STUDY OF PROTECTION SCHEMES & TIME

COORDINATION of O\C & E\F PROTECTION OF

220KV GIS Grid Station Shalamar Lahore

Supervised By
Dr. Azhar Naeem
(Director Electrical Department)
Co-Supervisor
Muhammad Shafiq
(EX GM NTDC)

Submitted By:
RP17-EE-443 Binyamin Alam
RP17-EE-445 Fawad Asghar
RP17-EE-424 Muhammad umer khan
RP17-EE-440 Zeeshan Abbas

Institute of Electrical Electronics & Computer Engineering

University of the Punjab Lahore

 APPROVAL SHEET
This is certifying that I have read the project report submitted by the following
students:

RP17-EE-443 Binyamin Alam

RP17-EE-445 Fawad Asghar
RP17-EE-424 Muhammad umer khan
RP17-EE-440 Zeeshan Abbas

It’s my judgment that this report is of a sufficient standard to warrant its

acceptance by University of the Punjab, for BSc (Eng.) Electrical Engineering.

Internal Examiner:

Name: _____________________________

Designation: ________________________________

External Examiner:

Name: _____________________________

Designation: ________________________________

Dated: _________________________________

ii
 UNDERTAKING

We, the group members, are performing research under the supervision of Dr.
Azhar Naeem (Supervisor)/Muhammad Shafiq (Co-supervisor) to fulfill the
requirements for the award of B.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering at University of the
Punjab Lahore. We pledge that we will not publish any part of the project/research work
without prior permission of our supervisors.

Project title:

STUDY OF PROTECTION SCHEMES & TIME COORDINATION of O\C & E\F

PROTECTION OF 220KV GIS Grid Station Shalamar Lahore

Group Members:

Roll No Name Email Address and Signatures

Cellphone Number

RP17-EE-443 Binyamin Alam binyaminalam18@gmail.com

(0348-8556095)

RP17-EE-445 Fawad Asghar fadimughal140@gmail.com

(0301-5727389)

RP17-EE-424 Muhammad umer umersaeedkhan66@gmail.com

khan
(0303-6233346)

RP17-EE-440 Zeeshan Abbas zeeshanibrahim0172@gmail.com

(0312-5610172)

iii
 Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to of Allah (SWT), our Creator and our Master, Our great
teacher and messenger, Muhammad (SAW).

We also dedicate this work to our parents who have encouraged us all the way and
whose support and encouragement has made sure that we give it all it takes to finish that
which we started. To our honorable teachers, who has made us what we are today and
have instilled in us the education and learning.

To our supervisor Dr. Azhar Naeem and co-supervisor Muhammad Shafiq who
has been of inordinate assistance throughout the project.

To our friends and family who have been affected us in every way possible by this
quest.to our motherland, Pakistan and to the power industry of Pakistan.

Thank you Our love for you all can never be quantified.

iv
 Acknowledgment

Alhamdulillah. All praises are to Allah, the Merciful, the All – Beneficent, by
whose Grace and Blessings have enabled us.

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our advisor, Dr. Azhar Naeem
whose sincerity and encouragement we will never forget. he is the true definition of a
leader and the ultimate role model. This thesis would not have been possible without him,
whose guidance from the initial step in research enabled me to develop an understanding
of the subject. we are thankful for the extraordinary experiences he arranged for us and for
providing opportunities for us to grow professionally. it is an honor to learn from Dr.
Azhar Naeem and Muhammad Shafiq.

We are grateful for our parents whose constant love and support keep us motivated
and confident. our accomplishments and success are because they believed in us.

Deepest thanks to our siblings, who keep us grounded, remind us of what is

important in life, and are always supportive of our adventures.

v
 Table of Contents

Dedication

Acknowledgements

I. Chapter 1: Introduction 1

II. Chapter 2: Literature Review 6

III. Chapter 3: Methodology 49

IV. Chapter 4: Calculations and Result 52

V. Chapter 5: Suggestions and Recommendations 54

References 56

vi
 Chapter One

Introduction

A good power system be equipped with a proper protection system which is

intended to prevent and protect the system against any faults that might occur during the
operation of the system. This protection system consists of a current transformer, a relay
and a circuit breaker. A current transformer is used to unform the magnitude of the input
current signal to the relay. If the value of input current sensed by the relay exceeds the
current setting of the relay, the relay will send the signal to the circuit breaker to trip or
open the circuit. Basically, most of the protection relays are electromagnetic types.

Objectives of Power System Protection:

The whole system may confront the risk of severe damage and deterioration,
consequently leading to putting life, property and other equipment in danger. To minimize
the probability of damage caused by failure, protection devices come in.

Protection devices reduce the chances of discontinuity of electricity and restrict

failure to the failed equipment or area. This way, the system owners keep their customers
satisfied with continuous service and the whole system keeps operating without major
breakdowns and power outages.

To continuously monitor the system and keep it secure by detaching only the
components that are under fault and to retain as much of the grid as possible still in
operation, different protection schemes were developed.

Protection Zones:

Each protection scheme safeguards a defined area known as a protection zone. The
protection zone surrounds each power equipment. When a fault occurs in any of the zone,
then only the circuit breaker in that zone trips. Therefore, only a faulty element is
disconnected without affecting the rest of the system.

Following six categories of protection zones are possible in a system, we apply

here a concept of selective coordination.

 Generators and generator–transformer units

1
 Transformers

 Buses

 Lines (transmission, sub-transmission, and distribution)

 Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, or other)

 Capacitor or reactor banks (when separately protected).

Protection Schemes:

There are several protection schemes invented along the line as protection
engineers face new challenges with the advancement in power systems. Here, we will
discuss the most basic ones.

1. Overcurrent Protection Scheme

2. Differential Protection Scheme

3. Distance Protection Scheme

4. Directional Protection Scheme

Overcurrent Protection Scheme:

Overcurrent protection plays an important role to protect power system due to

sudden rise in current that damages the system components. Overcurrent relays are the
simplest and most widely used relays. overcurrent relaying in one form or another, has
been used for protection for all power system components. It is the primary protection for
distribution feeders and backup protection for transmission lines against either phase or
ground faults. It is also widely used as a fault detector to enable other sensitive protection
relays such as distance relays. The basic principle is that when the current flowing into the

2
relay exceeds a predetermined amount, the relay operates with or without an intended time
delay and trips the associated circuit breakers. Overcurrent relays without intended time
delay operate “instantaneously”, usually in less than 2 cycles.

The colossal growth in silicon circuit fabrication technology of digital relays over
the last power 30 years' industry has led Microprocessor to the adaption-based relays have
brought unbeatable advantages in terms of economics and techniques to the protection of
the power network. Manufacturers have been quick to use the mainstream products in the
marketplace which is the only economic approach available in terms of functionality and
price. Although the older electromagnetic relays are gradually replaced by static analog
and digital relays, a large number of these reliable electromagnetic relays still remain in
service.

A branch of electrical Power-system protection is that power engineering deals

with the protection of electrical power systems from faults through the disconnection of
faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network. The devices that are used to protect
the power systems from faults are called protection devices.

Protective relays, a fundamental part of protection devices work in concert with

sensing and control devices to accomplish their function. Under normal power system
operation, a protective relay remains idle and serves no active function. But when fault or
undesirable condition arrives, relay must be operated and function correctly.

Faults may occur in any part of power system as a short circuit & earth fault. Fault
may be Single Line to Ground, Double Line to Ground, Line to Line, three phase short
circuit etc. This results in flow of heavy fault current through the system. Fault level also
depends on the fault impedance which depends on the location of fault referred from the
source side. To calculate fault level at various points in the power system, fault analysis is
necessary.

The protection system operates and isolates the faulty section. The operation of the
protection system should be fast and selective i.e. it should isolate only the faulty section
in the shortest possible time causing minimum disturbance to the system. Also, if main
protection fails to operate, there should be a backup protection for which proper relay co-
ordination is necessary. Failure of a protective relay can and prolonged downtime. Result
in devastating damage equipment.

3
Differential Protection Scheme:

Another very expected and appealing principle is differential protection. It is based

on the assertion that the current leaving a protected section must be equal to that entering
it. Any difference between the two endpoints of a single section indicates a fault. Thus, we
can compare the two currents either their phase or magnitude or both.

