Worship & Ritual in India’s temples of sex

Dr Uday Dokras
Worship and Ritual

The great and lesser Hindu gods are worshiped in a number of concentric circles of public and
private devotion. Because of the social basis of Hinduism, the most fundamental ceremonies for
every Hindu are those that involve the rites of passage (samskaras). These begin with birth and
the first time the child eats solid food (rice). Later rites include the first haircutting (for a young
boy) and the purification after the first menstruation (for a girl); marriage; and the blessings upon
a pregnancy, to produce a male child and to ensure a successful delivery and the child's survival
of the first six dangerous days after birth (the concern of Shashti, goddess of Six). Last are the
funeral ceremonies (cremation and, if possible, the sprinkling of ashes in a holy river such as the
Ganges) and the yearly offerings to dead ancestors. The most notable of the latter is the pinda, a
ball of rice and sesame seeds given by the eldest male child so that the ghost of his father may
pass from limbo into rebirth. In daily ritual, a Hindu (generally the wife, who is thought to have
more power to intercede with the gods) makes offerings (puja) of fruit or flowers before a small
shrine in the house. She also makes offerings to local snakes or trees or obscure spirits
(benevolent and malevolent) dwelling in her own garden or at crossroads or other magical places
in the village.

Many villages, and all sizable towns, have temples where priests perform ceremonies throughout
the day: sunrise prayers and noises to awaken the god within the holy of holies
(the garbagriha, or “womb-house”); bathing, clothing, and fanning the god; feeding the god and
distributing the remains of the food (prasada) to worshipers. The temple is also a cultural center
where songs are sung, holy texts read aloud (in Sanskrit and vernaculars), and sunset rituals
performed; devout laity may be present at most of these ceremonies. In many temples,
particularly those sacred to goddesses (such as the Kalighat temple to Kali, in Kolkata), goats are
sacrificed on special occasions. The sacrifice is often carried out by a special low-caste priest
outside the bounds of the temple itself. Thousands of simple local temples exist; each may be
nothing more than a small stone box enclosing a formless effigy swathed in cloth, or a slightly
more imposing edifice with a small tank in which to bathe. In addition, India has many temples
of great size as well as complex temple cities, some hewn out of caves (such as Elephanta and
Ellora), some formed of great monolithic slabs (such as those at Mahabalipuram), and some built
of imported and elaborately carved stone slabs (such as the temples at Khajuraho,
Bhubaneshwar, Madurai, and Kanjeevaram). On special days, usually once a year, the image of
the god is taken from its central shrine and paraded around the temple complex on a
magnificently carved wooden chariot (ratha).

Many holy places or shrines (tirthas, literally “fords”), such as Rishikesh in the Himalayas or
Benares on the Ganges, are the objects of pilgrimages from all over India; others are essentially
local shrines. Certain shrines are most frequently visited at special yearly festivals. For example,
Prayaga, where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers join at Allahabad, is always sacred, but it is
crowded with pilgrims during the Kumbha Mela festival each January and overwhelmed by the
millions who come to the special ceremony held every 12 years. In Bengal, the goddess Durga's

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visit to her family and return to her husband Shiva are celebrated every year at Durgapuja, when
images of the goddess are created out of papier-mâché, worshiped for ten days, and then cast into
the Ganges in a dramatic midnight ceremony ringing with drums and glowing with candles.
Some festivals are celebrated throughout India: Diwali, the festival of lights in early winter; and
Holi, the spring carnival, when members of all castes mingle and let down their hair, sprinkling
one another with cascades of red powder and liquid, symbolic of the blood that was probably
used in past centuries.

This extremely conservative country was once home to the world’s first sex treatise and the erotic art on display is
perhaps more shocking now than when it was created.

But India was not always like this. Sexual norms were far more liberal before the 13th Century.

What led to the creation of Khajuraho temples?

As per the legends, Hemvati was a beautiful woman, after whom the Khajuraho temples were
built. One day, when she was bathing in a pool in Benaras, the Moon God was swooned by her
beauty, and could not wait any longer to see her. They conceived a child and named him
Chandravarman. However, she feared that her child might have to face harassment as he was
born out of wedlock. She was so distressed that she cursed the Moon God, who later prophesied
that the child will grow up to become a great king.

