University of Suleimani Faculty of Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering 4 Stage Research

University of Suleimani
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
4th stage
Research
A Review Study on mmWave New Radio Technology for the 5G

wireless system
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
Prepared by:
Diyar Bakr Majeed
Lawi Faraydun Kareem
Rekawt Omer Aziz
Omar Mustafa Abbas
Supervised by:
ENGR.Dr. Araz Sabir
2021-2022
1
Declaration
We hereby declare that we carried out the work reported in this report in the Department of
Electrical Engineering, University of Suleimani, under the supervision of Engr. Dr. Araz Sabir
Ameen. We solemnly declare that to the best of my knowledge, no part of this report has been
submitted here or elsewhere in a previous application for award of a degree. All sources of
knowledge used have only duty acknowledged.
Name of Student:
Diyar Bakr Majeed
Lawi Faraydun Kareem
Rekawt Omer Aziz
Omar Mustafa Abbas
2
Approval
This is to certify that the project titled “A Review Study on mmWave New Radio Technology
for the 5G wireless system” carried out by (Diyar Bakr Majeed, Lawi Faraydun Kareem, Rekawt
Omar Aziz, Omar Mustafa Abbas.) has been read and approved for meeting part of the
requirements and regulations governing the award of the Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical)
degree of University of Suleimani, Kurdistan Region of Iraq.
----------------------------------------- -----------------------
ENGR.Dr. Araz Sabir Ameen Date
(Project Supervisor)
----------------------------------------- ------------------------
ENGR.Dr. Alaa Muheddin Abdurrahman Date
(Head of Department)
----------------------------------------- ------------------------
ENGR.Dr. Matai Naji Saeed
ENGR.Mr. Zring Othman Abdulla Date
3
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, we would like to praise and thank the Almighty God for giving the author
countless blessings, insights, and opportunities so that we can finally complete the dissertation.
This work and the research behind it would not have been possible without the extraordinary
support of our supervisor Dr. Araz Sabir. His enthusiasm, knowledge, and meticulous attention
to detail have been inspirational and have put our work on track from the first encounter with
him to the final draft of this dissertation. We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude and
appreciation to the family for their continued support, love, and guidance in order to move
forward and move forward until the family is always the best person to be proud of us. we are
appreciative to all of those with whom we have had the pleasure to work during this and other
related missions. Each of the members of my Dissertation Committee has provided me with
extensive personal and professional guidance and taught me a great deal about both scientific
research and life in overall. I would especially like to repeat our love to Dr. Araz Sabir, the
supervisor of our research. As our teacher and mentor, he has taught me more than I could ever
give him credit for here. He has shown us, by his patience, what a good scientist and person
should be. I am also grateful for the insightful comments offered by the anonymous peer
reviewers at Books & Texts. The generosity and expertise of one and all have improved this
study in innumerable ways and saved me from many errors; those that inevitably remain are
entirely my own responsibility.
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Abstract
The goal of this report is to investigate up-down counter implementations in the framework of
delay- insensitive circuits. An up-down counter is a counter on which two operations can be
performed:
an increment by one and a decrement by one. For N larger than zero, an up down N-counter
counts in the range from zero through N. In the counters we design, the value of the counter, or
its count, cannot be read, but it is possible to detect whether the counter's value is zero, N, or
somewhere in between. Up-down counters have many applications. For example, they can be
useful in implementing queues or stacks.
Various implementations for up-down N-counters are presented for any N larger than zero. All
counter designs are analyzed with respect to three performance criteria, namely area complexity,
response time, and power consumption. One of the designs is optimal with respect to all three
performance criteria. Its area complexity grows logarithmically with N, and its response time and
power consumption are independent of N.
5
Table of contents
Contents
Declaration..........................................................................................................
Name of Student:................................................................................................
Approval.............................................................................................................
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................
Abstract...............................................................................................................
CH1: Introduction..........................................................................................
1.1 Limitations in Bandwidth........................................................................
1.2 The Possibilities.......................................................................................
1.3 The Problems...........................................................................................
1.4 Millimeter Waves in Cellular Networks..................................................
1.4.1 Small Cell Networks.............................................................................
1.5 General Statistics.....................................................................................
1.5.1 Growth in Internet Users......................................................................
1.5.2 Regional Differences of Internet Users................................................
1.5.3 Global connection growth....................................................................
1.5.4 Number of devices per capita...............................................................
1.5.5 Mobile subscribers as a percentage of geographical population..........
1.5.6 Mobile connections by network type....................................................
1.5.7 performance benefits of 5G.................................................................
1.6 Progress of Mobile Communication Network from 1G to 5G................
1.6.1 Do I need a new phone if I want 5G?...................................................
1.6.2 Comparison of Mobile Communication Network:...............................
1.6.2.1 First generation mobile communication............................................
1.6.2.1 Second generation mobile communication........................................
1.6.2.3 Third generation mobile communication..........................................
1.6.2.4 Fourth generation mobile communication.........................................
1.6.2.5 Fifth generation mobile communication............................................
1.7 The economics of mmWave 5G..............................................................
1.7.1 5G is Energetic Economic Growth, Resiliency, and
Sustainability..............................................................................................
6
1.7.2 5G services are now a reality................................................................
1.7.3 5G networks need low-, mid- and high-band spectrum........................
1.7.4 The pros and cons of mmWave............................................................
1.7.5 Are millimeter waves cost effective?...................................................
1.7.6 Ecosystem readiness for 5G mmWave solutions.................................
1.7.6.1 5G spectrum is required across multiple bands.................................
1.7.6.3 5G mmWave network equipment has experienced rapid
technological progress...................................................................................
1.7.7 The cost of mmWave equipment..........................................................
1.7.8 Conclusion and recommendations........................................................
Chapter Two..................................................................................................
Background Theory.......................................................................................
2.1 Frequency Bands of MMW (Standards)..................................................
2.2 Millimeter Wave Challenges and Difficulties.........................................
2.2.1 Losses in Millimeter Wave...................................................................
2.2.1.1 Free Space Pathloss...........................................................................
2.2.1.2 Blockage (Shadowing Effects)..........................................................
2.2.1.2.1 Penetration Loss.............................................................................
2.2.1.2.2 Foliage Loss....................................................................................
2.2.1.2.3 Body and Hand Loss.......................................................................
2.2.1.2.4 Scattering........................................................................................
2.2.1.2.5 Atmospheric Loss...........................................................................
2.2.1.3 Multipath Fading...............................................................................
2.2.1.3.1 Selective and Flat Fading...............................................................
2.3 Limiting Path Loss Effect........................................................................
2.3.1 Array Deployment................................................................................
2.3.1.1 Physical Array Size and Antenna Spacing........................................
2.3.1.2 Antenna Element Spacing against Frequency...................................
2.3.2 Phased Array Technology....................................................................
2.3.2.1 Types of Phased Array Antennas......................................................
2.3.2.2 Advantages of Phased Array Technology.........................................
2.3.3 Massive MIMO Concept......................................................................
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2.3.4 Bridging the Gap with Signal Boosters................................................
Chapter Three................................................................................................
Enabling Technologies for Millimeter Wave................................................
3.1 RAN Architecture....................................................................................
3.1.1 RAN Architecture for 5G.....................................................................
6.2 Antennas..................................................................................................
6.2.1 Macrocell base stations.........................................................................
3.2.2 Antennas for Smartphones....................................................................
3.3 Beamforming...........................................................................................
3.3.1 Analog..................................................................................................
3.3.2 Hybrid...................................................................................................
3.3.3 Digital...................................................................................................
3.4 Beam Acquisition and Tracking..............................................................
3.5 Standardization of Enabling Technologies For mmWave.......................
3.5.1 3GPP NR FR2......................................................................................
3.5.1.1 3GPP NR FR2 Beam Management...................................................
8
List of Fiqures
Figure 1.1: Global Internet user growth........................................................................17
Figure 1.3: Quantifying the performance benefits of 5G..............................................23
Figure 1.4 - 5G at a glance: global outlook, Q3 2020...................................................36
Figure 1.5:......................................................................................................................41
Figure 2.1: Expected 5G Frequency Band Usage: Reproduced courtesy OFCOM......47
Figure 2.2: shows the free space loss at different distances..........................................49
Figure 2.3:......................................................................................................................56
Figure 2.4:......................................................................................................................59
Figure 2.5: Examples of different antenna array geometries: a) linear vertical; b) linear
horizontal; c) planar; d) cylindrical. Each circle represents one antenna......................61
Figure 2.6: Antenna array consisting of four antennas each of which is composed of
four radiating elements. The radiating elements of an antenna share the same RF input
and output......................................................................................................................62
Figure 2.7: The function N (fc, fc0) versus carrier frequency fc for a fixed reference. 64
Figure 2.10: By transmitting the same signal from all antennas with appropriate delays,
, the directions where the signals add constructively can be controlled........................68
Figure 2.11: Linear array of a phased array antenna.....................................................69
Figure 2.12: planar array of a phased array antenna......................................................69
Fig. 3.1: Sub 6 GHz RRH..............................................................................................74
Fig. 3.2: RAN split options and RAN network elements..............................................75
Fig. 3.3: Analog beamformer diagram [24] ..................................................................77
Fig. 3.4. Hybrid beamforming structure [25] ...............................................................78
Fiqure 3.5:......................................................................................................................79
Fig. 3.6: Typical phased array antenna (8x8) [26].........................................................80
Fig. 3.7. Typical antenna design for mmWave smartphone..........................................81
Fig. 3.8. mmWave beamforming with reduced inter-cell and intra-cell interference.. .82
Fig. 3.9. Analog beamforming architectures: i) RF beamforming (left), ii) IF
beamforming (middle), iii) LO beamforming (right)....................................................84
Fig. 3.10. Hybrid beamforming architecture with two RF-chains: i) sub-array
connected HPA, ii) fully connected HPA......................................................................85
Fig. 3.11. Digital beamforming architecture.................................................................87
Fig. 3.12. Beam tracking at the base station to maintain the communication link
between base station and car..........................................................................................90
Fig. 3.13. High-level 3GPP timeline.............................................................................92
Fig. 3.14. DL-based beam refinement procedure..........................................................93
Fig. 3.15. SCell BFR procedure.....................................................................................95
Fig. 3.16. Simultaneous DL/UL beam update across CCs............................................96
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List of Table
Table 1.1: Internet users as a percentage of regional population......................................17
Table 1.2: Average number of devices and connections per capita..................................19
Table 1.3: Mobile subscribers as a percentage of regional population..............................20
Table 1.4: Mobile connections by network type – 2023 regional percentage share..........21
Table 1.5:...........................................................................................................................25
Table 1.6:...........................................................................................................................27
Table 1.7:...........................................................................................................................29
Table 1.8:...........................................................................................................................31
Table 1.9:...........................................................................................................................33
Frequency Range 1............................................................................................................44
Table 2.1:...........................................................................................................................45
Frequency Range 2............................................................................................................45
Table 2.2:...........................................................................................................................45
High 5G Frequency Bands.................................................................................................45
Table 2.3:...........................................................................................................................46
Very High 5G Frequency Bands (MMW).........................................................................46
Table 2.4:...........................................................................................................................46
Table 2.7: λ/2 Spacing for Select Frequencies..................................................................64
Table 3.1. Beamforming architecture comparison............................................................88
Table 3.2. Possible CMR/IMR Combinations for L1-SINR.............................................94
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List of Abbreviation:
1. IoT: Internet of Things
2. mmWave: Millimeter waves
3. Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
4. CAGR: Compound Annual Growth Rate

