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responding at temperatures below 12°C
CHAPTER 9: SENSES
Sensation
- Process initiated by stimulating sensory
receptors
Senses
- Ability to perceive stimuli
- Receiving of brain from the body’s
environment information
Perception
- Conscious awareness of those stimuli
SENSES:
 General Senses: have receptors distributed
over a large part of the body
SOMATIC SENSES – provide sensory
information about the body and the
environment
VISCERAL SENSES – provide information
about various internal organs
 Special Senses: (5 senses) more specialized
in structure and localized part
 Sensory Receptors: sensory nerve endings
or specialized cells capable for responding to
stimuli by developing action potential
SENSATION: TYPES OF STIMULUS
DETECTED
MECHANORECEPTORS – respond to
stimuli, such as the bending or stretching of
receptors
CHEMORECEPTORS – respond to
chemicals (allowing us to perceive smells)
PHOTORECEPTORS – respond to light
THERMORECEPTORS – respond to
temperature changes
NOCICEPTORS – respond to stimuli that
result in the sensation of pain
GENERAL SENSES:
Skin Sensory Receptors:
 Free nerve endings - relatively
unspecialized neuronal branches similar to
dendrites. Free nerve endings are distributed
throughout almost all parts of the body.
 Cold/Warm Receptors - Cold receptors
respond to decreasing temperatures but stop
(54°F). Warm receptors respond to
increasing temperatures but stop responding
at temperatures above 47°C (117°F).
 Touch receptors - are structurally more
complex than free nerve endings.
o Merkel disks are small,
superficial nerve endings
involved in detecting light
touch and superficial
pressure.
o Hair follicle receptors,
associated with hairs, are
also involved in detecting light
touch.
o Meissner corpuscles, are
located just deep to the
epidermis.
o Ruffini corpuscles, a deeper
tactile receptors that play an
important role in detecting
continuous pressure in the
skin
o Pacinian corpuscles deepest
receptors associated with
tendons and joints; relay
information overcoming deep
pressure, vibration, position
(propriception)
Pain
- It is characterized by a group of
unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experiences.
- 2 types:
 Localized: rapid action potential,
focused in a certain pain
 Diffuse: slow action potential,
propagated in a varied manner
- Local anesthesia suppresses action
potentials from pain receptors in local
areas of the body through the injection
of chemical anesthetics near a sensory
receptor or nerve.
- General anesthesia, a treatment where
chemical anesthetics that affect the
reticular activating system are
administered
Gate Control Theory
 Action potentials close the gate and
inhibit action potential carried to the brain
by the spinothalamic tract
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* PREFFERED PAIN - perceived to
originate in a region of the body that
is not the source of the pain stimulus.

Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

 Carry action potentials from the olfactory
neurons to the areas of the cerebrum that
allow for perception and interpretation of
the stimuli.

Olfactory Bulb – location entered by the

axons from olfactory neurons through the
olfactory nerves
Olfactory tracts – area in the brain called the
olfactory cortex
Olfactory cortex - located within the temporal
SPECIAL SENSES: and frontal lobes. Olfaction is the only major
sensation that is relayed directly to the cerebral
 The senses of smell, taste, sight,
cortex without first passing through the
hearing, and balance are associated with
very specialized, localized sensory thalamus.
receptors. Adaptation - feedback, plus the temporary
decreased sensitivity at the level of the
receptors
OLFACTION

 The sense of smell, occurs in response to airborne TASTE

molecules, called odorants, which enter the nasal
cavity.
 Test Buds – sensory oval structure that
 Olfactory Neuron - bipolar neurons within detect taste stimuli and is located on the
the olfactory epithelium, which lines the surface of certain papillae.
superior part of the nasal cavity o 2 types of cells in taste buds
* Specialized epithelial
 Olfactory Receptors - has at least 40 cell: from the exterior
functional receptors supporting capsule
Each can bind multiple types of * Interior: consist of
odorants taste cells

 Papillae – enlargement on the surface of

the tongue
 Taste Cell – contains hair-like processes
called taste hairs
 Taste Hairs – extend through a tiny
opening in the surrounding
 Taste Pores – stratified epithelium

