PHYTOREMEDIATION: DETOXIFYING THE ENVIRONMENT

Overview:

Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that uses various plants to degrade, extract, contain,
or immobilize contaminants from soil and water. This technology has been receiving attention
lately as an innovative, cost-effective alternative to the more established treatment methods used
at hazardous waste sites. The term phytoremediation (Phyto = plant and remediation = correct
evil) is relatively new, coined in 1991. Fundamental data for what is presently called as
Phytoremediation comes from an assortment of inquiring about the zones counting built
wetlands, oil spills, and rural plant aggregation of overwhelming metals. The term has been
utilized broadly since its beginning, with an assortment of particular meanings.

Basically, phytoremediation is the title given to a set of innovations that utilize distinctive plants
as a control, pulverization or an extraction strategy. Phytoremediation as a remediation
innovation that has been accepting consideration of late as it comes about from the field trials
demonstrate a fetched reserve fund compared to customary treatments.

Phytoremediation approach of decontaminating toxic metals: -

The surge in industrialization in recent and ongoing centuries has not only brought development
but also damages to the environment. These industries have contaminated the bio ecosystem and
have introduced toxic heavy metals in natural habitats. Their slow degradation rates pose great
concern and bioaccumulation in the food web can disrupt the entire food chain. The recent
process to alleviate the metal toxicity are really expensive but phytoremediation has paved the
way for its effective decontamination. It basically works on the principles of decontaminating
soil and water by potential plants. The selected potential should have high biomass, show rapid
growth, be easily cultivable and should be highly tolerant to toxic metals.

Toxic metals in ecosystem:

The natural sources through which toxic metals enter into the ecosystem is erosion, volcanic
eruptions and leaching while chemical fertilizers and pesticides, smelting and mineral excavation
are some of the common man-made sources. These toxic metals can affect several biochemical
and physiological activities of the plants like lowering the pigment chlorophyll's content, causing
cell membrane destruction and damaging other biomolecules. The techniques involved in
phytoremediation are phytoextraction, rhizofiltration and phytostabilization.
Phytoextraction method involves decontamination of land and water from toxic metals. Usually
commercially advantageous, it helps concentrating metals in roots and shoot apical meristems.
The process feasibility depends upon climatic conditions, bioavailability of metals and soil
properties.

Rhizofiltration techniques involve the adsorption process to eliminate toxic metals from aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems. Mesophytes are usually preferred over hydrophytes because of their
highly extensive fibrous root system. Root surfaces have well developed mechanisms to absorb
nutrients from soil, have large surface area and high affinity chemical receptors. This process can
also be applied to radioactive metal decontamination where it helps in transferring metals to
rhizospheric sites and later translocate it to aerial parts of the plants. Indian mustards [ for Cd
(II), Ni (II), Pb (II), and Sr (II)], sunflower (for Uranium) and tobacco roots [for Hg (II)] can
concentrate toxic metals into their roots. Toxic metals get immobilised in rhizospheric sites of
the plants.

Phytostabilization prevents the metal entry into the food chain and also prevents leaching of
metals into groundwater. ​water. involves the translocation of toxic metals into shoot and later
releasing metals by the diffusion process into the atmosphere. Taking organic pollutants into the
picture, the ultimate aim of phytoremediation is to mineralise toxic elements phytoremediation
are compounds like dioxin, benzopyrene, TNT and trichloroethylene. Some of them are
teratogenic and carcinogenic as well.

Hyperaccumulation is another method of decontamination which also metals accumulation in a

plant's biomass. These plants possess the ability to uptake metals from sites and accumulate to
non-toxic components like CO​2​, NO​3 -​and ammonia. The potential target for them in the root and
shoot system. It is usually defined as the concentration of metal around >0.1-1.0 % of the dry
weight of the plants. The extraction of metal becomes very easy at these concentrations. Even
toxic metals recover from As, Cd and Hg & radionuclides like Ce, U and Te, through these
techniques become much easier in comparison to other techniques. It involves three basic steps
of adsorption, transport and translocation and it also needs some storing medium(sink) to store
the pollutants.