5. AMPS: advanced mobile phone system
6. NMT: Nordic mobile telephone
7. TACS: total access communication system
8. FDMA (frequency division multiple access)
9. PSTN: public switched telephone network
10. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
11. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
12. Global Systems for Mobile Communications (GSM).
13. GSM: Global System for Mobile
14. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
15. RTT: round-trip time
16. IMT: International Mobile Telecommunications
17. Universal Mobile Telecommunications system "UMTS".
18. RNC (Radio Network Controller)
19. WMSC (Wideband CDMA Mobile Switching Center)
20. GPRS: general packet radio service
21. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
22. GGSN:Gateway GPRS support node
23. GPS (global positioning system),
24. 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
25. Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA
26. Evolved Packet System (EPS)
27. orthogonal frequency split multiple access (OFDMA)
28. multi-input multi-output (MIMO)
29. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)
30. LAN: local area network
31. WAN: wide area network
32. WLAN: wireless local area network
33. CEO: chief executive officer
34. via fixed wireless access (FWA
35. World Radio Communications Conference (WRC19
36. Federal wide Assurance (FWA
37. CPE:customer-premises equipment
38. Bill of materials (BoM)
39. enhanced common public radio interface (eCRPI)
40. radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFICs),
41. GDP: Gross domestic product
42. FDD: Frequency Division Duplex
43. TDD: time Division Duplex
44. IMT: International Mobile Telecommunications
45. PCS: Personal Communications Service
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46. DCS: Data Communications Synchronization
47. Wcs: Wireless Communications Service
48. BRS. Broadband Radio Service.
49. CBRS: The Citizens Broadband Radio Service
50. AWS: Advanced Wireless Services
51. LMDS: Local Multipoint Distribution Service
52. LFS. Link Fault Sectionalization
53. line-of-sight LOS
54. angle of arrival (AoA
55. SNR: signal-to-noise ratio
56. RAN: radio access network
57. Base Transceiver Station (BTS
58. Remote Radio Head (RRH)
59. Analog-to-Digital converters (ADC)
60. Baseband Unit (BBU)
61. Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
62. distributed unit (DU)
63. centralized Unit (CU)
64. Radio Resource Control (RRC
65. Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP)
66. Radio link control (RLC)
67. Media Access Control (MAC)
68. physical layer (PHY
69. Radio frequency (RF
70. Frequency Selective Surfaces (FSS)
71. signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR)
72. analog phase array (APA)
73. hybrid phase array (HPA)
74. fully digital architecture (FDA)
75. minimum mean square error (MMSE)
76. baseband integrated circuit (BBIC)
77. beam failure recovery (BFR)
78. beam failure detection (BFD)
79. link recovery request (LRR)
80. Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH)
81. PUSCH - Physical Uplink Shared Channel
82. pathloss (PL)
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Chapter One
Introduction
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CH1: Introduction
Today, our mobile devices are not the only ones using these networks. With the explosive
spread of the Internet of Things (IoT), more and more devices share the same network as
smartphones and tablets., including:
 Smart appliances, such as fridges and thermostats
 Smartwatches
 Internet-connected vehicles
All of these devices consume more data and therefore more bandwidth. From 2010 to 2020,
mobile data increased 200-fold. It is projected to increase 20,000 times by 2030.To cope with
this surge in data, operators will need to expand their cellular networks to accommodate
billions of new devices.
1.1 Limitations in Bandwidth
All mobile network activity is transmitted over radio frequencies. As devices are added to the
mix and more people use them more often, these frequencies are under pressure.
Cellular networks are not the only ones that use these frequencies. Everything from
microwaves to Wi-Fi routers to drones occupies the road of the radio spectrum. Currently,
most of these devices are in the 3GHz to 6GHz range, but these frequencies fill up quickly. As
more devices come online, all of their data occupies more storage space. That’s where the
millimeter wave spectrum comes into play.
Millimeter waves (often referred to as millimeter waves or high band 5G) are frequencies
above 24 GHz. The higher the frequency of the radio wave, the shorter the length of each
14
wave. Due to the high frequency of millimeter waves, the range is limited to 300-500 feet,
making it difficult to penetrate buildings. In contrast, 3G and 4G networks can move further
and penetrate better into building materials.
Until recently, millimeter waves were used only in satellite and radar systems and were
typically operated in the military and aerospace industries. However, as data consumption has
exploded, the industry has found the need and opportunity to use millimeter waves in next-
generation cellular networks.
1.2 The Possibilities
Millimeter waves enable the potential of 5G networks to significantly improve speed and
reliability. Data traveling on mobile networks with incredible speeds and imperceptible delays
can become the standard that paves the way for innovation in mobile data applications.
5G networks that use millimeter waves have the potential to open the door to a variety of data-
intensive applications. It provides enough bandwidth for the growth of devices connected to
the Internet and can open the door to other applications such as:
 Autonomous vehicles
 Telemedicine
 Traffic management
 Education
Similarly, millimeter waves have the potential to open up the possibilities of augmented reality
and virtual reality technologies that could be the future of how to interact with the Internet.
15
1.3 The Problems
While network operators continue to promise a bright future for 5G, the use of millimeter
waves in cellular networks has been considered impractical due to their limitations.
First, millimeter waves have a large amount of atmospheric attenuation. In other words, waves
are easily absorbed by atmospheric gases and rain as well. This greatly limits the range even at
close range. To make matters worse, they only move within the line of sight. This means that
buildings, trees, and even leaves can get in the way.
While these pose serious challenges to the use of millimeter waves for cellular connections, new
antenna technologies and new approaches have emerged to realize the potential of millimeter
wave 5G.
1.4 Millimeter Waves in Cellular Networks
Due to limitations, millimeter waves cover only the outdoor and indoor environments of
cellular networks, but not both. In other words, an outdoor antenna that emits millimeter waves
does not penetrate a house or building and provides 5G connectivity for indoor users.
Similarly, a person connecting to an indoor antenna loses millimeter-wave connectivity when
going outside. For this reason, 5G deployments using millimeter waves must coexist with other
5G deployments below the millimeter wave frequency threshold. In addition, it needs to be
integrated with other cellular network technologies such as 4G LTE to make the connection
seamless. Due to its limited range, millimeter-wave 5G technology will not soon replace 4G.
However, there are other ways to introduce millimeter-wave 5G in metropolitan areas.
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1.4.1 Small Cell Networks
A typical cell tower used for 4G networks is called a macro cell. These towers are designed to
generate strong signals over long distances. Therefore, it does not support 5G millimeter wave
signals. Instead, network operators use so-called small cells for 5G coverage. These small, low-
power cells transmit focused signals at millimeter-wave frequencies. However, due to the
drawbacks of millimeter-wave technology, it is deployed in small cellular networks possibly
hundreds or more clusters to cover the area with a suitable 5G signal. The downside is that
network operators need to deploy many and possibly thousands of these small cells to cover a
larger area. Still, there are still problems with building penetration. However, as technology
advances, more small cell networks may be used, at least in metropolitan areas.
1.5 General Statistics
1.5.1 Growth in Internet Users

Globally, the total number of Internet users is expected to increase from 3.9 billion in 2018 to
5.3 billion in 2023, with a CAGR of 6%. In terms of population, this represents 51% of the
world's population in 2018 and 66% of the world's population penetration by 2023. (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Global Internet user growth

Source: Cisco Annual Internet Report, 2018-2023
1.5.2 Regional Differences of Internet Users
The increase in the number of Internet users is a global trend, but there are regional differences
(Table 1.1). The region with the highest adoption rates throughout the forecast period is North
17
America (followed by Western Europe), but the fastest growth is projected in the Middle East
and Africa (10% CAGR expected from 2018 to 2023).
Region 2018 2023
Global 51% 66%
Asia Pacific 52% 72%
Central and Eastern Europe 65% 78%
Latin America 60% 70%
Middle East and Africa 24% 35%
North America 90% 92%
Western Europe 82% 87%
Table 1.1: Internet users as a percentage of regional population
1.5.3 Global connection growth

By 2022, the number of mobile devices worldwide will increase from 8.6 billion in 2017 to 12.3
billion in 2022, of which more than 422 million will be 5G capable.
Almost 12% of the world's mobile traffic will be processed over 5G mobile connections by 2022.
Globally, the average 5G connection will generate 21GB of traffic per month by 2022.
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Figure 1.2: Global device and connection growth
1.5.4 Number of devices per capita

Worldwide number of devices and connections per person 2018-2023. In 2018, the average
number of devices and connections per person worldwide was 2.4. This will increase to 3.6 by
2023, with maximum growth coming from North America and Western Europe.
Region 2018 2023
Global 2.4 3.6
Asia Pacific 2.1 3.1
Central and Eastern Europe 2.5 4.0
19
Region 2018 2023
Latin America 2.2 3.1
Middle East and Africa 1.1 1.5
North America 8.2 13.4
Western Europe 5.6 9.4
Table 1.2: Average number of devices and connections per capita
1.5.5 Mobile subscribers as a percentage of geographical population

In 2021, 59% of the Asia-Pacific population had mobile phone contracts. Sources explain that
they have excluded China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan from their 2019 Asia-Pacific data,
down 8 percentage points compared to 2018 subscription rates. In Greater China, which
currently occupies China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, the participation rate in 2021 was
83%. The worldwide unique penetration rate for mobile subscribers in 2021 was 67%.
Region 2018 2023
Global 66% 71%
Asia Pacific 65% 72%
Central and Eastern Europe 79% 81%
Latin America 75% 78%
20
Region 2018 2023
Middle East and Africa 53% 57%
North America 86% 88%
Western Europe 84% 85%
Table 1.3: Mobile subscribers as a percentage of regional population
1.5.6 Mobile connections by network type

This transition from less than 3G to 4G, and now 5G is a global trend (Table 1.4). In fact, by
2023, nearly 60% of the world's mobile devices and connections will be 4G + capable,
significantly more than 3G and below compatible devices and connections. In North America,
the percentage of devices and connections is highest for 4G + connections (62% by 2023). In the
Middle East and Africa, the percentage of devices and connections will be below 3G and will
reach 73% by 2023. By 2023, North America will have 37% and Western Europe will have 28%,
making it the two regions with the highest LPWA acceptance rates. By 2023, North America will
be the region with the highest percentage of 5G connections at 17%. By 2023, the top three 5G
countries in terms of device and connectivity in 5G will be China (20.7%), Japan (20.6%) and
the United Kingdom (19.5%).
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Region 3G and Below 4G 5G LPWA
Global 29 46 11 14
Asia Pacific 23 52 13 12
Central and Eastern Europe 31 50 2 16
Latin America 37 50 2 16
Middle East and Africa 73 22 1 4
North America 1 45 17 37
Western Europe 13 43 16 28
Table 1.4: Mobile connections by network type – 2023 regional percentage share
1.5.7 performance benefits of 5G
22
Figure 1.3: Quantifying the performance benefits of 5G
1.6 Progress of Mobile Communication Network from 1G to 5G
The demand for mobile phones and the Internet is increasing day by day, making it the preferred
means of personal and professional communication, adding a new dimension to the
telecommunications industry. To meet the needs of users, more and more research is constantly
being studied in the field of communications.
The first-generation mobile communication provides basic voice communication function, and
the second generation supports both voice service and data service. Next came the 3rd generation
It has energized the telecommunications industry by providing subscribers with a wide range of
data services such as mobile internet access, video conferencing and multimedia applications.
However, as the demand for grows, the telecommunications industry moves to a new generation
called the 4th generation, which offers far more advanced features in addition to regular voice
and other 3G services. 4G provides mobile ultra-broadband internet access and provides users
with much faster data transfer rates. The priorities of this standard include better reception with
less data loss, IP interoperability for seamless mobile internet, faster information exchange and
more. And our main topic is Depending on the new technology, spectrum and frequency used,
5G has several rewards over 4G. Faster, shorter latency, more capacity for connected devices,
less interference and better efficiency.
Cellular technologies have come a long way and are mostly know as 1st generation, 2nd
Generation, 3rd generation, and now 4th generation system is being introduced, where each new
generation brings a new technology and more high data rates than the previous one. The 1st
generation system commonly known as (1G) technology was introduced in the early 1980s. It
was basically analog based communication technology which only provides analog voice
services and no data services. moreover, it supports data bandwidth of up to 2.4kbps. The 2nd
Generation (2G) mobile telephone networks were the next stage in the development of wireless
systems after 1G, which introduced a mobile phone system that was completely digital. The 2G
23
system provides data bandwidth of up to 64kbps which is better than 1G, it supports both voice
and data transmission i.e. the facility of message sending was available moreover it also provides
enhanced calling features like caller ID. After that, the third generation was born Important
features that support much higher data Up to 2 Mbit / s transmission speeds and increased offers
Suitable for capacity and high-speed data Not only applications, but also traditional voice calls
It also supports global roaming. Benefits of higher data Pricing and wider bandwidth means 3G
mobile Phones can provide a wide range of data to subscribers Services such as mobile internet
access and multimedia application. 3G handset compared to previous mobile phones It offers
many new features such as TV streaming. Multimedia, video conference, web surfing, email,
Paging and navigation charts. 4G / LTE (4th place) Generation / Long Term Evolution)
Development of cellular networks. In addition to regular voice and other 3G services, 3G will
provide mobile ultra-broadband internet access and make it available to users. Much faster data
speeds for users around 100Mbps Move through a fixed network at high speed and data rate of 1
Gbps position. Some standard priorities have been improved Receive seamlessly with less data
loss Mobile Internet IP Interoperability and Acceleration Information exchange. Immerse
yourself in improving 4G Demanding user applications Take you with a graphical user interface,
high-end games, HD video and high-performance imaging A whole new level of wireless
experience. 5G is a 5th generation mobile network. This is the new global wireless standard
following 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. 5G enables a new type of network designed to connect
virtually anything, including machines, objects, and devices. 5G wireless technology can provide
more users with higher peak data rates of multiple Gbps, ultra-low latency, higher reliability,
larger network capacity, higher availability, and a more consistent user experience. It is
expected. Higher performance and improved efficiency enable new user experiences and connect
new industries.
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1.6.1 Do I need a new phone if I want 5G?
A: Yes, you will need to get a new smartphone that supports 5G if you want to be able to use the
network. For example, smartphones powered by the Snapdragon 5G Mobile Platforms are 5G
compatible.
There are several new mobile phones available that are designed to support 5G, and multiple
carriers across the world support the 5G wireless network. As the 5G rollout timeline progresses,
more smartphones and carrier subscriptions will become available, as 5G technology and 5G
compatible devices becoming more mainstream.
1.6.2 Comparison of Mobile Communication Network:

1.6.2.1 First generation mobile communication.
The first-generation mobile communication which was introduced in 1980s was based on the
analog system. The most popular analogue 1G systems were advanced mobile phone system
(AMPS) which was launched in United States. Nordic mobile telephone (NMT), total access
communication system (TACS) and some other analog systems were also presented in 1980s
across the Europe. All 1G standards use frequency modulation techniques for audio signals. The
spectrum in the cell was divided into several channels, which are inefficient in terms of the
available radio spectrum. This puts a limit on the number of calls that can be made at the same
time. The analog system is based on circuit switching technology and provides only voice
communication, not data communication. After the introduction of 1G 's technology, mobile
communications have undergone major changes, has grown tremendously, and by 1990, had
nearly 20 million subscribers.
Strategic features and abilities of 1G
 Based on analog system.

