Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow Somatic Senses: smell, taste, sight, hearing,

balance
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexuses of
each of the 4 ventricles. Types of SS Stimulus Location

2. CSF from the lateral ventricles flow through Photoreceptor Light Eyes
the foramen of Monro to the 3rd ventricle.
Mechanorecepto Movement, -Skin
3. CSF flows from the 3rd ventricle through the r pressure,
-Ears
Sylvian aqueduct to the 4th ventricle. tensions
(balance,
4. CSF exits the 4th ventricle through openings in equilibrium)
the wall of the 4th ventricle and though the Duct Chemoreceptor Chemical Tongue
of Magendie (medial) or Duct of Lusha (odor)
(lateral), enters the subarachnoid space. Some Nose
CSF enters the central canal of the SC.
Thermoreceptor Temp Skin
5. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space changes
Hypothalamus
(diffuses upward the cerebral hemisphere to
the arachnoid villi to the venous blood) to the Nonireceptor Tissue All tissues and
arachnoid granulations in the superior sagittal (pain receptor) damage organs
sinus, where it enters the venous circulation. except the
brain
Chapter 9: SENSES

Sense: ability to perceive stimuli

Sensation: conscious awareness of stimuli
received by sensory neurons
Sensory receptors: sensory nerve endings that
respond to stimuli by developing AP
Types of Touch Receptors (Sensory Receptors
in the Skin)
1. Merkel’s disk: detect light touch & pressure
2. Hair follicle receptors: detect light touch

Sensory organs: structures that carry msg. from
surroundings to the CNS, eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, skin
Classification of Senses
3. Meissner corpuscle: deep in the epidermis;
localizing tactile sensations
4. Ruffini corpuscle: deep tactile receptors;
detects continuous pressure in the skin

