ANATOMY AND

1st Year, 1st Semester

PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

SENSES

OUTLINE
I. Senses
A. Classification of Senses
B. Types of Receptors
C. Pain
II. Vision
A. Accessory Structures
B. Anatomy of the Eye
C. Functions of the Eye
D. Neuronal Pathway for Vision
E. Visual Defects
III. Hearing and Balance
A. Audition
B. Structures of the Ear GENERAL SENSES
C. Balance/Equilibrium • receptors over large part of body that sense touch,
IV. Olfaction pressure, pain, temperature, and itch
A. Olfaction Process • 2 groups:
B. Olfactory Epithelium and Olfactory Bulb a. SOMATIC - provide information about body and
V. Gustation (Taste) environment
A. The Tongue - physical manifestations, skin muscles, joints
B. Types of Papillae - touch, pressure, proprioception, pain,
C. Types of Taste temperature
b. VISCERAL - provide information about internal
SENSES organs
• Means by which the brain receives information about - Pain, pressure
the environment and body
• The way you perceive it SPECIAL SENSES
• Integration • Smell • Hearing
• Receive information • Taste • Balance
• Sensory receptors – receive • Sight

–– SENSATION TYPES OF RECEPTORS

• Conscious awareness of stimuli received by sensory
neurons; initiated by stimulating sensory receptors 1. Mechanoreceptors:
• Threshold had to be reached - detect movement
- Example, touch, pressure, vibration
–– SENSORY RECEPTORS
• Sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli by 2. Chemoreceptors:
developing action potentials - detect chemicals
- Example, Odors
–– PERCEPTION
• Conscious awareness of stimuli 3. Photoreceptors
• Will be part of sensory input - detect light

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSES 4. Thermoreceptors

- detect temperature changes
GENERAL SENSES
- Somatic – physical manifestations, skin muscles, 5. Nociceptors
joints - detect pain
o touch, pressure, proprioception, pain,
temperature
- Visceral - internal organs
o Pain, pressure

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

TOUCH RECEPTORS - All touch of touch receptors is part of the sensory

receptors
1. Merkel’s disk: - Proprioception
• detect light touch and pressure
• structure of your integumentary PAIN

2. Hair follicle receptors: - Pain is an unpleasant perceptual and emotional

• detect light touch experience
• kiliti - Pain can be localized or diffuse.
- 2 types of pain sensation:
3. Meissner corpuscle:
• deep in epidermis 1. Localized
• localizing tactile sensations • sharp, pricking, cutting pain;
superficial pain sensations
4. Ruffini corpuscle: • rapid action potential
• deep tactile receptors 2. Diffuse
• detects continuous pressure in skin • burning, aching pain; visceral
pain stimuli
5. Pacinian corpuscle: • slower action potentials
• deepest receptors • internal organs pain
• associated with tendons and joints • More serious
• detect deep pressure, vibration, position
PAIN CONTROL

LOCAL ANESTHESIA:
• action potentials suppressed from pain
• receptors in local areas
• chemicals are injected near sensory nerve
• Suppress pain from integrating or interpreting that
there is pain

GENERAL ANESTHESIA:
• loss of consciousness
• chemicals affect reticular formation
• if visceral organs are involved
• Blocks the control center to interpret the pain
Action potential – will make impulses • It will surely diminish the pain
o Sensory receptor to CNS • Pain will only be felt if it is being interpreted by the
brain

REFERRED PAIN

• originates in a region that is not source of pain

stimulus
• felt when internal organs are damaged or
inflamed
• sensory neurons from superficial area and
neurons of source pain converge onto same
ascending neurons of spinal cord
• mostly done before appendectomy – tf?
• Kidney problems
• Abdominal damages can cause referred pain
• Parang sa ibang lugar ata nagmamanifest yung
pain kesa sa mismong source

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

AREAS OF REFERRED PAIN

PUPILS
- capable to dilate and constrict
- Dilate – sympathetic response, in the dark, seeing
an ophthalmologist

- Kidney problems – pain in the back CONJUNCTIVA:

- Appendicitis – umbilical pain minsan nagcrocross sa • thin membrane that covers inner surface of eyelid
ibang lugar • cannot be easily seen
- Stomach pain – heart burn (nasakit sa bandang • Covers the eyeballs
heart) • Allows reflection of the light

VISION LACRIMAL APPARATUS:

• produces tears
EYES – primary structure • tears – contains enzymes to protect the eye
- Eyes are in the Orbits that is made up of different
EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES:
types of bones in the skull
- Information about light and darkness • help move eyeball
• crosseyed movement, upward, inward
- We can discriminate movement and color
- Brian integrates what we see
CN 4 & 6 – eye movement (kulang pa isa)
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

EYEBROW:
• Protects from sweat
• Shade from sun

EYELID/EYELASHES:
• Protects from foreign objects
• Lubricates by blinking
• Blink reflex to protect from any foreign materials
• 20x blinks - some are unconscious
• Blink allows enzymes or liquids to spread in the
eyes to give lubrication

Lysozyme in tears – break downs the cell all of microbes

Tears – can flow in the nasal cavity because of lacrimal
sht

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

• Where extrinsic eye muscles are attached

• This is the white part u see in the eye of a person
if you’ll look at them directly to the eye
• Forms 5/6 of the eye yata di q sure???

–– CORNEA:
• transparent structure that covers iris and pupil
• allows light to enter and focuses light
• transparent anterior
• forms 1/6 yata???
• Capable of bending/refracting the light

2. VASCULAR TUNIC
- Middle tunic
- Contains blood supply
- Innervated with blood vessels

–– CHOROID
- 4 rectus ;2 Oblique • Thin structure contains melanin; color black
- Oculomotor – superior inferior medial rectus and • Absorbs light prevents reflection
superior oblique • black part (melanin)
- Trochlear – superior oblique • delivers O2 and nutrients to retina
- Abducens - lateral rectus • Most posterior portion
- Oblique and rectus is inversely proportional • Thin structure
Inferior oblique – elevating the eyeballs and moving it • Contains many melanin (that’s why it’s black)
laterally • Color of it is insignificant bc it absorbs light

ANATOMY OF EYE –– CILIARY BODY

- Hollow, fluid filled sphere • Helps hold lens in place
- Composed of 3 layers (tunics) • Contains smooth muscle
- Divided into chambers • Ciliary muscles – attach ano daw
- Fibrous, vascular, nervous tunics • Influences suspensory ligaments

• Anterior, posterior, vitreous chambers –– SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS

- Aqueous humor and blank influences the shape of • help hold lens in place
the eye
–– LENS
• Flexible disk
• Focuses light onto retina
• Biconvex disk
• When light enters, it bends

–– IRIS
• Colored part
• Surrounds and regulates pupil
• Made up of smooth muscles
• Iris regulates the diameter of pupil to allow
1. FIBROUS TUNIC more light to absorb or not
- Outermost Tunic
–– PUPIL
• Regulates amount of light entering
–– SCLERA:
• Lots of light = constricted
• Firm, white outer part
• Helps maintain eye shape, provides attachment • Little light = dilated
sites, protects internal structures
• Connective tissue layer

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

–– RODS
• Photoreceptor; sensitive to light
• Rods are 20 times more light sensitive than cones
• Can function in dim light
• Help us see in dark areas
• 120m
• Found in the periphery of eye
• Bnw vision
• Slow light adjustment

–– CONES
• Photoreceptor; provide color vision
• 3 types : blue, green, red
• 6M
• Near Fovea
LENS AND CILIARY BODY ^^ • Fast light adjustment

RETINAL ROD

IRIS ^^

- When Ciliary body contracts, suspensory ligaments

relax
- Parasympathetic simulation- causes CSM of the iris
to contract resulting to constricting pupils
- Sympathetic – RSM will contract results to dilation of
the pupils DISCS – contains protein that absorbs to light