25
 It supports data speed of up to 2.4kbps.
 cordless telephone.
Basic drawbacks of 1G
 Only voice, no data communication.
 Low capacity.
 Poor handoff.
 Less protected.
 Poor voice link.
Features of 1G
Evolution 1970
Deployment 1984
Data Rate 2 kbps
Bandwidth
Standards AMPS, NMT, TACS
Technology behind Analogue cellular technology
Service Voice
Multiplexing FDMA
Type of switching Circuit
Handoff Horizontal
Core network PSTN
Carrier frequency
Table 1.5:
1.6.2.1 Second generation mobile communication

Improvements in 1G communications have manifested themselves in the form of 2G technology
based on low-band digital data signaling introduced in the late 1980s. This analog technology
has been replaced by digital access techniques such as TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
26
and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). The most popular 2G wireless technology is
known as Global Systems for Mobile Communications (GSM). Global system for mobile
communication or GSM uses TDMA technology to support multiple users. TDMA decomposes
data transmissions, for example: Telephone conversation, split into fragments, send each
fragment in a short burst, and assign a time slot to each fragment. On mobile phones, the caller is
unaware of this fragmentation. During the development period of more than 20 years, GSM
technology has been continuously improved to provide better service to users. GSM supports
450 million mobile subscribers with international roaming in approximately 140 countries and
400 networks. CDMA uses spread spectrum technology to divide the voice into smaller digitized
segments of and encode them to identify each call. The CDMA distinguishes among a couple of
transmissions carried concurrently on a single Wi-Fi signal. It contains the transmissions on that
signal, liberating community room for the Wi-Fi service and offering interference-unfastened for
the user. The CDMA breaks down calls on a signal by codes, whereas TDMA breaks them down
by time. In both cases, the result is increased network capacity for the mobile operator and no
caller interference.
 Better Spectrum efficiency.
 Provides data rate of up to 64kbps.
 Improved system capacity, and network coverage.
27
 Roaming facility.
 Voice and data services.
 Enhanced security.
 It does not support high data rates.
 Weaker digital signal.
 Unable to handle complex data.
Features of 2G/2.5G
Evolution 1980
Deployment 1999
Data Rate 14.4-64 kbps
Bandwidth
Standards 2G:GSM,C
2.5G:EDGE,GPRS,1xRTT
Technology behind Digital cellular technology
Service 2G: Digital voice, sms
2.5G:voice+data
Multiplexing TDMA,CDMA
Type of switching 2G: Circuit
2.5G:Circuit and packet
Handoff Horizontal
Core network PSTN
Carrier frequency
Table 1.6:
1.6.2.3 Third generation mobile communication

The 3G delivered wonderful transformation to cellular communication world. 3G meets the
specifications of the International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT2000), the official
International Telecommunication Union aimed at providing wireless access to the Global
Telecommunications System. To comply with the IMT2000 standard, the system must provide a
28
peak data rate of of at least 200 kbit / s. The main proposal of IMT2000 is Universal Mobile
Telecommunications system "UMTS". As a successor to GSM. UMTS uses W-CDMA, TD-
CDMA, or TD-SCDMA air interfaces in which WCDMA is UMTS' most popular air interface
technology. The key components include BS (Base Station) or nod B, RNC (Radio Network
Controller), Apart from WMSC (Wideband CDMA Mobile Switching Center) and SGSN /
GGSN. WCDMA offers the additional benefits of high transmission speeds, increased system
capacity, and communication quality through statistical multiplexing. With CDMA technology,
WCDMA makes efficient use of the radio spectrum because all base stations can use the same
frequency. In the WCDMA system, the data is split into distinct packets, which are then
transmitted using packet switching technology, and the packets are reassembled in the correct
sequence at the receiver end by using the code that is sent with each packet. The UMTS system
offers data rates in the range of up to 144 kbps for mobile vehicles, up to 384 kbps for
pedestrians, and up to 2 Mbps for indoor or stationary users, depending on the user's situation.
Designed to do. 3G focuses primarily on multimedia applications such as video calling, video
conference mobile phones, expansion capacity, global roaming, lower cost, better compatibility
and faster data.
 Faster data rates.
 Supports multimedia applications such as video and photography.
29
 Value added services like mobile television, GPS (global positioning system), video
call and video conferencing.
 High speed mobile internet access.
 Enlarged capacity.
 Requires 3G compatible handsets.
 The cost of upgrading to 3G devices is expensive.
 Power consumption is high.
 3G requires closer base stations which is expensive.
Features of 3G
Evolution 1990
Deployment 2002
Data Rate 2 Mbps
Bandwidth
Standards WCDMA,CDMA-2000
Technology behind Broad bandwidth CDMA,
IP technology
Service Integrated high quality audio, video
and data
Multiplexing CDMA
Type of switching Packet
Handoff Horizontal
Core network Packet network
Carrier frequency
Table 1.7:
1.6.2.4 Fourth generation mobile communication

4G is a new technology in the field of communications. As data demand increased, efforts were
made to improve downlink and uplink throughput rates using higher modulation technology. The
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) launched the Long Term Evolution (LTE) project in
30
November 2004 to ensure UMTS' future competitiveness. Since LTE is considered to be an
evolution of the universal mobile phone system "UMTS", the LTE equivalent component will
eventually result in Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (EUTRA) and Evolved UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access Network. It is called (EUTRAN). The simple architecture of LTE
consists of a separate IP connectivity layer for all of the IP primarily based totally offerings and
Evolved Packet System (EPS) which handles the ordinary communique procedure. LTE is a
completely IP-based system. LTE provides provisioning for interoperability with existing
systems, so you can use different paths to connect to LTE. Operators using GPRS / EDGE
networks or non-3GPP systems can connect to LTE networks. Due to this increased flexibility of
the, LTE is the choice of the majority of operators worldwide. LTE uses orthogonal frequency
split multiple access (OFDMA) to achieve a download speed of approximately 100 Mbit / s for
multi-antenna (2x2), multi-input multi-output (MIMO) of the highest category terminals. Can be
provided. For these terminals, the upload speed is about 50Mbps. In addition, better mobility,
efficient wireless use, high security, flexible spectrum use, delay / delay reduction, cost-effective
deployment, and other improvements to LTE reliability and ease of use. Offers various benefits
of.
 High spectral efficiency.
 High voice quality.
31
 Easily access internet, streaming media, video calling etc.
 Very low latency.
 Simple protocol architecture.
 Efficient multicast/broadcast.
 Higher data bills for consumers.
 It is very posh and hard to implement.
 Difficult hardware.
 Power usage is more.
Features of 4G
Evolution 2000
Deployment 2010
Data Rate 200 Mbps to 1Gbps for low
mobility
Bandwidth
Standards LTE,WiMax
Technology behind Undefined IP and seamless
combination of broadband.
LAN/WAN/PAN/WLAN
Service Dynamic information access,
wearable devices
Multiplexing CDMA
Handoff Horizontal and vertical
Core network Internet
Carrier frequency
Table 1.8:
1.6.2.5 Fifth generation mobile communication
5G is the 5th generation of wireless technology. It can provide faster, lower latency and higher
capacity than 4G LTE networks. It's one of the fastest and most robust technologies the world
32
has ever seen. This means faster downloads, significantly less lag, and a huge impact on the way
we live, work and play. The speed of 5G and other connectivity benefits are expected to make
businesses more efficient and give consumers faster access to more information than ever before.
Connected cars, smart stadiums and advanced games all rely on 5G networks. Understanding 5G
helps you understand what happened before that. Broadly speaking, 1G, the first-generation
cellular technology, was about voice. The ability to use the phone in the car or on the go has
really become popular here. With the advent of 2G, a short messaging layer has been introduced,
some of which can also be seen in today's SMS features. With the move to 3G, the core network
speed required to boot a smartphone has been achieved. In addition, 4G, which has a fast data
transfer rate, provides video with minimal buffering and has created many of the connected
devices and services that we trust and enjoy today. Now people are beginning to experience 5G
and its transformative capabilities.
“5G isn’t just another tech innovation, it’s the platform that makes other innovations possible.”
—Hans Vestberg, Chairman and CEO, Verizon.
Strategic features and abilities of 5G(mmWave)
 100 times more devices
33
 Virtually zero latency
 Faster response time
 Very high capacity
 More software option to upgrade
 Universal connectivity
 Wide range of applications
 Speed up to 10 Gbps
 More bandwidth
 More Expensive to Deploy than Sub-6 GHz 5G Networks.
 Rural and Urban Applications and Issues Regarding Aesthetics.
 Device Compatibility and Other Device-Related Issues.
Features of 5G
Evolution 2010
Deployment 2015
Data Rate 10 Gbps to 100 Gbps
Bandwidth
Standards mmWave, under research
Technology behind Undefined IP and seamless
combination of broadband.
LAN/WAN/PAN/WLAN
Service Dynamic information access,
wearable devices with AI
capabilities
Multiplexing CDMA
Handoff Horizontal and vertical
Core network Internet
Carrier frequency
34
Table 1.9:
1.7 The economics of mmWave 5G
1.7.1 5G is Energetic Economic Growth, Resiliency, and Sustainability
Sustained technological innovation will contribute to a timely economic recovery and continue
to drive prosperity in the post-pandemic era. 5G is essential to this development. 5G will move
from mobility that connects people to people and information to people to a unified connection
fabric that connects people to everything.
5G is now a commercial reality. Despite the Covid19 pandemic, the 5G deployment will reach
200 million connections by the end of 2020. these are projected to grow to over 1 billion
connections by the end of 2023 and to approximately 2 billion connections worldwide by the end
of 2025. 5G offers 10x faster data rates and more than 100x capacity compared to 4G networks,
delays up to 10x less, and allows to handle growing mobile data traffic. Become. 5G
opportunities for enterprise digital transformation are enormous and include industrial
applications, automotive, robotics, healthcare and more. However, 5G also has a huge impact on
consumers. Higher value services such as video streaming and video conferencing, potential for
high speed home broadband services via fixed wireless access (FWA), new consumers such as
edge computing and enhanced virtual reality (AR /VR) and There is a business service.
1.7.2 5G services are now a reality

At the end of Q3 2020, 107 operators in 47 markets had launched commercial 5G services,
including both mobile and FWA. Adoption is growing rapidly, with around 135 million
connection registered by mobile operators worldwide at the end of Q3 2020, a number that we
expect to reach almost 235 million by the end of 2020. By 2025, we project nearly 2 billion
global 5G relations (see Figure 1.4).
35
Figure 1.4 - 5G at a glance: global outlook, Q3 2020
1.7.3 5G networks need low-, mid- and high-band spectrum

Most 5G launches around the world have so far relied on the 3.5GHz spectrum, with few
exceptions. This is because the initial service and rollout required bandwidth and speeds that this
type of Spectrum could adequately support. However, as adoption increases and more consumers
and various services move to the 5G network, it is low to provide wide coverage and sufficient
capacity to support 5G deployments. You will need a spectrum that spans the medium and high
bandwidth.
All three frequency bands play an important role for providing 5G services. The low bandwidth
spectrum (sub1 GHz) supports extensive coverage in urban, suburbs, and rural areas, helping
support IoT services. Without this spectrum, 5G services would have a hard time penetrating
deep into the building beyond the city center. The midband spectrum (1-6 GHz) usually provides
a that combines the benefits of coverage and capacity. So far, the majority of the commercial’s
5G network relies on a spectrum of in the (3.3-3.8 GHz) range.
Another midband spectrum that may be assigned or reconfigured by a 5G operator includes
(1800 MHz, 2100 MHz, 2.3 GHz, and 2.6 GHz). Due to the large amount of spectrum it can
36
provide, the millimeter wave band (24 GHz and above) is important to meet high traffic demands
at high network speeds and maintain performance and quality requirements for 5G services. In
particular, the Millimeter Wave is a robust solution to meet the demand for enhanced? mobile
data services and new use cases that are difficult or very expensive to deploy using the
alternative spectrum. Will be. Currently, the 26, 28, and 40 GHz have the greatest international
support and momentum. In 2019, the World Radio Communications Conference (WRC19)
amends the International Convention governing the use of spectral frequencies, including some
millimeter-wave frequency bands for use in 5G cellular services, totaling spectra. Approximately
17 GHz is in the global or 26 GHz (24.25-27.5 GHz), 40 GHz (37-43.5 GHz), 50 GHz (45.5-47
GHz and 47.2-48, 2 GHz) and 66 GHz (66-71 GHz) ranges. 5G area.
1.7.4 The pros and cons of mmWave

