BCSP CSP Exam Study Guide

BCSP CSP Exam
Study Guide
A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW FOR SAFETY
PROFESSIONALS
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BCSP CSP exam with confidence.
CSP Exam Study Guide
Contents
Introduction and Exam Preparation Tips ................................... 29
Studying for your Exam ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Study Recommendations ................................................................................................................................... 29
Plan ....................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Begin The Process.............................................................................................................................................. 30
Understand the Learning Process .................................................................................................................... 30
Prepare A Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 30
Test Yourself on Each Domain ......................................................................................................................... 30
Test Yourself on All the Content Combined .................................................................................................... 31
Know You Are Ready ......................................................................................................................................... 31
Take Heart............................................................................................................................................................ 31
Domain 1- Advanced Sciences and Math ................................... 32
Core concepts in anatomy and physiology ..................................................................................................... 32
Physiology ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
Anatomy............................................................................................................................................................ 32
The levels of organization of the human body ............................................................................................ 32
The major organ systems of the human body ............................................................................................ 32
Anatomical planes and sections ................................................................................................................... 33
The Chemical Basis of Life ............................................................................................................................ 33
Cells: The Basic Unit of Life .......................................................................................................................... 34
Cell Theory ....................................................................................................................................................... 34
Cell Structural Overview................................................................................................................................. 34
Tissue in the human body .............................................................................................................................. 35
Cell Junctions .................................................................................................................................................. 35
The integument as an organ ......................................................................................................................... 35
Functions of the skin ....................................................................................................................................... 35
The Layers of Skin .......................................................................................................................................... 36
Types of Bones and Bone Structures .......................................................................................................... 36
Joint Structure and Cartilage ......................................................................................................................... 36
Ligaments and tendons .................................................................................................................................. 37
The axial skeleton ........................................................................................................................................... 37
Muscles ............................................................................................................................................................. 37
Skeletal muscle fiber....................................................................................................................................... 37
Control of muscles .......................................................................................................................................... 37
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Nervous system ............................................................................................................................................... 38

Core concepts in chemistry (e.g., organic chemistry, general chemistry, and biochemistry) ................. 38
Chemistry ......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Atoms ................................................................................................................................................................ 38
Subatomic particles......................................................................................................................................... 39
Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................. 39
Molecules ......................................................................................................................................................... 39
Elements ........................................................................................................................................................... 40
Natural elements ............................................................................................................................................. 40
Synthetic or man-made elements ................................................................................................................. 40
States of Matter ............................................................................................................................................... 40
Periodic Table of the Elements ..................................................................................................................... 41
Atomic Number ................................................................................................................................................ 41
Atomic Mass .................................................................................................................................................... 41
Chemical Bonding ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Moles ................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Molecules and Compounds ........................................................................................................................... 42
Mixtures ............................................................................................................................................................ 43
Chemical Formulas ......................................................................................................................................... 43
Atomic Weight of Compounds....................................................................................................................... 43
Percentage of Element in a Compound (by Weight) ................................................................................. 43
Acids, Bases, and pH’s .................................................................................................................................. 44
Gas Laws.......................................................................................................................................................... 45
Boyle’s Law .................................................................................................................................................. 45
Charles’ Law ................................................................................................................................................ 45
Ideal Gas Law .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Combined Gas Law .................................................................................................................................... 47
Core concepts in physics (e.g., forms of energy, weights, forces, and stresses) ..................................... 47
Energy ............................................................................................................................................................... 47
Kinetic Energy.................................................................................................................................................. 48
Potential Energy .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Elastic Potential Energy ................................................................................................................................. 49
Force ................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Defining Mass and Weight ............................................................................................................................. 50

Calculating Force ............................................................................................................................................ 50

Frictional Force ................................................................................................................................................ 51
Force, Distance and Work ............................................................................................................................. 51
Momentum ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Newton’s Laws of Motion ............................................................................................................................... 52
Velocity ............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Displacement ................................................................................................................................................... 53
Mathematics (e.g., geometry, algebra, trigonometry, finance and accounting, engineering, and
economics) ........................................................................................................................................................... 54
Order of Operations ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Positive and Negative Numbers ................................................................................................................... 54
Exponents ........................................................................................................................................................ 55
Scientific Notation and Engineering Notation ............................................................................................. 55
Absolute Values .............................................................................................................................................. 56
Logarithms........................................................................................................................................................ 56
Formula or Equation Transpositions ............................................................................................................ 57
Factorials .......................................................................................................................................................... 57
Common Geometric Equations ..................................................................................................................... 58
Pythagorean Equation .................................................................................................................................... 59
Basic Trigonometric Functions ...................................................................................................................... 59
Quadratic Equation ......................................................................................................................................... 61
Simple Interest ................................................................................................................................................. 61
Compound Interest ......................................................................................................................................... 61
Future Value of Money ................................................................................................................................... 62
Loan Balance ................................................................................................................................................... 63
Time Value of Money...................................................................................................................................... 64
Future Value of Money ................................................................................................................................... 64
Series Compound Amount Factor ................................................................................................................ 65
Sinking Fund Factor........................................................................................................................................ 66
Capital Recovery Factor................................................................................................................................. 67
Series Present Worth Factor ......................................................................................................................... 67
Statistics for interpreting data (e.g., mean, median, mode, confidence intervals, probabilities, and
pareto analysis) ................................................................................................................................................... 68
Mean ................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Mode ................................................................................................................................................................. 69

Median .............................................................................................................................................................. 69
Variance............................................................................................................................................................ 69
Standard Deviation ......................................................................................................................................... 70
Normal Distribution ......................................................................................................................................... 71
Calculating Correlation Coefficient ............................................................................................................... 71
Spearman Rank Coefficient of Correlation.................................................................................................. 73
Calculating the t Test for Comparing Means .............................................................................................. 74
Chi-Square (χ2) Statistic ................................................................................................................................. 74
Degrees of Freedom ....................................................................................................................................... 76
p Values ............................................................................................................................................................ 76
Permutations with Repetition......................................................................................................................... 77
Permutations without Repetition ................................................................................................................... 77
Combinations ................................................................................................................................................... 78
Z-Score ............................................................................................................................................................. 79
Coefficient of Determination .......................................................................................................................... 79
Coefficient of Correlation ............................................................................................................................... 80
Component Reliability..................................................................................................................................... 80
Probability of Failure (Component)............................................................................................................... 81
System Reliability ............................................................................................................................................ 82
Series Reliability .............................................................................................................................................. 82
Parallel Reliability ............................................................................................................................................ 83
Probability of Failure (System) ...................................................................................................................... 83
Core research methodology .............................................................................................................................. 84
What is research methodology? ................................................................................................................... 84
What are qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method methodologies? ................................................. 85
What are the main sampling design approaches? ..................................................................................... 85
What are the main data collection methods?.............................................................................................. 86
What are the main data analysis methods? ................................................................................................ 86
How do I choose a research methodology?................................................................................................ 87
Microbiology (e.g., nanotechnology, waterborne pathogens, and bloodborne pathogens) ..................... 87
Nanotechnology .............................................................................................................................................. 87
Waterborne Pathogens .................................................................................................................................. 88
Bloodborne Pathogens ................................................................................................................................... 88
Domain 2- Management Systems ............................................... 90
Benchmarks and performance standards/metrics ......................................................................................... 90
Problems with Injury Statistics ...................................................................................................................... 90

Importance of Measuring Safety Performance ........................................................................................... 91
Safety Performance Metrics to measure. .................................................................................................... 91
Measuring the Health and Safety Management System .......................................................................... 92
Leading versus Lagging Indicators............................................................................................................... 93
Continuous Improvement ............................................................................................................................... 93
Near Misses ..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Employee Perceptions of the Safety Culture .............................................................................................. 94
How to measure, analyze, and improve organizational culture ................................................................... 95
What is a safety culture?................................................................................................................................ 96
Assessing Safety Culture ............................................................................................................................... 96
Improving Safety Culture ............................................................................................................................... 97
Accident Causation and Incident investigation techniques and analysis (e.g., causal factors) .............. 98
Domino Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 98
Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety .......................................................................................................... 99
Human Factors Theory................................................................................................................................... 99
Accident/Incident Theory ............................................................................................................................... 99
Epidemiological Theory ................................................................................................................................ 100
Systems Theory............................................................................................................................................. 101
Energy Release Theory ............................................................................................................................... 101
Behavior Theory ............................................................................................................................................ 101
Combination Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 102
Modern Causation Model ............................................................................................................................. 102
Operating Errors ............................................................................................................................................ 103
Systems Defects ........................................................................................................................................... 103
Command Error ............................................................................................................................................. 104
Safety Program Defect ................................................................................................................................. 104
Safety Management Errors .......................................................................................................................... 105
Countermeasures.......................................................................................................................................... 105
Investigation Techniques ............................................................................................................................. 106
Purpose of the Investigation .................................................................................................................... 106
Investigation Techniques ......................................................................................................................... 106
Fact Finding ............................................................................................................................................... 107
Interviews ................................................................................................................................................... 108

Management of change techniques (prior, during, and after) .................................................................... 108

Defining Change............................................................................................................................................ 108
Top-down change ......................................................................................................................................... 108
Bottom-up change ......................................................................................................................................... 108
Planned change. ........................................................................................................................................... 109
System safety analysis techniques (e.g., fault tree analysis, failure modes and effect analysis [FMEA],
Safety Case approach, and Risk Summation).............................................................................................. 112
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) ............................................................................................................................ 112
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) .............................................................................................. 113
Safety Case approach .................................................................................................................................. 113
Risk Summation ............................................................................................................................................ 114
The elements of business continuity and contingency plans ..................................................................... 114
Business Continuity Planning ...................................................................................................................... 114
The Role of Prevention............................................................................................................................. 114
Business Impact Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 114
Developing Recovery Strategies ............................................................................................................ 115
Business Continuity Plan Development................................................................................................. 115
Follow-up Testing and Review ................................................................................................................ 115
Types of leading and lagging safety, health, environmental, and security performance indicators ..... 116
Safety, health, and environmental management and audit systems (e.g., ISO 14000, 45001, 19011,
ANSI Z10)........................................................................................................................................................... 117
Introduction to Auditing Health and Safety Management Systems ....................................................... 118
Health and Safety Management System Audits Evaluate the OHS Management System ............... 120
Organizational Culture and Auditing .......................................................................................................... 121
Auditors ........................................................................................................................................................... 121
Key Elements of Health and Safety Management Systems ................................................................... 123
Management commitment ....................................................................................................................... 124
Hazard identification and evaluation process ....................................................................................... 125
Hazard control ........................................................................................................................................... 125
Workplace Inspections ............................................................................................................................. 126
Incident reporting and investigation ....................................................................................................... 126
Employee Competency ............................................................................................................................ 126
Emergency Preparedness ....................................................................................................................... 127
System Administration and Quality Control .......................................................................................... 127
Audit instruments........................................................................................................................................... 128

Overview of the Audit Process .................................................................................................................... 130

Pre-audit Activities ........................................................................................................................................ 131
Preparing for the audit .................................................................................................................................. 133
Assisting the company with communications ....................................................................................... 134
The Audit Plan ............................................................................................................................................... 134
Auditor Preparatory Tools ............................................................................................................................ 134
Sampling Tools for Interviews ................................................................................................................. 135
Audit Communication Tools..................................................................................................................... 135
Field note tools .......................................................................................................................................... 135
Electronic tools .......................................................................................................................................... 136
Preparing to go on-site. ............................................................................................................................ 136
Audit Team Communication .................................................................................................................... 136
The “kick-off” Meeting ................................................................................................................................... 136
Documentation .............................................................................................................................................. 138
Conducting the Document Review ......................................................................................................... 140
A closer look at the documents ............................................................................................................... 141
Quality and contents ................................................................................................................................. 141
Currency of documents ............................................................................................................................ 141
Time and frequency requirements .......................................................................................................... 141
Communication.......................................................................................................................................... 142
Life cycle of documents............................................................................................................................ 142
Document specificity ................................................................................................................................. 142
Interviews ....................................................................................................................................................... 142
Interviewing Skills ...................................................................................................................................... 143
Interview questions ................................................................................................................................... 143
Interview Planning ..................................................................................................................................... 144
Size, structure and geography of the organization .............................................................................. 144
Length of interviews .................................................................................................................................. 144
Type of interviews (individual, group, or written questionnaire) ......................................................... 144
Order of interviews .................................................................................................................................... 145
Background information about departments and employees ............................................................. 145
Location of interviews ............................................................................................................................... 145
Key questions for various types of employees ..................................................................................... 145
Recording information from interviews .................................................................................................. 145

Confidentiality of interviews ..................................................................................................................... 146

Selection of interviewees ......................................................................................................................... 146
Conducting interviews .............................................................................................................................. 146
Site Tours – Familiarization Tour ................................................................................................................ 149
Site Tours – Observation Visits................................................................................................................... 151
Audit Close-out or Debriefing Meeting ....................................................................................................... 152
Completing the Audit .................................................................................................................................... 152
Scoring an audit (scored instruments) ................................................................................................... 152
Scoring by an Audit Team ....................................................................................................................... 153
Scoring Errors ............................................................................................................................................ 153
Results Using Un-scored Instruments ................................................................................................... 154
Field Notes ................................................................................................................................................. 154
Non-conformances and Corrective Action Requests (CAR) .............................................................. 155
Recommendations .................................................................................................................................... 155
Liability Concerns with Regards to Recommendations ....................................................................... 156
The Audit Report ....................................................................................................................................... 156
The Audit Report Presentation ................................................................................................................ 157
Supplemental Reports .............................................................................................................................. 157
Action Plans ............................................................................................................................................... 157
Auditing the Auditors..................................................................................................................................... 158
Applicable requirements for plans, systems, and policies (e.g., safety, health, environmental, fire, and
emergency action) ............................................................................................................................................ 158
Document retention or management principles (e.g., incident investigation, training records, exposure
records, maintenance records, environmental management system, and audit results) ...................... 159
Incident investigation .................................................................................................................................... 160
Training records............................................................................................................................................. 161
Exposure record ............................................................................................................................................ 161
Maintenance records .................................................................................................................................... 162
Environmental management system .......................................................................................................... 162
Audit results ................................................................................................................................................... 163
Budgeting, finance, and economic analysis techniques and principles (e.g., timelines, budget
development, milestones, resourcing, financing risk management options, return on investment,
cost/benefit analysis, and role in procurement process) ............................................................................. 163
Timelines ........................................................................................................................................................ 164
Budget Development .................................................................................................................................... 165
Budgeting Milestones ................................................................................................................................... 166
Budget Resourcing ....................................................................................................................................... 166

Financing Risk Management ....................................................................................................................... 167
Cost Benefit Analysis.................................................................................................................................... 168
Budgeting ....................................................................................................................................................... 169
Management leadership techniques (e.g., management theories, leadership theories, motivation,
discipline, and communication styles) ........................................................................................................... 169
Management theories ................................................................................................................................... 169
1. Scientific Management ..................................................................................................................... 169
2. Bureaucratic Management............................................................................................................... 169
3. Human Relations Movement ........................................................................................................... 169
4. Contingency Theory .......................................................................................................................... 170
5. Systems Theory................................................................................................................................. 170
6. Total Quality Management (TQM): ................................................................................................. 170
7. Lean Management ............................................................................................................................ 170
Leadership theories ...................................................................................................................................... 170
1. Trait Theory ........................................................................................................................................ 170
2. Behavioral Theory ............................................................................................................................. 170
3. Situational Theory ............................................................................................................................. 170
4. Transformational Theory .................................................................................................................. 170
5. Authentic Theory ............................................................................................................................... 171
6. Charismatic Theory ........................................................................................................................... 171
7. Servant Theory .................................................................................................................................. 171
Workplace motivation ................................................................................................................................... 171
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs .......................................................................................................... 171
2. Self-Determination Theory ............................................................................................................... 171
3. Expectancy Theory ........................................................................................................................... 171
4. Goal Setting Theory .......................................................................................................................... 171
5. Reinforcement Theory ...................................................................................................................... 171
6. Intrinsic Motivation ............................................................................................................................ 172
Discipline theories ......................................................................................................................................... 172
1. Hierarchical Authority ....................................................................................................................... 172
2. Self-Regulation .................................................................................................................................. 172
3. Social Learning .................................................................................................................................. 172
4. Expectancy Theory ........................................................................................................................... 172
5. Equity Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 172
Workplace discipline ..................................................................................................................................... 172