General Senses: widely distb. throughout the
body
1. Somatic Senses: skin, muscle, joints
2. Visceral Senses: internal organs
SS
● gathers info about body and environment
● responds to touch, pressure, temp, pain
and proprioception
● Proprioception: ability to sense stimuli
within the body regarding motion,
position, and equilibrium
VS
● internal organs
● responds to pain, pressure, and temp
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5. Pacinian corpuscle: deepest receptors; assoc.
with tendons & joints; detect deep pressure,
vibration, and position
Pain: unpleasant perceptual and emotionl
experience and can be localized or diffuse
● Localized: sharp, pricking, cutting pain
(rapid AP)
● Diffuse: burning, aching pain (slower AP)
Pain Control
1. Local Anesthesia
● AP suppressed from pain
● receptors in local areas
● only numbs a small, spec. area of the body
during the procedure and for a short time
only
 ● chemicals are injected near the sensory
nerve
2. General Anesthesia
● loss of consciousness
● to make a person completely unconscious
or asleep during the operation w/ no
awareness or memory
● IV (intraveinous) or inhalation (mask)
● chemical affect reticular formation
● relieves anxiety & keeps unconsciousness
● anesthesia with analgesic –minimizes
pain and relaxes muscles
Referred Pain
● originates in a region which is NOT a
source of pain stimulus
● felt when internal organs are damaged or
inflamed
● sensory neurons from superficial area &
neurons of source pain converge onto
same ascending neurons of spinal cord
1. Olfaction (chemical sense)
● sense of smell
● occurs in response to odorants
● receptors are located in nasal cavity and
hard palate
● humans can detect 10k diff. smells
Nose and tongue: cannot respond to physical
stimuli such as light & sound vibrations—only
the eyes and ears
Noses (sense receptors)—olfactory cells: react
to invisible stimuli carried by the air; chemical
sense
Smell receptors: produce/transmit nerve
impulses to the brain for processing of the scent
Olfaction Process
1. Nasal cavity contains a thin film of mucous
where odors become dissolved.
2. Olfactory neurons are located in the mucous.
Dendrites of olfactory neurons are enlarged and
contain cilia.
3. Dendrites pick up odor, depolarize, and carry
odor to axons in the olfactory bulb (cranial nerve
I).
4. Frontal and temporal lobes process odor.
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2. Taste (Chemical Sense)
Taste buds
● sensory structures that detect taste
● liquids: food mixed with saliva
● located on papillae (in bet. are taste buds
—little bumps on tongue) on tongue, hard
palate, throat
● chemoreceptor: tongue receptors
● each taste bud has 40 taste cells
● each taste cell has taste hairs that extend
into taste pores
● at one end of a taste pore, a microvilli
sticks out
● at another end, it has attached sensory
nerve fibers
● food chemicals bind to microvilli—to
generate nerve impulses carried through
SNF to the brain
3 Types of Papillae
1. Spiky filiform papillae: cover tongue and
glue its surface and a rough texture to grip food
during chewing and swallowing
2. Mushroom-like fungi-form papillae: near
edges and tip of tongue
3. Circumuallae papillae: form a v-shape at the
back of the tongue
Taste Process
1. Taste buds pick up taste and send it to taste
cells.
2. Taste cells send taste to taste hairs.
3. Taste hairs contain receptors w/c initiate an
AP w/c is carried to the parietal lobe.
4. Brain processes taste.
Types of Taste
● umami- delicious in Japanese
● sweet, sour, salty, bitter
● certain taste buds are more sensitive to
certain tastes
● Taste is also linked to smell. Both must
work together to produce flavor.
● Tip of tongue: sweet & salty
● Sides of tongue: sour
● Pharynx: umami
● Back of tongue: bitter
3. Vision
Accessory Structures
● Eyebrow: protects fr. sweat; shade fr. sun
● Eyelid/Eyelashes: protects fr. foreign
objs. and lubricates by blinking
The Eye and Accessory Structures
● Conjuctiva: covers inner surface of eyelid
● Lacrimal apparatus: produces tears
(dilute salt solution)
● Extrinsic/External Eye Muscles:
attached to the outer surface of each eye;
help move the eyeballs
External Eye Muscles
1. Lateral rectus –moves eye laterally
2. Medial rectus –moves eye medially
3. Superior rectus –elevates eye
4. Inferior rectus –depresses eye
5. Inferior oblique –elevates eye and turns it
laterally
6. Superior oblique –depresses eye and turns it
laterally
Anatomy of the Eye
Eyeball –common name of eye
● hollow, fluid-filled space
● composed of 3 layers (tunics)
● divided into chambers
A. Fibrous Tunic (outermost)
1. Sclera
● firm, white outer part
● helps maintain eye shape, provides
attachment sites, protects internal
structure
2. Cornea
● transparent struc. that covers iris and
pupil
● supplied with nerve endings—pain
receptors (fibers)
● allows light to enter and focuses light
● most exposed part of eye and is very
vulnerable to damage
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● only part of the body which can be
transplanted without worry of rejection
B. Vascular Tunic (middle: blood supply)
Choroid
● contains a dark pigment (melanin)—
prevents light from scattering inside the
eye
● delivers oxygen & nutrients into the
retina
● has 2 smooth muscles:
1. Ciliary body: w/o lens is attached by a
suspensory ligament (ciliary zone)
2. Iris: controls size of the pupil (small opening
in the middle of the iris)
Lens
● flexible disk
● focuses light onto retina
● its shape flattens to enable us to see
father away and becomes rounded for
near vision
Iris
● circular, colored part of the eye that gives
our eyes their color
● surrounds and regulates the pupil
Pupil
● regulates amount of light entering
● lots of light—constricted (smaller):
prevents light damage
● little light—dilated (larger): let in more
light
C. Nervous Tunic (innermost)
Retina: covers posterior 5/6 of the eye and has
layers
1. Pigmented Retina (outer): keeps light from
reflecting back in the eye
2. Sensory Retina: contains photoreceptors
(rods & cones); contains interneurons
● Rods: photoreceptors sensitive to light;
20x more rods than cones and can
function in dim light
 ● Cones: photoreceptors provide color
vision; 3 types that each respond to a
particular color or wavelength of light—
red, green, blue
Pigments and Pigment Protein
● Rhodopsin: photosensitive pigment in
rod cells
● Opsin: colorless protein in rhodopsin
● Retinal: yellow pigment in rhodopsin;
requires vitamin A
Effects of Light on Rhodopsin
1. Light strikes rod cell.
2. Retinal changes shape.
3. Opsin changes shape.
4. Retinal dissociates from opsin.
5. Changed rhodopsin stimulates response in rod
cell which results in vision.
6. Retinal detaches from opsin.
7. ATP req. to reattach retinal to opsin and
return rhodopsin to orig. shape.
Retina
● Rods & cones synapse with bipolar cells
of sensory retina.
● Horizontal cells of retina—modify output
of rods and cones.
● Bipolar & horizontal cells synapse with
ganglion cells.
● Ganglion cells axons’ converge to form
optic nerve.
Structures in the Retina
● Macula: small spot near center of retina
● Fovea centralis: center of macula; where
light is focused when looking directly at
an object; only cones; ability to
discriminate fine images
● Optic disk: white spot medial to macula
Blood vessels enter eye and spread over
retina. Axons exit as optic nerve. No
photoreceptors. a.k.a. Blind spot
Chambers of the eye
Anterior Chamber
● bet. cornea and lens
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● filled with aqueous humor (watery)
● aqueous humor: helps maintain
pressure, refracts light, and provide
nutrients to inner surface of the eye
Posterior Chamber
● behind anterior chamber
● contains aqueous humor
Vitreous Chamber
● located in the retina region
● filled with vitreous humor: jelly-like
substance
● vitreous humor—helps maintain
pressure, holds lens and retina in place,
refracts light
Functions of the Eye
● similar to a camera
● Iris: allows light into the eye which is
focused by the camera, lens, and humors
onto the retina.
● The light striking the retina produce AP
which are relayed to the brain.
● Light refraction and image focusing—two
important processes in establishing
vision.
Light refraction: bending of light
Focal point: point where light rays converge;
occurs anterior to retina; object is inverted
Focusing Images on Retina
Accommodation
● lens become lens-rounded and image
can be focused on retina
● as you get older, accommodation is
lost
● enables eye to focus on images closer
than 20 ft.
Neuronal Pathway for Vision
Optic nerve: leaves eye and exits orbit through
optic foramen to enter cranial cavity
Optic chiasm: where 2 optic nerves connect
Optic Tracts: route of ganglion axons
Optic tracts -> Thalamus -> Optic Radiations ->
Visual cortex of the occipital lobe
Visual Defects
● Myopia (near-sightedness): image is in
front of retina
● Hyperopia (far-sightedness): img. is
behind retina
● Presbyopia: lens become less elastic;
reqs. reading glasses
● Astigmatism: irregular curvature of lens;
glasses or contacts req. to correct defect
● Color Blindness: absence or deficient
cones; primarily in males (10%); blue—
total color blindness; red & green—
common cases
● Glaucoma: increased pressure in eye; can
lead to blindness
Ear (hearing and balance)
3 Areas of the Ear
● Eustachian or Auditory Incus: opens
into pharynx and equalizes air pressure
bet. outside air and middle ear
Inner Ear: maze of bony chambers called
osseous or bony or labyrinth
● Bony labyrinth: tunnels filled with fluid;
3 regions: cochlea, vestibule, semicircular
canals
● Membranous labyrinth: inside the bony
labyrinth and is filled with endolymph—
clear fluid in the membranous labyrinth
Cochlea: contains nerves w/c are stimulated by
variations from a wide variation of sounds or
range of loudness -> stimulated nerves (nerve
impulses) -> cochlea to brain through auditory
nerves -> brain: interprets nerve impulses as a
specific sound
Perilymph: fluid bet. membranous and bony
labyrinth