This method of detecting faults is very popular if both ends of an apparatus are
physically very close to each other. It should remain steady in case of an external fault or
through-fault which will be outside of its protective zone and should only trip if the fault is
internal. The ability of this protection to discriminate between internal and external faults
define its stability. Though, it is impracticable to apply this scheme to a transmission line
because the ends are at a great distance, and it is not feasible to equate information.

Balanced Circulating Current System, External Fault (stable)

Balanced Circulating Current System, Internal Fault (operate)

Distance Protection Scheme:

A distance protection scheme relates the voltage with the current at the same end.
This scheme computes the impedance between the protection location and the fault point.
Then it compares it with a pre-set value to make the trip decision.

4
 Since the impedance of a transmission line can be directly proportional to the
distance of the fault in a line due to the simple series model, it helps in identifying fault
location. This type of protection is known as distance protection or under-impedance
protection. In practice, the word 'under' is dropped and now it is simply called impedance
protection.

Directional Protection Scheme:

In the case of a double-end feed system or parallel lines or a ring main system, a
fault gets fed from both sides. To be selective, the protection must be sensitive to the
direction of the fault power flow. The protection scheme which exhibits such property is
termed as a directional protection scheme.

There are other situations where it becomes necessary to use a directional scheme
to supervise overcurrent schemes. Since directional protection units are much more costly
and need the provision of power transformers, they should be used only when necessarily
needed.

5
 Chapter Two

Literature Review

A Power System consists of various electrical components like Generator,

transformers, transmission lines, isolators, circuit breakers, bus bars, cables, relays,
instrument transformers, distribution feeders, and various types of loads. A protective
relay is a relay device designed to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is detected.

Working of Protective Scheme:

Protective relaying senses the abnormal condition in a part of power system and
gives an alarm or isolates that part from healthy system. Protective relaying is a team work
of CT, PT, protective relays. time delay relays, trip circuits, circuit breakers etc. It plays an
important role in minimizing the faults and also, in minimizing the damage in the event of
faults.

Figure shows basic connections of circuit breaker control for the opening
operation. The protected circuit X is shown by dashed line. When a fault occurs in the
protected circuit the relay connected to CT and PT actuates and closes its contacts.

Current flows from battery in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of circuit breaker is
energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the
opening operation. Thus the fault is sensed and the trip circuit is actuated by the relay and
the faulty part is isolated.

6
What is a Relay:

A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical

circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit
breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty
portion of the electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.

Functions of protective Relay:

 To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of a circuit breaker so as to disconnect

Faulty

 Section.

 To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent subsequent faults. For

e.g.

 Overload protection of a machine not only protects the machine but also prevents
Insulation failure.

 To isolate or disconnect faulted circuits or equipment quickly from the remainder

of the system

 So the system can continue to function and to minimize the damage to the faulty
part. For example – If machine is disconnected immediately after a winding fault,
only a few coils may need replacement.

 But if the fault is sustained, the entire winding may get damaged and machine may
be beyond repairs.

 To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from healthy part,
causing least disturbance to the healthy system.

 To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve system stability, service

continuity and system performance. Transient stability can be improved by means
of improved protective relaying.

 To minimize hazards to personnel

7
Desirable qualities of protective relaying:

1. Selectivity

2. Discrimination

3. Stability

4. Sensitivity,

5. Power consumption

6. System Security

7. Reliability

8. Adequateness

9. Speed & Time

Terminologies of protective relay:

 Pickup level of actuating signal:

The value of actuating quantity (voltage or current) which is on threshold above

which the relay initiates to be operated. If the value of actuating quantity is increased the
electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is increased and above a certain level of actuating
quantity the moving mechanism of the relay just starts to move.

 Reset level:

The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes

in original position.

 Operating Time of Relay:

Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism (for
example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the relay contacts at
the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the instant when actuating quantity
exceeds the pickup value to the instant when the relay contacts close.

8
 Reset time of Relay:

The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes
less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal
position. Reach of Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the
relay is less than the pre-specified impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay is the
function of distance in a distance protection relay. This impedance or corresponding
distance is called reach of the relay.

 History of Protective Relay:

The evolution of protective relays begins with the electromechanical relays. Over the
past decade it upgraded from electromechanical to solid state technologies to predominate
use of microprocessors and microcontrollers. The timeline of the development of
protective relays is shown below:

1900 to 1963 1963 to 1972 1972 to 1980 1980 to 1990

Electromechanical Static Relay Digital Relay Numerical Relay
Relay
1925 = Single 1963 = Static 1980 = Digital type 1990 = Numerical
Disc Type Relay (All purpose) type relay
Relay relay (All purpose) (All purpose)
(Single input)
1961 = Single 1972 = Static
cup Type Relay With self-
Relay checking (All
(Impedance input) purpose)

TYPES OF PROTECTION RELAYS

The Protection relays can be categorized as under:

 Based on Characteristic:
 Definite time Relays.
 Inverse definite minimum time Relays (IDMT)
 Instantaneous Relays
 IDMT with Instantaneous.
 Stepped Characteristic
 Programmed Switches

9
  Voltage restraint over current relay
 Based on logic:

 Differential
 Unbalance
 Neutral Displacement
 Directional
 Restricted Earth Fault
 Over Fluxing
 Distance Schemes
 Bus bar Protection
 Reverse Power Relays
 Loss of excitation
 Negative Phase Sequence Relays etc.
 Based on Actuating parameter:

 Current Relays
 Voltage Relays
 Frequency Relays
 Power Relays etc.
 Based on Operation Mechanism:

 Electro Magnetic Relay

 Static Relay
 Analog Relay
 Digital Relay
 Numerical/Microprocessor Relay
 Mechanical relay:

 Thermal
 Float Type
 Pressure Switches.
 Mechanical Interlocks.
 Pole discrepancy Relay.

10
 Based on Applications:

 Primary Relays.
 Backup Relays.

Type of Relay based on Relay Operation Mechanism:

Electromagnetic Relay:

Electromagnetic relays are further categorized under two following categories.

1. Electromagnetic Attraction Relay:

This Relay works on Electromagnetic Attraction Principle

2. Electromagnetic Induction Relay:

This Relay works on Electromagnetic Induction Principle.

 Solid State (Static) Relay:

Solid-state and static) relays are further categorized under following designations.

Analog Relay:

In Analog relays are measured quantities are converted into lower voltage but
similar signals, which are then combined or compared directly to reference values in level
detectors to produce the desired output.

Digital Relay:

In Digital relays measured ac quantities are manipulated in analogue form and

subsequently converted into square-wave (binary) voltages. Logic circuits or
microprocessors compare the phase relationships of the square waves to make a trip
decision

Numerical Relay:

In Numerical relays measured ac quantities are sequentially sampled and converted

into numeric data form. A microprocessor performs mathematical and/or logical
operations on the data to make trip decisions.

11
 Electromechanical Relay:

History of Relay: This is the first-generation oldest relaying system and they have
been in use for many years. They have earned a well-deserved reputation for accuracy,
dependability, and reliability. There are two basic types of operating mechanisms: the
electromagnetic-attraction relay and electromagnetic-induction relay. Measuring
Principles: The electromechanical protective relay converts the voltages and currents to
magnetic and electric forces and torques that press against spring tensions in the relay. The
tension of the spring and taps on the electromagnetic coils in the relay are the main
processes by which a user sets in a relay.

 Function of Relay:

These relays are usually instantaneous in action, with no intentional time delay.
closing as soon after pickup as the mechanical motion permits. We can add time delay by
means of a bellows, dashpot, or a clockwork escapement mechanism. However, the timing
accuracy is considerably less precise than that of induction type relays. As such, users
seldom choose these relays with time delay in switchgear applications.

 Electromechanical Relays can operate with either AC or DC on the coils. Therefore,

the DC component of an asymmetrical fault definitely affects these relays using this
principle.

 Most relays come enclosed in a semi flush-mounting draw out case. Installers typically
install relays usually on the door of the switchgear cubicle. They bring sensor and
control wiring to connections on the case. The relay inserts into the case and connects
by means of small switches or a bridging plug, depending on the manufacturer.

 As such, we can disconnect and withdraw it from the case without disturbing the
wiring. When the relay is disconnected, the current transformer (CT) connections in
the case are automatically shorted to short circuit the CT secondary winding and
protect the CT from over voltage and damage.

12
 Operation of Electromagnetic-attraction Relay:

Figure shows a typical electro-mechanical relay. An input voltage is applied to the

coil mechanism. The input voltage magnetizes the core which pulls the arm towards it.
This action causes the output contacts to touch, closing the load circuit. When the input
voltage is removed, the spring lever will push the contacts away from each other, breaking
the load circuit connection.