3. NERVOUS TUNIC PIGMENTS AND PIGMENT PROTEIN

- Innermost tunic
–– RHODOPSIN
–– RETINA • photosensitive pigment in rod cells
• Covers posterior 5/6 of eye • purple pigment
• Contains 2 layers
• Contains photoreceptors – transmit images to a.p –– PHOTOPSIN
then projects to the brain • photoreceptors found in the cone cells

–– PIGMENTED RETINA –– OPSIN

• Outer layer • colorless protein in rhodopsin
• Keeps light from reflecting back in eye
–– RETINAL
–– SENSORY RETINA • yellow pigment in rhodopsin
• Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) • requires vitamin A
• Contains interneurons

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON RHODOPSIN: PHOTO TRANSDUCTION – the process by which a

1. Light strikes rod cell photon of light is changed to an electrical signal; occurs in
2. Retinal changes shape the photoreceptors.
3. Opsin changes shape
4. Retinal dissociates from opsin DARK BLINDNESS – people can’t see on the dark
5. Change rhodopsin shape stimulates response in rod
cell which results in vision Without vitamin A = no retinal productions = no change of
6. Retinal detaches from opsin shape needed to produce vision
7. ATP required to reattach retinal to opsin and return
rhodopsin to original shape
–– MACULA:
• Small spot near center of retina
• Darkened area

–– FOVEA CENTRALIS:
• Center of macula
• Where light is focused when looking directly at an
object
• Only cones
• Ability to discriminate fine images
• Sharpened images

–– OPTIC DISC:
• White spot medial to macula
• Blood vessels enter eye and spread over retina
THE RETINA • Axons exit as optic nerve
• Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells of • No photoreceptors
sensory retina • Called blind spot
• Horizontal cells of retina modify output of rods and • Does not react to light
cones
• Bipolar and horizontal cells synapse with ganglion
cells
• Ganglion cells axons’ converge to form optic nerve

PIGMENTED RETINA – works with choroid to prevent the CHAMBERS OF THE EYES
light to reflect
–– ANTERIOR CHAMBER:
• located between cornea and lens