The most accepted mechanism involves two domains of cysteine- rich peptides: Metallothioneins
(MTs) and Phytochelatins (PCs). Metals like Cd (II), Ag(I) and AsO3(-III) are sequestered on
residues of these peptides by inducing bond formation with organic sulphur (R-SH). MTs have
the ability to protect the plants from negative effects of toxic metal ions and it also assists in their
accumulation. Some examples of hyperaccumulator species are Alyssum bertolonii which is Ni
hyperaccumulator. The limitations are that it affects plant growth rate and reduces their biomass.
Phytoremediation transformation and control of contaminants:

Transformation of toxic elements into non-toxic form is another mechanism offered by

phytoremediation. Elements like As, Hg, Fe, Se, Cr exist in different states including their
cationic and oxyanionic species.

These different forms have different accumulation processes and transport mechanisms in plants.
Mercury in +2 oxidation state is relatively toxic but Hg (II) & Hg(O) have rarely been involved
in serious poisoning incident but when transformed to methylmercury (MeHg) by anaerobic
bacteria present in aquatic sediments, it gets biomagnified into the food chain and species at the
top level suffer from mercury poisoning. One tragic incident of serious mercury poisoning
occurred in Minamata Bay, Japan in the 1950s characterized by severe neurological conditions.

The bacterial genes MerA and MerB help in catalysing the detoxification process of ionic and
methylmercury. MerA encodes an enzyme named NADH-dependent mercuric ion reductase
which converts ionic mercury to elemental mercury [ Hg (0)]. It is less toxic and gets eliminated
due to its volatility. The MerB gene encodes lyase enzyme which degrades MeHg to methane
and Hg (II). Since both the genes are secreted simultaneously so the final product is always Hg
(0) which is volatile and less toxic. These mechanisms have been very well engineered to work
efficiently in plants.

The chemical transformation of other pollutants can lead to their remediations. They can be
degraded and mineralised to relatively harmless organic compounds. Ferric chelate reductase
(FRO2) helps in reducing toxic ferric ions to ferrous ions which is readily taken up by the plants.

Trichloroethylene (TCE), a chlorinated solvent can be converted to harmless products by plant

enzymes usually found at higher temperature. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is transformed to harmless
compounds through intermediates such as Triaminotoluene (TAT) in some plant species.
Selenium is toxic when associated with amino acid analogues of cysteine and methionine but its
transformation to dimethyl selenide decreases its toxicity level due to the converted product's
volatile activity.

Phytoremediation of contaminated water

The increase in toxic and heavy metal contents in the aquatic ecosystem poses great
environmental concerns. Newer methods have been devised for their effective removal from
water bodies. Among all these methods, phytoremediation is considered relatively cheaper in
comparison to other approaches.
The major sources of water pollution include untreated sewage, industrial discharge, pesticides &
insecticide leaching, radioactive wastes, oil leakage and eutrophication. These days, use of
aquatic plants for phytoremediation of water bodies are most accepted. Aquatic ecosystem faces
major challenges due to inorganic and organic pollutants. However certain types of macrophytes
have evolved mechanisms to deal with the stressed conditions of organic and inorganic
pollutants in water. Azolla, Lemna, Eichhornia, Potamogeton, Wolfia etc. are some of the
aquatic plant species that have been found out to be highly efficient in decontaminating water
bodies by bioaccumulating contaminants into their tissues.

Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth) widely regarded as a terror of Bengal can tolerate high
toxicity levels of phenols, oxalic acid, formic acid and acetic acid. Some species of the
Lemnaceae family show great efficiency in reducing Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD),
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) as well as heavy metals. These plants are tolerant towards
heavy metals because of the presence of anthocyanins, thiols and antioxidants. Water hyacinth is
used for improving water sources because of their ability to accumulate Cd and Zn. Lemna minor
can effectively remove soluble Pb, Ni and Cr(VI).

Scientists from Qatar have been using its native plants (Monocot, Dicot and introduced) for
effectively decontaminating polluted areas. These native Qatari plants and associated soil
microbes have been found to be good candidates for removing organic and inorganic pollutants.
Typha angustifolia to possess the ability for phytoremediation of contaminated groundwater
sources. Basic process of phytoremediation has applications in air pollution controls as well.
There are plants which decontaminate atmospheric nitrogen dioxide and other particulate matters
present in air.

TRANSGENIC PLANTS:

It has been observed that plants with good biomass production, high tolerance against pollutants,
degradation and accumulation are an ideal weapon for getting rid of the pollutants present in the
environment. With appropriate research, one can find out which biological function of plants
controls these properties and modify it to their liking for these purposes. These functions include
root-shoot translocation, stress resistance, chemical modifications and intracellular sequestration
among other things. With enough research and hard work, it is possible to modify the genes
responsible for this and there you have one of the best weapons for environment cleansing.

