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Senses- Prelims edit 1 - Lecture notes Seeley's 10th edition -

chapter 9
Science, Technology, and society (Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, The
Catholic University of the Philippines)

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Sensation
Senses - respond to mechanical stimuli, such
Senses – means by which the brain receives as bending or stretching of receptors
information about the environment and the - hearing and balance
body. b.) Chemoreceptors
– respond to chemicals.
Sensation – process initiated by stimulating -ex. Odor molecules bind to
sensory receptors chemoreceptors, allowing us to
perceive smells
Perception -smell and taste
- the conscious awareness of those c.) Photoreceptors – vision; respond to light
stimuli d.) Thermoreceptors – respond to
- results when action potentials reach temperature changes.
the cerebral cortex

§ Stimulation of sensory receptors does

not immediately result in perception. e.) Nociceptors- respond to stimuli that
§ Sensory receptors respond to stimuli by result in the sensation of pain
generating action potentials that are
propagated to the spinal cord and brain. General senses
§ Thalamus plays a role in the perception • Have sensory receptors that are widely
of pain. distributed throughout the body.
• Senses of touch, pressure, pain,
Two basic groups of senses temperature, vibration, itch, and
A.) General senses proprioception
- Have receptors distributed over a • Many of its receptors are associated with
large part of the body the skin
- Two groups: • Others are associated with tendons,
1.) Somatic senses – provide ligaments, and muscles.
sensory information about the
body and the environment Free nerve endings
2.) Visceral senses – provide • simplest and most common types of
information about various sensory receptors
internal organs, primarily • unspecialized neuronal branches
involving pain and pressure similar to dendrites
B.) Special senses • distributed throughout almost all
- Are more specialized in structure and parts of the body
are localized to specific parts of the
body Cold receptors- respond to decreasing
- Smell, taste, sight, hearing, and temperatures but stop responding at
balance temperatures below 12°C.

Sensory Receptors Warm receptors- respond to increasing

– are sensory nerve endings or specialized temperatures but stop responding at
cells capable of responding action potentials. temperatures about 47°C.
– each respond to a different type of
stimulus: Touch receptors- structurally more complex
a.) Mechanoreceptors than free nerve endings.
-many are enclosed in capsules

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Types of Touch Receptors • Local anesthesia

a.) Merkel disks – suppresses action potentials from
- small, superficial nerve endings pain receptors in local areas of the
involved in detecting light touch body through the injection of
and superficial pressure. chemical anesthetics near a sensory
b.) Hair follicle receptors receptor or nerve.
- associated with hairs, are also • General anesthesia
involved in detecting light touch – chemical anesthetics that affect the
c.) Meissner corpuscles reticular activating system are
- located deep to the epidermis administered
- very specific in localizing tactile – Pain sensations can also be
sensations influenced by inherent control
d.) Ruffini corpuscles systems. Sensory axons from tactile
- play an important role in receptors in the skin have collateral
detecting continuous pressure in branches that synapse with neurons
the skin in the posterior horn of the spinal
e.) Pacinian corpuscles cord. Those neurons, in turn, synapse
- deepest receptors associated with and inhibit neurons that give
with tendons and joints rise to the spinothalamic tract, a
- relay information concerning sensory pathway that relays pain
deep pressure, vibration, and sensations to the brain
position (proprioception)
Gate control theory
– action potentials “close the gate” and
Pain – characterized by a group of inhibit action potentials carried to the brain
unpleasant perceptual and emotional by the spinothalamic tract
experiences – may explain the physiological basis for
2 types of Pain several techniques that have been used to
1.) Localized – sharp, pricking, or cutting reduce the intensity of pain
pain resulting from rapidly conducted
action potentials • Vigorous mental or physical activity
2.) Diffused – burning, or aching pain increases the rate of action
resulting from action potentials that are potentials in neurons of the dorsal
propagated more slowly column and can reduce sensation of
pain
Superficial pain Referred pain
– Highly localized as a result of the • perceived to originate in a region of
simultaneous stimulation of pain receptors the body that is not the source of the
and tactile receptors. pain stimulus
• we sense referred pain when deeper
Deep or visceral pain structures, such as internal organs,
– Not highly localized because of the are damaged or inflamed
absence of tactile receptors in the deeper • occurs due to sensory neurons from
structures the superficial area to which the pain
– Visceral pain stimuli are normally perceived is referred and the neurons from the
as diffuse pain deeper, visceral area where the pain
stimulation originates converge onto
Anesthesia – disrupts perception of pain