1. External (outer) ear: hearing Cochlea: small, shell-shaped structure; 3 where

hearing takes place; carries nerve impulses to
2. Middle ear: hearing
the brain by auditory nerves
3. Inner ear: resp. for balance and equilibrium
Scala vestibule and Scala tympani: in cochlea;
and hearing
filled with perilymph
External ear: extends from outside of head to
Cochlear duct: in cochlea; filled with endolymph
eardrum
Spiral organ: in cochlear duct; contains hair
● Auricle/Pinna: fleshy part on outside
cells
● External auditory meatus/Ext.
auditory canal (seromenous gland: Tectorial membrane: in cochlea; vibrates
produces waxy yellow substance— against hair cells
earwax—serumen—lines the EA meatus):
Hair cells: attached to sensory neurons that
leads to eardrum
when bent—produces an AP
Middle Ear/Tympanic Cavity: air-filled
Vestibular membrane: wall of mem. labyrinth
chamber with ossicles (smallest bones—
w/c lines scala vestibule
transmit vibratory motion of eardrum)
Basilar membrane: wall of mem. labyrinth w/c
● Malleus (hammer): bone attached to
lines scala tympani
tympanic membrane
● Incus (anvil): bone which connects Hearing Process
malleus to stapes
● Stapes (stirrup): bone located at base of 1. Sound travels in waves through air and is
oval window funneled into ear by auricle.
● Oval window: sep. middle and inner ear
2. Auricle through ext, auditory meatus to
● Eardrum moves, hammer moves and
tympanic membrane.
transmits vibration to anvil to stapes
which presses oval window of inner ear.

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3. TM vibrates and sound is amplified by malleus,
incus, stapes, which transmits sound to oval
window.
4. OW produce waves in perilymph of cochlea.
5. Vibrations of perilymph cause vestibular
membrane and endolymph to vibrate.
6. Endolymph cause displacement of basilar
membrane (BM).
● Conduction deafness: when
transmission of sound vibrations through
ext. & mid. ear is hindered
● Sensory Neural Deafness: damaged
sensory nervous systems involved in
hearing
Cupula: gelatinous mass which contains
microvilli; float which is displaced by endolymph
movement

7. Movement of BM is detected by hairs in spinal

organ.

8. Hair cells become bent and AP is created.

Balance Equilibrium

1. Static Equilibrium

● assoc. with vestibule

● evaluates position of head relative to
gravity

2. Dynamic Equilibrium

● assoc. with semicircular canals—

responsible for sense of balance
● evaluates changes in direction & rate of
head movement

Vestibule (found in inner ear)—contains utricle

and saccule

Maculae

● special patches of epithelium in utricle &

saccule surrounded by endolymph
● receptors of the vestibule (maculae)
● contains hair cells

Otoliths

● gelatinous substance which moves in

response to gravity
● attached to hair cell microvilli w/c
initiates AP

Semicircular canals: dynamic equilibrium;

sense movement in any direction

Ampulla: base of semicircular canal

Crista ampullaris (in ampulla): receptors of

semicircular canals

● Deafness: degree of hearing loss

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