Communication Styles.................................................................................................................................. 173
Project management concepts and techniques (e.g., RACI charts, project timelines, and budgets) .. 174
RACI Charts ................................................................................................................................................... 174
Project Timelines ........................................................................................................................................... 174
Project Budgets ............................................................................................................................................. 175
Cost/Benefit Analysis.................................................................................................................................... 175
Project Risk Management ............................................................................................................................ 176
Concepts and Techniques for Project Management ............................................................................... 176
Domain 3- Risk Management .................................................... 179
What is Risk Management?......................................................................................................................... 179
Uncertainty and Decision-Making ........................................................................................................... 179
Perceptions of Risk Management........................................................................................................... 179
Hazard and Risk ............................................................................................................................................ 179
Hazard identification and analysis methods (e.g., job safety analysis, hazard analysis, human
performance analysis, and audit and causal analysis)................................................................................ 181
Hazard analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 181
Hazard/Risk Assessment Process ............................................................................................................. 181
Job Safety Analysis....................................................................................................................................... 182
The risk management process (risk identification, analysis, evaluation, control, monitor and review) 183
Risk Identification .......................................................................................................................................... 183
Risk Analysis.................................................................................................................................................. 184
Risk Evaluation .............................................................................................................................................. 184
Risk Control.................................................................................................................................................... 185
Monitoring and Review ................................................................................................................................. 186
Likelihood, Consequence, and Risk ........................................................................................................... 186
Likelihood ................................................................................................................................................... 186
Discrete hazards ....................................................................................................................................... 187
Continuous hazards .................................................................................................................................. 187
Consequence ............................................................................................................................................. 187
Decision-Making in Risk Management ...................................................................................................... 188
The Risk Measurement Matrix ................................................................................................................ 189
Event Tree Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 190
Weight-Of-Evidence.................................................................................................................................. 191
Precautionary Principle ............................................................................................................................ 191
Sound Science .......................................................................................................................................... 191

The ALARA Principle ................................................................................................................................ 191
Reasonable Relationship ......................................................................................................................... 191
Additional methods of Decisions in Risk Management ........................................................................... 192
Hierarchy of Controls to Reduce Risk ........................................................................................................ 193
The costs and benefits of risk assessment process .................................................................................... 193
Benefits of risk assessment: ........................................................................................................................ 193
The costs of risk assessment ...................................................................................................................... 193
Calculating metrics for organizational risk..................................................................................................... 194
Insurance/risk transfer principles .................................................................................................................... 194
Domain 4- Advanced application of key safety concepts ....... 196
Regulations ........................................................................................................................................................ 196
Who Does the Act Apply to? ....................................................................................................................... 196
Horizontal, Vertical and General Duty Clause Standards ....................................................................... 196
Rights and Responsibilities ......................................................................................................................... 197
Inspection Process........................................................................................................................................ 197
Citation Penalties .......................................................................................................................................... 198
Appeals ........................................................................................................................................................... 199
Petition for Modification Abatement............................................................................................................ 199
Notice of Contest ........................................................................................................................................... 200
Review Procedure ......................................................................................................................................... 200
OSHA’s Process Safety Management Standard...................................................................................... 201
OSHA’s Laboratory Safety Standard (29 CFR 1910.1450) .................................................................... 202
Fall Protection Standard (29 CFR 1926.500–503) (Subpart M) ............................................................ 202
Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.134) ............................................................................. 203
Personal Protective Equipment (29 CFR 1910.132) ............................................................................... 203
Confined Space Entry Standard (29 CFR 1910.146) .............................................................................. 204
Control of Hazardous Energy Standard (29 CFR 1910.147) ................................................................. 205
Bloodborne Pathogen Standard (29 CFR 1910.1030) ............................................................................ 205
Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) ......................................................................... 206
Principles of safety through design and inherently safer designs (e.g., designing out hazards during
design phase, avoidance, elimination, and substitution) ............................................................................ 207
Designing out hazards during the design phase ...................................................................................... 207
Safety Design- Avoidance, elimination, and substitution ........................................................................ 208
Engineering controls (e.g., ventilation, guarding, isolation, and active vs. passive)............................... 208
Active and Passive Engineering Controls ................................................................................................. 209

Active Engineering Controls .................................................................................................................... 209
Passive Engineering Controls ................................................................................................................. 209
Ventilation ....................................................................................................................................................... 210
Ventilation Measurement Equipment ..................................................................................................... 211
Ventilation Calculations ............................................................................................................................ 212
Calculating for Volumetric Air Flow ........................................................................................................ 212
Calculating Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Total Pressure ................................................ 212
Calculating Velocity of Air ........................................................................................................................ 213
Contaminant Generation .......................................................................................................................... 214
Calculating Purge Rates .......................................................................................................................... 215
Steady-State Concentration .................................................................................................................... 216
Calculating Rate of Generation for Liquid Solvents ............................................................................. 217
Calculating Vapor or Gaseous Concentrations .................................................................................... 218
Calculating Room Air Changes ............................................................................................................... 218
Calculating Concentration of a Contaminant with Dilution Ventilation .............................................. 219
Calculating Hood Entry Losses ............................................................................................................... 219
Calculating Airflow Velocity ..................................................................................................................... 220
Calculating Capture Velocity for Plain Opening Hood ......................................................................... 221
Calculating Static Pressure of the Fan (SPh) ....................................................................................... 221
Guarding ......................................................................................................................................................... 222
Guarding OSHA......................................................................................................................................... 222
Selecting Guards ....................................................................................................................................... 223
Guardrails ....................................................................................................................................................... 223
Isolation .......................................................................................................................................................... 224
OSHA .......................................................................................................................................................... 225
Determining Isolation Controls ................................................................................................................ 225
Administrative controls (e.g., job rotation, training, procedures, and safety policies and practices).... 226
Job Rotation ................................................................................................................................................... 226
Training ........................................................................................................................................................... 227
Procedures ..................................................................................................................................................... 227
Safety Policies ............................................................................................................................................... 228
Personal protective equipment ....................................................................................................................... 229
Head Protection Specification ..................................................................................................................... 229

Compliance ................................................................................................................................................ 229

Applicable Standards................................................................................................................................ 229
Selection of Head Protection ................................................................................................................... 229
CSA and ANSI Classification System of Head Protection .................................................................. 230
Inspection of Head Protection ................................................................................................................. 230
Use of Head Protection ............................................................................................................................ 231
Maintenance, Cleaning and Storage of Head Protection.................................................................... 231
Replacement .............................................................................................................................................. 231
Foot Protection Specification....................................................................................................................... 232
Compliance ................................................................................................................................................ 232
Selection ..................................................................................................................................................... 232
Maintenance and Storage ........................................................................................................................ 233
Inspection and Testing ............................................................................................................................. 233
Replacement .............................................................................................................................................. 233
Eye and Face Protection Specification ...................................................................................................... 233
Compliance ................................................................................................................................................ 233
Selection of Eye Protection and Face Shields...................................................................................... 233
Inspection ................................................................................................................................................... 235
Maintenance, Cleaning and Storage ...................................................................................................... 235
Replacement .............................................................................................................................................. 235
Hearing Protection Specification................................................................................................................. 235
Compliance ................................................................................................................................................ 235
Selection of Hearing Protection .............................................................................................................. 235
Use, Care and Maintenance of Earplugs .............................................................................................. 236
Replacement .............................................................................................................................................. 236
General ....................................................................................................................................................... 236
Hand Protection Specification (General Purpose Work Gloves) ........................................................... 237
Compliance ................................................................................................................................................ 237
Selection ..................................................................................................................................................... 237
Maintenance and Storage ........................................................................................................................ 238

Replacement .............................................................................................................................................. 239

Application of Flame Resistant (FR) Clothing Specification ................................................................... 240
When FR clothing is required .................................................................................................................. 240
Respiratory Protection .................................................................................................................................. 240
Leg Protection................................................................................................................................................ 241
Compliance ................................................................................................................................................ 241
PPE Selection Guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 241
Chemical process safety management ......................................................................................................... 243
Pressure relief systems ................................................................................................................................ 243
Chemical compatibility .................................................................................................................................. 244
Management of change ............................................................................................................................... 244
Materials of construction .............................................................................................................................. 245
Process flow diagrams ................................................................................................................................. 246
Redundancy systems ....................................................................................................................................... 247
Energy isolation ............................................................................................................................................. 248
Ventilation ....................................................................................................................................................... 248
Common workplace hazards (electrical, excavations, static electricity, scaffolds, fall protection and
prevention, cranes and derrick, welding, cutting, and brazing, hot work, hand and power tool safety,
cold and heat stress, combustibles, lasers, confined spaces, lock out and tag out, working around
water, caught in, and struck by, compressed air systems) ......................................................................... 249
Electrical ......................................................................................................................................................... 249
Calculating Values of Voltage, Current, and Resistance (Ohm’s Laws) .......................................... 250
Calculating Voltage in DC Circuits.......................................................................................................... 250
Calculating Voltage in AC Circuits .......................................................................................................... 250
Calculating Power in DC Circuits ............................................................................................................ 251
Calculating Power in AC Circuits ............................................................................................................ 251
Calculating Resistance in DC Circuits ................................................................................................... 252
Calculating Resistance in AC Circuits.................................................................................................... 252
Resistors ......................................................................................................................................................... 252
Calculating the Resistance in a Series Circuit ...................................................................................... 252
Calculating the Resistance in a Parallel Circuit .................................................................................... 253
Capacitors ...................................................................................................................................................... 253
Calculating Capacitance in a Series Circuit .......................................................................................... 254
Calculating Capacitance in a Parallel Circuit ........................................................................................ 254
Inductors ......................................................................................................................................................... 254

Calculating Inductance in a Series Circuit............................................................................................. 254

Calculating Inductance in a Parallel Circuit ........................................................................................... 254
Electrical Shock Hazard ............................................................................................................................... 254
Excavation ...................................................................................................................................................... 257
Soil Classifications .................................................................................................................................... 258
Excavation Controls .................................................................................................................................. 258
Sloping ........................................................................................................................................................ 259
Shoring........................................................................................................................................................ 259
Shields (Trench Boxes) ............................................................................................................................ 259
RPE-Designed Protective Systems ........................................................................................................ 260
Safe Entry and Exit ................................................................................................................................... 260
Static Electricity ............................................................................................................................................. 261
Bonding and Grounding ........................................................................................................................... 262
Humidification ............................................................................................................................................ 263
Static Controllers (Collectors) ................................................................................................................. 263
Additives ..................................................................................................................................................... 263
Scaffolds ......................................................................................................................................................... 264
Safe Scaffold Construction ...................................................................................................................... 264
Training ....................................................................................................................................................... 266
Fall Protection and Prevention in Construction ........................................................................................ 267
Fall Prevention and Protection ................................................................................................................ 267
Guardrails ................................................................................................................................................... 267
Positioning Device System ...................................................................................................................... 268
Warning Line Systems ............................................................................................................................. 268
Controlled Access Zone System............................................................................................................. 269
Safety Monitoring System ........................................................................................................................ 270
Personal Fall Arrest System .................................................................................................................... 270
Safety Net Systems .................................................................................................................................. 271
Cranes and Derrick Safety........................................................................................................................... 271
Welding, Cutting, and Brazing..................................................................................................................... 273
Oxygen-Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting ................................................................................................. 274
Fuel Gas and Oxygen Manifolds ............................................................................................................ 275
Hoses and Torches ................................................................................................................................... 275
Regulators and Gauges ........................................................................................................................... 276

Oil and Grease Hazards........................................................................................................................... 276

Arc Welding and Cutting .......................................................................................................................... 276
Components of Arc Welding .................................................................................................................... 277
Resistance Welding .................................................................................................................................. 278
Welding Fire Prevention and Ventilation ............................................................................................... 278
Hot Work ......................................................................................................................................................... 279
Hand and Power Tool Safety ...................................................................................................................... 280
Abrasive Grinders ..................................................................................................................................... 280
Portable Circular Saws ............................................................................................................................. 281
Cold and Heat Stress ................................................................................................................................... 282
Heat Stress ................................................................................................................................................ 282
Assessment of Environmental Temperature ......................................................................................... 283
Heat Risk Control Methods ...................................................................................................................... 283
Cold Stress ................................................................................................................................................. 284
Cold Stress Risk Control Methods ......................................................................................................... 285
Combustibles ................................................................................................................................................. 285
Lasers ............................................................................................................................................................. 286
Control Measures ...................................................................................................................................... 286
Confined Spaces ........................................................................................................................................... 287
Lockout and Tag out ..................................................................................................................................... 288
Working around water .................................................................................................................................. 289
Caught in and struck by ............................................................................................................................... 289
Compressed Air Systems ............................................................................................................................ 289
Facility life safety features ............................................................................................................................... 290
Public space safety ....................................................................................................................................... 290
Floor loading .................................................................................................................................................. 291
Occupancy loads........................................................................................................................................... 291
Fleet safety principles ....................................................................................................................................... 292
Driver and equipment safety ....................................................................................................................... 292
Maintenance .................................................................................................................................................. 293
Surveillance equipment ................................................................................................................................ 293
GPS monitoring ............................................................................................................................................. 294
Telematics ...................................................................................................................................................... 294
Hybrid vehicles .............................................................................................................................................. 295

Fuel systems .................................................................................................................................................. 295

Driving under the influence .......................................................................................................................... 296
Fatigue ............................................................................................................................................................ 297
Transportation safety principles ...................................................................................................................... 297
Air .................................................................................................................................................................... 297
Rail .................................................................................................................................................................. 298
Marine ............................................................................................................................................................. 298
Materials handling ............................................................................................................................................. 299
Forklifts ........................................................................................................................................................... 299
Foreign material exclusion (FME) and foreign object damage (FOD) ...................................................... 300
Hazardous materials management ................................................................................................................ 300
GHS labels ..................................................................................................................................................... 301
Storage and handling ................................................................................................................................... 302
Policy ............................................................................................................................................................... 303
Security ........................................................................................................................................................... 304
Multi-employee worksite issues ...................................................................................................................... 305
Sources of information on hazards and risk management options ........................................................... 306
Subject matter experts ................................................................................................................................. 306
Relevant best practices ................................................................................................................................ 306
Published literature. ...................................................................................................................................... 307
SDS ................................................................................................................................................................. 307
The safety design criteria for workplace facilities, machines, and practices ........................................... 307
UL .................................................................................................................................................................... 307
NFPA ............................................................................................................................................................... 308
NIOSH............................................................................................................................................................. 308
FM.................................................................................................................................................................... 309
ISO .................................................................................................................................................................. 309
Tools, machines, practices, and equipment safety ...................................................................................... 310
Hand tools ...................................................................................................................................................... 310
Ladders ........................................................................................................................................................... 311
Grinders .......................................................................................................................................................... 311
Hydraulics ....................................................................................................................................................... 312
Robotics .......................................................................................................................................................... 312
Workplace hazards (nanoparticles, combustible dust, heat systems, high pressure, radiation, silica
dust, powder, and spray applications, blasting, molten metals, human performance) .......................... 313
Nanoparticles ................................................................................................................................................. 313