Despite that potential, using millimeter-wave for mobile devices had to overcome major
technical challenges. Millimeter-wave signals travel relatively short distances. It may be
susceptible to attenuation by trees and other obstacles. And it is difficult to penetrate materials,
especially concrete, as well as glass and wood. In other words, it may not be a good solution to
get inside the or deal with heavy obstacles. These challenges are quite different from the
challenges faced by the wireless industry in previous generation wireless networks, raising some
concerns about the short-term potential of millimeter-wave 5G.
However, as mobile traffic continues to grow rapidly, the need for millimeter-wave bandwidth is
due to the demand for higher data rates in new applications and the potential need for more
uplink capacity. It is becoming more and more clear. Millimeter-wave tapes can accommodate
more capacities and bandwidths than any other tape. And because of the rich spectrum in these
bands, millimeter-wave spectra are ideally placed to provide the high speed, low latency, and
high capacity at the same time. The short wavelength of mmWave allows for very small
antennas, allows beamforming, and improves coverage and spectral efficiency. The mmWave is
37
also an excellent indoor solution. On the propagation characteristics are advantageous to avoid
interference between cells. which is important to the industry, is the place and time when these
solutions are cost effective and are covered.
1.7.5 Are millimeter waves cost effective?

we detail the key issue of deployment costs. Identifying several scenarios where the short range
and high throughput and millimeter wave capacity could lead to targeted deployments in the
period up to 2025, and examining and Analyze the conditions that can be costly to deploy. Three
scenarios are.
 Use of millimeter wave to provide additional capacity in densely populated urban areas.
 that provides home broadband via FWA.
 an indoor solution that can handle the high traffic demand of in office spaces.
While commercial mmWave 5G networks have already been successfully deployed in some
countries, the mmWave 5G solution reduces deployment costs and increases the choice of
affordable devices available, Higher scalability needs to be achieved in order to facilitate the
adoption of The scale at which each technology solution reaches is critical to the success and
adoption of the the mmWave momentum is built on the three areas required for each 5G band.
Adoption: Spectrum availability, ample selection of consumer equipment, and reliable and cost-
effective network equipment. This should help inform mobile operators about the role Millimeter
Wave will play in the deployment and when to start or accelerate investment in technology.
1.7.6 Ecosystem readiness for 5G mmWave solutions

1.7.6.1 5G spectrum is required across multiple bands.
Because 5G will eventually utilize the low, medium, and high bandwidth spectra, carriers in
different countries will decide to invest in the network based on the available spectra. Different
bands support different features, millimeter waves typically power the and benefit from levels of
38
high speed or high traffic in localized areas. However, as more spectra become available, the
new bandwidth available for mobile services will complement the existing bandwidth by
providing the required capacity or coverage. As of Q3 2020, a brand new spectrum for cell
offerings particularly earmarked for 5G have been assigned in 35 markets. 121 operators had
obtained spectrum throughout low, mid, and excessive bands to date (aside from US and
Canadian local operators): forty-eight operators in low band; ninety-one operators in mid-band;
and 35 operators’ in excessive band.26 countries have already assigned spectrum in the 3.5 GHz
band. Meanwhile, a more limited number of markets have released mmWave spectrum for 5G as
of October 2020: the US, Finland, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore,
Russia and Thailand. However, more countries have already announced plans to release
spectrum in mmWave bands soon: the UAE, Australia, Malaysia, Denmark, Norway,
Luxembourg and Slovenia. It is important to note that mmWave spectrum was only allocated for
mobile services at the recent World Radio Communication Conference in November 2019
(WRC-19), while the 3.5 GHz band had already been identified in some regions as early as 2007.
So far, mobile operator bids in auctions for mmWave bands 4 116 trials on mmWave bands have
been conducted globally as of Q3 2020. have not been as high as for lower-frequency bands.
This means that mmWave bands are at present generally cheaper in $/MHz/pop terms. Another
important indication of the readiness of a particular spectrum band is the number of trials that
has been conducted on it. In 2020, the overall number of trials in all spectrum bands reduced
compared to in 2019 because of the Covid-19 crisis.
However, mmWave trials as a share of trials on all spectrum bands increased slightly from 9% in
2019 to 13% in 2020. The overall number of trials in mmWave bands now exceeds 100,4
demonstrating that the technology is reaching a mature stage.
1.7.6.2 mmWave 5G consumer devices are becoming more widely available.

Until recently, there was skepticism about the potential use of millimeter waves in mobile
communications. Many mobile network operators have successfully conducted field trials of
39
millimeter-wave services in early 2017, and vendors and OEMs have begun developing 5GCPE
and network devices. In October 2018, a major US operator launched pre-5GFWA commercial
Internet services in some cities. The growing in the number of available mmWave handsets and
CPEs in these last few years has been extraordinary. A few mmWave handsets and FWA CPEs
were launched in 2019, and we expect that more than 30 handsets and 35 CPEs will be available
by the end of 2020. Additionally, despite the uncertainty produced by the Covid-19 crisis and the
potential economic dip, the 5G mmWave device ecosystem is continuing to grow and expand.
Consumers can expect more than 100 mmWave handsets and more than 50 FWA CPEs to be
available in the market in 2021. With scale move toward lower prices for devices. In general, 5G
device costs have already started to fall as scale economies are realized and the range of vendors
supplying 5G devices grows. The use of global standardized variations of key smartphone
components brings main benefits, as the increased scale in production and the need for fewer
design teams outweigh certain higher upfront costs, such as the need to support multiple
spectrum bands. The US market in particular is currently at the forefront in the availability of
mmWave devices with the new mmWave-capable iPhone 12 series a good example of that –
giving an additional boost for wider adoption of the technology.
1.7.6.3 5G mmWave network equipment has experienced rapid technological

progress.
We imagine that between 2020 and 2022, mmWave equipment will experience an important cost
bargain and incorporate marked technical and operational improvements – these include
advanced beam management, higher peak rates, multi-user MIMO, higher effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP), lower noise-figure, and fronthaul sharing. In the longer term, new
flexible answers are expected to add more capacity when traffic grows and boost performance
around a given cell. As more and more mmWave devices are used by consumers, new massive
MIMOs will be able to handle progressively more UEs and rely on novel multi-user scheduling
40
technologies.8 3GPP R16 specifications completed in 2020 include a number of improvements
for mmWave operation, showing a solid evolution path for the technology. Further, a wide range
of products are expected to become available in various radio access network (RAN) split
options.
Figure 1.5:
1.7.7 The cost of mmWave equipment
At present, mmWave radio-equipment infrastructure is extra posh relative to existing low band
and mid band solutions. This is primarily because it is a fresher technology and equipment
vendors have not yet reached similar economies of scale in manufacture. Bill of materials (BoM)
costs are also a factor that currently add to this price differential. However, the cost gap between
sub-6 GHz and mmWave solutions is lessening and will carry on to do so in the next few years.
There is much novelty around mmWave AAUs, with the ecosystem offering increasingly more
affordable solutions. Newer equipment is anticipated to have purpose-designed mmWave radio-
41
frequency integrated circuits (RFICs), lower energy consumption and a more solid design with
lower wind load and smaller weight. Also, higher EIRP should enable larger coverage areas and
enhanced user throughput. The new mmWave AAUs will also rely more on natural cooling, and
enhanced common public radio interface (eCRPI) used in the fronthaul transmission will reduce
energy consumption. The vendor ecosystem has heavily motivated on solutions that can further
increase the cost effectiveness of mmWave network solutions. even with higher costs for the
equipment in the short term, mmWave already has the potential to be a cost effective solution
across a range of deployment scenarios, meanwhile it is able to accommodate significantly
higher bandwidth and traffic capacity than lower spectrum bands.
1.7.8 Conclusion and recommendations

As TCO's analysis shows, despite its shorter operating range and higher equipment costs,
mmWave's high capacity and throughput could lead to targeted and cost-effective 5G
deployments from now to 2025.of these findings have clear implications for operators,
equipment and mobile devices manufacturers and governments.
 Mobile operators should not underestimate the role of mmWave in the short term
While it is clear that mmWave will be the driver of future 5G use cases where high capacity and
throughput are required, mmWave can also be a powerful solution for the traffic concentration
areas. quantity in the short term. As the analysis shows, adding a capacity layer with mmWave
5G solutions along with a 3.5 GHz network can save costs. The results are valid in a wide range
of scenarios for the period up to 2025, including in the most congested areas of some cities, in
the provision of 5G FWA services or as a solution indoor solution to provide 5G connectivity.
Operators who do not have access to this spectrum or have not fully tested these network
42
solutions risk putting them at a disadvantage by providing 5G services without an mmWave
solution.
 Governments and regulators should facilitate the timely availability of mmWave
spectrum bands, in the right conditions.
Governments around the world are looking to leverage 5G as a catalyst for economic growth and
digitize the economies of their economies. As we cover in our analysis, we estimate that 5G will
generate an annual global GDP increase of 0.6%, adding approximately $600 billion annually to
the global economy, with mmWave solutions play an increasingly important role in providing
these benefits. Without timely allocation of enough mm spectrum (approximately 1 GHz per
operator) under the right conditions, governments risk creating artificial barriers to the
development of 5G and other networks. socioeconomic benefits that come with it. While the
mmWave spectrum is now more widely available, many countries still do not have a clear plan
to allocate frequency bands for mobile services.
 Market readiness has been achieved and a greater choice of equipment and devices is
expected to accelerate adoption.
Despite market momentum and readiness on the rapidly growing mmWave ecosystem over the
past two years, vendors need to continue to improve product readiness for devices and mmWave
5G device for full maturity.
Many carriers with 5G have pressed their equipment carriers at to support 5G for all new
flagship smartphones - if not all new smartphones. The carriers with mmWave 5G could think of
a similar strategy by making it clear to the carriers that mmWave smartphone support is a
priority. Wider economic benefits must be realized as millimeter wave 5G solutions achieve
greater scale. A wider choice of devices and consumer devices are ready to further reduce
deployment costs, increase the choice of affordable devices and facilitate more application.
43
44
Chapter Two
Background Theory
45
5G Frequency bands and channel bandwidths
5G in the 24 GHz range or above use higher frequencies than 4G, and as a result, some 5G
signals are not capable of traveling large distances (over a few hundred meters), unlike 4G or
lower frequency 5G signals (sub 6 GHz). This requires placing 5G base stations every few
hundred meters in order to use higher frequency bands. Also, these higher frequency 5G signals
cannot penetrate solid objects easily, such as cars, trees, and walls, because of the nature of these
higher frequency electromagnetic waves. 5G cells can be deliberately designed to be as
inconspicuous as possible, which finds applications in places like restaurants and shopping malls
46
2.1 Frequency Bands of MMW (Standards)
Frequency Range 1
47
Table 2.1:
Frequency Range 2
Table 2.2:
High 5G Frequency Bands
48
Table 2.3:
Very High 5G Frequency Bands (MMW)
Table 2.4:
Figure 2.1: Expected 5G Frequency Band Usage: Reproduced courtesy OFCOM
49
2.2 Millimeter Wave Challenges and Difficulties
Because millimeter communication technologies are of great importance in the development of
future generations’ systems for wireless communications in general and cellular communications
in particular, we will review in the following sections the most important challenges that impede
the use of these technologies and the proposed solutions to overcome these problems.
2.2.1 Losses in Millimeter Wave

In order to optimally design a mmWave wireless system, it is essential to understand their
propagation behavior. Millimeter Waves behave differently in several key regards from the sub-6
GHz frequencies more commonly used by cellular systems today. Depending upon the specific
use case, these differences can either pose challenges or opportunities.
2.2.1.1 Free Space Pathloss.

Pathloss is the attenuation or reduction in power density of an electromagnetic wave as it
propagates. It is a major consideration for all wireless communication systems. It is often stated
that mmWaves suffer higher pathloss relative to lower frequencies, thereby limiting the range.
However, this glosses over important details, hence it is useful to understand the origin of this
frequency-dependent loss.
In the absence of atmospheric absorption or scattering, the radiated power density from an
isotropic source falls off as 1/d2 as in the figure (2.2), where d is the distance from the
transmitter. This square law decay arises from energy conservation and is independent of
frequency.
50
Figure 2.2: shows the free space loss at different distances.
The basic relationship between the transmit and receive power in line-of-sight conditions which
might be an important scenario for small cells with radii less than 100 meters is given by the
Friis equation:
Here Pt is the transmit power, Pr is the receive power, d is the transmit-receive separation, λ is
the wavelength and Gt and Gr are the transmit and receive antenna gains respectively with d» λ
assumed.
51
The free-space pathloss (LFS) is the loss in the Friis equation, arising from distance and
wavelength, for the case of isotropic unity-gain antennas (i.e., for Gt = Gr = 1, or 0 dB). Hence,
As shown above we can re-write this equation in terms of the antenna aperture at the transmitter
and receiver, At and Ar respectively. We see that if At and Ar are held constant the receive
power as given by Friis equation increases with decreasing wavelength. The question that needs
to be asked is how can At and Ar be held constant. At and Ar are directly proportional to the gain
of the antenna and to the squared of the wavelength. So, if wavelength decreases by a factor of
10, At and Ar would each decrease by a factor of 100. Consequently, the higher pathloss at
mmWave frequencies is a natural consequence of the smaller aperture. However, we can
maintain the value of At and Ar by increasing the gain of the antenna. This can be done by using
a single high gain antenna (20 dB or higher gain) or multiple antennas (antenna arrays) with low
to medium gain at the transmitter and/ or receiver to regain some of this frequency-dependent
pathloss.
Written in dB, the free space pathloss becomes:
where the distance D is measured in km, and the frequency f in GHz. The frequency-dependent
loss contribution is significant. Relative to 1 GHz, the free space pathloss at 28 GHz is 29 dB
higher for the same distance. At 38 GHz, the free space pathloss is 31.6 dB higher.
52
Adding back the antenna gains, the line-of-sight pathloss becomes:
which is applicable only in the absence of scattering, diffraction, multipath, penetration losses,
and atmospheric absorption.
2.2.1.2 Blockage (Shadowing Effects).