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the same ascending neurons in the • Multiple combinations of odorants and

spinal cord. receptors allow us to detect an estimated
• clinically useful in diagnosing the 10,000 different smells.
actual cause of the painful stimulus
Neuronal pathways for olfaction
§ Brain cannot distinguish between the 1. Carry action potentials from the olfactory
two sources of pain stimuli. neurons to the areas of the cerebrum
that allow for perception and
Special senses interpretation of the stimuli
-associated with very specialized, localized 2. Axons from olfactory neurons form the
sensory receptors. olfactory nerves (I), which pass through
the foramina of the of the cribiform plate
Olfaction and enter the olfactory bulb
• sense of smell
• occurs in response to airborne molecules Olfactory cortex
called odorants – where olfactory tracts terminate
• only major sensation that is relayed – located within the temporal and frontal
directly to the cerebral cortex without lobes
first passing through the thalamus – involved with both the conscious
• Olfactory neurons perception of smell and the visceral and
o bipolar neurons within the emotional reactions that are often linked to
olfactory epithelium, which lines odors
the superior part of the nasal
cavity. Feedback loops
o dendrites extend to the – inhibit transmission of action potentials
epithelial surface, and their ends resulting from prolonged exposure to a
are modified with long, given odorant. (adaptation)
specialized cilia that lie in a thin
mucous film on the epithelial Taste
surface Taste buds
• detect taste stimuli
Mucus – keeps the nasal epithelium moist, • oval located in the surface of certain
traps and dissolves airborne molecules, and papillae on the taste pore
facilitates the removal of molecules and
particles from the nasal epithelium § Dissolved molecules or ions bind to
receptors on the taste hairs and initiate
• Airborne odorants dissolve in the mucus action potentials, which sensory neurons
on the surface of the epithelium and bind carry to the insula of the cerebral cortex
to receptor molecules on the
membranes of the specialized cilia of the Taste Sensations:
olfactory neurons which initiates action • Sour
potentials which are then conducted to • Salty
the olfactory cortex of the cerebrum by • Bitter
sensory neurons. • Sweet
• There are at least 400 functional olfactory • Umami
receptors in humans
§ Heat damage can cause injury or even
death to epithelial cells

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§ Many taste sensations are strongly

influenced by olfactory sensations Eyelids
• with lashes, protect eyes from foreign
Neuronal pathways for taste objects (blink reflex)
Taste sensations are carried to the brain by • Blinking occurs about 20 times per
three cranial nerves: minute also helps in lubrication of
1.) facial nerve (VII) tears
– transmits taste sensations from the
anterior two-thirds of the tongue Conjunctiva
2.) glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) • thin, transparent mucous membrane
– carries taste sensations from the covering the inner surface of the
posterior one-third eyelids and the anterior surface of the
3.) vagus nerve (X) eye
– carries some taste sensations from the • Secretions lubricate the surface of the
root of the tongue eye
• Conjunctivitis – inflammation of this
§ Axons from these three cranial nerves
synapse in the gustatory (taste) portion of Lacrimal apparatus
brainstem nuclei. Axons of neurons in • Lacrimal gland
these brainstem nuclei extend to and o situated in the superior lateral
synapse with interneurons on the corner of the orbit and a
thalamus. Axons from neurons in the nasolacrimal duct and associated
thalamus project to the taste area in the structures in the inferior medial
insula of the cerebrum. corner of the orbit
o produces tears (has enzymes to
Vision fight infections
• includes eyes, accessory structures and o Most fluid produced evaporates
sensory neurons. from the surface of the eye.
• Eyes are housed within bony cavity called • Lacrimal canaliculi
orbits. o excess tears are collected here.
• Visual input includes information about o opens to lacrimal sacs
light and dark, movement and color. (enlargement of the nasolacrimal
• Visual input begins as action potentials duct)
originating in the eyes.
• Action potentials then moves along the Extrinsic eye muscles
visual pathways and convey visual • each eyeball has 6 of these attached
information to the brain. • are skeletal muscles which are
responsible for movement of each
Accessory structures of the eye eyeball
• protect, lubricate, and move the eye • Superior, Inferior, Medial, and Lateral
• eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal Rectus
apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles. o Origin: Posterior portion of
the orbit
Eyebrows o Attach to the four quadrants
• protect the eyes by preventing of the eyeball
perspiration from running down the • Superior and Inferior Oblique
forehead and into the eyes. o Located at an angle to the
• Also help in shading from sunlight long axis of the eyeball.