Chemical wastes in the environment can be classified into two parts, inorganic and organic.
These wastes can be generally reduced or modified to their harmless predecessors/successors and
transgenic plants are the near perfect tool to do this.
Selenium is that type of inorganic material which is harmful both in its deficiency and high
concentrations. One of the major problems due to high concentration of selenium is that the
fertility of soil decreases as the nutrition content of the soil decreases. It is known that selenium
has similar structure to that of sulphur and that plants have a small capability to accumulate and
volatize sulphur. Hence, upregulation of genes of the plants (thus making it transgenic) is used to
increase the tolerance, accumulative capability of selenium and increase the probability of
volatilization of selenium. Another good side effect of this is that it automatically methylates
selenocysteine (a protein which though act as immune booster, is very harmful and can kill
useful germs) to convert it to elemental selenium which can then be accumulated and volatilized
Converting arsenic reductase 2 (AtACR2) into a derivative having similar properties of tobacco
plants have shown similar process for the cleansing of arsenic. But unlike selenium, arsenic can’t
be transformed or reduced from the environment naturally and hence, the only option is to
accumulate and volatilize it.

Other metals also undergo similar procedures but selenium and arsenic are the major
environmental contaminants and hence are given importance more to decontaminate organic
contaminants, the metabolic rates are designed to be such that the degradation rates increases
many folds and the secretion of reactive enzymes are increased so that they can be transformed
into their harmless counterparts accelerated rate of secretion of the dehalogenase genes from
Xanthobacter autotrophicus when mixed with the tobacco plant has been observed to increase the
dehalogenation of 1,2-dichloroethane which is widely known as a recalcitrant.

Introduction of laccase gene from cotton plant to Arabidopsis Thaliana has been known to show
very high resistance against trichlorophenol present in the soil. Use of herbicides are very
important for agricultural purposes and these are some of the major organic pollutants present in
the soil.

Transgenic plants with enzymes having properties similar to that of P450s which are present in
mammals are made using rNAis which shows reduced activity towards cinnamic acid, CDNB
and prechicalor which ultimately have shown to target the herbicides.

Plants have a very low capability of accumulating xenobiotics but have no capability of
disposing them so these compounds get easily introduced to the food chain poisoning the
organisms involved in the food chain. Increased metabolism rate and above stated methods are
being researched to reduce the level of xenobiotics in the environment

​ADVANCEMENTS:

In the earlier years of phytoremediation, it was observed that it was only capable of taking up
very limited and specific contaminants and that too only from the soil. But, as the years advanced
and the need of phytoremediation increased, more and more interest were given to this technique
and recent advancements saw the progression of phytoremediation from a very limited use to
taking up large number of contaminants of both organic and inorganic category from both the
soil and air.

Various plants are injected with genes which increases the production of biosurfactants and
exopolysaccharides thus promoting the growth of rhizobacteria which in turn, increases the
efficiency of degradation, immobilization, accumulation and volatilization capability of plants.
Due to this increased phytoremediation efficiency of plants, they are able to take up more heavy
metals like lead, cadmium, zinc and nickel apart from selenium and arsenic.

Introduction of phytotransformation, which converts organic pollutants to their harmless forms

with the help of enzymes was a major step for cleansing the environment from chlorinated
solvents, pesticides, herbicides along with some explosives and petrochemicals.

Discovery of new species of plants is also one of the most important steps in the advancement of
phytoremediation. For example, the discovery of the Populus tree was a huge advancement in the
field of physiology and genetics (phytoremediation). Populus trees have been observed to show
very distinct traits like rapid growth rate, high perennial biomass production and extensive root
system unlike any other plant and these unique properties of Populus trees give it a huge
industrial benefit. These properties help in natural large phytoremediative properties and
encoding it with efficiency increasing genes make it a near perfect weapon against pollutants

In these pandemic times, a large number of people are staying home and hence, there is a general
increase in the use of air fresheners which contain a lot of harmful volatile organic contaminants.
It has been observed that potted plants have the capacity to uptake these VOCs and thus, purify
the air. The mechanism involves the active air flow throughout the plant system with various
VOCs getting transformed to useful materials for the plants in various stages as it traverses
through the plant system. Leaves provide the surface area for absorption of these chemicals and
thus, various research has been made by encoding the potted plants with genes which increase
the surface area density of the leaves and the results have not been disappointing. These uses of
potted plants are being discussed for further future in indoor bio-organic filters.