Operation of Electromagnetic-Induction Relay:

Induction relays are available in many variations to provide accurate pickup and
time-current responses for a wide range of simple or complex system. They are actually
like induction motors. On the relay, the moving element (rotor) is usually a metal disk,
although sometimes it's a metal cylinder or cup. The stationary part (stator) is one or more
integral electromagnets, with current or potential coils inducing currents in the disk,
causing it to rotate. Until the rotational forces are great enough to turn the disk and bring
its moving contact against the stationary contact, a spring restrains the disk motion.

This closes the circuit the relay is controlling. The greater the sensed fault, the
greater the current in the coils, and the faster the disk rotates. A calibrated adjustment
called the time dial sets the spacing between the moving and stationary contacts; this
varies the operating time of the relay from fast (contacts only slightly open) to slow
(Contacts nearly a full disk revolution apart). Reset action begins upon removing the
rotational force, either by closing the relay contact that trips a breaker or by otherwise
removing the malfunction the relay is sensing. The restraining spring resets the disk to its
original position. The time required to reset depends on the type of relay and the time-dial
setting contact spacing).

Most electromechanical Relays are typically rated for minimum input to output
isolation voltages of 1500 to 2000 VAC.

13
Limitations of Electromagnetic relays

 Low speed of operation

 Change in characteristics over a period due to ageing effect

 Component failure leading to relay failure.

 Relay is Bulky: Because there are internal mechanical components with physical
dimension restraints, the package size of an electromechanical Relay can limit the size
of a PCB design Excessive power consumption.

 Imposes high burden on CT

 No fault data available except phase indication

 Inherent in its design, the Electromechanical Relay must make mechanical contacts in
order to switch a load. At the point of these contacts, oxidation breakdown occurs over
extended life cycling (Typically, 106 operations), and the relay will need to be
replaced.

 When an electromechanical Relay is activated, bounce occurs at the contact site.

Bounce creates a window of time where the load circuit is flickering between open and
closed, a condition which may need to be considered in load design.

 Isolation voltage is another area where Electromechanical Relays are limited.

The Solid-State Relay (Static Relay):

 History of Relay:

The static relay are next generation relays. The Solid Static relay was first
introduced in 1960's. The term 'static implies that the relay has no moving mechanical
parts in it. Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static relay has longer life-
span, decreased noise when operates and faster respond speed. However, it is not as robust
as the Electromechanical Relay.

 Static relays were manufactured as semiconductor devices which incorporate

transistors, ICS, capacitors, small microprocessors etc.

14
 The static relays have been designed to replace almost all the functions which were
being achieved earlier by electromechanical relays.

 Measuring principles: The working principle of the Solid Static relays is similar to
that of the Electromechanical Relay which means the Solid Static relays can perform
tasks that the Electromechanical Relay can perform.

 The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices instead of magnetic coils and
mechanical components to create the relay characteristics. the measurement is carried
out by static circuits consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc while in a
conventional electro-magnetic relay it is done by comparing operating torque (or
force) with restraining torque (or force). The relaying quantity such as voltage/current
is rectified and measured. When the quantity under measurement attains certain well-
defined value, the output device is triggered and thereby the circuit breaker trip circuit
is energized.

 In a solid-state relay, the incoming voltage and current waveforms are monitored by
analog circuits, not recorded or digitized. The analog values are compared to settings
made by the user via potentiometers in the relay, and in some case, taps on
transformers. In some solid-state relays, a simple microprocessor does some of the
relay logic, but the logic is fixed and simple. For instance, in some time over current
solid-state relays, the incoming AC current is first converted into a small signal AC
value, and then the AC is fed into a rectifier and filter that converts the AC to a DC
value proportionate to the AC waveform. An op-amp and comparator is used to create
a DC that rises when a trip point is reached. Then a relatively simple microprocessor
does a slow speed A/D conversion of the DC signal, integrates the results to create the
time-over current curve response, and trips when the integration rises above a set
point. Though this relay has a microprocessor, it lacks the attributes of a
digital/numeric relay, and hence the term "microprocessor relay" is not a clear term.

 Function of Relay: Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and diodes
in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances in electronics
enabled the use of linear and digital integrated circuits in later versions for signal
processing and implementation of logic functions. While basic circuits may be
common to a number of relays, the packaging was still essentially restricted to a single

15
 protection function percase, while complex functions required several cases of
hardware suitably interconnected.

 User programming was restricted to the basic functions of adjustment of relay

characteristic curves. Therefore, it can be viewed in simple terms as an analogue
electronic replacement for electromechanical relays, with some additional flexibility in
settings and some saving in space requirements.

 In some cases. relay burden is reduced, making for reduced CT/VT output
requirements. in a static relay there is no armature or other moving element and
response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components without
mechanical motion.

 A relay using combination of both static and electro-magnetic units is also called a
static relay provided that static units accomplish the response.

 Additional electro-mechanical relay units may be employed in output stage as

auxiliary relays. A protective system is formed by static relays and electro-mechanical
auxiliary relays.

 The performance of static relay is better than electromagnetic relays as they are fast
acting and accuracy of measurement is better than electromagnetic relay.

 The constraint in static relay is limited function/features. In the last decade, some
microprocessors were introduced in this relay to achieve the functions like (i) Fuse
failure features (ii) Self-check feature (iii) Dead Pole detection and (iv) Carrier aided
protection features.

16
 Operation of Relay: The essential components of static relays are shown in fig. The
output of CT and PT are not suitable for static components so they are brought down
to suitable level by auxiliary CT and PT. Then auxiliary CT output is given to rectifier.
Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or PT or a
Transducer.

 The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit comprising of comparators, level

detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e., the
relaying quantity) attains the threshold value. This output of the measuring unit is
amplified by amplifier and fed to the output unit device, which is usually an electro-
magnetic one. The output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay operates.

Advantages of Solid-State Relay:

 Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error is less.

 Low Weight

 Required Less Space which results in panel space saving.

 Arc less switching.

 No acoustical noise.

 Multi-function integration.

 Fast response.

 Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations.

 High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical Relay.

 More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay.

 Low Electromagnetic Interference.

 Less power consumption.

 Shock and vibration resistant

 No contact bounces.

 Microprocessor compatible.

 Isolation of Voltage.

17
 No moving parts: There are no moving parts to wear out or arcing contacts to
deteriorate that are often the primary cause of failure with an Electro Mechanical
Relay.

 No mechanical contact bounce or arcing: A solid-state relay doesn't depend on

mechanical forces or moving contacts for its operation but performs electronically.
Thus, timing is very accurate even for currents as low as the pickup value. There is no
mechanical contact bounce or arcing, and reset times are extremely short.

 Low input signal levels: Ideal for Telecommunication or microprocessor control

industries. Solid state relays are fast becoming the better choice in many applications,
especially throughout the telecommunication and microprocessor control industries.

 Cost Issues: In the past, there has been a rather large gap between the price of an
electromechanical relay and the price of a solid-state relay. With continual
advancement in manufacturing technology, this gap has been reduced dramatically
making the advantages of solid state technology accessible to a growing number of
design engineers.

Limitations of static relays:

 Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay Operation.

 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are caused by operation of
breaker and isolator in the primary circuit of CTs and PTs.

 Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay contacts etc.
Such voltage spikes of small duration can damage the semiconductor components and
also cause mal operation of relays.

 Temperature dependence of static relays: The characteristics of semiconductor devices

are affected by ambient temperature.

 Highly sophisticated isolation and filter circuits are required to be built into the relay
design to take care of electromagnetic interference and transient switching
disturbances in the power system.

 Highly reliable power supply circuits are required.

18
 Effect of environmental conditions like humidity, high ambient temperature, dust
accumulation on PCB leading to tracking.

 The component failure.

 Non availability of fault data.

 Characteristic variations with passage of time.

Digital Relay:

 History of Relay: Around 1980s the digital relay entered the market. Compared to the
Solid State Relay, the digital relay takes the advantages of the development of
microprocessors and microcontrollers. Instead of using analog signals, the digital relay
converts all measured analog quantities into digital signals.

 Digital protection relays is a revolution step in changing Relay technology. In Digital

Relay Microprocessors and micro controllers are used in replacement of analogue
circuits used in static relays to implement relay functions. Digital protection relays
introduced in 1980. However, such technology will be completely superseded within
the next five years by numerical relays.