Neuronal Pathways for Taste

Taste Sensation: carried by 3 cranial nerve

Facial Nerve (VII) – transmit taste

sensations from the anterior two-thirds of
the tongue
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Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) – carries
taste sensations from the posterior one-
third
Vagus Nerve (X) – carries some taste
sensations from the root of the tongue

Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Eyebrows - protect the eyes by preventing
perspiration from running down the forehead
and into the eyes, causing irritation.
 Eyelids - associated lashes, protect the eyes
from foreign objects
 Conjunctiva - thin, transparent mucous
membrane covering the inner surface of the
eyelids and the anterior surface of the eye
 Lacrimal Apparatus - consists of a lacrimal
gland situated in the superior lateral corner
of the orbit and a nasolacrimal duct and
associated structures in the inferior medial
corner of the orbit
 Lacrimal gland: produces
tears, which passes over eye
anterior surface
 Lacrimal canaliculi: medial
angle of eye collects excess
tears
 Lacrimal sac: enlargement of
the nasolacrimal duct
 Extrinsic Eye Muscle – (skeletal muscle)
each eyeball has 6 of this attached to surface
 Responsible of the movement of each eye
ball

VISION

The visual system includes the eyes, the

accessory structures, and sensory neurons. The
eyes are housed within bony cavities called orbits.
We obtain much of our information about the world
through the visual system.
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 Ciliary body – continuous with the anterior
margin of the choroid, contains smooth
muscles, attach the perimeter of the lens by
suspensory ligaments
 Lens – flexible, biconvex, transparent disc
 Iris – colored part of the eye, attached to the
contractile margin of the ciliary body, anterior
to the lens
 Pupil – iris that is a contractile structure
consisting mainly of smooth muscle
surrounding an opening

3. Nervous Tunic:

is the innermost tunic and consists of the

retina.

 Retina – covers the posterior five-

sixths of the eye and is composed of
Anatomy of the Eye two layers:
1. Outer Pigmented retina:
Wall of the eye: 3 tissue layers or tunics with choroid, keeps light
1. Fibrous tunic – consists of sclera from reflecting back into
and cornea the eye
2. Vascular tunic – consists of the 2. Inner Sensory Retina:
choroid, ciliary body, and iris contains photoreceptor
3. Nervous tunic – consists of the cells, which includes rods
and cones
retina

Chambers of the eye: 3 chambers (Aqueous

Humor)
1. Anterior chamber
2. Posterior chamber
3. Vitreous chamber

3 TISSUE LAYERS OR TUNICS

1. Fibrous Tunic:
 Sclera - is the firm, white, outer connective
tissue layer of the posterior five-sixths of the
fibrous tunic, helps maintain the eye shape
and protects internal structure
 Cornea - transparent anterior sixth of the
eye, which permits light to enter.

2. Vascular Tunic:
 Choroid – posterior portion and associated
with sclera, very thin structure consists of a
vascular network and many melanin-
containing pigment cells, causing it to appear
black.
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 Focal Point (FP) – crossing point
 Focusing – causing light to converge

Focusing Images on the Retina

Convergence occurs as light passes through
the aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor. The
greatest contrast in media density is between the air
and the cornea. The greatest amount of
convergence therefore occurs at that point.

3 CHAMBERS
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
Anterior and Posterior chambers:
OPTIC NERVES – leaves the eye and
- Filled with aqueous humor (watery exits the orbit through optic foramen to
fluid), which helps maintain pressure enter cranial cavity
within the eye, refracts light, and OPTIC CHIASM – location connects the
provides nutrients to the inner surface of 2 optic nerves inside the cranial cavity
the eye. OPTIC TRACT – route of the ganglionic
o aqueous humor – produced by axons
the ciliary body is a blood filtrate OPTIC RADIATION – forms fibers in the
and is returned to the blood thalamus from neurons
through a venous ring that VISUAL CORTEX – area of the
surrounds the cornea
cerebrum where vision is perceived
Vitreous Chamber:
- Is filled with a transparent, jellylike
substance called vitreous humor.
o Vitreous humor – helps
maintain pressure within the eye
and holds lens and the retina in
place

Functions of the Eye

The eye functions much like a camera. The
iris allows light into the eye, which is focused by the
cornea, lens, and humors onto the retina. The light
striking the retina produces action potentials that are
relayed to the brain.