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• Filled with aqueous humor (watery)
• Aqueous humor helps maintain pressure, refracts
light, and provide nutrients to inner surface of eye
• In between cornea and the lens
Vitreous Humor – jelly like substance; stays; maintains
shape
Aqueous Humor – any blockage can cause eye damage;
water-like
–– POSTERIOR CHAMBER:
• Located behind anterior chamber
• Contains aqueous humor
–– VITREOUS CHAMBER:
• Located in retina region
• Filled with vitreous humor: jelly-like substance
• Vitreous humor helps maintain pressure, holds
lens and retina in place, refracts light
FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE
- The eye functions much like a camera.
- The iris allows light into the eye, which is focused
by the cornea, lens, and humors onto the retina.
- The light striking the retina produces action
potentials that are relayed to the brain.
- Light refraction and image focusing are two
important processes in establishing vision.
Ø LIGHT REFRACTION
• Bending of light
Focal point:
• point where light rays converge
• occurs anterior to retina
• object is inverted
Ø ACCOMMODATION
• Lens becomes less rounded and image can be
focused on retina
• Enables eye to focus on images closer than 20
feet
• REMEMBER: Process in which the lens is
capable of changing shape through the actions of
ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments
FOCUSING BY THE EYE
• Distant Vision - focusing at an object that is from a
distance ; lens flatten
• Near Vision - focusing at an object that is near us ;
lens thicken
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1st Year, 1st Semester
PRELIMS
• It involve changes in the shape of your lens bc the
primary focus/purpose of those structures is to focus
light into the retina. The retina must be able to get it.
• Fovea Centralis - the pit where the light must
converge to see the image
*Refer to the illustration above
Ø Left Side of the Picture
- In the distant vision, we r looking at the tree. So we
have a bright environment that allows us to see that
- If we r focusing our eyes to that distant object, there
are series of changes that happen in the muscle
- For example: the ciliary muscles in the ciliary body
relax, which provides more tension to the suspensory
ligament so the lens flatten
- As light enters our eyeballs, the configuration of those
structures either convex or concave, allow for the
bending of the light
- Concave surface of the lens—light rays are bent so
that diverge as they pass through the lens
- Convex surface of the lens—they converge
- As light passes thru our lens, from diverging process,
it now converges to a point that it reaches an area
where it process which we call the focal point
- Focal point—will determine if it hits the retina or not
- Nearsightedness—the focal point is just in front of
fovea centralis (pit) that’s why it is very difficult to see
images at a distance compared to near vision
Ø Right Side of the Picture
- Lens thicken for near vision
- Ciliary muscles contract moving ciliary body towards
the lens and the tension in the suspensory ligaments
which allows the changes in shape of the lens, lessens
- Lens thicken—allows us to see images in a nearer
perspective
REMEMBER:
- Focusing in the retina requires the refraction/bending
of light such that when we refract the light, they should
me meeting at a certain point which is the focal point
- Focal point - site of crossing
- Once it crosses that point, it should be towards the
retina, at the area of the sharpest image wc is your
Fovea Centralis and it will now transmit this light input
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into an action potential that would be carried/projected
to the occipital lobe, where the visual cortex is found
- Lens flatten @ distant vision
- Lens thicken @ near vision and becomes more
spherical
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
- Normal vision: 20/20 ; u can see what a person with
normal vision see at 20 ft
- 20/40 - u can only see at 20 ft what a normal person
can see at 40 ft
- 20/200 - legal blindness; u can only see at 20 ft what
a normal person can see at 200 ft
NEURONAL PATHWAY FOR VISION
Ø OPTIC NERVE
• leaves eye and exits orbit through optic foramen to
enter cranial cavity
• made up of converging axons of retinal cells which
transmit the conversion of the light into action
potential projecting it to visual cortex of the
occipital lobe of the brain
• Cross at the optic chiasm
Ø OPTIC CHIASM
• Where 2 optic nerves connect
• REMEMBER: Different from decussation of
pyramids; it does not mean that the optic nerve
coming from the left eye would project to the right
part of the brain and vice versa
Ø OPTIC TRACTS
• route of ganglion axons
VISUAL PATHWAY
- Optic nerves transmit from the eyeballs passing thru
the optic foramen, meeting @ the optic chiasm
- Some of it cross, BUT for the most part, the optic
nerve coming from the right eye projects to right back
part of the brain and the left part projects to left back
part of the brain
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1st Year, 1st Semester
PRELIMS
- VISUAL FIELD - the field of vision that you see per
eye; images seen by each eye
o If you cover your left eye: u see the visual field
of the right eye and vice versa
- Each visual field is divided into temporal and nasal
halves
- Temporal (towards the temples) ; Nasal (towards the
midline)
- TEMPORAL AND NASAL RETINA - converge to
form optic your nerve
• TEMPORAL RETINA - connecting the optic
nerve; ones that cross to the other side of the
brain
• NASAL PART - pass thru the optic chiasm but do
not cross to the other side of the brain instead
they cross to the same side
- SUPERIOR COLLICULI (MIDBRAIN) - responsible
for visual reflexes
- Some of the axons the originate from the optic nerve
go to that area and allow the person to respond to
visual stimulus/images on either side
- Once it crosses to the tracts, the optic nerve will
terminate into the occipital lobe where the visual
cortex is found
QUICK REVIEW
- Optic Nerve has 2 structures:
o Temporal
o Nasal
- Nasal- do not cross to the other side of the brain in
the optic chiasm; remain on the same side
- Temporal - parts of the visual field; ones that cross to
the other side of the optic chiasm
- These axons terminate into the thalamus and the
thalamus will transmit the images thru nerves
projecting into the visual cortex of the cerebrum
(where the vision is perceived)
- Depth Perception - visual field of both eyes; exactly
where the 2 visual fields of the left and right eye
overlap each other
- Sometimes visual field overlap in a sense that it
causes double vision
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PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