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o Attached to the anterior

Anatomy of the eye margin of the ciliary body,
Eyeball anterior to the lens
• Hollow, fluid-filled sphere o Contractile structure of
• Wall is composed of three tissue smooth muscles surrounding
layers, or tunics the pupil.
a.) Fibrous tunic – outer coat o Regulates the diameter of
• Sclera pupil (regulates amount of
o firm, white, outer connective light)
tissue layer of the posterior o Parasympathetic:
5/6 of the fibrous tunic. Oculomotor nerve (III) causes
o helps maintain eye shape circular smooth muscle
o protects the internal contract
structures o sympathetic: radial smooth
o provides attachment sites for muscle of the iris to contract,
extrinsic eye muscles dilating the pupil.
• Cornea o Higher light intensity =
o Transparent anterior 1/6 of constriction
the eye c.) Nervous tunic – innermost
o Permits light to enter. • Retina
o Part of the focusing system o covers the posterior 5/6 of
of the fibrous tunic. Bends, the eye
or refracts the entering light. o Two layers:
b.) Vascular tunic – thin; contains most 1. Outer Pigmented retina
blood vessels • with choroid, keeps light from
• Choroid reflecting back into the eye
o Posterior portion associated • rods and cones
with the sclera • 20x more rods
o Consists of a vascular • three types of cones each sensitive to:
network and many melanin- blue, green, red
containing pigment cells, 2. Inner Sensory retina
causing it to appear black. • Contains photoreceptor cells and
Black absorbs light so that it interneurons
is not reflected inside the o Rods and Cones
eye. • Interneurons regulate and relay
• Ciliary body changes in photoreceptor activity
o Anterior along the visual pathway
o Continuous with the anterior • Includes bipolar cells, horizontal cells,
margin of the choroid and ganglion cells.
o contains ciliary muscles, o Rods and Cones = bipolar
ciliary muscles, which attach cells
to the perimeter of the lens o Bipolar + Horizontal modify
by suspensory ligaments the output of the rods and
o Lens – flexible, biconvex, cones
transparent disc o Modification helps perceive
• Iris the borders of contrasting
brightness.

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o Bipolar + Horizontal = • The photosensitive pigments are

Ganglion different from those in rods.
o Axons of ganglion converge • Color results from stimulation by
to form Optic Nerve (I) certain wavelengths of light.