Just like the prophecy, the child indeed grew to become a great king, who founded the Chandela
dynasty. One day, after Hemvati passed away, her son saw her in his dreams, where she asked
him to construct temples that would depict human passions.

India has been a particularly conservative country for the last few hundred years, influenced by
the puritanism of several groups, including Islamic dynasties, British overlords and the country’s
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own Brahmin priestly caste. But India was not always like this. Sexual norms were far more
liberal before the 13th Century, giving equal importance to the secular and the spiritual. Sex was
taught as a subject in formal education, and Kamasutra, the world’s first sex treatise, was written
in ancient India between the 4th Century BCE and the 2nd Century.

Sculptures of a sexual nature (Credit: Charukesi Ramadurai)

In fact, if you look closely, reminders of these more liberal times can be seen across the country.
They’re literally carved in stone in the form of erotic motifs on the lower walls of the 13th
Century Sun Temple at Konark in the east Indian state of Orissa. Nudity is prominent in the
paintings and sculptures of heavenly maidens at Maharashtra’s Buddhist rock-cut monastic
caves, Ajanta (2nd Century BCE) and Ellora (5th to 10th Centuries).

Of the original 85 temples, just more than 20 remain (Credit: Charukesi Ramadurai)
India's most graphic example of erotic temple art
However, the best-preserved and most graphic example of erotic temple art can be found in the
small town of Khajuraho in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Its elegantly carved
Hindu temples were declared a Unesco World Heritage site in 1986. Built by the Chandela
dynasty between 950 and 1050, only 22 of the 85 original temples remain.
When I entered the 6sqkm site late one winter afternoon, the sandstone glowed a burnished gold.
Local women carried fresh flowers and incense sticks for their prayers, while visitors

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perambulated the outer corridors, gawking at the profuse and intricate sculptures that covered
every inch of the walls. There were images of gods and goddesses, warriors and musicians,
animals and birds. It could have been a scene from any temple in India.
Many of these carvings were of an intensely erotic nature, featuring men, women and animals.
But on closer inspection, many of these carvings were of an intensely erotic nature, featuring
men, women and animals. There were depictions of threesomes, orgies and bestiality. Although I
knew what to expect, I was still taken aback by shapely maidens and virile men contorting their
bodies in impossible sexual positions, right next to sculptures of divine beings smiling blissfully
at the devout. Although a few stones were chipped and several limbs broken, the carvings were
incredibly pristine, considering that the temples are more than 1,000 years old.

admire the stone carvings /A woman offers prayers at the temple

 
There are various theories about the existence of such graphic erotic motifs. One of the more
exotic ones propounds that since Chandela kings were followers of Tantric principles, which
dictate the balance between the male and female forces, they promoted their faith in the temples
they created.
Some believe the depiction of sexual activities was considered a good omen.
Other theories have to do with the role of temples themselves in those times: they were
considered places of learning as well as worship – especially of the finer arts, including the art of
lovemaking. In addition, some believe that the depiction of sexual activities in temples was
considered a good omen because it represented new beginnings and new life.

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Carvings cover every inch of the outer walls

That apart, Hinduism has traditionally considered sex an essential part of life, which could be
why the carvings are casually interspersed between others that portray activities as varied as
prayer and war. The fact that they are set in plain view and not tucked away in an obscure corner
seems to suggest that their creators meant for them to be seen by all.