- Double vision (diplopia) - all the images u see occur • can lead to blindness bc the pressure can damage
in 2s ; mirrored the retina
- Typical Reason for Diplopia: (1) Strabismus—
extrinsic eye muscles are not working properly, you CHART TO DETERMINE COLOR BLINDNESS
are cross-eyed ; sometimes for children they have
lazy eye (strabismus)—wherein the eyes are not
focusing on the images itself and is needed to be
connected as early as possible

VISUAL DEFECTS

MYOPIA:
• Nearsightedness
• Image is in front of retina
• Ex: people with eyeballs that are longer than usual Those who are colorblind, what they can see in 74 is 21
• Longer - location of fovea centralis is further way and in 5, they see 2
to the back so the focal point is located in front of
the retina instead of it actually touching the fovea HEARING & BALANCE
centralis
• You can only see near objects AUDITION
- The organs of hearing and balance are in the ears.
HYPEROPIA:
• farsightedness Ø Each ear is divided into 3 areas:
• image is behind retina
• Eyeballs are shorter 1. THE EXTERNAL EAR
• Projection of the image is behind the retina ; - extension from the external ; the one we see
sumobra naman outside the head down to the eardrum/tympanic
• What you can see are far objects - external to middle: hearing
PRESBYOPIA: 2. THE MIDDLE EAR
• lens becomes less elastic - 3 parts: cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals
• reading glasses required
• loss of your eyes ability to focus on object 3. THE INNER EAR
ASTIGMATISM: THE EXTERNAL EAR
• irregular curvature of lens (REMEMBER: lens are - Extends from outside of head to eardrum
convex—thicker middle portion compared to the
borders) AURICLE:
• glasses or contacts required to correct • Fleshy part on outside
• It’s possible that there are individuals without
COLOR BLINDNESS:
auricle and that could affect their hearing
• absence or deficient cones
• Auricle collects soundwave from the external
• primarily in males
environment
• If they see something else, aside from what a
normal person can see
EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS:
GLAUCOMA: • Ear canal; collects sounds and directs it towards the
• increased pressure in eye eardrum
• primarily brought abt by blockage in the circulation • Canal that leads to eardrum
of the humours in the eyeballs • Same with external auditory canal
• Ex: Aqueous Humour—if it doesn’t go back to the • Have small hairs
venous circulation for recycling then it will remain • Have ceruminous gland which secretes known as
in the eyeballs increasing pressure and can lead cerumen or ceruminous wax that serves a
to glaucoma and can damage the retina protection bc it trans foreign particles that comes
inside ur ear

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

TYMPANIC MEMBRANE: OVAL WINDOW AND ROUND WINDOW:

• Eardrum
• Thin membrane that separates external and middle
ear
• Responding to the soundwaves thru vibration
• Collect sounds and hear it thru vibration
• You should clean your ears everyday pero sa
external lang hindi pede umabot ng tympanic
membrane
• Clean the inside once a week
• Concave; with an area between 60-90 mm and
average thickness of 700 mm and very rich blood
supply
• Soundwaves enter the ear canal and strikes the
tympanic membrane, setting it in motion
• Pwede rin siya middle ear ??? idk T__T [ note to
self : ask doc about this soon !! ]
PINNA
• Part of auricle
• shape of the pinna also detects sounds
• Protection for the delicate parts of the inner
ear; shape of the pinna also helps to detect to
where sounds are coming from in a vertical
plane that is from above or below the ear
• separates middle and inner ear
• entrance of cochlea
• covered openings; not as open as the eustachian
or auditory tube
- meron pa raw is na nagoopen naman sa may mastoid
process but mas prominent daw ang eustachian tube
when we talk abt structures of the ear
EUSTACHIAN OR AUDITORY TUBE
• opens into pharynx
• equalizes air pressure between outside air and
middle ear
• if there are changes in the pressure in environment,
there’s something u have to do to equalize the
pressure; u could swallow or chew to equalize
• pag parang nabibingi—means that the pressure is
not equal in the inside and outside
• uncovered openings (together with dun sa sinasabi
na nagoopen sa may mastoid process)
THE INNER EAR
- Set of fluid filled chambers
- Inner ear is not only for equilibrium but also for hearing