Combustible dust........................................................................................................................................... 313
Heat systems ................................................................................................................................................. 314
High pressure ................................................................................................................................................ 315
Radiation ........................................................................................................................................................ 315
Silica dust ....................................................................................................................................................... 316
Powder and spray applications ................................................................................................................... 317
Blasting ........................................................................................................................................................... 317
Molten metals ................................................................................................................................................ 318
Human performance ..................................................................................................................................... 319
Health and Wellness ......................................................................................................................................... 319
Injury, Illness, and Disease Prevention Programs ................................................................................... 319
Understanding of Wellness Programs ....................................................................................................... 322
Addiction Control ........................................................................................................................................... 326
Factors that Impact Health and Wellness.................................................................................................. 326
Fatigue in Workplace .................................................................................................................................... 327
Influence of the Psychosocial Work Environment Influence On Worker Health and Wellness ........ 328
Influence of Work/life Balance on Worker Health and Wellness ........................................................... 329
Hydrostatics and Hydraulics ............................................................................................................................ 330
Pressure due to a fluid at rest (hydrostatic pressure).............................................................................. 330
Torricelli Law .................................................................................................................................................. 331
Static head or hydrostatic head .................................................................................................................. 333
Velocity Head ................................................................................................................................................. 333
Velocity Pressure at Constant Laminar Velocity ...................................................................................... 334
Flow Rates and Pressure Drops ................................................................................................................. 335
Orifice Flow Equation ................................................................................................................................... 336
Flow Rate- Pressure Relationship .............................................................................................................. 336
Darcy-Weisbach equation- Friction ............................................................................................................ 337
Bernoulli’s Principle....................................................................................................................................... 338
Domain 5- Emergency Preparedness, Fire Prevention, and Security 340
Emergency/crisis/disaster response planning/business continuity ........................................................... 340
Why is EP&RP needed? .............................................................................................................................. 340
Who has responsibility to do this? .............................................................................................................. 340
Planning For Emergencies .......................................................................................................................... 341
Industrial Fire Brigades ................................................................................................................................ 341
Site Evacuation and Shelter-In-Place ........................................................................................................ 342

Communications............................................................................................................................................ 342
Procedures, Maps, and Directions ............................................................................................................. 342
Emergency Drills ........................................................................................................................................... 342
Employee Accounting and Personal Information ..................................................................................... 342
Assembly Areas............................................................................................................................................. 343
Shelter-in-Place ............................................................................................................................................. 343
Education and Training ................................................................................................................................ 344
Emergency Response Directors ................................................................................................................. 344
Technical Specialists .................................................................................................................................... 344
Employee Responders ................................................................................................................................. 344
Other non-responders .................................................................................................................................. 345
Equipment Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 345
First Aid ........................................................................................................................................................... 346
Finance ........................................................................................................................................................... 346
Public Communication.................................................................................................................................. 346
Incident Command Systems ....................................................................................................................... 346
Events that require an Incident Command System ................................................................................. 347
Command Structures.................................................................................................................................... 347
Action Plans ................................................................................................................................................... 347
Coordination ................................................................................................................................................... 347
Team Composition ........................................................................................................................................ 348
Facilities and Equipment .............................................................................................................................. 348
Command Transfer ....................................................................................................................................... 349
Business Continuity Planning ...................................................................................................................... 349
The Role of Prevention............................................................................................................................. 349
Business Impact Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 349
Developing Recovery Strategies ............................................................................................................ 349
Business Continuity Plan Development................................................................................................. 350
Follow-up Testing and Review ................................................................................................................ 350
Workplace violence and harassment prevention programs. ...................................................................... 350
Conducting a Violence Prevention Risk Assessment.............................................................................. 351
Preparing a Prevention Plan ....................................................................................................................... 352
Fire prevention, protection, and suppression systems ................................................................................ 353

Roles and Functions of Standard-setting bodies ..................................................................................... 353

Consensus Standards .............................................................................................................................. 353
NFPA ........................................................................................................................................................... 353
UL ................................................................................................................................................................ 353
FM................................................................................................................................................................ 353
Life safety (e.g., building design, construction, location, materials, etc.). ............................................ 354
Life Safety .................................................................................................................................................. 354
21 accepted life safety terms................................................................................................................... 354
Building Construction................................................................................................................................ 355
Fire Resistance.......................................................................................................................................... 355
Fire load ...................................................................................................................................................... 355
Fire compartments .................................................................................................................................... 355
Fire chemistry and behaviour ...................................................................................................................... 356
Fire Triangle ............................................................................................................................................... 356
Fire Prevention .......................................................................................................................................... 356
Fire Tetrahedron........................................................................................................................................ 356
Extinguishing Fires.................................................................................................................................... 356
Classes of Fires ......................................................................................................................................... 356
Heat Transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation) ....................................................................... 357
Stages of Fire ............................................................................................................................................ 361
Fire safety programs. .................................................................................................................................... 361
Fire Safety Concepts ................................................................................................................................ 361
Objectives of a Fire Safety Program ...................................................................................................... 361
Fire Brigade................................................................................................................................................ 361
Emergency Planning................................................................................................................................. 362
Fire prevention............................................................................................................................................... 362
Emergency Planning................................................................................................................................. 362
Plant Self Inspection ................................................................................................................................. 362
Sources of Ignition .................................................................................................................................... 363
Fire detection systems and devices ........................................................................................................... 363
Purpose ...................................................................................................................................................... 363
Types of Systems...................................................................................................................................... 363
Flame Detectors ........................................................................................................................................ 363
Heat Detectors ........................................................................................................................................... 364

Smoke Detectors ....................................................................................................................................... 364

Air Sampling ............................................................................................................................................... 364
Fire control systems and devices ............................................................................................................... 364
Sprinkler Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 364
Types of Sprinkler Systems ..................................................................................................................... 364
CO2 Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 365
Foam ........................................................................................................................................................... 365
Halon ........................................................................................................................................................... 365
Water Spray Systems ............................................................................................................................... 365
Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems .................................................................................................... 366
Portable Fire Extinguishers ..................................................................................................................... 366
Care, Maintenance, and Inspection ....................................................................................................... 366
Sprinkler Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 366
Inspection of Portable Fire Extinguishers .............................................................................................. 367
Maintenance of Fire Extinguishers ......................................................................................................... 367
Inspections ................................................................................................................................................. 367
Sprinkler Shut Down ................................................................................................................................. 367
Handling and storage of flammable liquids and gases. .......................................................................... 367
Transportation and security of hazardous material...................................................................................... 368
Domain 6- Occupational Health and Ergonomics.................... 370
Advanced toxicology principles ....................................................................................................................... 370
Toxicology ...................................................................................................................................................... 370
Routes of Entry .......................................................................................................................................... 370
Important Terms ........................................................................................................................................ 370
Dose-Response Relationship .................................................................................................................. 371
Exposures to chemical mixtures ............................................................................................................. 371
Studies in Toxicology................................................................................................................................ 372
Occupational Diseases .................................................................................................................................... 373
Asbestosis and Asbestos-Related Illnesses: ............................................................................................ 373
Byssinosis: ..................................................................................................................................................... 373
Benzene-Related Illnesses: ......................................................................................................................... 373
Arsenic-Related Illnesses: ........................................................................................................................... 374
Cadmium-Related Illnesses: ....................................................................................................................... 374
Berylliosis and Beryllium-Related Illnesses: ............................................................................................. 375
Cobalt-Related Illnesses: ............................................................................................................................. 375
Copper-Related Illnesses: ........................................................................................................................... 376

Chromium-Related Illnesses: ...................................................................................................................... 376
Coal Dust-Related Illnesses: ....................................................................................................................... 377
Formaldehyde-Related Illnesses: ............................................................................................................... 377
Lead-Related Illnesses:................................................................................................................................ 378
Pneumoconiosis: ........................................................................................................................................... 379
Mercury-Related Illnesses: .......................................................................................................................... 379
Silica-Related Illnesses: ............................................................................................................................... 380
Manganese-Related Illnesses: .................................................................................................................... 380
Zinc-Related Illnesses: ................................................................................................................................. 381
Antimony-Related Illnesses: ........................................................................................................................ 381
Aluminum-Related Illnesses: ....................................................................................................................... 382
Dust-Related Illnesses ................................................................................................................................. 382
Pesticide-Related Illnesses: ........................................................................................................................ 383
Thallium-Related Illnesses: ......................................................................................................................... 384
Brucellosis ...................................................................................................................................................... 384
Occupational Hygiene ...................................................................................................................................... 385
What is occupational Hygiene?................................................................................................................... 385
Occupational Hygiene Standards ............................................................................................................... 386
What are Occupational Exposure Limits? ............................................................................................. 386
What is a Skin Notation? .......................................................................................................................... 388
Is Odour an indication of Toxicity? ......................................................................................................... 388
What are Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs)? ..................................................................................... 389
Is there a Relationship between BEIs and TLVs?................................................................................ 389
Standards for Physical and Biological Agents ...................................................................................... 389
Chemical Hazards ......................................................................................................................................... 390
What are Local Effects? ........................................................................................................................... 390
What is Poisoning? ................................................................................................................................... 390
What Makes Chemicals Poisonous?...................................................................................................... 391
What is a Dose Response Curve? ......................................................................................................... 391
How Workplace Chemicals Enter the Body .......................................................................................... 392
Which Diseases are caused by Workplace Chemical Exposure? ..................................................... 393
Air Sampling for Chemicals ..................................................................................................................... 396
Air Sampling Equipment........................................................................................................................... 397

Selecting the Sampling Method .............................................................................................................. 403

Instrument Calibration .............................................................................................................................. 404
Keeping Records ....................................................................................................................................... 404
Units and Calculations for Chemical Exposures .................................................................................. 404
Exposures to a Single Chemical ............................................................................................................. 405
Mixed Exposures ....................................................................................................................................... 407
Controlling Chemical Exposures............................................................................................................. 408
Industrial Ventilation ................................................................................................................................. 408
Replacement of Make-Up Air .................................................................................................................. 410
Physical Hazards........................................................................................................................................... 411
Industrial Noise .......................................................................................................................................... 411
Sound Measurement ................................................................................................................................ 415
Types of Noise ........................................................................................................................................... 416
Noise Control ............................................................................................................................................. 417
Noise Calculations .................................................................................................................................... 418
Ionizing Radiation...................................................................................................................................... 428
Non-Ionizing Radiation ............................................................................................................................. 440
Thermal Stress .............................................................................................................................................. 445
Biological Hazards ........................................................................................................................................ 449
Biologically Induced Diseases................................................................................................................. 449
Exposures to Biological Agents .............................................................................................................. 450
Biosafety Management............................................................................................................................. 451
Biosafety Level Requirement .................................................................................................................. 451
Mold ............................................................................................................................................................. 453
Measuring Mold ......................................................................................................................................... 454
Standards for Mold.................................................................................................................................... 454
Mold Control Measures ............................................................................................................................ 454
Ergonomics ........................................................................................................................................................ 455
What is Ergonomics?.................................................................................................................................... 455
Ergonomics Regulations, Guidelines, and Enforcement ........................................................................ 456
Why are some governments legislating ergonomics? ......................................................................... 456
What are the international trends with ergonomics? ........................................................................... 456
Certification of Ergonomists..................................................................................................................... 456
Ergonomics Cost-Benefit ............................................................................................................................. 457

Why Invest in Ergonomics? ..................................................................................................................... 457

Cost of Ergonomics to Your Organization ............................................................................................. 457
Work-related Injuries..................................................................................................................................... 458
Cumulative Injuries ................................................................................................................................... 458
What are Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)? ..................................................................................... 459
Physical Ergonomics .................................................................................................................................... 459
Physiology .................................................................................................................................................. 460
Biomechanics ............................................................................................................................................ 461
Musculoskeletal Disorder (MSD) Workplace Hazards ............................................................................ 461
Hazard vs. Level of Risk .......................................................................................................................... 461
Physical Workplace Hazards................................................................................................................... 462
Awkward Postures .................................................................................................................................... 462
Static Work ................................................................................................................................................. 463
Repetition ................................................................................................................................................... 463
Force ........................................................................................................................................................... 464
Vibration...................................................................................................................................................... 465
Temperature .............................................................................................................................................. 466
Mechanical Stress and Impact Loading................................................................................................. 467
Biological and Sociological Factors ............................................................................................................ 467
Identifying MSD Risk Factors in the Workplace ....................................................................................... 467
Cognitive Ergonomics................................................................................................................................... 468
Vision .......................................................................................................................................................... 468
Written Text ................................................................................................................................................ 469
Hearing ....................................................................................................................................................... 469
Psychomotor skills .................................................................................................................................... 470
Information Processing............................................................................................................................. 472
Short Term Memory (STM) ...................................................................................................................... 472
Long Term Memory (LTM) ....................................................................................................................... 472
Human Error or Poor Design?................................................................................................................. 473
Organizational Ergonomics ......................................................................................................................... 474
Training ....................................................................................................................................................... 474
Job Control ................................................................................................................................................. 475
Hours of Work ............................................................................................................................................ 475
Incentives ................................................................................................................................................... 476

Job Rotation ............................................................................................................................................... 477

Warm-up and Stretching Programs ........................................................................................................ 477
Maintenance .............................................................................................................................................. 477
The Ergonomics Process ............................................................................................................................. 478
Identify a starting point and establish a foundation for success ........................................................ 478
Educate ....................................................................................................................................................... 479
Identify MSD Hazards............................................................................................................................... 479
Perform Risk Assessments ..................................................................................................................... 480
Investigate Controls .................................................................................................................................. 480
Implement Controls ................................................................................................................................... 481
Monitor Effectiveness ............................................................................................................................... 482
Communicate ............................................................................................................................................. 482
Expand on Success .................................................................................................................................. 483
Consider Effective Medical Management .............................................................................................. 483
Management Commitment to Ergonomic Programs ........................................................................... 483
Worker Involvement .................................................................................................................................. 484
Assessment Tools ......................................................................................................................................... 484
Qualitative Methods .................................................................................................................................. 484
Quantitative Methods................................................................................................................................ 485
Physical Demands Analysis .................................................................................................................... 485
Anthropometrics ........................................................................................................................................ 486
Individual Differences ............................................................................................................................... 486
Normal and Average ................................................................................................................................. 487
Working Heights ........................................................................................................................................ 489
Manual Handling Risk Assessments ...................................................................................................... 490
Liberty Mutual Manual Material Handling (MMH) Tables .................................................................... 490
NIOSH Lifting Equation ............................................................................................................................ 491
Postural Assessments .............................................................................................................................. 493
Computer/Office Environments ............................................................................................................... 494
Seating ........................................................................................................................................................ 494
Display Screens......................................................................................................................................... 496
Keyboard / Mouse ..................................................................................................................................... 496
Work Organization .................................................................................................................................... 497
Laptops ....................................................................................................................................................... 497

Assessing a Computer Workstation ....................................................................................................... 498