The large-scale variation in signal strength caused by objects in the physical environment
between the mmWave transmitter and receiver is called blockage or shadowing. In general,
mmWave signals tend to be more sensitive to obstacles in the environment than sub-6 GHz
signals because the mmWave wavelength is less than a centimeter, so most objects in the
environment appear relatively larger. When in contact with these objects, mmWave signals may
experience full or partial signal absorption, reflection, scattering, and/or diffraction. Most
reflected rays have different reflection angles; consequently, the signal strength in each direction
is weakened, enabling the scattered paths to be easily shadowed by objects. Furthermore, when
in contact with large obstacles, mmWave signals tend to experience considerably less diffraction
but more scattering and reflection than microwaves. This results in significant signal strength
attenuation of mmWave compared to microwaves, where diffraction is more of a dominant
means of propagation. To alleviate shadowing severity, mmWave communication systems tend
to leverage high gain and narrow beamforming antenna arrays. Since shadowing results in a
large scale (typically on the order 10 meters to 100 meters) variation in signal strength, it is
typically modeled as a large-scale variation around the pathloss.
Hence, the composite large scaling propagation loss can be expressed as:
53
S is the shadowing loss with a given distribution which is typically log-normal in nature and is
the standard deviation.
It is important to note that shadowing is an essential factor that must be considered when
modeling the mmWave channel, and therefore it is needs to be considered in the link budget
calculation and in determining the time variance of the mmWave channel.
2.2.1.2.1 Penetration Loss.

Electromagnetic waves have a weak ability to diffract obstacles that are of dimensions greater
than the wavelength of the wave. When a mmWave signal encounters reflective surfaces such as
wall, tinted glass or brick, these materials tend to exhibit high reflection coefficients. The
reflected rays further bounce off objects in the environment, resulting in propagating multipath
signals, and each multipath signal can then be further attenuated by the obstructions. In addition
to reflection, the incident ray may partially travel through the obstructions, and in some cases are
blocked or attenuated by the objects. The aggregate attenuation caused by these obstructions is
typically quantified as penetration loss, which is measured as the difference in power levels
between the unobstructed and the obstructed path. This loss is measured as the excess of the free
space pathloss. The major factors that impact penetration loss include signal frequency, material
permittivity, the material thickness and surface roughness, the incident angle, and the
polarization of the mmWave signal.
Studies of mmWave penetration losses at both 28 and 38 GHz have shown that mmWave tend
to:
54
● penetrate material like polystyrene with little to no reflections
● some reflections are observed when incident on wood and walls
● and materials such as tinted glass and brick cause extreme reflections, resulting in severe
penetration loss.
These studies also confirmed an increase in mmWave reflection coefficient as the thickness of
the material increases.
Another study characterized 28 GHz mmWave penetration losses through measurements
showing the impact of mmWave signals on different materials typically found in indoor and
outdoor environments. A summary of the reflection coefficients and penetration losses are
presented in Table 2.5 and Table 2.6, respectively.
Table 2.5: Reflection coefficient for different building materials at 28 GHz.
Table 13 shows the reflection coefficient as a function of the indoor and outdoor building
materials and the angle of incidence.
This higher reflection coefficient is likely a result of the difference in material permittivity and
roughness as well as the material thickness since outdoor materials are typically thicker than
those used indoors.
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Table 2.6: Penetration losses for different building materials at 28 GHz.
Table 2.6 shows penetration losses and material thickness for typical indoor and outdoor
building materials.
In general, it is worth noting that reflection coefficients and penetration losses are typically
higher in outdoor environments compared with indoors.
According to some studies the inability of the mmWave to penetrate building materials traveling
from inside to outdoors and the high penetration loss for mmWave signals going from outdoors
to indoors we can conclude that
1) mmWave signals generated in an indoor environment will be contained within a building,
consequently enabling frequency reuse in indoor and outdoor environments with minimal
interference leakage.
2) Indoor mmWave coverage will not be achieved from outdoor base stations which
indicates a need for heterogeneous networks, repeaters and relays in order to ensure
indoor-to-outdoor coverage.
2.2.1.2.2 Foliage Loss.

The attenuation of radio signal caused due to the presence of trees obstructing the radio link is
termed as foliage loss. Foliage loss is a very complicated issue that has many parameters and
variations. The foliage loss modeling at millimeter wave frequencies is a site-specific and not
tree specific study and the estimation of foliage caused attenuation is extremely significant for
the planning of a radio link. The size, density and distribution of leaves, branches and trunks, and
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the height of the tree relative to the antenna heights are the factors that influence the propagation
through vegetation.
The foliage penetration loss can be seen as an excess attenuation that must be taken into account
in the link budget in addition to the pathloss.
Fig
ure 2.3: Illustration of foliage penetration
In Figure (2.3), we draw a curve showing the losses due to penetration with thicknesses of 5, 10,
20 and 40 meters.
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Figure 2.3:
2.2.1.2.3 Body and Hand Loss.
The presence of humans has a significant impact on the propagation characteristics of mmWave
signals as humans tend to act as significant obstacles, reflectors and scatterers. This significant
impact can be attributed to the size of the mmWave wavelength compared with the human body,
which appears quite large compared with mmWave signals. In addition, when a mmWave signal
encounters the human body, due to the dielectric composition of the body (especially the skin),
there is minimal penetration, but significant reflection and scattering, leading to high losses. On
the other hand, a small fraction of the mmWave signals diffract around the human body,
allowing some of the energy to be recaptured, therefore, reducing the body blockage. Body or
hand loss is typically measured by taking the difference in the received power with humans
present and absent. Using this approach, measurements taken at 15, 21.5, 60, or 73 GHz using
horn antennas reported body losses in the range of 25 to 40 dB for a single person blocking the
mmWave signal. MmWave studies have shown that the extent of this blockage was in general
not dependent on the number of humans blocking the mmWaves, but rather on transmitter and
receiver antenna type, array size and configuration. This claim was substantiated by studies
performed by Raghavan et al, where the authors reported a mean body loss of ~8.5 dB for
measurements taken at 28 GHz on UEs with phase array antennas in an environment with mobile
humans. The authors explained that the differences in the recorded body losses compared with
those from studies based on horn antennas was due to the beamwidth difference between the
phase antenna arrays and the horn antennas used in those measurements. In addition to the
antenna type and configuration, hand losses that one may experience while holding a mobile
device depend largely on the hand grip (firm or loose) and hand size. For example, Raghavan et
al reported that for the firm hand grip scenario, a mean loss of ~ 15 dB was reported for
measurements with a UE having a phased antenna array. For scenarios with loose hand grip and
multiple air gaps between the fingers, a reduced blockage loss is expected (< 15 dB) due to the
energy captured from blocked or partially blocked antennas.
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When there are human body or hand movements in the presence of mmWave signals, the
blockage becomes dynamic. Typical body loss time scales measured in pedestrian scenarios are
reported to be around 100 milliseconds or more.
2.2.1.2.4 Scattering.
The high free space pathloss or signal attenuation at mmWave frequencies necessitates proximity
and line-of-sight LOS paths for establishing wireless links between the transmitter and the
receiver. Other propagation mechanisms proven effective at lower frequencies, such as
diffraction, instead incur substantial loss in strength at frequencies within mmWave bands. And
as already discussed, large scale fading in the form of shadowing (or blocking) will more
adversely impact propagation in non-LOS paths. Under such circumstances, the impact of small-
scale fading upon mmWave propagation from reflection and scattering will be far more
pronounced and establish as the dominating multi-path components. Due to the small wavelength
of mmWave signals, even the slightest variation in the top layer boundary of a surface creates a
scattering effect. In the context of wave propagation, such surfaces typically act as reflectors.
However, with an increase in roughness, a parallel set of rays will now be reflected with altered
and varying angles of reflection. Objects with size larger than the propagating wavelength under
discussion here, will cause reflection. On the other hand, surface irregularity, a by far more
common attribute, reduces the effective wavelength to create scattering. As a result, surfaces
with comparable wavelengths are common sources of scattering or diffuse reflection in
mmWave channels. To understand more clearly, a perfect surface can be perceived as a string of
adjacent points, where the lines normal to each point, are in parallel. With increasing roughness,
there will be greater variation in those normal lines, making them less parallel. Hence, even if
propagating waves arrived in parallel, they would end up being dispersed in entirely different
directions (different angles of reflections). This makes diffuse scattering a significant source of
received power. The effect of scattering heavily influences mmWave channel modeling based
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upon ray tracing concepts. Clusters or sources of reflection and scattering are defined as
alternative sources of energy. Scattering sub-events are integral part of such channels, and they
can be modeled around various representative patterns with the intent of deriving coefficients to
capture the effect of the rough surface area of a scattering cross section and the impact of the
ensuing power dispersion. On the receiver end, scattering manifests as multi-path propagation.
The spatial spread of all such arriving components is characterized by the angle spread, or more
specifically, the angle of arrival (AoA).
2.2.1.2.5 Atmospheric Loss.

Absorption losses occur when radio frequency waves traveling through the atmosphere are
absorbed by gas molecules via electric- and magnetic-dipole absorption processes, that couple
the RF photon to internal degrees of freedom of the gas molecule. The resulting losses have
frequency dependences determined by the resonant frequencies of the specific molecular species
that are involved. For the mmWave frequency range, the dominant sources of atmospheric loss
arise from oxygen (O2) and water vapor (H2O). At a specific location, the magnitude of the loss
will vary, depending upon the local density of oxygen and water vapor. In general, the densities
of oxygen and water vapor depend upon the local temperature, atmospheric pressure, and
humidity. The resulting total absorption loss for air will thus include the sum of the attenuation
factors for O2 and H2O,
atmospheric absorptions can result in measurable attenuation of the radio signal, leading to
reduced propagation range. For example, the 60 GHz peak is particularly strong – roughly 13
dB/km at sea level and 20°C. This helps explain why satellite providers and other incumbents
previously avoided this frequency, and which also contributed to its designation as unlicensed
spectrum. The peaks at ~180 and ~315 GHz are also strong, with attenuations of several dB/km.
One of the major limitations of reliable communication systems operating at mmWave
frequencies is the signal attenuation due to raindrops.

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Figure 2.4:
Figure (2.4) shows several rain attenuations in dB/km versus frequency for deferent values of
rainfall rate according to the ITU-R model. It can be noticed that the rain attenuation is low and
can be tolerated for drizzle and light raindrops, especially for the communication distance lower
than 1 km which is convenient for mmWave systems deployment.
2.2.1.3 Multipath Fading.

Multipath fading is a feature that needs to be taken into account when designing or developing a
radio communications system. In any terrestrial radio communications system, the signal will
reach the receiver not only via the direct path, but also as a result of reflections from objects such
as buildings, hills, ground, water, etc that are adjacent to the main path.
The overall signal at the radio receiver is a summation of the variety of signals being received.
As they all have different path lengths, the signals will add and subtract from the total dependent
upon their relative phases.
At times there will be changes in the relative path lengths. This could result from either the radio
transmitter or receiver moving, or any of the objects that provides a reflective surface moving.
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This will result in the phases of the signals arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn this will
result in the signal strength varying as a result of the different way in which the signals will sum
together. It is this that causes the fading that is present on many signals.
2.2.1.3.1 Selective and Flat Fading.

Multipath fading can affect radio communications channels in two main ways. This can give the
way in which the effects of the multipath fading are mitigated.
 Flat fading: This form of multipath fading affects all the frequencies across a given
channel either equally or almost equally. When flat multipath fading is experienced,
the signal will just change in amplitude, rising and falling over a period of time, or
with movement from one position to another.
 Selective fading: Selective fading occurs when the multipath fading affects different
frequencies across the channel to different degrees. It will mean that the phases and
amplitudes of the signal will vary across the channel. Sometimes relatively deep nulls
may be experienced, and this can give rise to some reception problems. Simply
maintaining the overall amplitude of the received signal will not overcome the effects
of selective fading, and some form of equalization may be needed. Some digital signal
formats, e.g., OFDM are able to spread the data over a wide channel so that only a
portion of the data is lost by any nulls. This can be reconstituted using forward error
correction techniques and in this way it can mitigate the effects of selective multipath
fading.
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2.3 Limiting Path Loss Effect
2.3.1 Array Deployment

We will now shift focus to the arrangement of the individual antennas; that is, the array
geometry. Figure (2.5) shows some common antenna array architectures.
Figure 2.5: Examples of different antenna array geometries: a) linear vertical; b) linear
horizontal; c) planar; d) cylindrical. Each circle represents one antenna.
The most important factors of an antenna array are the antenna spacing and its total size (relative
to the wavelength), which is known as the aperture.
The size (radiating elements) determines the array’s directivity; that is, its ability to focus the
radiated energy towards certain directions, while the number of antennas determines the
radiated/received energy.
Each individual antenna consists of one or more radiating elements that have a fixed size that
depends on the wavelength of the carrier frequency. For example, a half-wave dipole, is in
essence, a piece of wire of length = wavelength/2. For a carrier frequency of 2:6 GHz, such a
dipole has a length of 5:8 cm.
Since the size of a dipole cannot simply be made larger, multiple dipoles or other radiating
elements need to be connected together if the captured energy of an antenna shall be increased.
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The following definition, which is also visualized in Figure 2.6, makes the relation between the
terms radiating element, antenna, and antenna array clear.
Figure 2.6: Antenna array consisting of four antennas each of which is composed of four
radiating elements. The radiating elements of an antenna share the same RF input and
output.
2.3.1.1 Physical Array Size and Antenna Spacing.