Infusion of nano- technology with phytoremediation, nano-phytoremediation has shown very

promising results which include high increase in efficiency of degradation and accumulation
rates of the plants. Nano- particles can bond with a large number of both organic and inorganic
contaminants and their derivatives are very easily transformed. Its cataclysmic power to increase
the efficiency unlike any other method gives it a sure shot profit for further research in the future.

Phosphate solubilizing microbes (PSM) are known to show high efficiency in converting the
heavy metals present in the environment into soluble and bioavailable forms even under high
metal concentration stress which other methods fail to do. It has been observed that undergoing
transgenicity helps it to mineralize organic contaminants which can be further used by plants for
growth. Hence, it is a subject of large number of researches in the recent times

Research has shown that the phytoremediated metal forms and their derivatives can be used for
making fortified fodders for animals and fortified food stuffs for agricultural purposes.

SIDE-EFFECTS​:

Though phytoremediation is a wonderful and revolutionary method for cleansing the

environment, it is still under much study and many of the mechanisms of the processes are yet to
be known but have been observed.

The method of using chelation enhancing microbes in phytoremediation is an effective tool for
the leaching of Cd, Zn and Cu along with Pb due to increase in accumulation capabilities but it
also decreases the biomass production to a large extent meaning that the accumulated metals
cannot be transformed to useful derivatives for plant growth. Hence, it not only gets introduced
in the food chain but the EDGA microbe used for such purposes also leads to groundwater
pollution

Due to the lack of understanding of some of the processes, transgenicity sometimes also led to
high accumulation to dissipation ratio which means that the plant is accumulating more metal
concentration that it can dissipate. Hence, the toxicity factors of all the accumulated metals come
into play and thus decrease the plant life, efficiency, along with spreading its toxic effects to the
surrounding area leading to widespread diseases in the soil and animals/humans residing in its
surrounding area. Most of the time, these are known to cause deaths and the severity of such
diseases is very high ranging from severe lung diseases to even several types of cancers.

Accumulation of some metals like selenium is particularly very harmful as selenium is not found
in its elemental state in nature but as organic forms like selenocystein. Selenocystein is a very
popular immuno booster due to killer action against almost all types of bacterias. High
concentration could lead to the elimination of most of necessary bacterias along with the bad
ones thus, affecting the quality of soil and the microorganisms living in it

High concentration of metals in the soil also competes with the nutrients present in the soil for
space and hence, most of the time have been observed to dominate over it. This leads to decrease
in the concentration of nutrients present in the soil thus decreasing the fertility of the soil

Research is being conducted all over the world to overcome such side effects of
phytoremediation as it is not only a very useful method to cleanse the environment but also
undergoes fascinating mechanisms still under study and is very cost effective making it very
useful for industrial and scientific purposes.
Conclusion:

Phytoremediation has been majorly focusing on organic, inorganic and radionuclides waste with
great advancements since the last ten years. This method is proved as one of the most viable and
reasonable methods in terms of detoxifying the environment in specific to Asian countries such
as India. Indeed, Phytoremediation has been one of the prime focus in the areas of scientific
development and have thus reached onto the fact that plants with high biomass and good metal
uptake ability are required for this process and will majorly suit for the same. Though data
regarding plant disposal have been found, the research on the same has been scarce. However,
several methods of plant disposal have been described but experimental data regarding the same
have always been bleak. Composting and compaction can be treated as pre-treatment steps for
volume reduction, but care should be taken to collect leachate resulting from compaction.
Between the two methods that significantly reduce the contaminated biomass, incineration seems
to be less time consuming and environmentally sound than direct burning or ashing.

References:

1. ​Singh, O. V., and R. K. Jain. "Phytoremediation of toxic aromatic pollutants from soil."
Applied microbiology and biotechnology​ 63.2 (2003): 128-135.

2. ​Meagher, Richard B. "Phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic pollutants."

Current opinion in plant biology​ 3.2 (2000): 153-162.

3. ​Nwoko, Chris O. "Trends in phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic

pollutants." ​African Journal of Biotechnology​ 9.37 (2010): 6010-6016.