 By the mid-1990s the solid state and electromechanical relay had been mostly replaced
by digital relay in new construction. In distribution applications, the replacement by
the digital relay proceeded a bit more slowly. While the great majority of feeder relays
in new applications today are digital, the solid-state relay still sees some use where
simplicity of the application allows for simpler relays, and which allows one to avoid
the complexity of digital relays.

Measuring principles:

 Compared to static relays, digital relays introduce Analogue to Digital Convertor (A/D
conversion) of all measured analogue quantities and use a microprocessor to
implement the protection algorithm. The microprocessor may use some kind of
counting technique, or use the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to implement the
algorithm.

19
 The Microprocessors used in Digital Relay have limited processing capacity and
memory compared to that provided in numerical relays.

 Function of Relay: The functionality tends therefore to be limited and restricted

largely to the protection function itself. Additional functionality compared to that
provided by an electromechanical or static relay is usually available, typically taking
the form of a wider range of settings, and greater accuracy. A communications link to
a remote computer may also be provided.

 The limited power of the microprocessors used in digital relays restricts the number of
samples of the waveform that can be measured per cycle. This, in turn, limits the speed
of operation of the relay in certain applications. Therefore, a digital relay for a
particular protection function may have a longer operation time than the static relay
equivalent. However, the extra time is not significant in terms of overall tripping time
and possible effects of power system stability.

 Operation of Relay: Digital relay consists of: (1) Analogue input subsystem, (2)
Digital input subsystem, (3) Digital output subsystem, (4) A processor along with
RAM (data scratch pad), main memory (historical data file) and Power supply

 Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more analog signals in three
steps: Conversion of analogue signal to digital form Processing of digital form
Boolean decision to trip or not to trip.

Advantages of Digital Relay:

 High level of functionality integration.

 Additional monitoring functions.

 Functional flexibility.

20
 Capable of working under a wide range of temperatures.

 They can implement more complex function and are generally more accurate

 Self-checking and self-adaptability.

 Able to communicate with other digital equipment (pear to pear).

 Less sensitive to temperature, aging.

 Economical because can be produced in volumes

 More Accurate.

 plane for distance relaying is possible.

 Signal storage is possible.

Limitations of Digital Relay:

 Short lifetime due to the continuous development of new technologies.

 The devices become obsolete rapidly.

 Susceptibility to power system transients.

 As digital systems become increasingly more complex, they require specially trained
staff for Operation.

 Proper maintenance of the settings and monitoring data.

Numerical Relay:

 History of Relay: The first protection devices based on microprocessors were

employed in 1985. The widespread acceptance of numerical technology by the
customer and the experiences of the user helped in developing the second-generation
numerical relays in 1990.

 Conventional electromechanical and static relays are hard wired relays. Their wiring is
fixed, only their setting can be manually changed. Numeric relays are programmable
relays. The characteristics and behavior of the relay are can be programmed.

 First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay
protection characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of

21
 providing complete. protection with added functions like control and monitoring.
Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection,
reliability, and trouble shooting and fault information.

 The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests on points of fine
technical detail, and is rarely found in areas other than Protection. They can be
viewed as natural developments of digital relays as a result of advances in technology.
Typically, they use a specialized digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational
hardware, together with the associated software tools.

 Measuring principles: The input analogue signals are converted into a digital
representation and processed according to the appropriate mathematical algorithm.
Processing is carried out using a specialized microprocessor that is optimized for
signal processing applications, known as a digital signal processor or DSP for short.
Digital processing of signals in real time requires a very high power microprocessor.

 The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical

and static) are fewer than those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many
aspects like the type of protection algorithm used, sampling, signal processing,
hardware selection, software discipline, etc. These are microprocessor-based relays in
contrast to other relays that are electromechanically controlled.

 Function of Relay: Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated
functions. Multifunction like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are
available today in numeric power system protection devices. Also, the communication
capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.

 Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered single-function,

single characteristics, whereas modern numeric protection offers multi-function and
multiple characteristics.

 The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical

and static) are fewer than those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many
aspects like the type of protection algorithm used, sampling, signal processing,
hardware selection, software discipline, etc. First generation numerical relays were
mainly designed to meet the static relay protection characteristic, whereas modern

22
 numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete protection with added
functions like control and monitoring. Numerical protection device will several
advantages in terms of protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and fault
information Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission
and distribution system.

Numerical relays are microprocessor-based relays and having the features of recording of
parameter used as disturbance recorder flexibility of setting & alarms & can be used one
relay for all type of protections of one equipment hence less area is required. Wide Range
of setting, more accurate, Low burden hence low VA of CT is required which minimize
the cost. Numeric relays take the input analog quantities and convert them to numeric
values. All of the relaying functions are performed on these numeric values.

 The following sections cover relay hardware, relay software, multiple protection
characteristics, adaptive protection characteristics, data storage, instrumentation
feature, self-check feature, communication capability, additional functions, size and
cost-effectiveness.

 Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission and

distribution systems. Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated
functions. Multi-functions like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are
available today in numeric power system protection devices. Also, the communication
capability of these devices facilitates remote control monitoring and data transfer.

 These relays provide great precision and convenience in application in the

sophisticated electronic products. By combining several functions in one case,
numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical
relays. The disadvantages of a conventional electromechanical relays are overcome by

23
 using micro controller for realizing the operation of the relays. Micro controller-based
relays perform very well and their cost is relatively low.

 Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control,

monitoring and data transfer. Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection
relays offered single-function, single characteristics, whereas modern numeric
protection offers multifunction and multiple characteristics. Some protections also
offer adaptable characteristics, which dynamically change the protection characteristic
under different system conditions by monitoring the input parameters.

 Operation of Relay: A current signal from CT is converted into proportional voltage

signal using I to V converter.

 The ac voltage proportional to load current is converted into de using precision

rectifier and is given to multiplexer (MUX) which accepts more than one input and
gives one output.

 Microprocessor sends command signal to the multiplexer to switch on desired channel

to Accept rectified voltage proportional to current in a desired circuit.

Microprocessor Based Numerical Relay

 Output of Multiplexer is fed to analog to digital converter (ADC) to obtain signal in

digital form. Microprocessor then sends a signal ADC for start of conversion (SOC),
examines whether the conversion is completed and on receipt of end of conversion
(EOC) from ADC, receives the data in digital form. The microprocessor then
compares the data with pick-up value. If the input is greater than pick-up value the
microprocessor sends a trip signal to circuit breaker of the desired circuit.

24
 In case of instantaneous over current relay there is no intentional time delay and circuit
breaker trips instantly. In case of normal inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse and
long inverse over current relay the inverse current-time characteristics are stored in the
memory of microprocessor in tabular form called as look-up table.

Advantages of Numerical relays:

 Compact Size: Electromechanical Relay makes use of mechanical comparison devices,

which cause the main reason for the bulky size of relays. It uses a flag system for the
indication purpose whether the relay has been activated or not. While Numerical Relay
is in Compact Size and use Indication on LCD for Relay activation.

 Digital protection can be physically smaller, and almost always requires less panel
wiring than equivalent functions implemented using analog technology.

 Flexibility: A variety of protection functions can be accomplished with suitable

modifications in the software only either with the same hardware or with slight
modifications in the hardware.

 Reliability: A significant improvement in the relay reliability is obtained because the

use of fewer components result in less interconnections and reduced component
failures.

 Multi-Function Capability: Traditional electromechanical and static protection relays

offer single-function and single characteristics. Range of operation of
electromechanical relays is narrow as compared to numerical relay.

 Different types of relay characteristics: It is possible to provide better matching of

protection characteristics since these characteristics are stored in the memory of the
microprocessor.

 Digital communication capabilities: The microprocessor-based relay furnishes easy

interface with digital communication equipment. Fiber optical communication with
substation LAN.

 Modular frame: The relay hardware consists of standard modules resulting in ease of
service.

25
 Low burden: The microprocessor-based relays have minimum burden on the
instrument transformers.

 Sensitivity: Greater sensitivity and high pickup ratio.

 Speed: With static relays, tripping time of % cycle or even less can be obtained.

 Fast Resetting: Resetting is less.

 Data History: Availability of fault data and disturbance record. Helps analysis of faults
by recording details of (1) Nature of fault, (2) Magnitude of fault level, (3) Breaker
problem, (4) C.T. saturation. (5) Duration of fault.