Isolation helped these graphic motifs survive 

Bizarrely, there’s no reason why these ornate temples were built at Khajuraho, since there’s no
clear record of whether there was even a kingdom in this location. The survival of these graphic
motifs can likely be attributed to their isolation for hundreds of years in the region’s once-thick
forest, only rediscovered by Englishman Captain TS Burt in 1838. In fact, Burt himself had to be
persuaded by his Indian attendants to make the journey; he didn’t believe anything of interest
would be found at the remote spot. These charmed temples have also managed to evade the
wrath of India’s moral police, who in recent years banned or destroyed a range of cultural
artefacts, ranging from Salman Rushdie’s books to MF Hussain’s paintings.
But what I found even more interesting than the explicit carvings and the history behind them
was the fact that entire families were quietly engrossed in the guide’s speech as he analysed the
spicier carvings high on the walls of the magnificent Kandariya Mahadeva temple. No eyebrows
were raised, no embarrassed looks were exchanged, no giggles escaped young lips. Perhaps the
art is unobjectionable when crouched within a religious context – but I came away believing that
Khajuraho holds within its walls a larger lesson on tolerance for India.

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Many sculptures depict bestiality

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KHAJURAHO, ITS EROTIC RELIEFS AND THE CHANDELAS
KHAJURAHO
Khajuraho (600 kilometers southeast of Delhi, 400 kilometers south of Agra) is remote city
famed for its erotic temples. The origin of the temples and the history of the Chandela
dynasty that built them is not completely understood. But it is known that at least 850
temples were built between A.D 950 and 1050 over a wide area, of which 22 are still in fairly
good shape. The city was built in such a remote location so that it could escape the ravages
of invaders.
What makes Khajuraho so interesting are the sculptures of gods, goddesses and mortal in
various love-making positions on the sandstone walls of the temples. In one extraordinary
bas-relief a man doing a headstand is shown getting it on with a woman — held off the
ground by a pair of large-breasted assistants — doings the splits. The sculptures are
considered to be some of the best examples of erotic Hindu art in India. Most of the temples
have two or three bands of these sculptures.
Khajuraho is situated in Madhya Pradesh among the Vindhya mountain range and features
both Hindu and Jain temples. The stunning intricate sculptures depict different aspects of life
— spirituality, love, friendship, sports and royal life — as well as sex. Khajuraho was
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. The complex of Khajuraho represents a
unique artistic creation, as much for its highly original architecture as for the sculpted decor
of a surprising quality made up of a mythological repertory of numerous scenes of
amusements of which not the least known are the scenes, susceptible to various
interpretations, sacred or profane.

Khajuraho is believed to have been built in a relatively short period of time: over 100
years, between A.D. 950-1050. The complex consists of 22 temple structures from a group of
85 original ones that were built. Forgotten for centuries, they were rediscovered in the 1850s
and restored. The temples were conceived and built under the rule of the Chandela dynasty.
As for the source of the name Khajuraho, it is said the Chandela rulers built a huge wall
around the temples. The wall had eight gates flanked on either side by khajur or date palm
trees, which is found in abundance in this region. The temples were, thus, called khajura
vatika, or bearing khajura.

According to UNESCO: “Khajuraho is one of the capitals of the Chandella rulers, a dynasty
of Rajput origin which came into power at the beginning of the 10th century, and reached its
apogee between 950 and 1050. Of the 85 temples which were constructed at Khajuraho
during the Chandella period (and which were still resplendent: when the great traveler Ibn
Battuta noted them in 1335), 22 still exist, disseminated within an area of about 6 square
kilometers. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site website]

“The great “love temples” of northern India, including Khajuraho, were built in the eleventh
century by the Chandella dynasty...As, monuments of two distinct religions, Brahminism and
Jainism, the temples of Khajuraho are nonetheless distinguished by a common typology: they
comprise an elevated substructure, over which rises the body of the richly decorated
building, the 'jangha', covered with several registers of sculpted panels on to which open-

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work galleries are opened. This is crowned by a series of bundled towers with curvilinear
contours, the Sikharas.

“The highest are found over the sanctuary of the divinity. Each of these towers, which is
characteristic of the temples in the Nagera style, symbolizes the 'cosmic mountain', Mount
Kailasha. The typical plan comprises an entrance, a large hypostyle hall (mandapa), a dark
sanctuary and finally various annexes.”