Rods Macula – small spot near the center of the

• 20 times more common than cones posterior retina
• Can function in dim light
• Sensitive; require lower level of light Fovea centralis
• Do not provide color vision • Center of macula
• Rhodopsin • Where light is most focused when
o Photosensitive pigment looking directly ate the object
o consists of protein opsin • Contain only cone cells tightly packed
loosely bound to a yellow • Greatest ability to discriminate fine
pigment called retinal images, which is why objects are best
o when exposed to light, seen straight ahead.
retinal changes shape =
changes the activity of the Optic disc
entire rhodopsin molecule. • White spot just medial to the macula
- Change in rhodopsin stimulates • Through which blood vessels enter the
a response in rods = vision eye and spread over the surface of the
- Retinal detaches from opsin retina
- ATP is required to reattach • At which axons from the retina meet, pass
retinal to opsin and return through the outer tunics, and exit as optic
rhodopsin to its unstimulated nerve.
form. • No photoreceptor cells, do not respond
- In bright light, more rhodopsin to light
are disassociated. • blind spot
o Production of retinal takes
time and require Vitamin A 3 Chambers of the eye
1.) Anterior chamber
Night blindness • between the cornea and lens
• May be caused by Vit A deficiency • with aqueous humor
• difficulty in seeing in dim light 2.) Posterior chamber
• can also result from retinal • between the cornea and lens
detachment • with aqueous humor
o sensory and pigmented o maintain pressure, refracts
separation light, provides nutrients to
o Affects the periphery of the inner surface
retina where rods are mostly o produced by the ciliary body
located. o Keeps eye inflated
o Rods are more sensitive to • Glaucoma
light. o Increased pressure in the eye
o Affects vision in low light o Humor flow from the eye
more. through the venous ring is
Cones blocked
• Three types, each sensitive to colors o Can lead to blindness
blue, green, or red

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• Iris separates anterior and posterior chiasm and project to the opposite
chamber side of the brain.
3.) Vitreous chamber o Axons from the temporal (lateral)
• posterior to the lens part of each retina pass through the
• Vitreous humor optic nerves and project to the brain
o Transparent; jelly-like on the same side of the body without
o maintain pressure within the crossing.
eye and holds the lens and 3. Two optic tracts
the retina in place o route of the ganglionic axons
o Do not circulate like aqueous o Most axons terminate in the
humor thalamus
o Some don’t terminate in the
Functions of the eye thalamus but separate from the optic
• Iris – allows light into the eye tracts to terminate in the superior
• Cornea, lens and humors – focuses light colliculi
into the retina o Superior colliculi- center for visual
o Light striking the retina produces reflexes
action potentials that are relayed 2. Neurons from the thalamus form the
into the brain fibers of the optic radiations projecting
to the visual cortex.
Light refraction 3. Visual cortex – area of the cerebrum
• Light refracts in denser transparent where vision is perceived
substance
• Concave lens, diverging the light Visual field – image seen by each eye
• If convex, they converge. Crossing point • Depth perception requires both eyes and
is the focal point and causing light to occurs where the two visual fields
converge is focusing overlap.
• Image focused in the retina is inverted • Each eye sees a slightly different view of
the same object.
Focusing images on the retina • The brain then processes the two images
• cornea is convex into a 3d view of the objects.
• greatest amount of convergence is • If only one eye is functioning, the view of
between air and cornea the object is flat, much like viewing a
photograph.
Accommodation- changing shape of the lens
Diplopia
Neuronal pathways of vision • Double vision
1. Optic nerve- leaves the eye and exits the • Caused by misalignment of the two eyes
orbit through the optic foramen to enter (binocular diplopia), may be a results of
the cranial cavity. the weakness of the muscles moving the
2. Inside the cranial cavity, the two optic eye.
nerves connect to each other at the optic • Can be a symptom of a serious
chiasm neurological problem such as impending
o Each side of the brain receives brain tumor
signals from each eye
o Axons from the nasal (medial) part of
each retina cross through the optic

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HEARING AND BALANCE- located in the -consists of interconnecting tunnels