THE MIDDLE EAR

- Air filled chamber with ossicles located in the temporal
part of the skull
- From the tympanic membrane, there would be a
vibration, and it now enters your middle ear where
there are air-filled chambers
- These air-filled chambers will amplify the soundwaves;
u can hear things clearly bc of this amplification; can
be amplified 20x in the middle ear

3 OSSICLES:
• Named accdg to how they look like
• They r all attached to each other
• Malleus, Incus, Stapes

Ø MALLEUS (HAMMER):
- bone attached to tympanic membrane

Ø INCUS (ANVIL):
- bone that connects malleus to stapes

Ø STAPES (STIRRUP):
- bone located at base of oval window
BONY LABYRINTH:
- Stapes footplate : sits loosely on the oval
• tunnels filled with fluid
window of cochlea; held in place by annular
• 3 regions: cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals
ligament
a) Cochlea – responsible for hearing; dito
nakaattach yung cochlear nerve

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PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

b) Semicircular Canals – responsible for the –– CRISTA AMPULLARIS FUNCTION

changes of the movement; different
directions/movement
- Dynamic equilibrium
- Sense movement if any direction
- Anterior, posterior, and lateral duct
• Anterior - front and back movement
• Posterior - up and down movement
• Lateral - left and right movement
- Quite sensitive to any direction
c) Vestibule – responsible for movement but in
relation to gravity
- Kaya hindi nahihilo yang mga gymnasts bc of the
• Vestibule and Semicircular Canals are responsible
function of the crista ampullaris
for balance/equilibrium
- Bc of the function of the crista ampullaris,
^^makes up your vestibulocochlear nerves (CN 8)
endolymph causes the movement of the cupula to
balance it
AMPULLA
- Base of semicircular canal
MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH:
- Responding to movement but in different
• Inside bony labyrinth
direction
- Pag nakasense ng movement kunwari naka • Filled with endolymph
sense pa left, paright naman movement ng • Spaces in between is filled with perilymph
ampulla
ENDOLYMPH:
CRISTA AMPULLARIS • Clear fluid in membranous labyrinth
- In ampulla
PERILYMPH:
CUPULA • Fluid between membranous and bony labyrinth
- Gelatinous mass
- Contains microvilli COCHLEA:
- Float that is displaced by endolymph movement • Snail-shell shaped structure
• Where hearing takes place
• Sense that there is something u have heard
• 35-40 mm long

SCALA VESTIBULI:
• In cochlea
• Filled with perilymph
• Necessary for hearing
• Sound waves enter here and would send it to scala
tympani so that u would recognize whether it
something is high or low pitch

SCALA TYMPANI:
• In cochlea
• Filled with perilymph
• Necessary for hearing
• Involved in hearing whether the sound is high pitch
or low pitch (both vestibuli or tympani)
SCALA MEDIA
• Contains endolymph

REISSNER’S MEMBRANE
• Separates scala vestibuli and scala medi

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PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