Role of an Ergonomist .................................................................................................................................. 498
Employee substance abuse ............................................................................................................................ 499
The fundamentals of epidemiology ................................................................................................................ 500
Domain 7- Environmental Management Systems .................... 501
Environmental Regulations.............................................................................................................................. 501
Clean Air Act .................................................................................................................................................. 501
Clean Water Act ............................................................................................................................................ 502
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): ................. 503
Toxic Substances Control Act ..................................................................................................................... 504
Environmental Management Systems ........................................................................................................... 505
Environmental protection and pollution prevention methods (e.g., air, water, soil, containment, soil
vapor intrusion,and waste streams) ............................................................................................................... 505
Air .................................................................................................................................................................... 505
Water ............................................................................................................................................................... 506
Soil ................................................................................................................................................................... 507
Containment ................................................................................................................................................... 508
Soil Vapor ....................................................................................................................................................... 508
Intrusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 509
Waste Streams .............................................................................................................................................. 510
How released hazardous materials migrate/interact through the air, surface water, soil, and water table
............................................................................................................................................................................. 510
Air .................................................................................................................................................................... 510
Surface Water ................................................................................................................................................ 511
Soil ................................................................................................................................................................... 511
Water Table.................................................................................................................................................... 512
Sustainability principles .................................................................................................................................... 513
Waste water treatment plants, onsite waste water treatment plants, and public water systems.......... 513
Wastewater treatment plants....................................................................................................................... 513
Onsite wastewater treatment plants ........................................................................................................... 514
Public water systems .................................................................................................................................... 515
Registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemicals (REACH) and restriction of
hazardous substances (RoHS) ....................................................................................................................... 516
Domain 8- Training/Education .................................................. 517
Training needs analyses (e.g., development, delivery and evaluation, etc.) ........................................... 517

Knowledge/comprehension of adult learning principles. ............................................................................. 535

Education and training methods and techniques (e.g., classroom, online, computer-based, AI, and on-
the-job training ................................................................................................................................................... 538
Methods for determining the effectiveness of training programs (e.g., determine if trainees are applying
training on the job.............................................................................................................................................. 542
Effective presentation techniques................................................................................................................... 542
Domain 9- Law and Ethics......................................................... 545
Workers Compensation.................................................................................................................................... 545
Workers Compensation History .................................................................................................................. 545
Current Workers' Compensation Laws ...................................................................................................... 545
Coverage Exemptions .................................................................................................................................. 546
Workers' Compensation Premiums ............................................................................................................ 547
Calculating Experience Modification Rates............................................................................................... 547
Calculating Total Case Incident Rates....................................................................................................... 548
Calculating Days Away, Restricted, or Transfer Rates ........................................................................... 548
Calculating Severity Rates........................................................................................................................... 549
Waiver of Subrogation .................................................................................................................................. 549
Safety Professional's Role and Responsibilities in Workers' Compensation ....................................... 550
Reporting of Injuries and Claims................................................................................................................. 551
Case Management........................................................................................................................................ 552
Prompt Reporting .......................................................................................................................................... 553
Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program........................................................................................................... 554
Legal issues (e.g., tort, negligence, civil, criminal, contracts, and disability terminology) ..................... 556
Tort .................................................................................................................................................................. 556
Negligence ..................................................................................................................................................... 556
Civil law ........................................................................................................................................................... 557
Criminal law.................................................................................................................................................... 557
Contracts ........................................................................................................................................................ 558
Disability terminology.................................................................................................................................... 558
Protection of confidential information (e.g., privacy, trade secrets, personally identifiable information,
and GeneralData Protection Regulation [GDPR])........................................................................................ 560
Privacy ............................................................................................................................................................ 560
Trade Secrets ................................................................................................................................................ 561
Personally Identifiable Information ............................................................................................................. 561
General Data Protection Regulation .......................................................................................................... 562

Standards development processes ................................................................................................................ 563

The ethics related to conducting professional practice (e.g., audits, record keeping, sampling, and
standard writing) ................................................................................................................................................ 564
Audits .............................................................................................................................................................. 565
Record keeping ............................................................................................................................................. 565
Sampling ......................................................................................................................................................... 566
Standard writing............................................................................................................................................. 567
The relationship between labor and management ....................................................................................... 567
BCSP Code of Ethics ....................................................................................................................................... 568
Appendix .................................................................................... 570
Exam Reference and Equations ..................................................................................................................... 570

Introduction and Exam Preparation Tips

Congratulations on taking the first step towards becoming a certified safety professional! The BCSP CSP
exam is an important milestone in your career as a safety professional, and passing this exam can open
doors to a range of exciting opportunities.
However, preparing for the exam can be a daunting task, with a vast array of topics to cover and a high
level of technical knowledge required. This is where this study guide comes in - to help you study and
prepare for the BCSP CSP exam with confidence.
This comprehensive study guide is designed to provide you with everything you need to know to pass
the exam. It covers all the essential topics tested on the exam, including safety management systems,
risk management, ergonomics, industrial hygiene, and much more.
In addition to detailed content, this study guide also includes practice examples and test-taking
strategies to help you prepare for the exam. These resources will help you assess your knowledge and
identify areas where you need to focus your studying.
Whether you're a seasoned safety professional or just starting your career in the field, this study guide is
the perfect resource to help you achieve your goal of becoming a BCSP CSP. So, let's get started and
make your dream a reality!
Studying for your Exam
Probably one of the more difficult and more rewarding things you will do in your career as a health and
safety professional is study and pass the CSP exam.
The CSP exam is an extensive and comprehensive assessment that is designed with a specific purpose.
Certification exams such as these have an important purpose. Professional certification examinations
have a well-defined purpose: to protect the public by ensuring that those who are licensed possess
sufficient knowledge and skills to perform important occupational activities safely and effectively. In the
case of the CSP, the purpose is to determine whether examinees are prepared to practice occupational
health and safety, without risk to the public and to the environment.
As such there is an extensive amount of information an OHS professional will need to know to
successfully complete the exam.
One of the best places to start when preparing for your exam is by reviewing the BCSP Examination
Blueprint. This Blueprint provides explicit instructions and guidelines on how the competencies (e.g.,
knowledge, abilities, skills, attitudes, and judgment) are to be expressed within the examination for
accurate decisions to be made on the ability of examinees to practice safely and effectively. The
blueprint provides information regarding the domains. It describes the examination length and format as
well as the question presentation and the weightings for each competency category.
Study Recommendations
What follows are some general recommendations that could be used by examination candidates to
assist them in studying and learning the content required to successfully pass the exam.
Plan
Once you have reviewed the examination and its requirements, make a plan. Remember there is a large
amount of content to be reviewed and studied. Be sure to leave yourself plenty of time. The average
examination candidate should plan on taking 6-8 months to review and learn the content required. Your
plan should be specific. It should include dates as well as any supports and resources you may decide to
use. Consider the time you will be able to devote to studying and recognize you will need to work around

other obligations such as work or family. Think about what time each day you will set aside for study and
if you have a suitable place, free from distractions, that you can go to study.
Begin The Process
Once you have created your plan and assembled your resources, it is time to begin. Choose a domain
and begin reviewing the content. Take notes or highlight important information. Work to fit the new
knowledge into what your experience has already taught you about health and safety and to expand your
understandings.
Understand the Learning Process
Everyone is unique in their learning, and everyone has a different method of assisting themselves in
learning new content. Find the study method that works best for you. A great deal of research has been
conducted on how people learn. Some of this information may be very helpful when developing your
study plan.
Practice testing is a highly effective study and technique. This can be conducted through practice
questions, flashcards, or answering hypothetical questions. Flashcards are for more than learning times
tables; they can be a very useful way of helping to remember and test yourself on key content.
Distributed practice or studying the material over a long period of time, has also been shown to be highly
effective. Review the material frequently. Once you have learned material, continue to review it
periodically. Someone who does not review material can forget 80% of what they have learned in a
relatively short period of time. Regular review of material helps to create long-term memory.
Some moderately effective study techniques include asking and answering why or how questions, using
self exclamation, or explaining the information to yourself or others.
Some psychologists say that the secret to learning for future reference is 'over learning'. Experts suggest
that when you feel like you know the material, continue studying that material for an additional one
quarter of the original study time to assist in long term learning.
Find what learning process works best for you and make use of as many learning techniques as are
helpful in improving your understanding and knowledge retention.
Prepare A Summary
When you have read the content prepare yourself summary of each domain. Write yourself a one to two
page summary of key information found within the domain or competency group you are studying. If you
are working with others, you could then present your summary to the group and compare summary
findings. Think about three to five key questions you would ask another examination candidate and be
sure your summary answers those questions. Remember one of the best ways to learn something is to
teach it to others. Teach your domain summary to someone else if you can.
Creating a summary allows you to develop a comprehensive picture of the key information you need to
know. It allows you to think about and synthesize the information you are learning and fit it into the
context of your existing health and safety knowledge.
Test Yourself on Each Domain
Test yourself on the information you have learned. You could also work with a study partner and ask
each other questions based on the content. If you find areas you are unfamiliar with or unsure of, go
back and review those areas. Review the resource information, review or revise your note, work with a
study partner to learn and truly understand the content. When you have reached a level of mastery in
that domain, move onto the next domain.

Test Yourself on All the Content Combined

When you feel you have achieved mastery in each individual domain, test yourself using full practice
examinations. Alternately you could also work with a study partner to have them test you by randomly
choosing information from each domain.
Be sure you do not only use test questions, however, to assess your knowledge. Make sure you have
the comprehensive understanding of the content that is best gained through the learning summary steps
listed above.
Know You Are Ready
If you have followed this process and are able to summarize the content and successfully complete
practice examination questions, know you are ready to write the exam. Read over your notes and review
your study aides in the days before the exam. Have confidence in your skills and abilities.
The day of the exam reduce your stress by giving yourself plenty of time to get to the examination site.
Be early and take the time to relax before you write. Be sure you are well rested and have had enough to
eat and drink so you are not distracted during the exam. During the exam do not stress about questions
you are unable to answer. Do your best and focus on the questions you know.
Take Heart
If you are not successful on your first attempt to write the exam, recognize this is a part of the learning
process. Use your experience to understand what information you need to improve your learning on. Go
back and repeat your learning plan to improve your understandings and try again. Remember why you
are working to achieve this certification. It is an important part of being a true health and safety
professional.

Domain 1- Advanced Sciences and Math

Core concepts in anatomy and physiology
The BCSP (Board of Certified Safety Professionals) blueprint includes various concepts related to
anatomy and physiology that a safety professional should be aware of. These concepts are crucial in
understanding the mechanisms of injury and injury prevention.
Physiology: Physiology is the study of the normal functions of living organisms and their parts, including
cells, tissues, and organs. It deals with the mechanisms of how the body functions and how it maintains
homeostasis (balance) in response to changes in the internal and external environment. Physiology
includes the study of various systems in the body, such as the nervous system, cardiovascular system,
digestive system, respiratory system, and others. The understanding of physiology is crucial for many
areas of health care, such as diagnosing and treating diseases, designing and evaluating therapeutic
interventions, and improving human performance.
Anatomy: Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms and their parts, including the
structure of the human body. It involves the examination of the shape, size, position, and relationships of
bones, muscles, nerves, and organs, as well as the way they work together to perform functions such as
movement, sensation, and regulation of internal processes. Anatomy is an important field of study for
medical professionals, as it provides a comprehensive understanding of the human body, which is
necessary for effective diagnosis and treatment of illnesses and injuries.
The levels of organization of the human body are:
1. Chemical level: Atoms and molecules making up the body's tissues and organs.
2. Cellular level: Cells, which are the basic unit of life, make up the tissues of the body.
3. Tissue level: Collections of similar cells that perform a specific function, such as muscle tissue.
4. Organ level: A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function, such as the heart.
5. Organ system level: A group of organs working together to perform a specific function, such as
the digestive system.
The major organ systems of the human body are:
1. Skeletal System: Supports and protects the body, provides a framework for movement, and
stores minerals.
2. Muscular System: Produces movement, maintains posture, and generates heat.
3. Nervous System: Coordinates and regulates the body's functions and receives, processes, and
transmits sensory information.
4. Respiratory System: Brings oxygen into the body and removes carbon dioxide.
5. Circulatory System: Transports blood, oxygen, and nutrients to cells and removes waste
products.
6. Digestive System: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste.
7. Endocrine System: Produces and releases hormones that regulate the body's functions.
8. Urinary System: Filters waste from the blood and eliminates it from the body.
9. Immune System: Protects the body from disease and infections.

10. Integumentary System: Forms a barrier that protects the body from the environment and helps
regulate body temperature.
In addition to the organ systems, there are several physiological concepts that are relevant for safety
professionals. These include:
1. Homeostasis: The ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in
the external environment.
2. Bioenergetics: The study of energy production, storage, and utilization by the body.
3. Neuromuscular function: The function of the nervous system and the muscles in controlling
movement.
4. Sensory perception: The process by which sensory information is received and processed by the
body.
5. Cardiovascular function: The function of the heart, blood vessels, and blood in transporting
oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.
6. Respiratory function: The process by which oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is expelled.
7. Renal function: The function of the kidneys in filtering waste from the blood and regulating fluid
balance.
Anatomical planes and sections refer to the ways in which the human body is divided for the purposes
of description and study. There are three main anatomical planes that are used to describe the human
body: the sagittal plane, the coronal (frontal) plane, and the transverse (horizontal) plane. These planes
divide the body into front and back, front and back, and top and bottom sections respectively.
Anatomical sections refer to the way in which the body is viewed from different angles. These sections
are made by cutting the body along one of the anatomical planes. Some of the most common anatomical
sections include the sagittal section (division along the sagittal plane), coronal section (division along the
coronal plane), and transverse section (division along the transverse plane).
It is important to understand these anatomical planes and sections as they provide a standardized way
of describing the location and relationships of different structures within the body.
The Chemical Basis of Life
The chemical basis of life refers to the various chemical processes and substances that occur within
living organisms and are essential for life to exist and function properly. This includes the study of
organic molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
In particular, the building blocks of life are called biomolecules, which are made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. Proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates are all made up of these elements in different
combinations and perform specific functions within the organism. Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA,
are the blueprint for life and contain genetic information.
Water is also a crucial component of life and plays a key role in many of the chemical reactions that
occur in cells. Electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and chloride are essential for the maintenance of
proper fluid balance, the transmission of nerve impulses, and the contraction of muscles.
Overall, the chemical basis of life encompasses a broad range of subjects including biochemistry,
genetics, and cellular biology and helps us understand the complex processes that are occurring within
living organisms.
Cells: The Basic Unit of Life

Cells are the basic unit of life. They are the smallest unit of an organism that can carry out all the
functions necessary for life. There are two main types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic
cells are simple in structure and are found in single-celled organisms such as bacteria. Eukaryotic cells
are more complex and are found in multicellular organisms such as animals and plants.
Cells are composed of a variety of biological molecules, including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and
nucleic acids. These molecules carry out the functions of the cell and help to maintain the structure of
the cell.
The structure of cells is maintained by a cell membrane, which acts as a barrier to regulate the exchange
of materials between the cell and its environment. Inside the cell, the cytoplasm contains the organelles,
including the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum, which perform specific
functions necessary for life.
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains the genetic material in the form of DNA.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, producing energy through cellular respiration. Ribosomes
are the sites of protein synthesis, and the endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the synthesis and
transport of lipids and proteins.
Cell Theory: All known living things are made up of cells. All cells come from pre-existing cells by
division. The cell is structural and functional unit of all living things.
Cell Structural Overview
The cell is the basic unit of life, and all living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell
structural overview consists of the following components:
1. Cell membrane: It is the outermost layer that separates the cell contents from its surroundings. It
is made of a lipid bilayer and allows the movement of materials in and out of the cell.
2. Cytoplasm: It is the gel-like substance inside the cell membrane that contains all the cellular
organelles.
3. Nucleus: It is the control center of the cell that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and
regulates the cell's activities.
4. Mitochondria: They are the powerhouses of the cell that produce energy (ATP) through cellular
respiration.
5. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): It is a network of membranes that helps in the synthesis,
modification, and transportation of proteins and lipids.
6. Golgi apparatus: It is a set of flattened stacks of membranes that modify and sort the proteins
and lipids before they are transported to their destination.
7. Lysosomes: They are membrane-bound sacs that contain digestive enzymes that help in
breaking down cellular waste and unwanted material.
8. Vacuoles: They are membrane-bound compartments that store nutrients and waste products.
9. Chloroplasts (in plant cells only): They are specialized organelles that are involved in
photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their own food using sunlight, carbon dioxide,
and water.