4. ​Patra, Deepak Kumar, Chinmay Pradhan, and Hemanta Kumar Patra. "Toxic metal
decontamination by phytoremediation approach: concept, challenges,
opportunities and future perspectives." ​Environmental Technology & Innovation​ 18 (2020):
100672.

5. ​Ansari, Abid Ali, et al. "Phytoremediation of contaminated waters: An eco-friendly

technology based on aquatic macrophytes application." ​The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic
Research​ (2020).

6. ​Al-Thani, R. F., and B. T. Yasseen. "Phytoremediation of polluted soils and waters by

native Qatari plants: future perspectives." ​Environmental Pollution​ 259 (2020): 113694.

7. ​Morikawa, Hiromichi, and Özgür Cem Erkin. "Basic processes in phytoremediation

and some applications to air pollution control." ​Chemosphere​ 52.9 (2003): 1553-1558.
8. ​Ali, Shafaqat, et al. "Application of floating aquatic plants in phytoremediation of heavy
metals polluted water: a review." ​Sustainability​ 12.5 (2020): 1927.
9. ​Wahab Al-Baldawi, Israa Abdul, et al. "Phytoremediation of contaminated ground
water using Typha angustifolia." ​Water Practice and Technology​ 10.3 (2015): 616-624.

10. ​Luqman, Muhammad, et al. "Phytoremediation of polluted water by tress: A review."

African Journal of Agricultural Research​ 8.17 (2013): 1591-1595

11. https://clu-in.org/download/remed/introphyto.pdf

12. Jadia, Chhotu D., and M. H. Fulekar. "Phytoremediation of heavy metals: recent
techniques." African journal of biotechnology 8.6 (2009).

13. McIntyre, Terry. "Phytoremediation of heavy metals from soils." Phytoremediation

(2003): 97-123.

14. Ijaz, Amna, et al. "Phytoremediation: recent advances in plant-endophytic synergistic

interactions." Plant and Soil 405.1 (2016): 179-195.

15. Ahmadpour, P., et al. "Phytoremediation of heavy metals: A green technology."

African Journal of Biotechnology 11.76 (2012): 14036-14043.

16. Maestri, Elena, and Nelson Marmiroli. "Transgenic plants for phytoremediation."
International Journal of Phytoremediation 13.sup1 (2011): 264-279.

17. Pal, Rama & Dubey, Rk & Dubey, Sarwan & Jinger, Dinesh. (2020).
PHYTOREMEDIATION: A potential remediation technology for heavy metal
contaminated sites Kerala Karshakan June 2020.

18. https://repository.vnu.edu.vn/bitstream/11126/4885/3/TC_02626.pdf

19. Eskander, Samir & Saleh, Hosam El-Din. (2017). Phytoremediation: An Overview.

20. Rathod, Paresh H., et al. "Proximal spectral sensing to monitor phytoremediation of
metal-contaminated soils." International journal of phytoremediation 15.5 (2013): 405-426.

21. Saleh, Saleema, et al. "Phytoremediation of persistent organic contaminants in the

environment." Applied bioremediation and phytoremediation. Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2004. 115-134.
22. Rungwa, Stanley, et al. "Phytoremediation–an eco-friendly and sustainable method of
heavy metal removal from closed mine environments in Papua New Guinea." Procedia
Earth and Planetary Science 6 (2013): 269-277.

23. Salt, David E., et al. "Phytoremediation: a novel strategy for the removal of toxic metals
from the environment using plants." Bio/technology 13.5 (1995): 468-474.
24. Kushwaha, Anamika, et al. "Heavy metal detoxification and tolerance mechanisms in
plants: Implications for phytoremediation." Environmental Reviews 24.1 (2015): 39-51.

25. Pilon-Smits, Elizabeth, and Marinus Pilon. "Phytoremediation of metals using

transgenic plants." Critical reviews in plant sciences 21.5 (2002): 439-456.

26. Pilon-Smits, Elizabeth AH, and Danika L. LeDuc. "Phytoremediation of selenium using
transgenic plants." Current Opinion in Biotechnology 20.2 (2009): 207-212.

27. James, C. Andrew, and Stuart E. Strand. "Phytoremediation of small organic

contaminants using transgenic plants." Current opinion in biotechnology 20.2 (2009):
237-241.

28. Nahar, Noor, et al. "Phytoremediation of arsenic from the contaminated soil using
transgenic tobacco plants expressing ACR2 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana." Journal of plant
physiology 218 (2017): 121-126.