BASILAR MEMBRANE • matagal: low pitch sound

• Separates scala media from scala tympani
• Along this are 2 types of sensory cells or hair * u could all determine that bc of your scala vestibuli and
cells: Outer Hair Cells and Inner Hair Cells scala tympan
• Both are arranged in rows accdg to the
frequency/pitch of sounds they detect and covered HEARING PROCESS
by the tectorial membrane 1. Sound travels in waves through air and is funneled
• Each hair cell has tiny hair-like projections called into ear by auricle.
stereocilia attached to them 2. Auricle through external auditory meatus to tympanic
membrane.
COCHLEA DUCT: 3. Tympanic membrane vibrates and sound is amplified
• In cochlea by malleus, incus, stapes which transmit sound to
• Filled with endolymph oval window.
4. Oval window produces waves in perilymph of
SPIRAL ORGAN: cochlea.
• Also known as organ of corti 5. Vibrations of perilymph cause vestibular membrane
• In cochlear duct and endolymph to vibrate.
6. Endolymph cause displacement of basilar
• Contains hair cells responsible to have a message
membrane.
going to ur cns that there’s something that u have
7. Movement of basilar membrane is detected by hair
heard
hairs in spiral organ.
• hair cells do not have axons here in the spiral
8. Hair cells become bent and cause action potential is
organ BUT have axons in your sensory
created.
neurons and these are the ones that bring
- They are transmitted in your vestibulocochlear
signals to the brain to know that there is
- Every time there is bending of hair cells, it would create
something u have heard and can be interpreted
action potential and the action potential would send
- very necessary to conduct hearing
signals to your pathways then to your brainstem then
sa brainstem magcoconduct ng hearing
TECTORIAL MEMBRANE:
• in cochlea
AUDITORY NERVE PATHWAY
• vibrates against hair cells and bring signals
• hair cells are attached to the sensory neurons
(since wala silang axons) and every time the hair
cells would be bending it would produce action - Location ng ear is in
potentials that would send signals to ur brain that the temporal part
there’s something u have heard - Auditory cortex is
• part of the spiral organ sensing that there are
vibrations that would
HAIR CELLS: cause u to hear
• Attached to sensory neurons that when bent produce
an action potential
EFFECT OF SOUND WAVES
VESTIBULAR MEMBRANE:
• Wall of membranous labyrinth that lines scala –– ON MIDDLE AND INNER EAR STRUCTURES
vestibuli - Shortwave – High Pitch Sound
- Long wavelength – Low Pitch Sound
BASILAR MEMBRANE:
• Wall of membranous labyrinth that lines scala –– ON COCHLEAR STRUCTURES
tympani - Sound waves strike the tympanic membrane and
- VOLUME – increasing of vibration thru amplifying it; cause it to vibrate
nagkakaroon tayo ng sense na ang lakas/hina ng - Vibration of the tympanic membrane cause the 3
boses bc of the amplification of that vibration bones of the middle ear to vibrate
- The footplate of the stapes vibrates in the oval window
- PITCH – in relation with scala vestibuli and tympani
• maikli lang: high pitch sound

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

- Vibration of the footplate causes the perilymph in the OTOLITHS:

scala vestibuli to vibrate which in turn causes - Gelatinous substance that moves in response to
displacement of the basilar membrane gravity
- Short wavelengths from high pitch sounds cause - Attached to hair cell microvilli which initiate action
displacement of the basilar membrane near the oval potentials
window - Move in response to gravity
- This movement is detected by hair cells of the spiral
organ (applicable to all)
- Long wavelengths from low pitch sounds cause
displacement of the basilar membrane far from the
oval window
- When the vibrations reach the perilymph in the scala
tympani, they travel to the round window where they
are dampened.

TWO TYPES OF PROBLEMS IN HEARING

1. Conduction Deafness
• related to mechanical; would involve structures; like
for example ung walang auricle

2. Sensorineural Deafness
• in the organ of Corti; for example u have prob sa
hearing bc there are some indivs that are born with
deafness
BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)
• Pag may prob ka sa hearing, magkakaron ka rin ng
problema sa balance kasi they are attached
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM:
(magkaattach yung vestibulocochlear)
- Associated with vestibule
- Evaluates position of head relative to gravity
- Goes towards gravity
FUNCTION OF THE VESTIBULE IN MAINTAINING
BALANCE
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM:
- Associated with semicircular canals
- Evaluates changes in direction and rate of head
movement
- Semicircular canals (anterior, posterior, lateral)

VESTIBULE:
- Inner ear
- Contains utricle and saccule—provide info which
is relative to gravity

MACULAE:
- Specialized patches of epithelium in utricle and
saccule surrounded by endolymph
- Contain hair cells—ones that send action
potentials; now u would know that there are
changes in your position - Kunwari tumungo ka, nagmomove ang otoliths
- Found in the vestibule - Once it moved downward (since tumungo siya), that
would now send signal to your sensory nerve