Tissue in the human body:

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a specific function in the body. There are four main types
of tissue in the human body:
1. Epithelial tissue: covers the body surface and lines organs, forming glands and protecting against
disease.
2. Connective tissue: supports, protects, and binds other tissues, including bones, cartilage, blood,
and fat.
3. Muscle tissue: provides movement, stability, and postural support.
4. Nervous tissue: conducts electrical signals and coordinates communication and sensation
throughout the body.
Each tissue type has a specific structure and function that contributes to the overall health and
functioning of the body.
Cell Junctions:
Cell junctions refer to the specialized structures that exist between cells and play a role in maintaining
the integrity of tissues and organs. There are three main types of cell junctions: tight junctions,
desmosomes, and gap junctions.
1. Tight junctions: These are the most restrictive type of cell junction and form a continuous seal
between adjacent cells, creating an impermeable barrier that prevents the movement of ions and
other small molecules between cells.
2. Desmosomes: Desmosomes are intermediate junctions that are stronger than tight junctions but
not as restrictive. They play an important role in anchoring adjacent cells together, allowing
tissues to withstand physical stress.
3. Gap junctions: Gap junctions are channels that form between adjacent cells, allowing small
molecules, such as ions and second messengers, to pass directly from one cell to another.
These junctions play a role in cell-to-cell communication, tissue homeostasis, and development.
The integument as an organ:
The integument is an organ that covers the external surface of the body and provides a barrier against
physical, chemical, and biological damage. It is made up of skin, hair, nails, and various glands. The skin
is the largest organ of the body, and its main function is to protect the underlying tissues and organs.
The skin also helps regulate body temperature and acts as a sensory organ, allowing the detection of
touch, pressure, and temperature. The hair and nails provide further protection, while the glands secrete
substances such as sweat and oils that protect the skin and regulate body temperature.
Functions of the skin:
The skin is the largest organ of the human body and performs many important functions. Some of the
key functions of the skin include:
1. Protection: The skin protects the body from physical, chemical, and biological harm, including
harmful UV rays from the sun, and helps prevent the entry of pathogens.
2. Sensory perception: The skin contains sensory receptors that allow us to feel pressure, pain,
temperature, and touch.
3. Temperature regulation: The skin helps regulate body temperature through sweat production,
blood vessel dilation, and other mechanisms.
4. Vitamin D synthesis: The skin synthesizes vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.
5. Fluid balance: The skin helps regulate fluid balance through sweat production and absorption of
fluid through the sweat glands.
6. Immune function: The skin contains immune cells that help protect the body from infection and
disease.
Overall, the skin plays a crucial role in maintaining the overall health and well-being of the body.
The Layers of Skin:
The skin, also known as the integument, is composed of multiple layers, including:
1. Epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin, composed of epithelial cells.
2. Dermis: The underlying layer of the skin, composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves,
hair follicles, and sweat glands.
3. Subcutaneous tissue (also known as the hypodermis): The deepest layer of the skin, composed
of adipose (fat) tissue, which helps to regulate body temperature and cushion the body.
These layers work together to provide protection, regulate body temperature, and sensory functions,
among other things.
Types of Bones and Bone Structures
Bones are the body's structural framework and are classified into four types: long, short, flat, and
irregular.
1. Long bones: These bones are found in the arms and legs and are typically elongated to provide
support and facilitate movement. Examples include the femur and tibia.
2. Short bones: These bones are short and cube-like and are found in areas such as the hands and
feet. Examples include the bones of the wrist and ankle.
3. Flat bones: These bones are flat and provide support and protection for organs and tissues.
Examples include the scapula, sternum, and cranial bones.
4. Irregular bones: These bones are neither long, short, nor flat and have a variety of shapes.
Examples include the vertebrae, hip bones, and bones in the skull.
Bone structure includes the periosteum, compact bone, and spongy bone. The periosteum is a layer of
connective tissue that covers the outer surface of bones. Compact bone is dense and makes up the
outer layer of bones and is responsible for providing strength. Spongy bone is found in the interior of
bones and is less dense than compact bone.
Joint Structure and Cartilage:
The joints in the human body are where two or more bones come together to allow movement and
support the body's weight. Joint structure can vary, but the three main types are fibrous, cartilaginous,
and synovial joints. Fibrous joints are held together by dense connective tissue, while cartilaginous joints
have a flexible layer of cartilage between the bones. Synovial joints have a fluid-filled cavity, called a
synovial cavity, that helps to reduce friction between the bones and provides cushioning. Cartilage is a
strong and flexible connective tissue that helps to absorb shock and distribute weight evenly across the
joints, reducing wear and tear on the bones.
Ligaments and tendons
Ligaments are bands of tough fibrous tissue that connect bones to other bones, helping to stabilize joints
and prevent excessive movement. Tendons are similar to ligaments, but they connect muscle to bone.
Both ligaments and tendons play a crucial role in the stability and movement of the musculoskeletal
system. They transmit forces from muscles to bones and help distribute weight and stress across joints,
helping to prevent injury and promoting smooth, efficient movement.
The axial skeleton:
The axial skeleton is the central axis of the human body, consisting of 80 bones and forming the
structural foundation for the head, neck, trunk, and spinal column. It consists of the skull, hyoid bone,
auditory ossicles, vertebral column, rib cage and the sternum. The skull, which consists of the cranial
bones, protects the brain, houses the sense organs and supports the facial bones. The vertebral column,
also known as the spinal column, is composed of 33 individual vertebrae and provides support and
protection to the spinal cord while allowing for movement and flexibility. The rib cage, consisting of the
rib bones and the sternum, provides support and protection to the heart and lungs.
Muscles are organized into three basic types:
The human body contains over 600 muscles that play a crucial role in movement, posture, and
supporting the body. Muscles can be classified into three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal
muscles are attached to bones and are responsible for voluntary movement. Smooth muscles are found
in the walls of organs such as the stomach and intestines and control involuntary movements. Cardiac
muscles are found in the heart and control the heartbeat. Skeletal muscles work in pairs, with one
muscle contracting while the other relaxes, to produce movement. The strength and coordination of
muscles are influenced by factors such as nerve supply, hormones, and physical activity.
Skeletal muscle fiber
A skeletal muscle fiber is a long, cylindrical cell composed of multiple myofibrils, which are the contractile
units of a muscle. Skeletal muscle fibers are characterized by their ability to generate tension and
contract, allowing movement and maintaining posture. The basic unit of contraction within a muscle fiber
is the sarcomere, which is composed of overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Contraction of the
muscle occurs when these filaments slide past each other, shortening the sarcomere and leading to a
reduction in muscle length. Skeletal muscle fibers are stimulated by motor neurons, and the strength and
speed of the muscle contraction is determined by the number of motor units activated and the frequency
of nerve impulses.
Control of muscles
The control of muscles involves the coordination of nerve signals and muscle contractions to produce
movements. The nervous system is responsible for sending signals to muscles to contract and relax.
The nervous system controls the muscles through motor neurons, which are specialized nerve cells that
transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles. The motor neurons release a chemical
called acetylcholine, which binds to receptors on the muscle fibers and triggers a series of events that
lead to muscle contraction. The intensity and duration of muscle contractions are regulated by the
frequency and pattern of nerve impulses sent from the nervous system. The muscles also have a built-in
mechanism for relaxation, called the stretch reflex, which ensures that the muscles do not remain
contracted indefinitely.

Nervous system
The nervous system is the body's electrical wiring system, transmitting signals or messages between the
brain and the different parts of the body. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling the body's
functions, including sensation, movement, thought, and emotion.
The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and serves as the body's control
center, processing and integrating information received from the body and the external environment. The
PNS is comprised of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body, transmitting signals to and
from the CNS.
The nervous system uses neurons, or nerve cells, to transmit signals. A typical neuron has three parts:
the cell body, the dendrites, and the axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles,
while the dendrites receive signals from other neurons. The axon is a long, thin extension that carries
signals away from the cell body to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
In addition to neurons, the nervous system also includes supporting cells, called glia, which help protect
and insulate neurons and provide structural support.
The nervous system uses two main types of signals to transmit information: electrical signals and
chemical signals. Electrical signals are rapid and can travel long distances, while chemical signals are
slower but allow for more specific targeting of individual cells.
The nervous system is closely connected to the endocrine system, which uses hormones to regulate the
body's functions. Together, these systems help to maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal
environment, in the body, even in the face of changing external conditions.
Core concepts in chemistry (e.g., organic chemistry, general chemistry, and biochemistry)
Chemistry
Chemistry is the scientific study of matter and its properties, composition, structure, behavior, and
interactions with other substances. It deals with the study of the composition and transformations of
materials, chemical reactions, and their relationships with energy. Chemistry is fundamental to many
other sciences and technologies and is crucial in fields such as medicine, energy, materials science, and
environmental science.
Atoms
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter and the defining structure of elements. The term "atom"
comes from the Greek word for indivisible, because it was once thought that atoms were the smallest
things in the universe and could not be divided.
Each atom consists of a nucleus, which is made up of positively charged protons and electrically neutral
neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines
an element's atomic number and, therefore, its identity.
The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the atomic weight minus the atomic number.
An ion is a charged particle formed by the loss or gain of electrons by an atom or a molecule. Ions can
be positively charged (called cations) or negatively charged (called anions). The charge on an ion results
from the unequal number of protons and electrons, and is what makes it different from a neutral atom.
Ions play important roles in many biological, chemical, and physical processes, including electric
conductivity, chemical bonding, and physiological functions in the human body.

Electrons occupy shells or orbitals around the nucleus, with the innermost shell having the lowest energy
and the outermost shell having the highest energy. The electrons in the outermost shell are called
valence electrons and determine the chemical properties of an element. Atoms combine to form
molecules by sharing or exchanging electrons.
The properties of atoms, such as size, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity, are
fundamental to understanding the behavior of matter and the universe. Atoms are the basic building
blocks of chemistry and play a crucial role in chemical reactions, biological processes, and many other
areas of science and technology.
Electron shells refer to the energy levels or orbits in which electrons are found in an atom. Electrons
occupy these shells in a specific arrangement and occupy the lowest energy level available first. The
electrons in the outermost shell, known as the valence shell, are responsible for an atom's chemical
behavior and reactivity. The number of electrons in the valence shell determines the type of elements an
atom belongs to and the chemical properties of the elements. The concept of electron shells helps to
explain the behavior of elements in chemical reactions and is an important aspect of atomic and
molecular structure.
Valence electrons are the outermost electrons in an atom and are involved in chemical reactions. The
number of valence electrons in an atom is related to the atom's electron configuration and its position in
the periodic table of elements. The valence electrons determine an atom's chemical properties, such as
its reactivity, and are involved in the formation of chemical bonds with other atoms. In general, the more
valence electrons an atom has, the more likely it is to form chemical bonds and participate in chemical
reactions.
Subatomic particles
Subatomic particles are the basic building blocks of atoms, which make up matter. These particles
include:
1. Protons - positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
2. Neutrons - neutral particles also found in the nucleus.
3. Electrons - negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in shells or energy levels.
The number of protons in an atom's nucleus determines what element it is, as each element has a
unique atomic number. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is known as the atom's
mass number. Electrons occupy the electron shells, which determine the chemical and physical
properties of an element.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the central and most important part of an atom. It is composed of positively charged
particles called protons and neutral particles called neutrons. The number of protons in an atom's
nucleus determines the element that the atom represents. The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged particles called electrons, which orbit the nucleus. The protons and neutrons in the
nucleus are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is one of the four fundamental forces of
nature. The arrangement of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus is called the atomic structure.
Molecules
A molecule is a particle composed of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together. The atoms
in a molecule can be of the same or different elements, and the arrangement and type of bonds between
the atoms determine the properties of the molecule. The properties of a molecule, such as its size,
shape, and chemical reactivity, are determined by the distribution of electrons among its atoms, which is
in turn influenced by the number of electrons and their arrangement in the electron shells of each atom.
Elements
An element is a basic chemical substance that cannot be broken down into simpler components by
chemical means. Each element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus, which determines its
atomic number. Elements are listed in the periodic table, which is organized based on their atomic
number and electron configurations. Some common elements include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, and iron.
Note:
• Hydrogen and Helium are the most abundant elements in the universe.
• Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) in the earth.
• Oxygen is the most common element in the earth’s crust.
• The 8 most abundant elements in Earth’s crust (by mass) are the following:
1. 46.6% Oxygen (O)
2. 27.7% Silicon (Si)
3. 8.1% Aluminum (Al)
4. 5.0% Iron (Fe)
5. 3.6% Calcium (Ca)
6. 2.8% Sodium (Na)
7. 2.6% Potassium (K)
8. 2.1% Magnesium (Mg)
Natural elements
Natural elements are the basic building blocks of matter. They are substances that cannot be broken
down or changed into other substances through chemical reactions. There are 118 known natural
elements, ranging from hydrogen (element 1) to oganesson (element 118). Each element has a unique
atomic number and distinct physical and chemical properties that determine its behavior and uses. Some
common natural elements include carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and iron.
Synthetic or man-made elements
Synthetic or man-made elements are elements that are not found naturally in the environment but have
been artificially produced in a laboratory setting. They are created through nuclear reactions such as
fusion or fission and have unique properties different from natural elements. Some examples of synthetic
elements are Technetium, Promethium, and Californium.
States of Matter
Solid
A solid is a state of matter characterized by having a definite shape and volume. Solids have a high
density and have a more rigid structure than other states of matter like liquids and gases. In a solid, the
particles are closely packed together, vibrating only slightly in place. This allows solids to maintain a
definite shape and resist external forces, such as compression and tension. Some common examples of
solids include rocks, metals, and ice.
Liquid
A liquid is a state of matter that has a defined volume but takes the shape of its container. Liquids have a
lower density compared to solids, and the molecules of a liquid are in constant motion, constantly