ears and chambers within the temporal
bone, called the bony labyrinth
Anatomy and function of the ear Bony labyrinth- 3 regions (cochlea, vestibule,
semicircular canals)
1.) External Ear Cochlea -snail shell and contains a bony core
- Auricle- fleshy part of the external shaped like a screw
ear on the outside of the head -threads of the screw are called spiral
-opens into the external lamina
auditory canal -3 channels:
-collects sound waves and 1.) Scala Vestibuli
directs them toward the -perilymph-filled spaces
external auditory canal, between the walls of the
which transmits them to the bony and membranous
tympanic membrane labyrinths
- Ceruminous gland- lines auditory -lined by vestibular
canal together with hair membrane
-produce cerumen, a
modified sebum 2.) Scala Tympani
(earwax) -perilymph-filled spaces
- Tympanic membrane- eardrum between the walls of the
- a thin bony and membranous
membrane that separates the external ear labyrinths
from the middle ear -lined by basilar membrane
- sound waves
reaching the tympanic membrane cause it to Cochlear duct- formed by the space between
vibrate the vestibular membrane and the basilar
membrane and is filled with endolymph
2.) Middle Ear -has organ of Corti
- Oval window and round window -contains hair cells
connect the middle ear with the -hair cells have stereocilia in their
inner ear surface
- Contain three auditory ossicles -hair tip is embedded in tectorial
(malleus, incus, and stapes) membrane
- Auditory ossicles form a flexible, § Hair cells have no axons of their own, but
body bridge that transmits vibrations each hair cell is associated with axon
from the tympanic membrane to the terminals of sensory neurons, the cell
oval window bodies which are located within the
- Auditory ossicles amplifies vibrations cochlear ganglion . Axons of the sensory
about 20-fold neurons join to form the cochlear nerve.
This nerve joins the vestibular nerve to
Auditory tube/ Eustachian tube- become the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
opens into the pharynx and enables
air pressure to be equalized between Membranous labyrinth- smaller set of
the outside air and the middle ear membranous tunnels
cavity. -filled with a clear fluid called
3.) Inner Ear endolymph

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Perilymph- fluid between

membranous and bony labyrinth Semicircular canals- involved in dynamic
equilibrium
Hearing -three in each ear
Ampulla- base of each
Pitch- frequency, or wavelength of sound semicircular canal
Volume- related to the amplitude of the Crista ampullaris- consists of a
sound wave. ridge of epithelium with a
curved, gelatinous mass called
Two categories of hearing impairment cupula
A.) Conduction deafness Cupula- similar to maculae but
-from mechanical deficiencies doesn’t have otoliths

B.) Sensorineural hearing loss Motion sickness- caused by continuous

- By deficiencies in the spiral organ or stimulation of the semicircular canals
nerves

Neuronal pathways for hearing

Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)- transmits Neuronal pathways for balance

senses of hearing and balance
§ Alcohol affects the proprioceptive and
Cochlear nerve- sends axons to the cochlear vestibular components of balance to a
nucleus in the brainstem greater extent than the visual component
of balance
Balance
Two components: Effects of aging on the senses
A.) Static equilibrium
-associated with the vestibule and is • General and sensory functions
involved in evaluating the position of decline
the head relative to gravity. • Among the general senses, free
nerve endings and hair follicle
B.) Dynamic equilibrium receptors in the skin remain largely
-associated with the semicircular unchanged
canals and is involved in evaluating • Number of Meissner corpuscles and
changes in the direction and rate of Pacinian corpuscles decrease
head movements • Sense of two point discrimination
decreases
Vestibule- has two chambers: • Only a slight loss in the ability to
A.) Utricle detect odors
B.) Saccule • Ability to correctly identify specific
§ Both contain specialized patches of odors decreases
epithelium called maculae surrounded by • Number of sensory receptors
endolymph decreases
Maculae- contain hair cells which tips • Lenses become more rigid
are embedded in otolithic • Presbyopia- most common age-
membrane (membrane is weighted related change in the eyes
by otoliths) • Presbyacusis- sensorial hearing loss

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Disorders
EYE
Trachoma- type of conjunctivitis (caused by
chlamydia)
Stye- infection of eyelash follicle

Myopia- nearsightedness
Hyperopia- farsightedness (flat cornea or lens
has too little refractive power relative to
length of eye)
Astigmatism- cornea or lens is not uniformly
curved
Strabismus- one or both eyes are
misdirected, weak eye muscles

Cataract- clouding of lens

Macular degeneration- loss of sharp central
vision

Diabetic retinopathy- optic nerve

degeneration, cataracts, retinal detachment
Retinal detachment- separation of sensory
retina from pigmented retina

EAR

Tinnitus- phantom sound sensations

Meniere disease- vertigo, hearing loss,
tinnitus, and a feeling of fullness in the
affected ear

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