Recent theoretical considerations and measurement campaigns have provided evidence that
outdoor SCs with up to 200 m cell radii are viable if the transmitters and receivers are equipped
with sufficiently “large” antenna arrays.
To understand why large antenna arrays or -to be more precise- antennas composed of a large
number of radiating elements are needed for mmWave communications, let's take a look again at
Friis’ transmission formula.
The first part of the equation says that for fixed Gt, Gr, the pathloss Pt/Pr is proportional to
lamda_to_the_power_of_negative_2, while the second part says that for fixed At, Ar, the
pathloss is proportional to lamda_to_the_power_of_2.
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The seeming contradiction between the two results is resolved once we understand that a dipole
(or any other radiating element) has a frequency-independent gain but an effective area that
shrinks with the carrier frequency.
The effective area of an antenna can therefore only be kept constant as decreases if more and
more radiating elements are connected together. The number of radiating elements fitting into a
given area is proportional to λ−2 and so is the resulting antenna gain.
In order to get an idea of the required number of radiating elements at mmWave frequencies,
denote by A(λ) = 0:1252 λ 2 the effective area of a half-wavelength dipole. Consider now a
communication channel at carrier frequency fc0 (with wavelength λ0) between two antennas
consisting of one (or multiple) such dipoles. According to Friis’ transmission formula, in order to
achieve the same pathloss at carrier frequency fc > fc0 (with wavelength λ), the antennas at the
transmitter and the receiver must consist of
times more dipoles. We can therefore say that doubling the carrier frequency requires twice the
number of radiating elements at both the transmitter and receiver to maintain the same received
signal strength. Figure (2.7) shows N (fc; fc0) as a function of fc for fc0 = 2 GHz.
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Figure 2.7: The function N (fc, fc0) versus carrier frequency fc for a fixed reference carrier
frequency fc0 = 2 GHz. N (fc, fc0) tells us how many times more half-wavelength dipoles are needed at the transmit
and receive antennas at carrier frequency fc to maintain the same pathloss as observed at fc0.
After mentioning that the main motivation of going to higher frequencies is that the available
bandwidth is dramatically increased, but since the total transmit power is generally fixed (due
to hardware or regulatory constraints), the SNR is inversely proportional to the bandwidth. We
can show for example, a communication system operating at fc = 60 GHz with 100 MHz of
bandwidth would require transmit and receive antennas consisting of √ 10 × 30 ≈ 95 times more
radiating elements to maintain the same SNR as a communication system operating at fc0 = 2
GHz with 10 MHz of bandwidth.
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2.3.1.2 Antenna Element Spacing against Frequency.
First, consider the antenna element spacing as a function of frequency. To avoid grating lobes, an
element spacing of λ/2 or less is required, where λ is the operating frequency wavelength. Look
at Table 2.7.
Table 2.7: λ/2 Spacing for Select Frequencies
Polarization diversity is also becoming a desired system objective. This feature provides the
ability to program a variety of antenna polarizations including horizontal, vertical, or both left
and right hand circular polarization. The antenna element implementation to achieve this feature
is a radiating element with two ports, where each port radiates with orthogonal polarizations. By
controlling the relative phase and amplitude of each port, the varied polarizations are created.
Although a significant benefit for the system, this feature unfortunately doubles the number of
antenna ports required and complicates the supporting electronics.
Figure (2.8) shows the element spacing vs. frequency, assuming there is a λ/2 antenna element
spacing implementation. With these physical size constraints outlined, the RF subsystems behind
the antenna can be evaluated to assess implementations required to meet the electronic channel
spacing vs. frequency.
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Fi
gure 2.8: Element spacing vs. frequency.
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2.3.2 Phased Array Technology
In wireless transmissions, antenna array’s function based on a concept—that a group working
together can achieve more than a single unit doing the same amount of work. Phased antenna
arrays operate on this principle to achieve improved signal strength, gain, directivity, and
performance over individual antennas as shown in the figure (2.9) below.
Figure 2.9: A fixed time sinusoid is transmitted using one antenna (left) or four antennas
(right). The amplitude of the signal is given by the bar legends.
Phased array antennas include multiple emitters are a type of antenna array that comes with the
feature of electronic steering. The goal in using a phased array antenna is to control the direction
and the shape of an emitted beam by exploiting constructive interference between two or more
radiated signals. This is known as “beamforming” in the antenna community.
A phased array antenna enables beamforming by adjusting the phase difference between the
driving signal sent to each emitter in the array. This allows the radiation pattern to be controlled
and directed to a target without requiring any physical movement of the antenna.
When signals emitted from each emitter in the phased array are perfectly in phase, they will
interfere constructively and produce intense radiation, but this only happens along a specific
direction as illustrated before in figure (2.9).
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In figure (2.10) the direction is controlled by setting the phase shift between the signals sent to
different emitters. The phase shift is controlled by placing a slight time delay between signals
sent to successive emitters in the array.
Figure 2.10: By transmitting the same signal from all antennas with appropriate delays, , the
directions where the signals add constructively can be controlled.
2.3.2.1 Types of Phased Array Antennas.

Phased array antennas are classified into two types based on the arrangement of individual
antennas and the number of phase shifters. The classification is as follows:
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1. Linear Array: The array elements are placed in a straight line with a single-phase shifter. Even
though the antenna arrangement is simple, the beam steering is limited to a single plane.
Figure 2.11: Linear array of a phased array antenna
2. Planar Array: For each antenna in a planar array, there is a phase shifter. So the disadvantage
of planar array antennas is the large number of phase shifters required. The beam can be
deflected in two planes.
Figure 2.12: planar array of a phased array antenna
As a conclusion, the future of 5G communication requires key technologies such as multiple
accesses, multi-beams, high gain, and ultra-dense networking. Antenna designers are prepared to
meet the requirements of upcoming wireless communication system with phased array antennas.
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2.3.2.2 Advantages of Phased Array Technology.
Beamforming with phased array antennas is necessary at high frequencies to overcome losses
during transmission.
The enhancement in various parameters and quantities upon arraying can be summarized as
follows:
1. Power: the power of the collective signal is the summation of the individual signal powers,
therefore, the strength is increased.
2. Beamforming: the shape of the beam can be controlled by the phase difference of the
individual signals.
3. Beam Steering: the elimination of mechanical repositioning makes the beam steering or beam
positioning flexible. The beam steering is established using electronically variable phase shifters.
4. Multi-Beams: with the help of phase shifters, hundreds of beams can be synthesized in phased
array antennas.
5. Weight: the weight of phased array antennas is less than the mechanically steered single
antenna.
6. Cost: a mechanically-steered antenna can be replaced by a less expensive phased array
antenna, keeping the resolution the same.
7. Reliability: the reliability of phased array antennas is much greater than single antennas. If
one array antenna becomes impaired, the remaining antennas in the array will continue to
function with a slight modification of the radiation pattern.
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2.3.3 Massive MIMO Concept
Massive multiple-input multiple-output (mMIMO) is an emerging wireless technology that uses
a large number of antennas, in particular at the base station (BS) level.
Compared to the 4th generation (4G) standard where up to eight antennas are used, mMIMO has
been adopted as one of the key technologies of 5G with the use of over tens (up to hundreds) of
antennas.
Thanks to the implementation of multiple antennas at the BS level, multiple users in the same
time-frequency resource can be served as illustrated in Figure (2.13), which improves the system
capacity and spectral efficiency.
Fi
gure 2.13: Illustration of mMIMO in multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO) context.
Another and not the least of the advantages of mMIMO is the high gain of beamforming.
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2.3.4 Bridging the Gap with Signal Boosters
Signal boosters are increasingly considered to be an integral part of mmWave and 5G cellular
network deployment. Boosters have long been a blessing for locations with inadequate cellular
signals. Signal boosters work by pulling in outside cell signal inside a building or vehicle,
amplifying it, and broadcasting the boosted signal to cellular connected devices. Given
mmWave`s problems with attenuation and being rendered useless by even the simplest
structures, it`s easy to imagine a future where 5G networks are complemented by — if not
dependent on — 5G signal boosters. Building entire cell sites or small cell networks is necessary
for some situations. But there are countless other examples that signal boosters can help fill the
gap between the incredible speeds offered by millimeter waves and their limitations.
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Chapter Three
Enabling Technologies for

Millimeter Wave
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3.1 RAN Architecture
Since the first commercial wireless networks (1st), the Radio Access Network has evolved.
cellular generation analog). The antenna was the only component put on top of the antenna in
earlier iterations. tower. All other RAN operations, like as radio and baseband processing, were
handled by a single piece of equipment. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is usually installed
in a ground shelter. The signal from the radio Long coaxial cables were used to connect the
antenna to the BTS, resulting in severe RF transmission loss. with increased frequency Radio
and baseband operations are being used in the current phase of wireless networks (2G through
4G). parted. A cluster of antennas forming three or more sectors is utilized in a macrocell
deployment.
Fig. 3.1: Sub 6 GHz RRH
3.1.1 RAN Architecture for 5G

Radio access networks have come a long way since their inception, with today's RANs
supporting multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antennas, greater spectrum bandwidths, and
multi-band capabilities carrier aggregation, with a slew of new features for 5G and beyond.
Modern RAN architectures divide the network into two parts.
From the control plane, the user plane is fed into various network parts. The control plane and
the data plane are separated in this way. Because it correlates with Software Defined
Networking, the data plane is an important part of the flexible 5G RAN (SDN) service chaining,
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as well as Network Function Virtualization (NFV) approaches. Figure 3.2 depicts a high-level
overview gNodeB has a variety of RAN split options, including the separation of a distributed
unit (DU) and a centralised unit (CU) (CU). The CU can alternatively be divided into two planes:
the user plane (CU-UP) and the control plane (CU-CP), with the E1 interface connecting the two.
Fig. 3.2: RAN split options and RAN network elements
• Option 1 (RRC/PCDP 1A-like split) distributed architecture similar to all-in-one small cell
• Option 2 (PDCP/RLC Split 3C-like split)
• Option 3 (High RLC/Low RLC split, Intra RLC split)
• Option 4 (RLC-MAC split)
• Option 5 (Intra MAC split)
• Option 6 (MAC-PHY split)
• Option 7 (Intra PHY split)
• Option 8 (PHY-RF split), similar to CPRI interface as defined in 4G
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This decomposition and isolation of functions, along with the well-defined interfaces between
them, allowing operators to disaggregate software from hardware. The choice of how to split
New Radio (NR) functions in the architecture depends on factors related to radio network
deployment scenarios, constraints and intended supported services. The lower layer fronthaul
split connects the Radio Unit (RU) with the DU and is characterized by:
• low latency on the order of 100 msec