 Auto Resetting & Self Diagnosis: Electromechanical relay do not have the ability to
detect whether the normal condition has been attained once it is activated thus auto
resetting is not possible and it has to be done by the operating personnel. while in
Numerical Relay auto Resetting is Possible By combining several functions in one
case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over
electromechanical relays.

 Separate connection is not required, zero sequence voltages and currents can be
derived inside the processor.

 Basic hardware is shared between multiple functions, the cost of individual protection
functions can be reduced significantly.

 Loss of voltage feature helps block the relay in case of momentary/permanent loss of
voltage.

 Limitations of Numerical Relay:

 Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater precision. Unfortunately, that
does not necessarily translate into better protection.

 Numerical Relay can make faster decisions. However, in the real world, faster
protection itself is of no value because circuit breakers are still required to interrupt at
the direction of the protective equipment, and the ability to make circuit breakers
interrupt faster is very limited.

26
 Numerical Relay protection often relies on non-proprietary software, exposing the
system to potential risk of hacking.

 Numerical Relay protection sometimes has exposure to externally-sourced transient

interference that would not affect conventional technology.

 Numerical Relay protection shares common functions. This means that there are
common failure modes that can affect multiple elements protection. For example,
failure of a power supply of an input signal processor may disable an entire protective
device that provides many different protection functions. This problem has received a
lot of design attention, and experience generally has supported the notion that the
equipment has a very high reliability once it is past the infant mortality stage. But it
remains something to be aware of.

 A multifunction numeric relay can provide three phase, ground, and negative sequence
directional or non-directional over current protection with four shot recloser, forward
or reverse power protection, breaker failure, over/under frequency, and over/under
voltage protection, sync hock, breaker monitoring and control, it would take 10 - 11
single function Solid State or Electromechanical relays at least 5 to 6 times the cost.
Additionally, Numeric relays have Communications capabilities, sequence-of-events
recording, fault reporting rate-of-change frequency, and metering functions, all in an
integrated system.

Comparison of Different Type Relay:

Characteristic Electromechanical Static Relay Digital Relay

Relay
Technology Standard 1st generation relay 2nd generation relay Present generation
Operating Principle They use principle In this relay They use magnetic
of electromagnetic transistors and IC’s field within predefined
induction. are been used. value.
Measuring Induction disc RLC Transistors, Microprocessor Digital
elements/Hardware Electromagnets, Analogue ICs signal
induction cup, Comparators
Balance Beam

27
Measuring Method Electrical Qtys Level detects, A/D convertor
Converted into comparison with Numericalalgical
mechanical force, reference value in techniques
torque analogue
comparator
Surrounding Depend upon Their value may
Environment gravitation and the vary with respect to
value changes to temperature also.
the surrounding
magnetic fields
also
Relay Size Bulky Small Small
Speed of operation Slow Fast Fast
Time function Mechanical clock Static timers counter
works, dashpot
Time of Accuracy Temp. dependent Temp. dependent stable
reliability high low high
Vibration proof no yes yes
characteristic limited wide wide
Requirement of draw required required Not required
out
CT burden High low low

CT burden 8 to 10 VA 1VA <0.5 VA

Reset time Very high Less less
Auxiliary supply required required required
Visual indication Flags targets LEDs LEDs/LCDs
Self-monitoring no yes yes
Parameter setting Plug setting/dial Thumb wheel dual Keypad values
setting in line switches
Fault disturbance Not possible Not possible possible
recording

28
Types of Protection:

Protection scheme can be divided into two major grouping.

1- Unit schemes

2- Non unit schemes

Unit type protection:

Unit type schemes protect a specific area of system i.e. a transformer, transmission
line a generator or a bus bar. The unit protection scheme is based on Kirchhoff's Current
Law the sum of the currents entering the system must be zero. Any deviation from this
must indicate an abnormal current path. In these schemes, the effects of any disturbance or
operating condition outside the area of interest are totally ignored and the protection must
be designed to be stable above the maximum possible fault current that could flow through
the protected area.

2. Non unit type protection:

The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific areas, have no fixed
boundaries. As well as protecting their own designated areas, the protective zones can
overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for backup purposes, there can
be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected by different non unit
schemes. The simplest of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time
characteristic into the protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate
first.

The non-unit type protection system includes following schemes:

1. Time graded overcurrent protection

2. Current graded overcurrent protection

3. Distance or Impedance Protection

Overcurrent Protection:

This is the simplest of the ways to protect a line and therefore widely used. It owes
its application from the fact that in the event of fault the current would increase to a value

29
several times greater than maximum load current. It has a limitation that it can be applied
only to simple and cheap equipment.

Earth Fault Protection:

The general practice is to employ a set of two or three overcurrent relays and a
separate overcurrent relay for single line to ground fault. Separate earth fault relay
provided makes earth fault protection faster and more sensitive. Earth fault current is
always less than phase fault current in magnitude. Therefore, relay connected for earth
fault protection is different from those for phase-to-phase fault protection.

Various types of Line Faults:

Types of Faults and Effects in Electrical Power Systems

Electrical powers system is growing in size and complexity in all sectors such as
generation, transmission, distribution and load systems. Types of faults like short circuit
condition in power system network results in severe economic losses and reduces the
reliability of the electrical system. Electrical fault is an abnormal condition, caused by
equipment failures such as transformers and rotating machines, human errors and
environmental conditions. Theses faults cause interruption to electric flows, equipment
damages and even cause death of humans, birds and animals.

Types of Faults

Electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or
states. Under normal operating conditions, power system equipment or lines carry normal
voltages and currents which results in a safer operation of the system. But when fault
occurs, it causes excessively high currents to flow which causes the damage to equipment
and devices. Fault detection and analysis is necessary to select or design suitable
switchgear equipment. electromechanical relays, circuit breakers and other protection
devices. There are mainly two types of faults in the electrical power system. Those are
symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.

1. Symmetrical faults

These are very severe faults and occur infrequently in the power systems. These
are also called as balanced faults and are of two types namely line to line to line to ground

30
(L-L-L-G) and line to line to line (L-L-L).Only 2-5 percent of system faults are
symmetrical faults. If these faults occur, system remains balanced but results in severe
damage to the electrical power system equipment. Above figure shows two types of three
phase symmetrical faults. Analysis of these fault is easy and usually carried by per phase
basis. Three phase fault analysis or information is required for selecting set-phase relays,
rupturing capacity of the circuit breakers and rating of the protective switchgear.

2. Unsymmetrical faults

These are very common and less severe than symmetrical faults. There are mainly
three types namely line to ground (L-G), line to line (L-L) and double line to ground (LL-
G) faults. Line to ground fault (L-G) is most common fault and 65-70 percent of faults are
of this type. It causes the conductor to make contact with earth or ground. 15 to 20 percent
of faults are double line to ground and causes the two conductors to make contact with
ground. Line to line faults occur when two conductors make contact with each other
mainly while swinging of lines due to winds and 5-10 percent of the faults are of this type.
These are also called unbalanced faults since their occurrence causes unbalance in the
system. Unbalance of the system means that that impedance values are different in each
phase causing unbalance current to flow in the phases. These are more difficult to analyze
and are carried by per phase basis similar to three phase balanced faults.

Causes of Electrical Faults

1. Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt
deposition on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on
transmission lines, etc. These environmental conditions interrupt the power supply
and also damage electrical installations.

2. Equipment failures: Various electrical equipment like generators, motors,

transformers, reactors, switching devices, etc. causes short circuit faults due to
malfunctioning, ageing, insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures
result in high current to flow through the devices or equipment which further
damages it.

3. Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as
selecting improper rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical

31
 conducting parts after servicing or maintenance, switching the circuit while it is
under servicing, etc.

4. Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead
lines results in spark between the lines or between conductors to insulator. This
flashover causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to high voltages.

Effects of electrical faults

 Over current flow: When fault occurs, it creates a very low impedance path for the
current flow. This results in a very high current being drawn from the supply, causing
tripping of relays, damaging insulation and components of the equipment.

 Danger to operating personnel: Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to individuals.
Severity of the shock depends on the current and voltage at fault location and even
may lead to death.

 Loss of equipment: Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components
being burnt completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device.
Sometimes heavy fire causes complete burnout of the equipment.

 Disturbs interconnected active circuits: Faults not only affect the location at which
they occur but also disturbs the active interconnected circuits to the faulted line.