Chandelas
The Chandelas were the builders of Khajuraho. They ruled much of the Bundelkhand region
(then called Jejakabhukti) in central India southeast of Delhi between the 9th and the 13th
centuries. The Chandela or Chandel were a rajputs (a powerful military caste). The Chandel
dynasty is famous in Indian history for Maharaja Rao Vidyadhara, who repulsed the attacks
of Mahmud of Ghazni and was behind much of the erotic sculptures at Khajuraho. The word
Chandela is said to have evolved from of Chandratreya, combination of two words indicating
the lineage Chandra vamsa and Atreya gotra.
The origin of the Chandelas is shrouded in mystery. A legend attributes their descent to the
union of the Moon (Candrama) with a Brahman damsel. This is obviously an absurd myth,
invented for giving the clan a noble pedigree. In the opinion of Vincent Smith, however, the
indications are that the Chandelas sprang from the aboriginal stock of the Bihars or the
Gonds, and their original seat was Maniyagarh on the Ken river in the Chatarpur State.

The most important cities in the Chandela kingdom were Khajuraho, Kalanjara, and Mahoba.
Vincent Smith remarks: “The first-named town, with its group of magnificent temples, may
be regarded as the religious, the second, with its strong fortress, as the military, and the third,
with its palace, as the civil capital.” The Chandelas beautified Bundelkhand by constructing a
large number of exquisite religious edifices and embanked lakes. One of the latter was the
Madanasagara, formed by Madanavarman at Mahoba.

The Chandelas came into prominence in southern Bundelkhand under the leadership of
Nannuka early in the ninth century. His grandson was Jeja or Jayasakti, after whom the
kingdom was called Jejakabhukti. It appears from traditions and epigraphic testimony that
the first few princes of the dynasty were feudatories of the great Pratihara emperors of
Kanauj. But Harsadeva Chandela enhanced the prestige and influence of the family
considerably by placing Mahlpala (Ksitipala) on the Imperial throne in opposition to his
brother or half-brother, Bhoja II. During the reign of Yasovatman, the Chandelas gained a
larger measure of independence, and aggrandised themselves at the cost of their neighbours,
viz., the Cedis, Malavas, Kosalas, etc. According to an inscription, found at Khajuraho,
Yasovarman was “a scorching fire to the Gurjaras,” and that he “easily conquered the fort of
Kalanjara,” one of the important strongholds of the Pratiharas. He is also said to have
compelled Devapala Pratihara to surrender to him a celebrated image of Vaikuntha (Visnu),
which he subsequently set up in a stately shrine at Khajuraho.

Chandelas Kings
Dhanga (c. A.D. 950-1002) was Yasovarman’s son and successor. Strangely enough,
however, he invokes the name of the Pratihara king (Vinayakapala II) as his overlord in the

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Vikrama year 1011-954 A.D. It would, therefore, appear that like the Nizam of the Deccan
and the Nawabs of Oudh, who were virtually independent and yet nominally acknowledged
the suzerainty of the great Moghul at Delhi, the Candel ruler did not all at once break off
formal relations with the effete Imperial power at Kanauj, but for some time maintained an
outward show of submission. Subsequently-, the kingdom of Jejakabhukti saw its palmy days
under Dhanga, for an inscription, discovered at Mhow, alleges that he attained to “supreme
lordship after inflicting a defeat over the king of Kanyakubja.” The success of the Chandelas
is confirmed by the Khajuraho epigraph, wherein we arc told that Dhariga ruled the earth
“playfully acquired by the action of his long and strong arms, as far as Kalanjara, and as far
as Bhasvat situated (?) on the banks of the river.Malava; from here to the banks of the river
Kalindl (Jumna), and from here also to the frontiers of the Cedi country, and even as far as
that mountain called Gopa (Gopadri), which is the unique abode of marvel.” The loss of
Gwalior must have dealt a severe blow to the fortunes of the Pratiharas, since thereby the
Chandelas got hold of a strategic position, which they could well use as a base for further
encroachments. Indeed, it is likely that towards the close of his reign Dhariga carried his
arms up to Benares, where he granted a village to a Brahman in the Vikrama year 1055-998
A.D. In 989 or 990 A.D. when Jayapala, the Sahi king, invited prominent Hindu states to
help him in resisting the aggressions of Sabuktigin, Dhariga, along with other potentates,
promptly responded with men and money, and shared the disaster suffered by the confederate
army.