• the ability for the DU to serve multiple RUs
• RU-DU distance that can be 20 km or more
• Throughput requirement that depends on the bandwidth, MIMO configuration and split point
between the DU and the RU.
When eCPRI is used in 5G fronthaul, it divides the network into numerous pathways, with each
path's phase being controlled to achieve beamforming. This allows a single beam to be directed
per data route, allowing just one user to be serviced at a time. Analog beamforming is the most
basic architecture, although it has performance limitations due to the lack of multi-beam
capability.as well as MIMO support Hybrid beamforming is a good middle ground. It's a
beamforming design with a lot of potential. The overall number of antenna elements is less than
the number of digital transceivers. Beamforming with a hybrid approach Basically, it mixes
digital pre-coding and analogue beamforming to create several beams at the same time, area, and
hence the ability to serve several users in a same time slot, as well as single MIMO support
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Fig. 3.3: Analog beamformer diagram [24] .
Figure 3.4 shows a simple diagram of hybrid beamforming architecture. The number of antenna
port configurations is represented by the RF chain, which is associated with a subset of antenna
elements. A 2x2 system, for example, can accommodate two RF chains, whereas a 4x4 system
can support four. The fewer people The use of RF chains with DAC minimises power
consumption while providing a suitable number of channels.
For MIMO support, a number of beams are directed in diverse directions toward a single user.
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Fig. 3.4. Hybrid beamforming structure [25] .
6.2 Antennas
6.2.1 Macrocell base stations
The antenna is an invaluable segment of any wireless network. 5G Americas has published
several whitepapers on evolution of antenna for 4G and 5G systems. Early 2G and 3G systems
operated with two receive antennas spaced at least a lambda spacing to optimize the uplink
receive diversity performance. 4G LTE introduced the concept of Multiple Input, Multiple
Output (MIMO) and beamforming transmission to boost spectral efficiency and throughput. In
its most basic form, the antenna for a 2x2 MIMO system is similar to antennas used in 2G
systems. The higher order MIMO (4x4) or beamforming (8x8) requires more antennas. In 4x4
MIMO system, the 4 antenna ports are comprised of 2 cross polarized antenna columns spaced at
least by 1 lambda. In 8x8 MIMO/ beamforming system, the 8 antenna ports are comprised of 4
cross polarized antenna columns with spacing of 0.5 or 0.65 lambda spacing. In both cases, each
antenna port is represented by one column per polarization comprised of 10-12 elements. All
antenna systems discussed so far are called passive antenna, where antenna and radio modules
are separate units interconnected by a short of long coaxial cable. Fig. 3.5 shows different
generations of macro base station antenna systems for sub 6 GHz.
The active antenna systems where antenna and radio modules are integrated is a new trend for
base station architecture in 6 GHz band. It is already in operation by several operators around the
world. The active antenna systems typically have much higher number of antenna ports (32 or
64) and are being called massive MIMO. In such systems, single user and multi-user MIMO are
being used to exploit further enhanced spectral efficiency.
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Fiqure 3.5:
The antenna module used in massive MIMO systems are phased array antennas that are also a
very attractive choice for mmWave. The small wavelength at mmWave frequencies implies that
the antenna elements will be closely spaced, which results in using large number of elements
within a reasonable size. At mmWave, the number of antenna elements at the base station can
vary from 64 to more than 1000. Coverage-enhancing solutions are essential in mmWave. A
high number of antenna elements would provide wider coverage from a single radio and antenna
through beamforming/steering. Fig. 3.6 shows a typical antenna made up of rows and columns of
individual dual polarized antenna elements with each element connected to radio chains. In sub 6
GHz, multiple antenna elements are interconnected to form a subarray connected to radio chains.
Directivity is the measure of how concentrated the antenna gain is in a given direction relative to
an isotropic radiator. It follows a 10*log (N) relationship, where N is the number of elements in
the array. Gain, however, takes into account directivity as well as ohmic and scan losses. So, in
general, array gain equals 10*log (N), plus the embedded element gain (Ge), minus the ohmic
and scan losses:
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Ge is the embedded element gain, which is the gain of a single radiator embedded in the array. If
the radiating elements are spaced λ/2 apart in both the azimuth and elevation directions, then the
area of each element is λ2/4. Since antenna gain is 4π/λ2*Ae, where Ae is the effective area of
the antenna, then the Ge equals π or 5 dBi.
Fig. 3.6: Typical phased array antenna (8x8) [26].

3.2.2 Antennas for Smartphones
Because of the small physical size of antennas at mmWave frequencies, chip-integrated arrays
with 4-8 elements are a viable alternative. These antennas have a high gain and can handle many
frequencies, beams, achieving the design goal of providing a high-quality data link in all
directions. High antenna gain and the ability to achieve high UE EIRP with acceptable power
consumption necessitate high antenna gain and the ability to achieve high UE EIRP with
acceptable power consumption. ability to sustain the link by steering the beam in the desired
direction:
• Antenna size and spacing are determined by physics.

• Gain and EIRP are determined by the number of antenna elements in the array.
• Beamforming increases antenna gain.
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To achieve this a group of 4-8 antenna elements are arranged in an array and phased to
concentrate radiation in a relatively narrow beam (gain= G+10log (N), where N is number of
elements and G is the element gain). This gain applies in both uplink and down link. Fig. 3.7
shows a typical diagram for such antennas. There are challenges of integrating the antenna in the
device behind a cover, which at mmWave frequencies has a significant effect on the radiating
performance of the antenna. Techniques used for Radom design in the aerospace industry find
application here. Antennas can be efficiently integrated behind plastic or glass covers by
engineering the cover geometry to act locally as a lens or even behind metal covers by including
electromagnetic windows, perhaps based on Frequency Selective Surfaces (FSS) design
principles. Another option made possible by the small physical size of antennas at mmWave
frequencies is the integration of slot-based designs in the metal rim of phone.
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Fig. 3.7. Typical antenna design for mmWave smartphone.
3.3 Beamforming
The small wavelength of mmWave frequencies allows us to pack many antennas in a small area.
Transmitting a signal through many antennas with specific phase offsets provides beamforming
gain by coherently combining the electromagnetic signal radiated from each transmitter antenna.
Similarly, the coherent combination of in-phase received signals from multiple antennas
produces a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) gain when the receive antennas have uncorrelated noise.
The realized beamforming gain at both transmitter and receiver makes the communications
channel directional, which reduces inter- and intra-cell interference as shown in Fig. 3.8.
Transmit and receive beamforming power gain, coupled with reduced interference, boosts signal-
to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR), bringing higher data rates, more cellular capacity, and
extended cell coverage. The realized gain in SINR is especially useful for mmWave
communication systems, given the high penetration and propagation losses at mmWave
frequencies discussed. Furthermore, multiple beams at the transmitter can be used to multiplex
parallel data streams to communicate with spatially separated multiple users (MU-MIMO).
Multiple beams at the receiver can bring diversity gain, increasing reliability via redundant data
streams.
Fig. 3.8. mmWave beamforming with reduced inter-cell and intra-cell interference.
To realize efficient beamforming, each antenna requires an amplitude controller, phase shifter or
time delay element. A specific configuration of these elements, coupled with the antenna array
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geometry, determines the beamforming radiation pattern. Either open-loop or closed-loop
beamforming estimates can be used to perform beamforming. Closed-loop techniques consider
that the channel estimated between each transmitter and receiver antenna is known, allowing the
best beamforming configuration to be obtained from the estimated channel matrix. Open loop
techniques utilize a pre-established codebook for beamforming at both the transmitter and
receiver. The best beamforming configuration from the codebook is selected according to the
received signal strength without explicitly estimating the channel. Depending on the choice of
phase shifter types in the analog or digital domains, several beamforming architectures have
been considered. Three common beamforming architectures for mmWave communications are:i)
analog phase array (APA) ii) hybrid phase array (HPA), and iii) fully digital architecture (FDA).
These architectures are briefly introduced in Chapter 3.1.1. Although FDA is popular choice for
sub-6 GHz massive MIMO communications, it is less suitable for mmWave due to the channel
sparsity, high propagation loss etc. HPA and APA are the preferred architectures for mmWave
frequencies when performance and cost tradeoffs are considered. FDA is considered as a next
generation architecture for mmWave, with pending advancements in circuit technologies.
3.3.1 Analog
Analog phased array (APA) is considered as a solution to reduce hardware costs for analog to
digital converters (ADCs). This architecture places phase shifters in the analog domain at radio
frequency (RF), analog baseband (IF) or in local oscillator (LO) paths. Analog RF beamforming
is one of the most commonly used architectures, since it requires a single mixer/LO component.
However, it suffers from a high noise figure if the phase shifters are passive, or highpower
consumption if the phase shifters are active. RF beamforming also provides spatial blocker
rejection before the mixer and IF circuit, which relaxes the linearity constraints of downstream
receiver circuit components. Conversely, analog IF and LO beamforming both require multiple
mixers and LO distribution circuits but can employ low power phase shifters.
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Analog beamforming with any of the three architectures given above requires only one pair of
ADCs and digital-to-analog converters (DAC). It combines the signal at the output of receive
antennas in the analog domain using phase shifters prior to digitizing with ADCs for receiver
processing. Or it applies phase shifting at the input of each transmit antenna after converting a
single digital data stream to the analog domain, as shown in Fig. 3.9. Since analog beamforming
supports only single stream transmission, it can serve users only in a single beam direction at a
time. Communication with spatially separated users can be achieved by beam switching to
different directions in time. Analog combining at the receiver has advantage of rejecting both
directional in-band (inter- and intra-cell) interference as well as out-of-band interference, which
also reduces the requirement on the ADC bit resolution, and therefore lowers ADC power
consumption.
Fig. 3.9. Analog beamforming architectures: i) RF beamforming (left), ii) IF beamforming

(middle), iii) LO beamforming (right).
To overcome the substantial pathloss, mmWave communication relies largely on highly directed
transmissions. As described in Chapter 3.3, using directional transmissions with analogue
beamforming greatly complicates beam search and tracking capability. Searching with an angle
beam, for example. Given the possibly huge beam search space, accessing a single beam at a
time can slow down the initial access. In Furthermore, reliance on a single beam connection at
the receiver might lead to frequent connection failures owing to interference. Due to beam
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obstructions, the system's overall reliability suffers. Beamforming in the data plane using a
singleIn a non-line of sight situation, stream is an extremely wasteful use of the channel.
3.3.2 Hybrid
Multi-user/multi-stream transmission is also supported by hybrid phased array (HPA)
architectures that use multiple pairs of ADCs/DACs (RF chain). The number of RF chains is
typically substantially higher. less than the number of antennas, and as few as the amount of data
streams required In terms of RF chain and antenna connection types, there are two main HPA
architectures. As illustrated in Fig. 3.10, there are two types of HPAs: fully linked and sub-array
connected. In an HPA that is totally connected, All antenna elements are connected to each RF
chain through separate phase shifters. As a result, the number The number of phase shifters
increases as the number of RF chains and antenna elements increases. The complete The linked
HPA gives the highest beamforming gain with the smallest beamforming aperture. is limited by
the number of antennas; therefore, this architecture is more power efficient and popular than
fully connected HPA. However, since each RF chain is connected to a smaller number of
antenna elements, the beamforming gain is lower and the beamwidth is wider. This results in
lower receive signal power and more inter-user/beam interference. Both architectures can be
implemented with RF, IF or LO analog phase shifting, as described in Chapter 3.2.1.
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Fig. 3.10. Hybrid beamforming architecture with two RF-chains: i) sub-array connected
HPA, ii) fully connected HPA.
HPA utilizes both digital beamforming with multiple RF chains and analog beamforming with
analog phase shifters (thus “hybrid”). The digital beamforming can be used further reduce the
inter-beam interference. The main benefit of HPA is to enable multi-beam transmission to
support multi-user communication using the same time and frequency resources. In addition, the
digital beamforming part of HPA can useful for improving beamforming gain in non-line-of-
sight channels for better coverage. At the receiver, HPA can enable dual/multi-connectivity with
multiple base stations, which can increase the reliability of the mmWave communications
system. Compared to analog beamforming, HPA can provide faster initial access, since a
transceiver with HPA can create multiple beams in different directions at the same time. This
functionality is critical especially when control channels are also beamformed to improve
mmWave cell coverage. In a mobile environment, multiple beams can be used to track beam
direction, either through digital beamforming and/ or by constantly monitoring the best beam
direction with the available RF chains. Although HPA provides better performance than analog
beamforming, its performance is still limited by number of RF chains. In a high user density
mobile environment, the overhead of beam acquisition can be still very large. The beam tracking
of HPA is also limited to the direction of the beams, while other directions remains blind to the
transceiver. In addition, as discussed above the most popular and power efficient subarray HPA
type has lower beamforming gain and higher sidelobes, which might not be desirable in certain
interference-limited scenarios.
3.3.3 Digital
Fully digital architecture (FDA) where each antenna element has a separate pair of RF chains as
shown in Fig. 3.11 has become increasingly popular. Theoretically, at the transmitter FDA can
support as many users as there are antennas. Like HPA, it can provide the highest beamforming
gain and the least interuser interference. Therefore, FDA allows the implementation of MU-
MIMO with more layers. It also has ability to send a pilot sequence for beam search in all
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directions at the same time, which can significantly reduce initial access and beam tracking
latency. In addition, FDA has ability to adapt beamforming to channel, due to flexible digital
processing and phase allocation, and therefore provides the best beamforming gain in a non-line-
of-sight channel. At the receiver, FDA can constantly monitor all directions at the same time for
the 5G Americas | Understanding mmWave for 5G Networks 57 possible best beam connections,
and hence provides the most robust mmWave communications in the mobile environment.
Fig. 3.11. Digital beamforming architecture.