 Electrical fires: short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of air
between two conducting paths which further leads to fire as we often observe in news
such as building and shopping complex fires.

Fault limiting devices

It is possible to minimize causes like human errors, but not environmental changes.
Fault clearing is a crucial task in power system network. If we manage to disrupt or break
the circuit when fault arises, it reduces the considerable damage to the equipments and
also property. Some of these fault limiting devices include fuses, circuit breakers, relays,
etc. and are discussed below.

 Fuse: It is the primary protecting device. It is a thin wire enclosed in a casing or glass
which connects two metal parts. This wire melts when excessive current flows in

32
 circuit. Type of fuse depends on the voltage at which it is to operate. Manual
replacement of wire is necessary once it blowout.

Protective devices

 Circuit breaker: It makes the circuit at normal as well as breaks at abnormal

conditions. It causes automatic tripping of the circuit when fault occurs. It can be
electromechanical circuit breaker like vacuum/oil circuit breakers etc. or ultrafast
electronic circuit breaker.

 Relay: It is condition based operating switch. It consists of magnetic coil and normally
open and closed contacts. Fault occurrence raises the current which energizes relay
coil, resulting in the contacts to operate so the circuit is interrupted from flowing of
current Protective relays are of different types like impedance relays, mho relays, etc.

 Lighting power protection devices: These include lighting arrestors and grounding
devices to protect the system against lighting and surge voltages.

Application based three phase fault analysis

We can analyze three phase faults by using simple circuit as shown below. In this
temporary and permanent fault are created by fault switches. If we press button once as a
temporary fault, timer's arrangement trips the load and also restores the power supply back
to the load. If we press on this button for a particular time as a permanent fault, this system
completely shutdowns the load by relay arrangement.

No Type of fault Operation of relay

1 Phase to ground fault Earth fault relay

(Earth fault)

2 Phase to phase fault not ground Related phase overcurrent relays

3 Double phase to ground fault Related phase overcurrent relays

and Earth fault relay

33
Overcurrent Relay Gives Protection Against:

Overcurrent includes short-circuit protection, and short circuits can be:

1. Phase faults

2. Earth faults

3. Winding faults

Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence
fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits.

Primary requirement of Overcurrent protection:

The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible overcurrent,
current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays). The
protection should be co-ordinate with neighboring overcurrent protection. Overcurrent
relay is a basic element of overcurrent protection.

Purpose of overcurrent Protection:

These are the most important purposes of overcurrent relay:

 Detect abnormal conditions

 Isolate faulty part of the system

 Speed Fast operation to minimize damage and danger

 Discrimination Isolate only the faulty section

 Dependability/reliability

 Security / stability

 Cost of protection / against cost of potential hazards

Overcurrent Relay Ratings

In order for an overcurrent protective device to operate properly, overcurrent

protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage, ampere

34
and interrupting rating. If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard
for equipment and personnel will exist. Current limiting can be considered as another
overcurrent protective device rating, although not all overcurrent protective devices are
required to have this characteristic

Voltage Rating: The voltage rating of the overcurrent protective device must be at least
equal to or greater than the circuit voltage. The overcurrent protective device rating can be
higher than the system voltage but never lower.

Ampere Rating: The ampere rating of a overcurrent protecting device normally should
not exceed the current carrying capacity of the conductors. As a general rule, the ampere
rating of a overcurrent protecting device is selected at 125% of the continuous load
current.

Difference between Overcurrent and Overload protection:

Overcurrent protection protects against excessive currents or currents beyond the

acceptable current ratings, which are resulting from short circuits, ground faults and
overload conditions. While, the overload protection protects against the situation where
overload current causes overheating of the protected equipment. The overcurrent
protection is a bigger concept So that the overload protection can be considered as a subset
of overcurrent protection. The overcurrent relay can be used as overload (thermal)
protection when protects the resistive loads, etc., however, for motor loads, the overcurrent
relay cannot serve as overload protection Overload relays usually have a longer time
setting than the overcurrent relays.

Types of Overcurrent Relay

These are the types of overcurrent relay:

1. Instantaneous Overcurrent (Define Current) Relay

2. Define Time Overcurrent Relay

3. Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (IDMT Relay)

 Moderately Inverse

 Very Inverse Time

35
  Extremely Inverse

 Directional overcurrent Relay.

Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

Definite current relay operates instantaneously when the current reaches a

predetermined value.

 Operates in a definite time when current exceeds its Pick-up value.

 Its operation criterion is only current magnitude (without time delay).

 Operating time is constant.

 There is no intentional time delay.

 Coordination of definite-current relays is based on the fact that the fault current
varies with position of the fault because of the difference in the impedance
between the fault and the source

 The relay located furthest from the source operate for a low current value

 The operating currents are progressively increased for the other relays when
moving towards the source.

 It operates in 0.1s or less

Application: This type is applied to the outgoing feeders.

2. Definite Time Overcurrent Relays

In this type, two conditions must be satisfied for operation (tripping), current must
exceed the setting value and the fault must be continuous at least a time equal to time
setting of the relay. Modern relays may contain more than one stage of protection each
stage includes each own current and time setting.

1. For Operation of Definite Time Overcurrent Relay operating time is constant

2. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick-up value.

36
 3. It has pick-up and time dial settings; desired time delay can be set with the help of
an intentional time delay mechanism.

4. Easy to coordinate.

Constant tripping time independent of in feed variation and fault location.

Drawback of Relay:

 The continuity in the supply cannot be maintained at the load end in the event of
fault.

 Time lag is provided which is not desirable in on short circuits.

 It is difficult to co-ordinate and requires changes with the addition of load.

 It is not suitable for long distance transmission lines where rapid fault clearance is
necessary for stability.

 Relay have difficulties in distinguishing between Fault currents at one point or

another when fault impedances between these points are small, thus poor
discrimination.

Application:

Definite time overcurrent relay is used as:

1. Back up protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay.

2. Back up protection to differential relay of power transformer with time delay.

3. Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time delay
setting.

3 Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays (IDMT Relay)

In this type of relays, operating time is inversely changed with current. So, high
current will operate overcurrent relay faster than lower ones. There are standard inverse,
very inverse and extremely inverse types.

Discrimination by both 'Time' and 'Current'.

37
  The relay operation time is inversely proportional to the fault current.Inverse Time
relays are also referred to as Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay.The
operating time of an overcurrent relay can be moved up (made slower) by adjusting
the time dial setting'. The lowest time dial setting (fastest operating time) is
generally 0.5 and the slowest is 10.

 Operates when current exceeds its pick-up value.

 Operating time depends on the magnitude of current.

 It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and
definite time characteristics at higher values

 An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below

10, for

values between 10 and 20 characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics.

 Widely used for the protection of distribution lines.

Based on the inverseness it has three different types:

Normal Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:

The accuracy of the operating time may range from 5 to 7.5% of the nominal
operating time as specified in the relevant norms. The uncertainty of the operating time
and the necessary operating time may require a grading margin of 0.4 to 0.5 seconds. It's
used when Fault Current is dependent on generation of fault not fault location. Normal
inverse time Overcurrent Relay is relatively small change in time per unit of change of
current.

Application:

Most frequently used in utility and industrial circuits especially applicable where
the fault magnitude is mainly dependent on the system generating capacity at the time of
fault.

Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:

 Gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT.

38
  Used where there is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source
increases.

 Particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics.

 Suitable if there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the fault distance from
the power source increases.

 Very inverse overcurrent relays are particularly suitable if the short circuit current
drops rapidly with the distance from the substation.

 The grading margin may be reduced to a value in the range from 0.3 to 0.4 seconds
drop overcurrent relays with very inverse characteristics are used.

 Used when Fault Current is dependent on fault location.

 Used when Fault Current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:

 It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse overcurrent
relay-

 Suitable for the protection of machines against overheating.

 The operating time of a time overcurrent relay with an extremely inverse time-
current characteristic is approximately inversely proportional to the square of the
current

 The use of extremely inverse overcurrent relays makes it possible to use a short
time delay in spite of high switching-in currents.

 Used when Fault current is dependent on fault location.

 Used when Fault current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

Application:

 Suitable for protection of distribution feeders with peak currents on switching in

(Refrigerators, pumps, water heaters and so on).

39
  Particular suitable for grading and coordinates with fuses and re closes

 For the protection of alternators, transformers. Expensive cables, etc.