Ganda was Dhariga’s son, Ganda. He joined the coalition formed by Anandapala Sahi in
1008 A.D. to repel the invasion of Mahmud but nothing availed the Hindus and their forces
were utterly routed by the Sultan. Next, •Ganda sent an expedition under the crown-prince,
Vidyadhara, to punish Rajyapala of Kanauj for his pusillanimous surrender to Mahmud about
the end of 1018 A.D. The Pratihara monarch was, of course, slain, but when the tidings
reached Ghazni the Sultan was so enraged that he forthwith marched against Nanda (Ganda)
1 to repress his audacity. Thus, the opponents came face to face in H. 410— 1019 A.D. Just
at the psychological moment, however, the Chandela ruler became alarmed at the intrepidity
and strength of the Muslim hosts, whereupon under cover of night he c fled with some of his
baggage and equipments.’ 2 In H. 413 — X022 A.D. Mahmud attacked the Candel territories
for the second time. Having taken Gwalior in 1023 A.D. he invested Kalanjara. Again,
Nanda or Ganda cowardly submitted to the invader, who thereupon gave him back the
conquered forts, and triumphantly returned home with a large booty.

Klrtivarman was the next distinguished member of this dynasty. He revived the power of
the Chandelas, which had been eclipsed in the time of his predecessors owing to the military
activities of the Kalacuri kings, Garigeyadeva and Laksml-karna. Klrtivarman himself was
vanquished by the latter in the earlier part of his reign, but it appears from inscriptions and
the prologue to Krisna Misra’s Vrabodha-Candrodaya, an allegorical play in honour of Visnu
and the Vedanta philosophy, that the Candel ruler eventually won a decided Victory over his
mighty Cedi rival.

Madanavarman was another notable figure, whose known dates range from 1129 to 1163
A.D. He claims to have defeated the “lord of Gurjara,” generally identified with Siddharaja-
Jayasimha of Gujarat (c. 1095- 1143 A.D.). An inscription, found at Man (Jhansi district),

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further testifies that Madanavarman overcame the Cedi monarch (perhaps Gaya-Karna);
exterminated his Malava i.e., Paramara contemporary; and forced the “king of Kail,”
probably identical with Vijayacandta Gahadavala, “to pass his time in friendly behaviour.”
Paramardi, or Paramal of popular traditions, was the last prominent Candclla sovereign. He
ruled from circa 1165 A.D. to 1203. We learn from the Madanapur inscription 2 and Cand’s
R a so that he sustained a reverse in 1182-83 A.D. at the hands of Prithvlraja Cauhan who
occupied Mahoba and other fortresses in Bundelkhand. But Paramardi escaped complete
annihilation, and afterwards recovered the lost ground. In 1203 A.D. he offered stubborn
resistance to Qutb-ud-dln Aibak during the siege of Kalanjara. Finding that the odds were
altogether against him, Paramardi capitulated, but he died before fulfilling any of the terms
imposed. His minister, Ajadcva, then took up the defence; he also had, however, to surrender
soon after. Qutb-ud-din next captured Mahoba, and put the subjugated territory under the
charge of a Muslim governor. The Chandelas were thus kid low, although they lingered on as
petty chieftains.until the sixteenth century.

Khajuraho Temples
Based on their geographical location, Khajuraho’s two dozen or so temples are grouped into
three areas: Eastern, Western and Southern. Kandariya, the largest, most and most typical of
the Khajuraho temples, is dedicated to Shiva. The main shrine is exquisitely carved and
features delicate details. Among the other temples worth visiting are Chaunsat Yogini (the
oldest surviving shrine), Devi Jagada (temple dedicated to Kali), Chitragupta, Vishwanath,
Lakshmana, Varaha and Matangeswara temple.

The temples are spread over an area of six square kilometers. They are dedicated to both
Hindu deities and Jain figures. About six of these temples have Lord Shiva as the main idol,
eight are dedicated to Lord Vishnu, one each to Lord Ganesha and the Sun God, while three
are dedicated to Jain tirthankaras (saints). The largest among these is the Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is also one of the four holy sites of Shiva
worship, the other three being Kashi, Kedarnath and Gaya.