29. Kawahigashi, Hiroyuki. "Transgenic plants for phytoremediation of herbicides."

Current Opinion in Biotechnology 20.2 (2009): 225-230.

30. Kumar, Santosh, Mengyao Jin, and James L. Weemhoff. "Cytochrome P450-mediated
phytoremediation using transgenic plants: A need for engineered cytochrome P450
enzymes." Journal of petroleum & environmental biotechnology 3.5 (2012).

31. Maestri, Elena, and Nelson Marmiroli. "Transgenic plants for phytoremediation."
International Journal of Phytoremediation 13.sup1 (2011): 264-279.

32. Cherian, Sam, and M. Margarida Oliveira. "Transgenic plants in phytoremediation:

recent advances and new possibilities." Environmental science & technology 39.24 (2005):
9377-9390.

33. Paz-Alberto, Annie Melinda, and Gilbert C. Sigua. "Phytoremediation: a green

technology to remove environmental pollutants." (2013).
34. Bock, Claudia, et al. "Advances in phytoremediation: phytotransformation."
Innovative Approaches to the On-Site Assessment and Remediation of Contaminated Sites.
Springer, Dordrecht, 2002. 115-140.

35. Lal, Shatrohan, et al. "Biosurfactant and exopolysaccharide-assisted rhizobacterial

technique for the remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil: an advancement in metal
phytoremediation technology." Environmental Technology & Innovation 10 (2018):
243-263.

36. Yadav, Rakesh, et al. "Perspectives for genetic engineering of poplars for enhanced
phytoremediation abilities." Ecotoxicology 19.8 (2010): 1574-1588.

37. Pettit, T., P. J. Irga, and F. R. Torpy. "Towards practical indoor air phytoremediation:
a review." Chemosphere 208 (2018): 960-974.

38. Srivastav, Akansha, et al. "Nano-phytoremediation of pollutants from contaminated

soil environment: Current scenario and future prospects." Phytoremediation. Springer,
Cham, 2018. 383-401.

39. Gupta, Pratishtha, and Vipin Kumar. "Value added phytoremediation of metal stressed
soils using phosphate solubilizing microbial consortium." World Journal of Microbiology
and Biotechnology 33.1 (2017): 1-15.

40. Römkens, Paul, et al. "Potentials and drawbacks of chelate-enhanced phytoremediation

of soils." Environmental pollution 116.1 (2002): 109-121.

41. Padmavathiamma, Prabha K., and Loretta Y. Li. "Phytoremediation technology:

hyper-accumulation metals in plants." Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 184.1 (2007): 105-126.

42. Tangahu, Bieby Voijant, et al. "A review on heavy metals (As, Pb, and Hg) uptake by
plants through phytoremediation." International Journal of Chemical Engineering 2011
(2011).

43.​https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5zE-swQcoPQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq
=Introduction+to+phytoremediation&ots=DMaycK4c2R&sig=CRaU-DYrVE0GaYWg2Qs
b-eC4kGc

44. Jothimani, P., S. Ponmani, and R. Sangeetha. "Phytoremediation of heavy metals-a

review." Int. J. Res. Studies in Biosci 1.2 (2013): 17-23.
45.​https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Jw1T_a1fiSoC&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=I
ntroduction+to+phytoremediation&ots=ZlsVPQ_uZ1&sig=0GZ92gVo6T-n7kaQ7pGoA5K
Qos0

46. ​Kulakov, P., and B. Zeeb. "Introduction into phytoremediation of contaminated soils
and sites." ​Ecology and Future-Journal of Agricultural Science and Forest Science​ 8.3
(2009): 16-18.

47. ​Zayed AM, Terry N: Selenium volatilization in roots and shoots:effects of shoot
removal and sulfate level. J Plant Physiol 1994, 143:8-14.

48. Anderson TA, Guthrie EA, Walton BT: Bioremediation in the rhizosphere: plant roots
and associated microbes clean contaminated soil. Environ Sci Tech 1993, 27:2630-2636.

49. ​Hughes JB, Shanks J, Vanderford M, Lauritzen J, Bhadra R: Transformation of TNT

by aquatic plants and plant tissue cultures. Environ Sci Tech 1997, 31:266-271.

50. Wackett LP, Sadowsky MJ, Newman LM, Hur HG, Li S: Metabolism of
polyhalogenated compounds by a genetically engineered bacterium. Nature 1994,
368:627-629.

---------------------THANK YOU----------------------