colliding with each other. The cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are strong enough to give
the liquid its definite volume, but not strong enough to maintain a fixed shape. Examples of liquids
include water, oil, and gasoline.
Gas
Gas is a physical state of matter characterized by low density and viscosity, low elasticity, and high
expansiveness. Gases can be compressed or expanded without changing their volume, which makes
them highly responsive to changes in pressure or temperature. They occupy a container in a way that
allows them to spread uniformly and freely throughout it, so that no region has more or less of the gas
than another. Some examples of gases are air, natural gas, propane, and hydrogen.
Plasma
Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with solids, liquids, and gases. Unlike
solids, liquids, and gases, plasma does not have a defined shape or volume. Instead, it is a highly
ionized gas that contains free electrons and positively charged ions. Plasma is considered the fourth
state of matter because it exhibits unique physical and chemical properties that are distinct from solids,
liquids, and gases. It is considered an "ionized gas" because the electrons are separated from their
parent atoms, leaving behind positively charged ions. This makes plasma highly conductive, allowing it
to respond to electric and magnetic fields in a way that other states of matter do not. Plasmas are found
in many places in the universe, including stars, lightning, and some types of electric discharge. They are
also used in a variety of applications, including fusion reactors, plasma cutting and welding, and the
production of plasma TVs and displays.
Periodic Table of the Elements
The periodic table of elements is a graphical representation of all known elements, arranged according
to their atomic structure. The table is arranged in rows and columns, with elements in the same column
having similar properties. The elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, which is the
number of protons in the element's nucleus. Each element is identified by its chemical symbol, which is a
unique abbreviation of the element's name. The periodic table also provides information about each
element's atomic weight, electron configuration, and chemical reactivity. The key elements of the
Periodic Table are shown in the diagram below:
11
Atomic Number
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
The number of protons determines what element the atom is, as each element has a unique number of
protons. The atomic number is also used to arrange elements in the periodic table in order of increasing
atomic number, which results in a periodic variation in properties of elements, such as electron
configuration and chemical reactivity.
Atomic Mass
Atomic mass, also known as atomic weight, is the total mass of the protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom. The mass of an atom is expressed in atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is
defined as exactly 1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. The atomic mass of an element is listed on
the periodic table of elements and is used to determine the atomic weight of a molecule, which is the
sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecule.
The mass in grams of any element that is equal to that element’s atomic weight is called one gram-
molecular weight, or one mole (6.02 × 1023 atoms = Avogadro’s number).
The common elements and their atomic weights are as follows: sodium (Na) = 23, hydrogen (H) = 1,
carbon (C) = 12, nitrogen (N) = 14, and oxygen (O) = 16
Chemical Bonding
Chemical bonding refers to the forces that hold atoms together in a molecule. There are three main
types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic.
Ionic bonds are formed between two ions (atoms that have lost or gained electrons) of opposite charge,
creating a strong electrostatic attraction between the two ions.
Covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share electrons, creating a shared pair of electrons
between the two atoms. The strength of a covalent bond depends on the number of electrons shared
and the electronegativity difference between the two atoms.
Metallic bonds are formed between metal atoms and result from the sharing of electrons among all the
metal atoms in a metallic lattice structure. This forms a "sea of electrons" that is mobile, giving metals
their characteristic properties such as high conductivity, malleability, and ductility.
In a chemical reaction, chemical bonds can be broken, and new bonds formed, releasing or absorbing
energy and leading to a change in the chemical composition of the reactants. Understanding chemical
bonding is important in understanding the behavior of molecules and how they interact in chemical
reactions.
Moles
A mole is a unit of measurement in chemistry that represents a specific number of particles in a
substance. It is defined as the amount of a substance that contains the same number of entities as there
are in 12 grams of pure carbon-12. This number is known as Avogadro's number and is equal to 6.022 x
10^23 particles. The mole is used in chemical calculations and reactions to determine the mass and
number of particles involved in a reaction.
Molecules and Compounds
Molecules are the basic building blocks of all matter. They are formed by the combination of two or more
atoms held together by chemical bonds. The type of bond and the number of atoms in a molecule
determine its properties and behavior.
Compounds are substances made up of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed
proportion. For example, water is a compound made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
(H2O). The properties of compounds are different from the properties of the individual elements that
make them up. This is due to the chemical bonds between the atoms that form the compound.
In chemical reactions, molecules can break apart, form new bonds, or exchange atoms with other
molecules. This can result in the formation of new compounds or the rearrangement of existing ones.
The study of chemical bonding and the behavior of molecules and compounds is a central part of
chemistry.

Mixtures
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains its own chemical
properties. Mixtures can be either homogeneous, where the composition is uniform throughout, or
heterogeneous, where the composition varies in different regions. Examples of mixtures include air, salt
water, and a fruit salad. Mixtures can be separated into their components using physical methods, such
as filtration, evaporation, and distillation, without changing the chemical properties of the substances.
Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas are symbols that represent the composition of a chemical substance. These symbols
consist of elemental symbols and subscripts that indicate the number of atoms of each element present
in a molecule of the substance. Chemical formulas provide information about the type and number of
atoms present in a substance, and thus the type and number of chemical bonds that hold the atoms
together. Examples of chemical formulas include H2O for water, CO2 for carbon dioxide, and CH4 for
methane.
To write a chemical formula, you need to follow these steps:
1. Determine the type of atoms present in the compound.
2. Write the symbols of the elements in the compound. The symbol is the one- or two-letter
abbreviation of the element name, such as H for hydrogen, O for oxygen, and N for nitrogen.
3. Determine the number of atoms of each element in the compound. This information is usually
provided in the name of the compound, such as water (H2O), which contains two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom.
4. Write the subscripts next to the elements to indicate the number of atoms of each element in the
compound.
5. For ionic compounds, the positive ion is written first and the negative ion is written second,
separated by a space.
For example, to write the formula for hydrochloric acid, which contains hydrogen and chlorine, you would
write:
HCl
This formula indicates that the compound contains one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom.
Atomic Weight of Compounds
The atomic weight of a compound is the weighted average of the atomic weights of the elements in the
compound. To determine the atomic weight of a compound, one must first determine the chemical
formula of the compound, which specifies the number and type of atoms in the compound. Then, the
atomic weight of each element in the compound can be found from the periodic table of elements, which
lists the atomic weights of all known elements.
Example 1: For the compound H2O, the atomic weight of hydrogen (H) is 1.0079 g/mol, and the atomic
weight of oxygen (O) is 15.999 g/mol. The atomic weight of H2O is calculated as:
(2 x 1.0079 g/mol) + (1 x 15.999 g/mol) = 2.0158 g/mol + 15.999 g/mol = 18.0147 g/mol
Percentage of Element in a Compound (by Weight)
The percentage of an element in a compound by weight can be calculated by dividing the atomic weight
of the element by the total molecular weight of the compound and multiplying by 100.
For example, let's consider the compound, H2O (water). The atomic weight of hydrogen is 1, and the
atomic weight of oxygen is 16. So, the total molecular weight of H2O is 1 + 1 + 16 = 18.
To find the percentage of hydrogen by weight, the following formula is used: (atomic weight of hydrogen /
total molecular weight of H2O) x 100 = (1 / 18) x 100 = 5.56%.
Similarly, the percentage of oxygen by weight can be calculated as: (atomic weight of oxygen / total
molecular weight of H2O) x 100 = (16 / 18) x 100 = 88.89%.
Acids, Bases, and pH’s
Acids, Bases, and pH are important concepts in chemistry that describe the properties and behavior of
substances in solutions.
An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen ions (H+) to a solution, and it typically has a sour taste.
Examples of acids include citric acid in lemons, carbonic acid in soda, and hydrochloric acid in the
stomach.
A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) from a solution, and it typically has a bitter taste.
Examples of bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonia (NH3), and baking soda (NaHCO3).
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution, and it ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A
pH less than 7 is considered acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is considered basic. The pH of a solution is
important because it affects the behavior of substances in the solution and can impact living organisms.
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm
(base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter (mol/L) in a solution. To calculate pH, you
can use the following formula:
pH = -log[H+]
Where [H+] is the concentration of hydrogen ions (in mol/L) in the solution.
Example:
Example 1: Calculate the pH of a solution with a hydrogen ion concentration of 1.0 x 10^-3 M.
pH = -log[H+]
pH = -log(1.0 x 10^-3)
pH = 3
Therefore, the pH of the solution is 3.
Example 2: Calculate the pH of a solution with a hydroxide ion concentration of 2.0 x 10^-11 M.
pH = 14 - pOH
pOH = -log[OH-]
pOH = -log(2.0 x 10^-11)
pOH = 10.7
pH = 14 - 10.7 pH = 3.3
Therefore, the pH of the solution is 3.3.

Example 3: Calculate the pH of a solution with a molarity of 0.02 and a pOH of 3.6.
pOH = -log[OH-]
3.6 = -log[OH-]
[OH-] = 2.5 x 10^-4
pH = 14 - pOH
pH = 14 - 3.6
pH = 10.4
Therefore, the pH of the solution is 10.4.
Gas Laws
There are four basic gas law:
1. Boyle’s law
2. Charles’ law
3. Ideal gas law
4. Combined gas law.
Boyle’s Law
Boyle's Law states that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided that the
temperature and number of moles of gas remain constant. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
P1V1 = P2V2
where P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and volume of the gas, respectively, and P2 and V2 are the
final pressure and volume of the gas, respectively.
Here's an example of using Boyle's Law:
A sample of gas has an initial volume of 2 L and an initial pressure of 1 atm (1 atm = 101,325 Pa). The
volume of the gas is increased to 4 L. To calculate the final pressure of the gas, we can use Boyle's Law
equation:
P1V1 = P2V2
1 atm * 2 L = P2 * 4 L
101,325 Pa * 2 L = P2 * 4 L
202,650 Pa = P2 * 4 L
P2 = 202,650 Pa / 4 L
P2 = 50,662.5 Pa
This example shows how Boyle's Law can be used to calculate the final pressure of a gas undergoing a
change in volume, given its initial pressure and volume, and the final volume.
Charles’ Law
Charles's Law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature, provided that the
pressure and number of moles of gas remain constant. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

V1/T1 = V2/T2
where V1 and T1 are the initial volume and temperature of the gas, respectively, and V2 and T2 are the
final volume and temperature of the gas, respectively.
Here's an example of using Charles's Law:
A sample of gas has an initial volume of 2 L and an initial temperature of 273 K. The temperature of the
gas is increased to 298 K. To calculate the final volume of the gas, we can use Charles's Law equation:
V1/T1 = V2/T2
2 L / 273 K = V2 / 298 K
2 L * 298 K / 273 K = V2
V2 = 2.18 L
This example shows how Charles's Law can be used to calculate the final volume of a gas undergoing a
change in temperature, given its initial volume and temperature, and the final temperature.
Ideal Gas Law
The Ideal Gas Law is a combination of Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, Gay-Lussac's Law, and Avogadro's
Law, and represents the behavior of an ideal gas under certain conditions. Mathematically, it can be
expressed as:
PV = nRT
where P is the pressure of the gas (in pascals), V is its volume (in cubic meters), n is the number of
moles of gas, R is the universal gas constant (equal to 8.31 J/mol*K), and T is the temperature of the
gas in kelvins.
Here's an example of using the Ideal Gas Law:
Suppose we have a sample of gas with a volume of 2 L, a pressure of 3 atm, and a temperature of 300
K. What is the number of moles of gas in the sample?
To calculate the number of moles of gas in a sample, we can use the ideal gas law, which relates the
pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of a gas:
PV = nRT
where P is the pressure in atmospheres (atm), V is the volume in liters (L), n is the number of moles, R is
the ideal gas constant (0.08206 L atm/(mol K)), and T is the temperature in Kelvin (K).
In this problem, we are given P = 3 atm, V = 2 L, and T = 300 K. We can solve for n as follows:
n = (PV) / (RT)
n = (3 atm * 2 L) / (0.08206 L atm/(mol K) * 300 K)
n = 0.246 mol
Therefore, the number of moles of gas in the sample is approximately 0.246 mol.

Combined Gas Law

The Combined Gas Law is a modification of the Ideal Gas Law that takes into account changes in both
temperature and pressure. It states that, for a fixed mass of gas, the product of its pressure and volume
is directly proportional to its temperature, provided that the number of moles of gas remains constant.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
where P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and volume of the gas, respectively, T1 is the initial temperature
in kelvins, P2 and V2 are the final pressure and volume of the gas, respectively, and T2 is the final
temperature in kelvins.
Here's an example of using the Combined Gas Law:
A sample of gas has an initial volume of 2 L, an initial pressure of 1 atm (1 atm = 101,325 Pa), and an
initial temperature of 273 K. After undergoing a temperature change, the gas has a final volume of 4 L
and a final temperature of 298 K. To calculate the final pressure of the gas, we can use the Combined
Gas Law equation:
The combined gas law relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas when the number of
moles and the gas constant are constant. It is given by:
(P1 * V1) / T1 = (P2 * V2) / T2
where P1, V1, and T1 are the initial pressure, volume, and temperature, and P2, V2, and T2 are the final
pressure, volume, and temperature.
In this problem, we are given the initial volume (V1), initial pressure (P1), initial temperature (T1), final
volume (V2), and final temperature (T2). We can use this information to solve for the final pressure (P2).
Here's how:
(P1 * V1) / T1 = (P2 * V2) / T2 (The combined gas law equation)
Solving for P2, we can cross-multiply and simplify:
P2 = (P1 * V1 * T2) / (V2 * T1)
Now, we can plug in the values we were given:
P2 = (1 atm * 2 L * 298 K) / (4 L * 273 K)
P2 = 0.544 atm
Therefore, the final pressure of the gas is approximately 0.544 atm (or 55,138 Pa).
Core concepts in physics (e.g., forms of energy, weights, forces, and stresses)
Energy
There are many laws related to energy and its interactions with other physical systems, but two well-
known laws are:
1. The Law of Conservation of Energy: This law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transformed from one form to another. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
Einitial + Q = Efinal + W

where Einitial is the initial energy of the system, Q is the energy added to the system in the form
of heat, Efinal is the final energy of the system, and W is the work done by the system.
2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics: This law states that the total entropy of a closed
thermodynamic system will always increase over time. In other words, heat always flows from a
hotter object to a colder object, and energy will always become more dispersed and less useful
as time goes on. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
dS >= dQ/T
where dS is the change in entropy of the system, dQ is the heat added to the system, and T is
the temperature of the system in kelvins.
These two laws describe the fundamental principles governing the behavior of energy in physical
systems and are widely used in fields such as thermodynamics, engineering, and physics.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy that an object possesses due to its motion. It can be expressed
mathematically as:
KE = 0.5 * m * v^2
where KE is the kinetic energy, m is the mass of the object, and v is its velocity.
Here's an example of calculating kinetic energy:
let's say we have a baseball with a mass of 0.145 kg and it is thrown with a velocity of 40 meters per
second (m/s). We can use the kinetic energy formula, KE = 0.5 * m * v^2, to calculate the kinetic energy
of the baseball.
KE = 0.5 * m * v^2
KE = 0.5 * 0.145 kg * (40 m/s)^2
KE = 116 J
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the baseball is approximately 116 joules (J).
Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy that an object possesses due to its position or state. It can be expressed
mathematically as:
PE = m * g * h
where PE is the potential energy, m is the mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity
(approximately 9.8 m/s^2 on the surface of the Earth), and h is the height of the object above some
reference point.
Here's an example of calculating potential energy:
A 2 kg object is raised to a height of 10 m above the ground. To calculate its potential energy, we can
use the formula:
PE = m * g * h
where: m = mass of the object g = acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s^2 near the
surface of the Earth) h = height of the object above a reference point (in this case, the ground)
Substituting the given values, we get:

PE = 2 kg * 9.81 m/s^2 * 10 m
Simplifying this expression, we get:
PE = 196.2 J
Therefore, the potential energy of the object is 196.2 J.
This example shows how potential energy can be calculated given the mass, height, and acceleration
due to gravity of an object.
Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its deformation caused by an applied
force. It can be expressed mathematically as:
PE = 0.5 * k * x^2
where PE is the elastic potential energy, k is the spring constant, and x is the displacement of the object
from its rest position.
Here's an example of calculating elastic potential energy:
A spring with a spring constant of 100 N/m is stretched by a distance of 0.1 m. To calculate its elastic
potential energy, we can use the formula:
PE = 1/2 * k * x^2
where: k = spring constant of the spring (in N/m) x = displacement of the spring from its equilibrium
position (in m)
PE = 1/2 * 100 N/m * (0.1 m)^2
PE = 0.5 J
Therefore, the elastic potential energy stored in the spring is 0.5 J.
This example shows how elastic potential energy can be calculated given the spring constant and
displacement of an object.
Force
Force is a measure of the interaction between two objects, causing a change in their motion. Force is a
vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. Forces can be classified into several types,
such as contact forces, action-at-a-distance forces, and friction forces. The unit of force in the
International System of Units (SI) is the Newton (N). Force plays a fundamental role in many branches of
science and engineering, including mechanics, physics, and materials science.
There are many types of forces, but two fundamental types are:
1. Contact Forces: These are forces that arise from the direct physical interaction between two
objects. Examples include friction, tension, normal force, and air resistance.