According to UNESCO: “ Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups
and belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance
between architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion
of sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian art.” Some of the temples are
deteriorating at an alarming pace due to irrigation canals in the area that have raised
groundwater levels, causing water to rise through the stones by capillary action and
deteriorating the stones.

Sculptures at the Khajuraho Temples

The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva temple
alone decorated with over 870. Some 10 percent of these iconographic carvings contain
sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old
structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities;
however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings. Core
Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama scenes, when seen in
combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual themes such as

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 moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch, This state which is “like a man and woman in
close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence
(Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).

Stella Kramrisch said: “There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed in
Khajuraho temples. Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama
scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual
themes such as moksha. This state which is “like a man and woman in close embrace” is a
symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the
nature

The Khajuraho temples represent many forms of arts that flourished in medieval Rajput
kingdoms, including Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and
Kavyamimansa poems and dramas. In addition to the sculptures believed to represent sexual
practices there are many imaginary animals, including the vyalas (hybrids of a lion, horse
and many other animals). In South India, vyalas face outward towards the person viewing the
sculpture. At Khajuraho, the vyalas face sideways and many scholars wonder why. Also at
Khajuraho, the vyalas appear ro have equal status with the gods and apsarases, the female
spirit of the clouds and water. This could possibly mean that the vyalas were just as
important as Hindu gods in the Chandella religion.

Erotic Sculptures at Khajuraho

The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10 percent is sexual or erotic
art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have
small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be
tantric sexual practices. Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of
treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit
display is common in Hindu temples. Over 90 percent of the art work at the temple is about
daily life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture. The Khajuraho temples represent
one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from the
A.D. 8th through 10th century.

The sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures are "the apogee of erotic art": "Twisting, broad-
hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on
exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the
stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting
and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins,
guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking
couples."
These paintings are “Greatly influenced by the Tantric school of thought, the Chandela kings
promoted various Tantric doctrines through royal monuments, including temples. Sculptors
of Khajuraho depicted all aspects of life. The society of the time believed in dealing frankly
and openly with all aspects of life, including sex. Sex is important because Tantric cosmos is
divided into the male and female principle. Male principle has the form and potential, female
has the energy. According to Hindu and Tantric philosophy, one can not achieve anything
without the other, as they manifest themselves in all aspects of the universe. Nothing can

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exist without their cooperation and coexistence. In accordance with ancient treaties on
architecture, erotic depictions were reserved for specific parts of the temples only. The rest of
the temple was profusely covered with other aspects of life, secular and spiritual.