Although FDA can provide optimal performance, it has the highest power consumption at
ADCs/ DACs for a given bit resolution and sampling rate. Similarly, power dissipation at the
input/output (I/O) interface between Radio Frequency Integrate Circuits (RFICs) and baseband
processors increases linearly with the number of RF chains. FDA also has highest power
consumption at the baseband processor, since the complexity of channel estimation and multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO) processing increases linearly with the number of RF chains. In
addition, it has lower signal-to noise ratio (SNR) per RF chain, which leads to high channel
estimation error per antenna element when conventional channel estimation methods are
considered (e.g. least square (LS) or minimum mean square error (MMSE)). Since power
dissipation at ADCs/DACs scales linearly with sampling rate, and exponentially with the number
of bits per sample, it may not be desirable to operate the system with high resolution
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ADCs/DACs. Recently, FDA with low resolution processing has attracted significant interest. To
facilitate reduced power consumption at I/O interfaces, time domain compressions such as
common packet radio interface (CPRI) and spatial domain compression/precoding methods have
been considered. The spatial compression in time domain exploits the received signal correlation
to reduce the number of received signal inputs to baseband integrated circuit (BBIC). If the
compression matrix is identified blindly, without any requirements for training or time/frequency
recovery, the beam tracking latency can be reduced as well. Continuously adapting the spatial
compression matrix to capture most of the receive power can lead to better beamforming than
fixed codebook-based beamforming. Therefore, the use of compression for blind and relatively
faster beam tracking and management, without any baseband processing, can be useful for FDA.
Since the total number of inputs to the baseband processor is reduced by compression and
precoding, the complexity of MIMO processing algorithms remains similar to HPA.
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Table 3.1. Beamforming architecture comparison.
3.4 Beam Acquisition and Tracking

As just discussed, the high pathloss of mmWave bands requires high beamforming gain to have a
reasonable SNR and decent user experience. These beams need to be aligned between the cell
site and UE at all times to maintain the communication link, as shown in Fig. 3.12. Such beam
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alignment is a challenge in changing mobile environments where blockage is always a
possibility. The human body, brick walls, and glass are all obstacles that may cause blockage as
the user moves through space. This severe loss cannot be compensated by increasing
transmission power or beamforming gain. Instead, the mmWave transmitter needs to find
alternative paths or spatial channels.
Fig. 3.12. Beam tracking at the base station to maintain the communication link between base
station and car.
With APA and HPA beamforming solutions, the direction of the beams is adjusted by
periodically sweeping the channel according to the movement and rotation of the mobile station.
However, frequent beam sweeping increases overhead and reduces throughput. FDA solutions
can transmit and receive signals in all directions at once since its antenna elements are
omnidirectional, and FDA can virtually form directional and narrow beams covering the whole
space at the same time. FDA transmitters and receivers can dynamically identify the new beam
direction and find the best beamforming vector without increasing the latency. At the receiver,
FDA can use blind beam tracking, which constantly monitors the best beam directions from data
symbols without requiring pilots while data path is communicating with the current data beam.
One of the challenges of mmWave systems is beam acquisition for mutual beam detection at
both the base station and the user. The 5G NR standard supports periodic transmission of
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synchronization signals with directional transmission and directional receiver beam sweeping.
Assuming both transmit and receive nodes are directional with and beams, respectively, the
exhaustive search over possible beam combinations leaves us with total possibilities. Therefore,
the latency of the initial access is sec for APA/HPA, where is beam sweeping period. However,
for FDA with wide beamwidth antenna patterns, a receiving device can find the best beam
direction in one shot. All possible receive directions are examined, and the best beam can be
virtually determined in zero-time (ignoring the processing latency), when processing the digitally
stored signal. Therefore, an FDA system initial access latency is reduced to only sec. As a
performance comparison, let’s assume the typical time duration to sweep every beam direction is
. Assuming = 64 and = 16, and an exhaustive beam search, the total time to continuously search
for the best beam pair is around 5s for an APA or HPA device. For an FDA device, the
acquisition time is limited to 320ms, regardless of number of beams at the fully digital receiving
device. In other words, the acquisition time drops by a factor of 16.
3.5 Standardization of Enabling Technologies For mmWave

3.5.1 3GPP NR FR2
The standardization of 5G NR for mmWave began with an “early drop” of 3GPP Rel-15 in
December 2017. The initial drop of Rel-15 only addressed standardization of the RAN, and
required LTE to operate a 5G network. The initial Rel-15.0 specification defined the basic
operating characteristics for 5G NR of of the sub-6 GHz bands that have been used for LTE and
prior generation technologies, defined as Frequency Range 1 (FR1) but also for higher
frequencies between 24 and 52.6 GHz, defined as Freqeuncy Range 2 (FR2) – what we have
been referring to in theis document as mmWave. The first three standardized FR2 bands in Rel-
15 were n257 (global 28 GHz), n258 (24 GHz) and n261 (39 GHz). Channel bandwidths,
subcarrier spacing, guard band sizes, PRB allocations, channel numbering, modulation and
coding schemes and all other primary aspects were defined in these early specifications. Also,
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Rel-15 introduced the framework for beam-based operations, which as we have seen are intrinsic
to enabling mmWave to work for mobile broadband. Later Rel-15 development expanded to
begin standardization of “standalone” 5G with work on the next generation 5G core network.
The specifications have continued to evolve since this time as shown in Fig. 3.13, enhancing use
cases beyond eMBB with Rel-16 having completed at the 3GPP RAN #88 plenary which ended
in early July 2020. Rel-17 study items/work items underway.
Fig. 3.13. High-level 3GPP timeline (source: www.3gpp.org).

As is the case everywhere, the global COVID-19 crisis that started early in 2020 necessitated the
shifting of 3GPP working groups and plenaries from 4-6 in-person meetings a year to online
meeting meetings only. This somewhat slowed development of Rel-16 and Rel-17.
3.5.1.1 3GPP NR FR2 Beam Management

In 3GPP Rel-15, 3GPP NR introduced basic beam management procedures including beam
refinement procedure and PCell beam failure recovery (BFR). The beam refinement procedure
can be classified as DL based and UL based. The DL based beam refinement is illustrated in Fig.
3.14, and can be divided into three hierarchical phases: the P1, P2 and P3 procedures. In the P1
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procedure, UE P1 receive beam measures multiple candidate gNodeB P1 transmit beams, and the
UE reports good gNodeB P1 transmit beam(s) to the gNodeB. Here, the UE P1 beam can be
pseudo omni directional beam, and the gNodeB P1 transmit beam can be coarse wide beam, e.g.
SSB beam. In the P2 procedure, the gNodeB selects one reported P1 transmit beam, and transmit
multiple narrower candidate P2 beams within the selected P1 transmit beam. The UE P1 receive
beam measures the multiple transmitted candidate gNodeB P2 transmit beams, and the UE
reports good gNodeB P2 transmit beam(s) to the gNodeB. In the P3 procedure, the gNodeB
selects one reported P2 transmit beam and repeats it for multiple times, based on which UE
performs receive beam sweep across narrower candidate P3 receive beams and identifies the best
P3 receive beam. After the hierarchical P1/P2/ P3 procedure, the beam pair link is therefore
refined with the best matched gNodeB/UE beams.
Fig. 3.14. DL-based beam refinement procedure.

In Rel-15, another feature fundamental to FR2 is PCell BFR, where the UE continuously
monitors beam failure detection (BFD) reference signals, which are associated with DL control
beams of PCell. If the quality of all BFD RSs is below a threshold, it implies all monitored DL
control beams have failed, and the UE can initiate the PCell BFR via contention free-based
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random access (CFRA) procedure. After sending the CFRA preamble, the UE will monitor the
BFR response from the PCell on a search space dedicated to BFR. The BFR response and the
following messages will be sent via the new beam identified in the CFRA to further refine the
new beam pair link.
In Rel-16, additional enhancements were further introduced to FR2, including SCell BFR, L1-
SINR based beam refinement, and enhancements on beam management overhead/latency
reduction. One major use case of the SCell BFR is to recover a failed SCell on FR2 while the
PCell is on FR1. An example is shown in Fig. 3.15 in case of FR1+FR2 carrier aggregation (CA)
with basic steps listed below.
Step 1: UE detects that all DL control beams have failed for a SCell on FR2
Step 2: UE sends link recovery request (LRR) on PCell on FR1 via corresponding PUCCH
resource
Step 3: PCell allocates UL grant for UE to report failed SCell index
Step 4: UE sends the SCell BFR MAC CE to report failed SCell index + potential identified new
candidate beam
Step 5: PCell replies with BFR response, acknowledging the reception of BFR MAC CE
Based on reported failed SCell index, PCell may further carry out more extensive beam training
to identify best new beam on SCell
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Fig. 3.15. SCell BFR procedure.
In Rel-15, beam selection is based on L1-RSRP, which does not consider the interference. To
incorporate the impact of interference in beam selection, L1-SINR is introduced as a beam
reporting metric in Rel-16. For each beam report, up to 4 beams can be reported, and absolute
SINR value is reported for the 1st reported beam, which has the highest SINR. Differential SINR
value is reported per remaining beam, and is computed with respect to the highest SINR. In
addition, as listed in Table 3.2, Rel-16 defines five total combinations of channel measurement
resource (CMR) and interference measurement resource (IMR) for the L1-SINR measurement
resource configuration.
Table 3.2. Possible CMR/IMR Combinations for L1-SINR
To further reduce beam management overhead and latency, the MAC CE-based pathloss (PL)
reference signal update has been introduced in Rel-16, where the PL RS for PUSCH and
aperiodic (AP)/semi-persistent (SP) SRS can be activated/updated via a MAC CE. With this
feature, both UL beam and corresponding PL RS can be dynamically updated by MAC CE to

97
avoid the latency due to RRC-based PL RS update. On the other hand, in FR2, multiple
component carriers (CC) typically share the same analog beamformer, especially in intra-band
CA case. The beam indication signaling overhead and latency can be reduced by exploiting the
property that a common analog beam is shared across multiple CCs. Therefore, Rel-16
introduced the feature of simultaneous DL/UL beam update across CCs, where a single MAC CE
can activate a same set of beam IDs for multiple CCs as illustrated in Fig. 3.16. The
simultaneous beam update across CCs further includes the following three sub-features: • For
PDSCH beam update, a set of PDSCH TCI state IDs activated by a MAC CE can be applied to
all BWPs in the CCs in an applicable CC list • For PDCCH beam update, a TCI state ID
activated by a MAC CE can be applied to all CORESET(s) with same CORESET ID for all
BWPs in the CCs in an applicable CC list • For SRS beam update, a SP/AP SRS spatial relation
info activated by a MAC CE can be applied to SP/AP SRS resource(s) with same resource ID for
all BWPs in the CCs in an applicable CC list In each of above sub-features, up to two lists of
CCs can be configured by RRC per UE, and the applied list is determined by the indicated CC in
the MAC CE.
Fig. 3.16. Simultaneous DL/UL beam update across CCs

To further reduce UL beam switch latency and overhead, the concept of UL default beam is
introduced in Rel-16 to allow UL beam to automatically follow a DL beam without additional
signaling. For PUCCH/ SRS/PUSCH without spatial relation configured, the default spatial
relation and PL RS are determined in the following two cases: If CORESET(s) are configured on
the CC, the quasi-colocated Type-D (QCL Type-D) RS of the TCI state / QCL assumption of the
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CORESET with the lowest ID in active BWP serves as the default spatial relation and PL RS;
Otherwise, the QCL Type-D RS of the activated PDSCH TCI state with the lowest ID in active
DL BWP serves as the default spatial relation and PL RS.
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University of Suleimani

Department of Electrical Engineering

A Review Study on mmWave New Radio Technology for the 5G

ENGR.Dr. Araz Sabir

knowledge used have only duty acknowledged.

degree of University of Suleimani, Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

ENGR.Dr. Araz Sabir Ameen Date

ENGR.Dr. Alaa Muheddin Abdurrahman Date

ENGR.Dr. Matai Naji Saeed

ENGR.Mr. Zring Othman Abdulla Date

entirely my own responsibility.

useful in implementing queues or stacks.

power consumption are independent of N.

4. CAGR: Compound Annual Growth Rate

smartphones and tablets., including:

 Smart appliances, such as fridges and thermostats

billions of new devices.

1.1 Limitations in Bandwidth

millimeter wave spectrum comes into play.

and penetrate better into building materials.

generation cellular networks.

1.2 The Possibilities

buildings, trees, and even leaves can get in the way.

1.4 Millimeter Waves in Cellular Networks

Similarly, a person connecting to an indoor antenna loses millimeter-wave connectivity when

5G deployments below the millimeter wave frequency threshold. In addition, it needs to be

However, there are other ways to introduce millimeter-wave 5G in metropolitan areas.

drawbacks of millimeter-wave technology, it is deployed in small cellular networks possibly

1.5 General Statistics

1.5.1 Growth in Internet Users

Figure 1.1: Global Internet user growth

and Africa (10% CAGR expected from 2018 to 2023).

Region 2018 2023

Global 51% 66%

Asia Pacific 52% 72%

Central and Eastern Europe 65% 78%

Latin America 60% 70%

Middle East and Africa 24% 35%

North America 90% 92%

Western Europe 82% 87%

Table 1.1: Internet users as a percentage of regional population

1.5.3 Global connection growth

billion in 2022, of which more than 422 million will be 5G capable.

1.5.4 Number of devices per capita

Region 2018 2023

Global 2.4 3.6

Asia Pacific 2.1 3.1

Central and Eastern Europe 2.5 4.0

Latin America 2.2 3.1

Middle East and Africa 1.1 1.5

North America 8.2 13.4

Western Europe 5.6 9.4

Table 1.2: Average number of devices and connections per capita

1.5.5 Mobile subscribers as a percentage of geographical population

Region 2018 2023

Global 66% 71%

Asia Pacific 65% 72%

Central and Eastern Europe 79% 81%

Latin America 75% 78%

Middle East and Africa 53% 57%

North America 86% 88%

Western Europe 84% 85%

Table 1.3: Mobile subscribers as a percentage of regional population