Directional Overcurrent Relays:

When the power system is not radial (source on one side of the line), an
overcurrent relay may not be able to provide adequate protection. This type of relay
operates in on direction of current flow and blocks in the opposite direction.

Three conditions must be satisfied for its operation: current magnitude, time delay and
directionality. The directionality of current flow can be identified using voltage as a
reference of direction.

Application of Overcurrent Relay:

Motor Protection:

 Used against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motor.

 Inverse time and instantaneous overcurrent phase and ground

 Overcurrent relays used for motors above 1000 kW.

Transformer Protection:

 Used only when the cost of overcurrent relays are not justified.

 Extensively also at power-transformer locations for external-fault back-up

protection.

Line Protection:

 On some sub transmission lines where the cost of distance relaying cannot be
justified.

 Primary ground-fault protection on most transmission lines where distance relays

are used for phase faults.

 For ground back-up protection on most lines having pilot relaying for primary
protection.

40
Distribution Protection:

Overcurrent relaying is very well suited to distribution system protection for the
following reasons:

 It is basically simple and inexpensive.

 Very often the relays do not need to be directional and hence no PT supply is
required.

It is possible to use a set of two O/C relays for protection against inter-phase faults and a
separate.

Overcurrent Relay:

The overcurrent relay operates only when the value of the current is greater than
the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the power system from the fault current.
The purpose of the overcurrent protection is to minimize damages due to overcurrent
faults to the electrical system by detecting the abnormalities quickly and isolating the
disturbed components from the healthy electrical system selectively. To operate
selectively, the input current entering the overcurrent relay needs to be set at certain value.
If the input current goes to the overcurrent relay greater than its setting value, the relay
will operate by sending the electrical signal to the circuit breaker (CB) to trip the electrical
circuit immediately.

Depending on the time of operation the overcurrent relay is categorized into

following types.

 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

 Inverse time Overcurrent Relay

 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

 Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

 Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

 Extremely Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay.

41
The illustration of the operation of an overcurrent relay.

The overcurrent relays are classified into two types based on their operation time,
i.e.: an instantaneous relay and a time delay relay.

Instantaneous Relay:

This kind of overcurrent relay operates quickly without any delays when the
current entering the relay exceeds its pick-up current value [9]. This relay is used to
protect the outgoing feeder from overcurrent faults such as due to the short-circuit
conditions, transient conditions and over loads. Its operation time is within 100ms. The
construction of the instantaneous relay comprises of a moving armature, plunger and an
induction disk.

Time delay Relay:

A time delay relay operates with certain time delay. If the fault current exceeds the
pick-up or operating current of the relay, the relay will send the signal to the circuit
breaker to trip after its time delay is reached. The pick-up current and the time delay of the
relay can be adjusted according to the protection requirement of the system. The operation
of the relay is determined by the magnitude of the pick-up current and the time delay. It
only operates if two conditions are fulfilled. Even though the current entering the relay
exceeds its pick-up current such as the starting current and the surge current, the relay is
still not operating if the time delay of the relay is not met. Based on the variations of the
time delay, the time delay relay can be distinguished into two types i.e.: the definite time
and the inverse time relays.

42
 Basically, both relays with definite and inverse characteristics have certain time
delay. The definite time delay relay has a constant time delay. The definite time relays are
usually applied as a back-up relay. For example, it is used to back-up the distance relay to
protect the transmission line and to back-up the differential relay to protect the power
transformer. It also can be applied as the main protection relay to protect the outgoing
feeder and bus coupler.

In contract to the definite time relay, the time delay of the inverse relay is varied
depending on the magnitude of the incoming fault current. Generally, if the magnitude of
the detected fault current is very high, the time delay of the relay is also very fast. The
characteristics of the inverse time relay can be classified into four types as shown in the
standard IEC 60255 [1]...: Standard inverse, the Definite inverse, the Very inverse and the
Extremely inverse. Their characteristic curves are shown in Figure 2.

The time delay of those different inverse relays can be calculated as expressed:

Standard Inverse:

t=TMS(0.14/(Ir)0.02-1) (1)

Very Inverse:

t=TMS(13.5/Ir-1)^ (2)

Extremely Inverse:

t=TMS(80/1Zr-1)^(3)

where,

= the time delay of the relay (second)

= the time multiplier setting (second)

= the ratio of the fault current to the setting current

The inverse characteristic curves show the relationship between the operation time
in seconds and the fault current of the relay as the multiple of its pick-up current [9]. The
curve has the asymptote in the vertical axis and it is inverse to the current that exceeds to
the pick-up current. The inverse time characteristic curve can be shifted up and down by

43
adjusting the Time Dial Setting (TDS). If the relay reaches its pick-up value due to a fault
current, then its time delay is set to identify that incoming fault current. The relay will
send the signal to the circuit breaker to trip only if the duration of the fault exceeds its
setting time delay. The example of the relay operation is given in Fig. 3 where the pick-up
current value is set at 1 Ampere and the TDS is positioned at 0.1. Then the value of its
time delay is adjusted to the magnitude of the fault current relay which is the area under
the curve as shown in the Fig. 3.

Another example of the relay operation is given in fig 4 where different sets of TDS can
be chosen for the overcurrent relay SPCJ 4D29 type.

44
Instantaneous overcurrent Relay:

The relay has no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay
are closed instantly when the current inside the relay rises beyond the operational value.
The time interval between the instant pick- up value and the closing contacts of the relay is
very less.

The most significant advantage of the instantaneous relay is that it has low
operating time. It starts operating instantly when the value of current is more than the relay
setting. This relay operates only when the impedance between the source and the relay is
less than that provided in the section.

The most important feature of the relay is their speed of operation. The relay
protects the system from earth fault and also used for protecting the system from
circulating current. The instantaneous overcurrent relay is placed in the outgoing feeder.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay:

The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the energize quantities. The operating time of

45
relay decreases with the increases in the current. The operation of the relay depends on the
magnitude of the current the characteristic curve for the relay is shown in the figure below.
The relay will not operate when the value of current is less than the pick value. The relay
is used for the protection of the distribution lines. The inverse time relay is of three types.

Characteristics of various overcurrent Relay:

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay:

The relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current is
known as the IDMT relay. The operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting the
time delay setting. The IDMT relay uses the electromagnetic core because it can easily
saturate for the current having larger magnitude than pick up current. The relay is used for
the protection of the distribution line.

Very Inverse Relay:

The inverse characteristic of the relay is more than the IDMT. Such type of relay is
used in the feeder and circuit on long transmission lines. The relay is used in the places
where there the magnitude of the short circuit current fall rapidly because of the large
distance from the source. It is used for sensing the fault current which is free from the fault
location.

46
Extremely Inverse Relay:

The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared to the IDMT
and the Very inverse relay. This relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc.
The relay can operate instantly when the pickup value of the current is more than the relay
setting time. The relay provides faster operation even under the fault current. It is used for
sensing the overheating of the machines.

Software design:

The purpose of the software design is to connect all the electrical components of
the proposed digital relay such as the sensor current ACS712, the Arduino Uno, the
breaker relay module SPDT, keypad, the resistor as a whole system that can functions to
protect the electrical power system from any overcurrent faults. The program for the
microcontroller Arduino Uno was written using the Arduino IDE 1.8.5.0 (sketch). The
standard inverse time was chosen as the characteristic of the proposed digital relay.

Hardware design:

In this stage, all the electrical components are assembled and connected together as
shown in Fig. 5 to produce the prototype of the proposed digital relay with standard
inverse characteristic. Not only the hardware components are connected, but the software
part was also integrated into the prototype to regulate the operation of the hardware
components.

1) Current Sensor

The installation of the current sensor is in series to the one phase cable where the
current flowing through the circuit as shown in Fig. 6. The current sensor ACS712 has the
ability to measure the current up to 30Amps. The sensor works based on the hall sensor
effect where the magnitude of the current passes through the conductor (IP+to IP-) is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field. The generated magnetic fields
are accumulated in the hall and produce the output voltage at the output terminals of the
sensor. The current sensor ACS712 30A sends the reading of the alternating current to
Arduino Uno through the jumper of the female-male cable.