Important Temples at Khajuraho

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is the tallest, the largest and the most stunning in the
Khajuraho complex. Built sometime during 1025-1050, with about 870 spectacular
sculptures, it is considered to be the spiritual abode of Lord Shiva. It is most popular for its
ornate architecture, including statues of beautifully adorned women. The structure has a
shikhara (spire) about 31 meters high that depicts Mount Kailash. This main spire is
surrounded by 84 miniature spires (Urushringas).
Kandariya is most sexual and typical of the Khajuraho temples. The main shrine is
exquisitely carved and features delicate details. The temple houses a lingam (phallic symbol
honoring Shiva) made of marble in its sanctum sanctorum, with 646 statues dotting its
boundary. Facing towards the east, the entrance of the temple has a staircase and porch that
have been adorned with garlands chiselled out of solid single stone. It is believed that Raja
Dhandadeva, a Chandela ruler, built this temple.
Chitragupta Temple is located in the east direction and faces the rising sun. It is the only
temple dedicated to the Sun God and was constructed in the 11th century. A 5-foot-tall idol
of the deity sitting on a chariot driven by seven horses sits in the temple. The walls of the
temple are beautifully carved and give a glimpse of various historical events. The prime
attractions include an image of Lord Vishnu in the 11-headed form on the south wall.
Visitors are also left mesmerised by the intricate carvings of dancing girls, elephant fights,
processions and hunting scenes done on the interior of the temple. The exterior of the temple
is also beautiful and one can find sculptures of apsaras (celestial nymphs), vyalas, mithunas
and deities there. Moreover, more than 70 other figures have been carved on the balcony
panels of the temple. The doorways are also elaborately ornamented and portray a series of
three figures of the Sun God, similar to the one in the sanctum sanctorum. One can also visit
the three-storeyed stepped tank inside the premises. Called as chopra, it was also constructed
by the Chandela rulers.
Western Temples at Khajuraho
According to UNESCO: “The most important group of monuments is massed in the western
zone, not far from the archaeological museum, including the temples of Varaha, Lakshmana,
Matangeshwara, Kandariya, Mahadeva Chitragupta, Chopra Tank, Parvati, Vishwanatha and
Nandi. [Source: UNESCO]
“Yasovarman (AD 954) built the temple of Vishnu, now famous as Lakshmana temple; this
is an ornate and evolved example of its time proclaiming the prestige of the Chandellas. The
Visvanatha, Parsvanatha and Vaidyanatha temples belong to the time of King Dhanga, the
successor of Yasovarman. The Jagadambi, Chitragupta, are noteworthy among the western
group of royal temples of Khajuraho. The largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho is the
immortal Kandariya Mahadeva which is attributed to King Ganda (1017-29).
Lakshman Temple (in the Western group of temples) is considered to be the oldest and the
most aesthetically pleasing. It was one of the first temples built by the Chandela kings, and
the patron of this temple is believed to be Yashovarman, who gained control over areas in the
Bundelkhand region of central India. Yashovarman sought to build this temple to mark his
rule over these territories. However, he died before the construction was completed and his

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son, Dhanga, took over the work and dedicated the temple in 954. The temple showcases the
trinity of Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva. Built on a high platform, it is made in a
tiered format with intricately carved columns.
The main idol of the temple is an image of Lord Vishnu in a three-headed avatar called
Vaikuntha. It is placed in the inner chamber known as garba griha (sanctum sanctorum),
which is an architectural feature of most Hindu temples. The building of the temple reflects a
Nagara style of architecture, owing to the flat-roofed entry porch called mandapa and a
shrine called vimana. The shrine of Nagara temples comprises a base platform and a
superstructure called shikhara (spire).
Chaunsat Yogini (in the Western group of temples) is a composition of small hut-like
structures surrounding an open courtyard. Standing apart from all other temples in the area, it
was built in 875-900 and is a part of the Western group of temples. The temple is dedicated
to 64 female yoginis (female attendants) who are considered to be forms of the Mother
Goddess. This temple is quite unique and is the only one here that is built with local granite.
Its architecture is quite simple and has no ornamentation. The walls are almost bare and lack
the characteristic carvings of temples in Khajuraho. There are a total of 67 shrines in the
temple complex and the largest one is dedicated to Goddess Durga, who is presented in the
form of Mahishasura Mardini. Two shrines are for Maheshvari and Matrikas Brahmani and
the other 64 are dedicated to the yoginis. This temple is believed to be the oldest yogini
temple in India.
Eastern and Southern Temples at Khajuraho
Among the temples in the east and south groups are also comprise noteworthy complexes
(the temples of Ghantai, Parshvanath, Adinath, Shantinath, Dulhadeo, Chaturbhuja. The four
Jain temples lie among the Eastern group of temples. These include the Adinath, Shantinath,
Parsvanath and Ghantai temples, which were constructed under the reign of the Chandela
rulers.
The eastern group contains the Parsvanath temple, a large Jain structure noted for the
detailed sculptures on the northern outer wall. Other notable temples in this group are the
Ghantai and Adinath temples and the three Hindu temples of Brahma, Javari and Vamana,
the last of which is adorned with a variety of sensuous sculptures. the southern group
includes the two temples of Duladeo and Chaturbhuj.
Parsvanath Temple (in the eastern group of Temples) is largest of the Jain temples in
Khajuraho. It is noted for its spectacular tiered construction and intricate sculptures. It
belongs to the Eastern group of temples and its architecture is quite similar to that of the
Hindu temples here. The temple is believed to have been constructed in the 10th century
during the rule of Dhangadeva (950-999) of the Chandela dynasty. It was previously devoted
to the first tirthankara (religious saint) of the Jains, Adinath. However, in 1860, the image of
Parsvanath was put in.
The temple attracts visitors for its intricate architecture and its walls depict the images of
elephants, sea nymphs and lions. Though it is a Jain temple, one can see images of Hindu
deities like Vaishnav as well, on its walls. The temple has some key architectural features
like a couple of axial projections at its two ends called the ardh mandapa (the hall) to the east
and a small shrine to the west called the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum).
Dulhadev Temple (in the southern group of temples) was built by the Chandelas in 1130,
this temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and houses a lingam (phallic symbol honoring Shiva).
Its architecture is quite fascinating and the temple has five small chambers and a closed hall.