Light Refraction
As light passes from air to some other,
denser transparent substance, the light rays are
refracted. If the surface of a lens is concave, the light
rays are bent, so that they diverge as they pass
through the lens; if the surface is convex, they
converge.
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HEARING  AUDITORY TUBE (EUSTACHIAN TUBE):
opens into pharynx and enables pressure to
be equalized between outside air and the
Anatomy of the Ear middle ear cavity

 INNER EAR – set of fluid-

filled chambers medial to
the middle ear
 BONY LABYRINTH:
interconnecting tunnels and
chambers within temporal lobe
 MEMBRANOUS LABYTRINTH:
smaller set version of the bony
labyrinth
 ENDOLYMPH: clear fluid-filled in
the membranous labyrinth
 PERILYMPH: filled between
spaces of the bony and
membranous labyrinth
 COCHLEA: shell-shaped
containing bony core shaped like
 EXTERNAL EAR – part a screw
extending from the  SPIRAL LAMINA: threads of the
screw
outside of the head to
 SCALA VESTIBULI: extends
eardrum from oval window to apex of
 AURICLE: fleshy part on cochlea
outside of the head  SCALA TYMPANI: extends in
 EXTERNAL AUDITORY parallel with scala vestibule from
CANAL: passageway apex back to round window
that leads to the eardrum
 CEROMINOUS GLANDS:
produces cerumen
 CERUMEN: modified
sebum commonly called
earwax
 TYMPANIC MEMBRANE
(EARDRUM): thin
membrane that separate
external ear from the
middle ear

 MIDDLE EAR – air-filled

chamber medial to the
tympanic membrane
 OVAL/ROUND
WINDOW: two covered
openings on the medial
side of the middle ear
 3 AUDITROY
OSSICLES: forms
flexible, bony bridge
transmits vibration from
tympanic membrane to
oval window
1. Malleus – hammer
2. Incus – anvil
3. Stapes – stirrup
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Neuronal Pathways for Hearing  Crista ampullaris
 Formed from specialized
epithelium
 Cupula
 ridge of epithelium with a curved,
gelatinous mass; found in each
crista
 structurally and functionally very
similar to the maculae, except
that it contains no otoliths
 Motion sickness
 characterized by nausea and
weakness
 caused by continuous stimulation
of the semicircular canals

Neuronal Pathways for Balance

Axons forming the vestibular portion of

1. Sensory axons from the cochlear ganglion
terminate in the cochlear nucleus in the
brainstem.
2. Axons from the neurons in the cochlear
nucleus project to other brainstem nuclei or
to the inferior colliculus.
3. Axons from the inferior colliculus project to
the thalamus.
4. Thalamic neurons project to the auditory
cortex.
the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) project to the
vestibular nucleus in the brainstem. Axons run
from this nucleus to numerous areas of the
CNS, such as the cerebellum and cerebral
cortex. Balance is a complex sensation
involving sensory input to the vestibular nucleus
not only from the inner ear but also from the
limbs (proprioception) and visual system as
well. In sobriety tests, people are asked to close
their eyes while their balance is evaluated
because alcohol affects the proprioceptive and
vestibular components of balance to a greater
extent than the visual component of balance.

Balance
The sense of balance, or equilibrium, has two
components:

 Static Equilibrium
 associated with the vestibule
 involved in evaluating the position
of the head relative to gravity
 Dynamic Equilibrium
 associated with the semicircular
canals
 involved in evaluating changes in
the direction and rate of head
movements.
 Vestibule
 Inner ear, divides into two
chambers: Utricle; Saccule
 Maculae
 Specialized patches of epithelium
inside each chamber
 Otoliths
 particles composed of protein
and calcium carbonate
 Semicircular canals
 Involved in dynamic equilibrium
 Placed at nearly right angles to
one another
 base of each semicircular canal is
expanded into an ampulla