47
2) The calculation of the fault duration:

The calculation of the time that is used in the prototype is using the function that is
available in the Arduino Uno which is called the millis () function. Besides, the pull-up
resistor system is also used to assign the pick-up condition which is marked by either
HGH or LOW conditions to the digital pin of the Arduino Uno. If the relay has reached its
pick-up current setting, the value of the millis () at that condition is used as a reference.
Then the increased millis () value is used as a subtraction to the reference millis () value.
Afterward, the difference between the two values is used as a stopwatch to calculate the
duration time in milliseconds (ms).

3) Electromagnetic switches:

When the magnitude of the fault current occurred exceeds the setting current value
and its duration is longer than the setting delay time of the relay, then the fault is
considered and written as a permanent fault in the Arduino Uno program. At this stage, the
digital pin of the Arduino Uno has a voltage of 5 Volts. A Single pole double through
(SPDT) electromagnetic switch is used to break the electrical circuit when the permanent
fault occurs. The assembly of the breaker circuit.

4) Keypad:

The keypad is used to enter the setting current and the IMS values of the proposed
relay. The current value of the relay is set through the "A" button of the keypad. After the
A button is pressed, then the operating current value of the relay can be entered. Finally,
the button is pressed to input the setting current value to the Arduino Uno. The input and
output (1/0) connection of the keypad to the I/O pin of the Arduino Uno

The TMS of the proposed relay is set through the 'B' button of the keypad. After
the B button is pressed, the value of the TMS can be entered and the '#' button is also used
to enter the value to the Arduino Uno.

48
 Chapter Three

Methodology

There are two transmission lines one from Ravi and one from Ghazi. Length of
Ravi transmission line is 28Km. Length of Ghazi transmission line is 11.8 Km. we are
using rail conductors in both transmission lines.

Protection of transmission lines:

 We are using distance relays for both transmission lines

 Instant settings

 SF6 breakers are used for protection of transmission lines

 SOTF is used if the conductor falls

 O/C 5051 is used

 Auto reclosure relay is used

Under frequency relay:

If the frequency of our power system alternates from 50 Hz, then under frequency
relays operate.

DC supervision panel:

 220V DC (A)

 220V DC (B)

The following three tests are carried out, i.e.: the short-circuit test, the transient test
and the overloading test. Apart from those tests, the first test is done to verify the reading
the current sensor.

49
50
Sr. Name of Grid Station Name of Transmission Name of Protection Electromechanical/ Make of Type of Whether the CT RATIO REMARKS
No. Line Static/ Numerical Relay Relay Relay is
healthy or
faulty
1 SMR-RAVI Distance Relay-I NUMERICAL SEL 421 HEALTHY 2400/1
220kV G/S NEW SMR (D3Q1)
Distance Relay-II NUMERICAL MICOM P443 HEALTHY 2400/1
O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 2400/1
AUTO / RECLOSER STATIC SEL 279-H HEALTHY NIL
Breaker Failure (D3Q1) NUMERICAL SEL 352-A HEALTHY 2400/1
2 SMR-GZR Distance Relay-I NUMERICAL SEL 421 HEALTHY 2400/1
(D5Q1)
Distance Relay-II NUMERICAL MICOM P443 HEALTHY 2400/1
O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 2400/1
AUTO / RECLOSER STATIC SEL 279-H HEALTHY NIL
Breaker Failure (D5Q1) NUMERICAL SEL 352-A HEALTHY 2400/1
220-kV BUS BAR-I & II Differntial Relay NUMERICAL SEL 487-B HEALTHY 2400/1
220KV BUS COUPLER O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 2400/1
D2Q1
132-kV BUS BAR-I & II Differntial Relay NUMERICAL SEL 487-B HEALTHY 1600/1
132KV BUS COUPLER O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 2400/1
E7Q1
7 SMR-II CABLE CCT-I Distance Relay NUMERICAL SEL 411-L HEALTHY 800/1 FUTURE
E2Q1
O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 800/1
8 SMR-II CABLE CCT-II Distance Relay NUMERICAL GE L90 HEALTHY 800/1 U/FAULT
E4Q1
O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 800/1
9 SMR-SMRII Distance Relay NUMERICAL SEL 411-L HEALTHY 800/1
E5Q1
O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 800/1
10 SMR-SMRI Distance Relay NUMERICAL SEL 411-L HEALTHY 800/1
E8Q1
O/C & E/F Relay NUMERICAL SEL 351-A HEALTHY 800/1
11 132 KV B/FAILURE Breaker Failure NUMERICAL SEL 352-A HEALTHY 800/1
T/F LV
CBs(E3Q1,E6Q1,E9Q1)
12 SMR-RAVI ,SMR-GZR 2400/1
LINE METRING

51
 Chapter Four

Calculations and Results

 Overcurrent protection protects electrical power systems against excessive currents

which are caused by short circuits, ground faults, etc.

 Overcurrent relays can be used to protect practically any power system elements,
i.e., transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors.

 For feeder protection, there would be more than one overcurrent relay to protect
different sections of the feeder.

 This overcurrent relay is used in the distribution networks and the power plants.
The relay gives the fast operation in the fault conditions because of their fault time
characteristic.

 It's also used in the transmission networks e.g., on 500KV transmission lines.

 It is cost-effective.

 Current Limiters are not required.

 It has been designed for 11KV grid stations,500 KV transmission lines and Power
plants Protection.

Challenges:

 Testing had to be done once and again for each and everything since it was the first
time we made it as has not been designed at a local level or even in Pakistan.

 Availability of 3 phase supply

 Lab availability was a compulsion for our project due to various heavy components
which are not easily available. Because of this, we were unable to work at all times
and were restricted to work in limited timing.

 Unavailability of heavy power loads

 440 Volts supply out of reach

 Hit and Trial Methods took lots of time and energy

52
  Another major issue was faced in the creation of line-to-line fault

 Tracing of line-to-line fault.

Limitations:

 Load current cannot be less than 1 Ampere in this case

 Current Sensor rating is low i.e., 20-30 Amp.

53
 Chapter Five

Suggestions and Recommendations

Recommendations:

After conducting this study, following are some recommendations for in this respect:

 Researches should be done for this purpose on large scale in Pakistan.

 Design should be initiated in Pakistan so imports may lessen and economy may
boost up More economical manufacturing may be done so it can be provided to
users at low cost.

 Entrepreneurs may come to this side.

 Wireless GUI may be made.

Suggestions:

1. We have calculated the relay settings using the real data obtained from SDO (P&I)
and fault levels from GM system studies. We compared our calculated relay setting
with existing settings. They are almost in order. However, we offer following
suggestions/Recommendations under the guidance of our project supervisor.

2. As per record the testing of relay have been carried out after 5 years. According to
international standard each relay expect bus-bar protection shall be tested annually.

3. C.T burden (measurement of voltage between phase to phase and between phase to
neutral) shall be measured monthly to ensure the healthiness of the C.T.

4. Tripping of concerned circuit breaker shall be simulated through the tripping of

relay.

5. O-C-O open close open cycle of each circuit breaker shall be checked annually
whereas per report this testing is done within the span of 5 years.

6. Instantaneous over-current unit on HV side of auto transformer and power

transformer have been blocked the same should be set at 4 to 5 times as a standard
practical OR to cover the 80% of transformer winding.

54
Future Research Directions:

 Research can be done towards numeric relays and their manufacturing

 Digital Signal Processing can be applied to this prototype.

 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning is the immediate future.

 It can be taken towards the smart protection of power systems.

55
 References:

 https://www.google.com/search?q=operation+time+of+the+inverse+relay+with+T
MS+setting+at+0.1&sxsrf=AOaemvKYIe-
Y0KEuUyD55mclT5h1up8blw:1633805230241&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X
&ved=2ahUKEwj0n4Xj_r3zAhXH4IUKHQWoDW4Q_AUoAXoECAEQAw&bi
w=1536&bih=703&dpr=1.25#imgrc=PWa_oIYOO7Y-fM
 https://www.google.com/search?q=plug+setting+pickup&sxsrf=AOaemvK4Q00hj
zXeBPLg7mIRPs4lR_W6Ow:1633804219845&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&v
ed=2ahUKEwiN0J-B-
73zAhXo4IUKHXGNDr8Q_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1536&bih=760&dpr=1.2
5
 https://www.google.com/search?q=relays&oq=relays&aqs=chrome..69i57j35i39l2j
0i20i263i433i512j0i20i263i512j0i433i512j69i61l2.2745j1j9&sourceid=chrome&i
e=UTF-8
 Hand book of ELECTRICAL PROTECTION SYSTEM.
 Handouts power system protection.

56