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 ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
(vestibular nerve) that there are changes bc of the
force of gravity
NEURONAL PATHWAYS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
OLFACTION
• Sense of smell
• Occurs in response to odorants
• Receptors are located in nasal cavity and hard palate
• We can detect 10,000 different smells
• Cribriform plate—dito dumadaan yung olfactory
nerve, tract, bulb
• Odors are chemicals that are dissolved in the
membrane
• May nagsesecrete ng mucous and once it is
dissolved, it will initiate a.p that would be sending
signal
OLFACTION PROCESS
1. Nasal cavity contains a thin film of mucous where
odors become dissolved.
2. Olfactory neurons are located in mucous. Dendrites
of olfactory neurons are enlarged and contain cilia.
3. Dendrites pick up odor, depolarize, and carry odor to
axons in olfactory bulb (cranial nerve I).
4. Frontal and temporal lobes process odor.
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1st Year, 1st Semester
PRELIMS
OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM AND OLFACTORY BULB
- Carry a.p from the olfactory neurons to the axons of
the cerebrum that allow for perception and
interpretation of the stimuli
- Axons from olfactory neurons from the olfactory nerves
which is your cranial nerve 1 pass thru the cribriform
plate and enter the olfactory bulb
- Olfactory neurons synapse with interneurons to relay
a.p to the brain to the olfactory tract
- Sometimes pag may naamoy tayo may naalala tayo,
within the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex there is a
feedback loop that tend to produce action potential
resulting to the prolonged exposure to the given
odorant
- Feedback loop would let us be adaptive to that smell
- Kunwari we r staying in an area for a long time,
nawawala na ung smell bc nag aadapt ka na don and
that is in relation with your feedback loop
OLFACTION PROCESS (VIDEO)
- Begins with hairlike cilia that line the nasal cavity
- This lining is called the Olfactory Epithelium
- As air enters the nasal cavity, some chemicals in the
air bind to and activate nervous system receptors on
the cilia
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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

- This stimulus senses signal to the first order neurons

connected to the epithelial cells CIRCUMVALLAE • 12, circular, large
- The signals is carried by this neurons from the nasal PAPILLAE • With 100 to 300
cavity thru the openings of ethmoid bone and to the tastebuds each
olfactory bulbs of the brain FINGIFORM PALATE • Mushroom-shaped
- The signals then move from the olfactory bulbs along • With 5 taste buds each
the olfactory tracts to the olfactory area of the FOLIATE PALATE • Leaf-like
cerebral cortex • Taste buds degenerate
in early childhood
TASTE (GUSTATION)
FILIFORM PALATE • Tongue could sense
Ø Taste Buds:
- sensory structures that detect taste whether the food is
- located on papillae on tongue, hard palate, throat cold or hot
• Pointed, thread-like
- Inside each taste bud are 40 taste cells. • No taste buds; With
• There are only 5 major tactile receptors

- Each taste cell has taste hairs that extend into taste
pores
• Taste hairs – determine and create signals and
initiate action potentials; send signals to the brain
na ito yung kinain and ito yung lasa
TASTE PROCESS
1. Taste buds pick up taste and send it to taste cells.
2. Taste cells send taste to taste hairs.
3. Taste hairs contain receptors that initiate an action
potential which is carried to parietal lobe.
4. Brain processes taste.

PATHWAYS

- Axons from these 3 cranial nerves would synapse to

the gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei
TYPES OF PAPILLAE - Axons of neurons in the brainstem nuclei extend to and
- These are all with taste hairs synapse with interneurons of the thalamus and that
would project the taste in the insula of the cerebrum
- Certain taste buds are more sensitive to certain tastes.
- Taste is also linked to smell.

GUSTATION
- The detection of specific soluble molecules found in
food or drink results in the sensation of taste
- Specialized cells found in the taste buds of the tongue
contain receptors capable of interacting with
molecules found in our food
- When a taste receptor is stimulated, an electrical
signal is produced by the sensory cell resulting in an
impulse which is transmitted to the brain and results in
the perception of taste.

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