2. Action-at-a-Distance Forces: These are forces that do not require direct physical contact between
two objects. Examples include gravitational force, electromagnetic force, and the strong and
weak nuclear forces.
These two types of forces play a crucial role in determining the behavior of physical systems and are
studied in fields such as physics, engineering, and mechanics.
Defining Mass and Weight
Mass and weight are related but distinct physical quantities. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter
in an object, while weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity.
Mass is a scalar quantity and is measured in kilograms (kg) in the International System of Units (SI). It is
a measure of the amount of matter in an object and does not change with location.
Weight, on the other hand, is a force and is measured in Newtons (N) in the SI. It is the force exerted on
an object due to gravity and depends on the mass of the object and the acceleration due to gravity. It
can be calculated as:
W=m*g
where W is the weight, m is the mass of the object, and g is the acceleration due to gravity
(approximately 9.8 m/s^2 on the surface of the Earth).
Here's an example of calculating mass and weight:
An object has a mass of 5 kg. To calculate its weight, we can use the formula:
W=m*g
where: m = mass of the object (in kg) g = acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s^2 near the
surface of the Earth)
Substituting the given value of mass, we get:
W = 5 kg * 9.81 m/s^2
W = 49.05 N
Therefore, the weight of the object is 49.05 N.
This example shows how mass and weight can be related and calculated given the mass of an object
and the acceleration due to gravity.
Calculating Force
Force is a physical quantity that describes the interaction between two objects, causing a change in their
motion. Force can be calculated using Newton's second law of motion, which states that the force acting
on an object is equal to the mass of the object times its acceleration.
The equation for calculating force is:
F=m*a
where F is the force, m is the mass of the object, and a is its acceleration.
Here's an example of calculating force:
A 5 kg object is accelerating at 2 m/s^2. To calculate the force acting on the object, we can use the
formula:
F=m*a
where: m = mass of the object (in kg) a = acceleration of the object (in m/s^2)
F = 5 kg * 2 m/s^2
F = 10 N
Therefore, the force acting on the 5 kg object accelerating at 2 m/s^2 is 10 N.
This example shows how force can be calculated given the mass and acceleration of an object.
Frictional Force
Frictional force is a force that opposes motion between two objects that are in contact. Frictional force
depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact and the force pressing them together. The equation for
calculating frictional force is:
F_friction = μ * N
where F_friction is the frictional force, μ is the coefficient of friction, and N is the normal force, which is
the force perpendicular to the surface.
Here's an example of calculating frictional force:
A 5 kg object is sitting on a flat surface. The coefficient of friction between the object and the surface is
0.5. The normal force acting on the object is equal to its weight, which is 5 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 = 49 N. To
calculate the frictional force acting on the object, we can use the formula:
f=μ*N
where: μ = coefficient of friction N = normal force acting on the object
f = 0.5 * 49 N
f = 24.5 N
Therefore, the frictional force acting on the 5 kg object on the flat surface with a coefficient of friction of
0.5 is 24.5 N.
This example shows how frictional force can be calculated given the coefficient of friction, the normal
force, and the weight of an object.
Force, Distance and Work
Force and distance are physical quantities that can be related through the concept of work, which is a
measure of the amount of energy transferred by a force acting on an object over a certain distance.
Work can be calculated as the product of force and distance, where the force is applied in the direction
of motion.
The equation for calculating work is:

W = F * d * cos(Θ)
where W is the work done, F is the force, d is the distance over which the force is applied, and Θ is the
angle between the direction of the force and the direction of motion.
Here's an example of calculating work:
A person pushes a crate with a force of 50 N along a distance of 5 meters. The angle between the force
and displacement vectors is 30 degrees. To calculate the work done by the person, we can use the
formula above:
W = F * d * cos(Θ) W = 50 N * 5 m * cos(30 degrees) W = 50 N * 5 m * 0.866 W = 216.5 J
Therefore, the work done by the person is approximately 216.5 joules (J).
Momentum
Momentum is a physical quantity that describes an object's tendency to keep moving in a straight line at
a constant speed. Momentum is equal to the product of an object's mass and velocity.
The equation for calculating momentum is:
p=m*v
where p is the momentum, m is the mass of the object, and v is its velocity.
Here's an example of calculating momentum:
A 5 kg object is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s. To calculate the momentum of the object, we can use
the formula:
p=m*v
p = 5 kg * 10 m/s
p = 50 kg m/s
This example shows how momentum can be calculated given the mass and velocity of an object.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton's laws of motion are three fundamental laws that describe the relationship between the motion of
objects and the forces acting on them. The three laws are:
1. Law of Inertia: An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will continue in motion
with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.
2. Law of Force: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied to it and
inversely proportional to its mass. This can be expressed mathematically as F = ma, where F is
the force, m is the mass of the object, and a is its acceleration.
3. Law of Action and Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is
known as Newton's third law, and it states that forces always come in pairs and that the forces
acting on two interacting objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
These laws provide a framework for understanding the motion of objects and the forces that cause that
motion, and they form the basis of classical mechanics.
Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity that describes the rate of change of an object's position with respect to time.
It is equal to the change in position divided by the change in time.
The equation for calculating velocity is:
v = Δx / Δt
where v is the velocity, Δx is the change in position, and Δt is the change in time.
Here's an example of calculating velocity:
An object moves a distance of 10 meters to the right in 2 seconds. To calculate the velocity of the object,
we can use the formula:
v = Δx / Δt
v = 10 m / 2 s
v = 5 m/s
This example shows how velocity can be calculated given the change in position and the change in time.
The velocity of the object is 5 m/s to the right
Velocity can also be calculated using acceleration and time. The equation for velocity with acceleration
is:
v = v0 + at
where v is the final velocity, v0 is the initial velocity, a is the acceleration, and t is the time.
Here's an example of calculating velocity with acceleration and time:
An object starts at rest (v0 = 0 m/s) and accelerates at 2 m/s^2 for 3 seconds. To calculate the final
velocity of the object, we can use the formula:
v = v0 + at
where v0 is the initial velocity (0 m/s), a is the acceleration (2 m/s^2), t is the time (3 s).
Substituting the values:
v = 0 + 2 × 3 v = 6 m/s
Therefore, the final velocity of the object is 6 m/s.
This example shows how velocity can be calculated given the acceleration and the time. The final
velocity of the object is 6 m/s.
Displacement
Displacement can also be calculated using velocity, acceleration, and time. The equation for
displacement with velocity, acceleration, and time is:
Δx = v0t + (1/2)at^2
where Δx is the displacement, v0 is the initial velocity, a is the acceleration, and t is the time.
Here's an example of calculating displacement with velocity, acceleration, and time:

An object starts at rest (v0 = 0 m/s) and accelerates at 2 m/s^2 for 3 seconds. To calculate the
displacement of the object, we can use the formula:
d = v0t + 1/2a*t^2
where d is the displacement, v0 is the initial velocity (0 m/s), t is the time (3 seconds), and a is the
acceleration (2 m/s^2).
Plugging in the values, we get:
d = 0*(3) + 1/2*(2)(3^2)
d = 0 + 1/2(2)*(9)
d=0+9
d = 9 meters
Therefore, the displacement of the object is 9 meters.
This example shows how displacement can be calculated given the initial velocity, acceleration, and
time. The displacement of the object is 9 meters.
Mathematics (e.g., geometry, algebra, trigonometry, finance and accounting, engineering, and
economics)
Order of Operations
The order of operations is a set of rules that determine the sequence in which arithmetic operations
should be performed in mathematical expressions to obtain the correct result. The standard order of
operations is often remembered by the acronym PEMDAS, which stands for:
1. Parentheses: Perform operations inside parentheses first.
2. Exponents: Perform exponential operations (such as raising to a power) next.
3. Multiplication and Division (from left to right): Perform all multiplications and divisions, working
from left to right.
4. Addition and Subtraction (from left to right): Finally, perform all additions and subtractions,
working from left to right.
For example, consider the expression: 2 + 3 * 4
Using the order of operations, we perform the multiplication first:
2 + 3 * 4 = 2 + 12 = 14
If we performed the addition first, we would have obtained a different result:
2 + 3 * 4 = 5 * 4 = 20
So, the order of operations is important to ensure that we obtain the correct result in mathematical
expressions.
Positive and Negative Numbers
Positive and negative numbers are used to represent values greater than or less than zero, respectively.
Here are some basic rules for working with positive and negative numbers:

1. Addition and subtraction: Adding a positive number to a positive number or subtracting a negative
number from a positive number results in a positive number. Adding a negative number to a
negative number or subtracting a positive number from a negative number results in a negative
number. Adding a positive number to a negative number or subtracting a negative number from a
positive number results in a difference between the two numbers.
2. Multiplication and division: The product of two positive numbers is positive, the product of two
negative numbers is positive, the product of a positive number and a negative number is
negative, and the quotient of a positive number divided by a positive number or a negative
number divided by a negative number is positive. The quotient of a positive number divided by a
negative number or a negative number divided by a positive number is negative.
3. Order of operations: When performing operations with positive and negative numbers, it is
important to follow the order of operations to ensure that the calculations are performed correctly.
It is also worth noting that zero is neither positive nor negative, and any non-zero number divided by zero
is undefined.
Exponents
Exponents are a way to represent repeated multiplication of a number by itself. The number being
multiplied is called the base and the exponent is the number of times the base is being multiplied by
itself. The symbol for exponentiation is "^", and it is used to indicate the exponent.
For example: 2^3 means 2 multiplied by itself 3 times, which is equal to 8.
The following are some properties of exponents:
1. Product of Exponents: When multiplying two numbers with the same base, the exponents can be
added: (a^m) * (a^n) = a^(m+n)
For example: (2^3) * (2^2) = 2^(3+2) = 2^5= 32
2. Quotient of Exponents: When dividing two numbers with the same base, the exponents can be
subtracted: (a^m) / (a^n) = a^(m-n)
For example: (2^3) / (2^2) = 2^(3-2) = 2^1 = 2
3. Power of a Power: When raising an exponent to another exponent, the exponents can be
multiplied: (a^m)^n = a^(m*n)
For example: (2^3)^2 = 2^(3*2) = 2^6 = 64
4. Power of 1: Any number raised to the power of 1 is equal to itself: a^1 = a
For example: 2^1 = 2
5. Power of 0: Any non-zero number raised to the power of 0 is equal to 1: a^0 = 1
For example: 2^0 = 1
Scientific Notation and Engineering Notation
Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers in a compact and concise form that is widely used in
scientific and mathematical fields. In scientific notation, a number is written in the form of a power of 10
multiplied by a coefficient, where the coefficient is a number between 1 and 10.
For example:
• 5,000 can be written as 5 x 10^3 in scientific notation.

• 0.003 can be written as 3 x 10^-3 in scientific notation.
Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation but with some specific rules and guidelines. In
engineering notation, numbers are written as a power of 10 multiplied by a coefficient, where the
coefficient is always between 1 and 1000 and is a multiple of 10, 100, or 1000.
For example:
• 200 can be written as 2 x 10^2 in engineering notation.
• 0.05 can be written as 50 x 10^-3 in engineering notation.
Both scientific notation and engineering notation are used to write large or small numbers in a more
manageable and readable form, making calculations and data analysis easier and more efficient.
Absolute Values
Absolute value is a mathematical concept that represents the distance of a number from zero on a
number line. The absolute value of a number is always positive or zero, regardless of whether the
number is positive or negative.
The absolute value of a number "x" is denoted by the symbol "|x|".
For example:
• The absolute value of 5 is 5, because 5 is 5 units away from zero on the number line. |5| = 5
• The absolute value of -5 is 5, because -5 is also 5 units away from zero on the number line. |-5| =
5
• The absolute value of 0 is 0, because 0 is 0 units away from zero on the number line. |0| = 0
Absolute values are often used in solving equations and inequalities, as well as in finding the distance
between two points on a number line.
Logarithms
A logarithm is an exponent that indicates the power to which a number must be raised to produce a
given value. It is written as logb(x) where b is the base of the logarithm and x is the value that you want
to find the exponent for. Logarithms are commonly used in mathematics, science, and engineering to
simplify and solve problems involving large numbers.
Here are the basic rules of logarithms:
1. Product Rule: logb(xy) = logb(x) + logb(y)
Example: log2(4 * 8) = log2(32) = log2(4) + log2(8) = 2 + 3 = 5
2. Quotient Rule: logb(x/y) = logb(x) - logb(y)
Example: log5(125 / 5) = log5(25) = log5(125) - log5(5) = 3 - 1 = 2
3. Power Rule: logb(x^y) = ylogb(x)
Example: log10(1000) = log10(10^3) = 3log10(10) = 3*1 = 3
4. Change of Base Rule: logb(x) = loga(x) / loga(b)

Example: log5(100) = log10(100) / log10(5) = 2 / 0.6989 = 2.8614 (approx.)

In general, logarithms with a base of 10 are called common logarithms and are written as log(x), while
logarithms with a base of e (approximately equal to 2.718) are called natural logarithms and are written
as ln(x). The logarithm rules above apply to any base b.
In addition to solving problems using logarithms, logarithms are also used in exponential growth and
decay problems, such as those involving compound interest or radioactive decay.
Formula or Equation Transpositions
Formula or equation transposition refers to rearranging a given equation or formula to express a different
variable in terms of the others. Transposing is a useful tool in solving equations and simplifying
expressions.
Here are some steps for transposing a formula:
1. Identify the formula or equation you want to transpose.
2. Isolate the variable you want to express in terms of the others on one side of the equation.
3. Move all other terms to the other side of the equation, keeping the equal sign in place.
4. Simplify the equation if necessary.
For example, consider the formula for the distance traveled by an object moving with constant velocity: d
= v * t where d is the distance, v is the velocity, and t is the time.
To transpose the formula to express velocity in terms of distance and time, we isolate velocity on one
side of the equation: d/t = v Now we have a formula for velocity in terms of distance and time.
In this way, transposing a formula can be useful for solving problems where one variable is unknown and
you need to find its value in terms of the other variables.
Factorials
A factorial is a mathematical operation denoted by an exclamation point (!). It is the product of all positive
integers less than or equal to a given positive integer. For example, 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120.
The factorial of 0 (0!) is defined to be 1.
Factorials are commonly used in counting problems, such as finding the number of ways to arrange a
group of objects, or in probability and statistics, where they are used in the calculation of combinations
and permutations.
Here's a math example to calculate the factorial:
Example: Calculate 7! = 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 5040
Another example:
Example: Calculate 10! = 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 3628800
Note: The factorial of a positive integer can grow very quickly, and for large numbers it is often
necessary to use a calculator or computer to obtain the answer.

