and the
subsequent approximation
 Calculation of the true strain rate or the tensor of true strain rate from vi(x,y,z,t) with:
  1 1 
 x xy xz  symmetry tensor:
 2 2 
ij   ji
1  vi v j   1 1 
ij      ij   yx
  y  yz
2  x j xi  2 2  ij   ji
1 1 
 zx zy z 
2 2 
 Calculation of the true strain or the tensor of true strain with:
ij
 ij   ij dt   dz
vz
 Calculation of further values with corresponding laws
(e.g. stresses, deviatoric stress, resistance to forming, forming force, tool load,
deformation power and energy)
Velocity field of a stationary, axial symmetry forming process
 The “frozen” state of the orthogonal grid Tool
before the deformation in the r-z plane of a

stationary, axial symmetrie forming process
 With a homogeneous initial grid pattern the

time to displace a point about the distance of
uz0 uz ur
one grid is the same: t   
vz 0 vz ( z, r ) vr ( z, r )
 Subsequently follows the velocity component
for the movement from A to A‘ at each uz uz ur ur
vz   vz 0  ; vr   vz 0 
considered place (z, r): t uz0 t uz0
 The determined velocity field will be

approximated with a analytical function (power
series, cubic splines).
Determination of the strain rate
 The strain rate for axial symmetry deformation can be determined as below:
vr
r 
r 1 1  vr v z 
 zr   zr  
   
vr 2 2  z r 
 
r r  0
v z z  0
z 
z
 The equivalent strain rate at each point in der deformation zone can be determined as:
2 2 1 2
 eq    r      z   zr 
2 2
3 2 
Determination of the strain
 The strain arises as a result of integration of the strain rate:
vr vr 1
r   dt    dz
ij r r vz
 ij   ij dt   dz
v z vz 1
vz z   dt    dz
z z vz
 The equivalent strain, which is needed as a essential influence factor of the flow stress, can
be determined as:
 eq
 eq    eq dt   dz
vz
 Remark to the transient forming processes:
In transient forming processes the increases of the strain from each single time interval muss
be summed in order to avoid errors in the case of large strain.
Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 287-288 587
Visioplastic method in sheet metal forming
 In the sheet metal forming the visioplastic method is usually constrained only to
determine the local strain and deformation
 change of sheet thickness
 direction of the principle strain
 Line mesh with circular grid patterns are particularly suitable. From the developed ellipse
the direction of the principle strain can be recognized under certain conditions.
initial state after the deformation

States of strain in the sheet metal forming
 States of strain in the sheet metal forming due to a circular pattern
𝑑0 𝑑1
3  1   2 
d1 d2
1  ln  2  ln
𝑑2
d0 d0
 States of strains are to be transferred into the forming limit diagram
Deep drawing Uni-axial tension Plane strain Coaxial stretching
1   2 1  2 2 1  3 1   2
3  0  2  3 2  0 3  2 2
589
Forming limit diagram
 Forming limit diagram, without forming limit curve; corresponding states of strain
𝝋𝟏
Plane strain
𝜑2 = 0
𝝋𝟐
590
Determination of a forming limit diagram by Nakajima testing
 Samples with different geometries
𝝋𝟏
𝝋𝟐
591
Example: strains of a deep drawn cup
φ1
0.5 0.37
φ1
0.4 φ2 B
φ3
0.3
φeq
0.2
Strains
0.1
A 0.00
-0.1 e
Punch edge Bottom
B
d e
-0.2
c c Part wall
-0.3 a b
a A
b d Die edge
-0.4 Flange
0 10 20 30 40 50
Stretched cut length in mm
Source: IBF
Example: strains of a deep drawn part I
0.6 φeq
0.4 φ3
0.2 φ1
0
Strains
-0.2
b c
-0.4 A
b c
-0.6 φ2
a d
a d
-0.8 A
Section A-A
-1
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Source: IBF
Example: strains of a deep drawn part II
1.2
0.8
b c
0.4
φeq
φ1
Strains
0 φ3
φ2
-0.4
b c
-0.8 d
B
a d
a
B Section B-B
-1.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Source: IBF
Application area and limitations
 Widespread industrial use in sheet metal forming:
 Optimization of deep drawing tools
 Selection of suitable materials
 Material testing
 The application in bulk metal forming is limited due to large experimental effort and
complexity
 Indispensible method and support for the investigation of metal forming processes:
 Development and testing of material flow models
 Influences of forming parameters on strain and stress distributions
 Determination of friction coefficients
 Direct comparison to the results of numerical computation methods (e.g. FEM)
End of the lecture
𝜎𝑧
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
596

HIRT Fundamentals and Solving Methods in Metal Forming - Lecture Notes

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HIRT Fundamentals and Solving Methods in Metal Forming - Lecture Notes

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𝜎𝑧

Fundamentals and solving methods

Winter Semester 2018/2019

Prof. Dr.-Ing. G. Hirt

Main goals are:

Chapter 1 – General introduction

 Mechanics, mainly Strength of Materials (Elasticity and Plasticity)

Chapter 1 – General introduction

force, energy, power, elementary

homogeneous local strain, strain rate, FEM

polycrystalline phase boundary,

Chapter 1 – General introduction

texture, anisotropy, etc. FEM +

Chapter 1 – General introduction

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

 The state of stress can be given as a stress tensor:

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 6 16

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

I1  σ x  σ y  σ z  σ k k (Trace of the stress tensor) (9)

I 3  σ x σ y σ z  2τ xy τ yz τ zx  σ x τ yz2  σ y τ zx2  σ z τ xy2  det σ i j  (11)

 Right side notation uses the Einstein summation convention.

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

I 3  σ x σ y σ z  2τ xy τ yz τ zx  σ x τ yz2  σ y τ zx2  σ z τ xy2  det σ i j  (11)

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 8/9 19

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

 Solutions for the principal normal stresses

 Angle between x-axis and first principal axis

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 9 21

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Rotating clockwise on the volume element: positive

Rotating counter clockwise on the volume element: negative

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 6/9 22

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 10 23

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 10 24

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Stress tensor  Stress deviator  Hydrostatic stress

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

 Axial symmetry is present if:

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 11 28

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 8 29

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Example: Stretch forming (2D)

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 94 31

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 93/94 32

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

 Examples: drawing, extrusion, compression of cylindrical bars and pipes

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

Source: Kopp, Einführung i. d. Umformtechnik, S. 49/96 34

Chapter 2 – Stress and equilibrium

 Hooke's law   E   (simplified)

 Stresses related to the initial cross-sectional area

Chapter 3 – Strain and strain rate

Chapter 3 – Strain and strain rate