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The finishing on the idols is beautiful and shows the skill of the craftsmen of that time. The
temple walls and ceilings boast heavily intricate carvings and visitors are often left
mesmerised by the stone-carved images on the walls. Attractive figurines of apsaras
(celestial nymph) and other mythological figures also adorn its walls. Dulhadev is another
name for Lord Shiva in this region that refers to the lord as a 'dulha' or bridegroom.
Historians consider it to be one of the last temples built by the Chandelas.
Deor Kothar
Deor Kothar (200 kilometers east of Khajuraho) is a Buddhist site said to have been built
under the patronage of Mauryan king, Ashoka, and dates back to 3rd century B.C. Stretching
for almost 3 kilometers, the complex, which is believed to have once been a bustling
commercial town on the trade route called Dakshinapatha, was discovered in 1982. Several
structures were excavated here, including monasteries, a water channel system, an ancient
pathway, and 30 stone stupas, four brick stupas, potsherds of black polished ware, which was
the pottery of everyday use between 700 and 300 B.C. One of the pillars excavated here has
an inscription that says it was erected in the memory of Lord Buddha.
The architecture of Deor Kothar is quite interesting and the complex boasts four stupas, the
most ever found at a site of this period. The bricks used are of various shapes such as a
twirling lotus, a simple flower pot on a three-tiered pedestal (the carving of which shows
traces of early Buddhist art) and a conical lotus bud. These can be seen on the railing posts of
the largest brick stupa rising to a height of 30 feet.
The site was discovered by PK Mishra and Ajit Singh in 1982 and it was declared a place of
national importance by the Government of India in 1988. Today, it is being preserved and
conserved by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Panna and Panna National Park
Panna National Park (40 kilometers south Khajuraho) in central India harbors many species
of wildlife including tigers, sambar and chitral deer, porcupines, and leopards and cover 200
square miles. It has a fairly large population of 30 to 40 sloth bears. It has a lot of humans.
There are 15 villages within the park and 50 just outside it. A number of villagers in the area
of the park have been attacked by sloth bears.
The park was once a raja’s hunting ground. There are a number of caves in par whose walls
are adorned with ancient paintings. The number of tigers in increasing. The tigers often roam
outside the park and the effort to save them has included efforts outside the park. Illegal
sandstone mines that fragments the tiger’s habitat and polluted the water in the park have
been closed down. The rangers have motorcycles and a troop carrier which has enabled them
to battle poachers more effectively
With the meandering Ken river and spectacular waterfalls, the national park attracts both
wildlife enthusiasts and adventure seekers. One can spot the gharial, a huge reptile of the
crocodile family found only in the Indian subcontinent, and a variety of flora and fauna here.
Spend a day or two here, and explore the park in a jeep or on the back of an elephant. Earlier,
the park was the hunting ground of the erstwhile rulers of Panna, Bijawar and Chhatarpur
states. The Panna National Park is the 22nd Tiger Reserve of India.
Panna was the capital of Maharaja Chhatrasal’s kingdom in 17th century. The town, meaning
emerald, is a diamond mining center. Panna is famous for its huge Palladian-style Pajgarth
Palace.

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