Common Geometric Equations

There are many common geometric equations that are used in mathematics and physics. Here are some
of them, along with examples:
1. Perimeter of a rectangle: The perimeter of a rectangle is the sum of the lengths of all four sides.
Example: Given a rectangle with length 4 units and width 6 units, its perimeter is 4 + 4 + 6 + 6 =
20 units.
Equation: P = 2(l + w), where P is the perimeter, l is the length and w is the width.
2. Area of a rectangle: The area of a rectangle is the product of its length and width.
Example: Given a rectangle with length 4 units and width 6 units, its area is 4 x 6 = 24 square
units.
Equation: A = lw, where A is the area, l is the length and w is the width.
3. Circumference of a circle: The circumference of a circle is the distance around its edge.
Example: Given a circle with radius 5 units, its circumference is?.
Equation: C = 2πr, where C is the circumference, π is the mathematical constant pi
(approximately equal to 3.14), and r is the radius.
If the radius of the circle is 5 units, then its circumference is:
C = 2πr = 2π(5) = 10π ≈ 31.42 units (rounded to two decimal places)
4. Area of a circle: The area of a circle is the amount of space it occupies.
Example: Given a circle with radius 5 units, its area is?
Equation: A = πr^2, where A is the area, π is the mathematical constant pi, and r is the radius.
For a circle with radius 5 units, the area is:
A = πr^2 A = π(5^2) A = π(25) A = 78.54 square units (rounded to two decimal places)
Therefore, the area of the circle is approximately 78.54 square units.
5. Pythagorean theorem: The Pythagorean theorem states that in a right triangle, the sum of the
squares of the two shorter sides is equal to the square of the longest side, which is the
hypotenuse.
Example: Given a right triangle with sides of length 3 units and 4 units, the length of the
hypotenuse is?
Equation: a^2 + b^2 = c^2, where a and b are the lengths of the two shorter sides, and c is the
length of the hypotenuse.
We can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse (c) of a right triangle
with sides of length a and b:
c^2 = a^2 + b^2
In this case, a = 3 and b = 4. Substituting these values into the formula, we get:
c^2 = 3^2 + 4^2 c^2 = 9 + 16 c^2 = 25
Taking the square root of both sides, we get:

c = √25
c=5
Therefore, the length of the hypotenuse of this right triangle is 5 units.
Pythagorean Equation
The Pythagorean Theorem states that in a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse (the
side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. It can be
mathematically represented as:
a^2 + b^2 = c^2, where "c" is the length of the hypotenuse, and "a" and "b" are the lengths of the other
two sides.
For example, consider a right triangle with sides of length 3 units and 4 units. The length of the
hypotenuse can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem:
3^2 + 4^2 = c^2 9 + 16 = c^2 25 = c^2 c = 5
So, the length of the hypotenuse is 5 units.
Basic Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the angles and sides of
triangles. There are six basic trigonometric functions, which are defined based on a right triangle:
1. Sine (sin): The ratio of the length of the side opposite an angle to the length of the hypotenuse.
sin(θ) = opposite side / hypotenuse
2. Cosine (cos): The ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse. cos(θ) =
adjacent side / hypotenuse
3. Tangent (tan): The ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side.
tan(θ) = opposite side / adjacent side
4. Cosecant (csc): The reciprocal of the sine function. csc(θ) = 1 / sin(θ)
5. Secant (sec): The reciprocal of the cosine function. sec(θ) = 1 / cos(θ)
6. Cotangent (cot): The reciprocal of the tangent function. cot(θ) = 1 / tan(θ)
For example, consider a right triangle with an angle of 30 degrees and a hypotenuse of length 10 units.
We can use the trigonometric functions to find the lengths of the other two sides:
Using the trigonometric functions, we can find the lengths of the other two sides of the right triangle with
an angle of 30 degrees and a hypotenuse of length 10 units as follows:
• sine function: sin(30) = opposite side / hypotenuse, so opposite side = hypotenuse * sin(30) = 10
* sin(30) = 5 units.
• cosine function: cos(30) = adjacent side / hypotenuse, so adjacent side = hypotenuse * cos(30) =
10 * cos(30) = 10 * sqrt(3) / 2 = 5sqrt(3) units.
• tangent function: tan(30) = opposite side / adjacent side, so opposite side = tangent * adjacent
side = tan(30) * 5sqrt(3) = (1/sqrt(3)) * 5sqrt(3) = 5 units.

Therefore, the lengths of the other two sides of the right triangle are 5 units and 5sqrt(3) units.
Example:
Assume that we have a helicopter that needs to lift a load that weighs 2000 pounds. The load is attached
to the helicopter by a cable that is 100 feet long. We need to determine the tension in the cable, which
will help us ensure that the load can be safely lifted.
To calculate the tension in the cable, we need to consider the weight of the load, the angle of the cable,
and any other forces acting on the cable. In this case, we'll assume that the helicopter is holding the
cable steady, so there are no horizontal or vertical forces acting on the cable.
First, let's find the angle of the cable using trigonometry. We can use the inverse tangent function (tan^-
1) to find the angle:
angle = tan^-1(opposite/adjacent) angle = tan^-1(2000/100) angle = 87.14 degrees
Now that we know the angle of the cable, we can use trigonometry again to find the tension in the cable.
We can use the sine function (sin) to find the opposite side (the tension in the cable), since we know the
angle and the hypotenuse (the length of the cable):
tension = sin(angle) * weight tension = sin(87.14) * 2000 tension = 1994.4 pounds
So the tension in the cable is approximately 1994.4 pounds. This means that the helicopter will need to
be able to generate at least 1994.4 pounds of force in order to lift the load safely.
Example:
Assume that we have a helicopter that needs to lift a load that weighs 4000 pounds. The load is attached
to the helicopter by two cables, each of which is 50 feet long. We need to determine the tension in each
cable, which will help us ensure that the load can be safely lifted.
To calculate the tension in each cable, we need to consider the weight of the load, the angles of each
cable, and any other forces acting on the cables. In this case, we'll assume that the helicopter is holding
the cables steady, so there are no horizontal or vertical forces acting on the cables.
First, let's find the angle of each cable using trigonometry. We can use the inverse cosine function (cos^-
1) to find the angle:
angle = cos^-1(adjacent/hypotenuse) angle = cos^-1(2000/5000) angle = 67.38 degrees
Now that we know the angle of each cable, we can use trigonometry again to find the tension in each
cable. We can use the sine function (sin) to find the opposite side (the tension in the cable), since we
know the angle and the hypotenuse (the length of the cable):
tension = sin(angle) * weight / 2 tension = sin(67.38) * 4000 / 2 tension = 1718.9 pounds
So the tension in each cable is approximately 1718.9 pounds. This means that each cable will need to
be able to generate at least 1718.9 pounds of force in order to lift the load safely.
Note that we divided the weight by 2 in the equation above, since the load is being supported by two
cables. If the load were being supported by three or more cables, we would need to divide the weight by
the number of cables.

Quadratic Equation
A quadratic equation is a second-degree polynomial equation of the form ax^2 + bx + c = 0. Here, x
represents an unknown variable, and a, b, and c are coefficients.
For example, consider the equation x^2 + 5x + 6 = 0. This is a quadratic equation and can be solved
using the quadratic formula:
x = (-b ± sqrt(b^2 - 4ac)) / 2a
For the equation x^2 + 5x + 6 = 0, we can identify that a = 1, b = 5, and c = 6. Substituting these values
into the formula, we get:
x = (-5 ± sqrt(5^2 - 4(1)(6))) / 2(1)
x = (-5 ± sqrt(1)) / 2
x = (-5 ± 1) / 2
x = -3 or x = -2
Therefore, the solutions to the equation are x = -3 and x = -2.
Simple Interest
Simple Interest (SI) is the interest calculated on the original principal amount only. It does not take into
account any interest earned on the interest. The formula for calculating simple interest is given by:
I=P*r*t
where:
• P is the principal amount
• r is the interest rate per period
• t is the time period in years
Example:
Suppose you deposit $5000 into a savings account that earns 2% interest annually. How much interest
will you earn after 3 years?
Using the formula I = P * r * t, we can calculate the interest earned as follows:
P = $5000 (the principal amount) r = 2% (the interest rate per period, which is annual in this case) t = 3
years (the time period in years)
I = $5000 * 0.02 * 3 = $300
Therefore, you will earn $300 in interest after 3 years.
Compound Interest
Compound interest is the interest that is earned on the principal amount as well as any previously
accumulated interest. In other words, interest is added to the principal amount at regular intervals, and
future interest is calculated based on the new principal amount, which includes the previously earned
interest. This results in the interest earned increasing over time, as the principal amount grows.

For example, let's say you invest $1,000 in a savings account that pays 5% interest per year,
compounded annually. After the first year, your balance would be $1,050, because you earned $50 in
interest. However, in the second year, you would earn interest on the new balance of $1,050, not just the
original $1,000. So, at the end of the second year, your balance would be $1,102.50, because you
earned $52.50 in interest.
The formula for calculating compound interest is:
F= P(1 + r/n)^(nt)
where A is the ending balance, P is the principal amount, r is the annual interest rate (as a decimal), n is
the number of times the interest is compounded per year, and t is the number of years.
Example:
Let's say you invest $5,000 into a savings account that earns 5% interest compounded annually for 3
years.
Using the formula F = P(1 + r/n)^(nt), we can calculate the ending balance:
F = 5000(1 + 0.05/1)^(1*3)
F = 5000(1.05)^3
F = 5000(1.157625)
F = $5,788.13
So after 3 years, your investment will have grown to $5,788.13, assuming the interest rate remains
constant and the interest is compounded annually.
Future Value of Money
Future value of money refers to the value of an investment or cash flow at a specified date in the future,
after it has earned interest or other returns. In other words, it is the amount of money that an investment
or cash flow will be worth in the future, after taking into account the effect of compounding.
The future value of money can be calculated using a formula that takes into account the principal
amount, the interest rate, and the number of compounding periods. This formula is:
F = P x (1 + i)^n
Where:
• F = Future value of the investment or cash flow
• P= Present value or the initial investment or cash flow
• i = Annual interest rate (annual percentage rate APR)
• n = Number of years
Example:
Suppose you invest $10,000 in a savings account with an annual interest rate of 4% for a period of 5
years.
Using the formula F = P x (1 + i)^n, we can calculate the future value of your investment:

F = $10,000 x (1 + 0.04)^5
F = $10,000 x 1.2167
F = $12,167
So the future value of your investment after 5 years would be $12,167 assuming the interest rate
remains constant and the interest is compounded annually.
Loan Balance
Loan balance refers to the amount of money that a borrower owes a lender at any given time. It is the
remaining principal amount that the borrower has yet to repay, including any interest and fees that have
accrued on the loan.
B = A * 1+ i^nt/n – P(1+i^nt/n-1/ 1+i/n -1)
Where:
• B is the balance after t years
• A is the original loan amount (principal)
• n is the number of payments per year
• P is the amount paid per payment
• t is the number of years
• i is the annual percentage rate (APR), which is converted to a decimal by dividing by 100
This formula takes into account the compounding effect of interest on the loan balance over time. It
allows you to calculate the loan balance at any point in time, based on the original loan amount, the
number of payments, the payment amount, and the interest rate.
Example:
Suppose you take out a loan of $10,000 with an annual interest rate of 5%, what is loan balance end of
3 years, with monthly payments of $150.
Using the given variables, we have:
A = $10,000 (the original loan amount)
n = 12 (the number of payments per year, since we're making monthly payments)
P = $150 (the amount of each payment)
t = 3 (the number of years for which the loan is taken)
i = 5% (the annual percentage rate or interest rate)
Now, we can substitute these values into the equation to calculate the balance after 3 years:
B = $10,000 * (1 + 0.05^(12*3)/12) - $300 * ((1 + 0.05^(12*3)/12 - 1) / (1 + 0.05/12 - 1))
Simplifying the equation, we get:
B = $10,000(1.00416)^36 – $150(1.1614-1/ 1.00416-1)
B= $10,000(1.1614)- $150( 39)
B = $5764
Therefore, after 3 years of making monthly payments of $150, the loan balance would be $5764.
Time Value of Money
Time value of money is a financial concept that refers to the idea that money available at the present
time is worth more than the same amount of money in the future, due to the potential for earning interest
or other returns over time. Essentially, the value of money changes over time due to the time value of
money.
The time value of money can be illustrated through the use of the present value and future value
formulas. The present value formula calculates what a future amount of money is worth today, while the
future value formula calculates what a current amount of money will be worth at a future point in time.
The present value (PV) formula is:
P = F(1 + i)^-n
Where:
• F is the future value of the money
• i is the interest rate or rate of return in decimal
• n is the number of time periods until the money will be received
For example, if you were promised $1,000 in two years' time and the interest rate was 5%, the present
value of that $1,000 would be:
P = $1,000 / (1 + 0.05)^2 = $907.03
This means that if you were offered $907.03 today, you would be indifferent between taking that amount
or waiting two years to receive $1,000.
Future Value of Money
The future value (FV) formula is:
F = P x (1 + i)^n
Where:
• F = future value of money
• P is the present value of the money
• i is the interest rate or rate of return
• n is the number of time periods for which the money will be invested
For example, if you invested $1,000 today at an interest rate of 5% for two years, the future value of that
investment would be:
FV = $1,000 x (1 + 0.05)^2 = $1,102.50
This means that after two years, your $1,000 investment would have grown to $1,102.50 due to the
effect of compounding interest.
Example:
Let's say a safety equipment manufacturer is offering a safety harness that is designed to reduce
workplace accidents and injuries. The safety harness costs $200 per unit, and the manufacturer offers a
discount for bulk purchases. You are a safety manager at a construction company, and you want to
purchase 100 safety harnesses for your workers.
The manufacturer offers you a 5% discount if you purchase 100 safety harnesses, bringing the cost per
unit down to $190. The manufacturer also offers a financing option, with an annual interest rate of 3%,
payable over two years.
Using the future value formula, you can calculate the total cost of the safety harnesses if you choose to
finance the purchase:
F = P x (1 + i)^n
Where: • F is the future value of the purchase cost • P is the present value of the purchase cost • i is the
interest rate • n is the number of years for which the financing will be paid
In this case, the present value of the purchase cost (P) is $19,000 (100 units x $190 per unit), the
interest rate (i) is 3%, and the financing will be paid over two years (n).
So, we can substitute these values into the formula and get:
F = $19,000 x (1 + 0.03)^2
Simplifying the expression inside the parentheses, we have:
F = $19,000 x 1.0609
F = $20,181.10
Therefore, the total cost of the safety harnesses if you choose to finance the purchase is $20,181.10,
which includes the initial cost of $19,000 plus the interest payment of $1,181.10 over the two-year
financing period.
Series Compound Amount Factor
The series compound amount factor (SCAF) is a financial formula used to calculate the future value of a
series of equal payments made over time, assuming a compounded interest rate. The SCAF takes into
account both the time value of money and the effect of compounding interest on the investment.
The SCAF formula is as follows:
F = A * [(1 + i)^n - 1] / i
Were,
F = future value of money
A = each payment (amount in $) (end of period)
i = interest rate (APR)
n= number of period
The SCAF formula can be used to determine the future value of a series of equal payments made over a
period of time.

Example:
Let's say you want to save up $10,000 in 5 years by making annual payments of $1,000 at an interest
rate of 5% APR. You can use the SCAF formula to calculate the future value of your payments.
F = A * [(1 + i)^n - 1] / i
F = $1,000 * [(1 + 0.05)^5 - 1] / 0.05
F = $1,000 * [1.276 - 1] / 0.05
F = $1,000 * 0.276 / 0.05
F = $5,520
According to the SCAF formula, if you make annual payments of $1,000 at an interest rate of 5% APR
for 5 years, the future value of your payments will be $5,520. This means that you will need to contribute
more than $1,000 per year to reach your goal of $10,000 in 5 years.
Sinking Fund Factor
The sinking fund factor (SFF) is a financial formula used to determine the periodic payment required to
accumulate a future sum of money, given an interest rate and a certain number of payment periods.
The sinking fund factor formula is:
A= F * i / [(1+i)^n -1]
where:
• i is the interest rate per period
• n is the number of payment periods
The sinking fund factor can be used to calculate the periodic payment required to accumulate a future
sum of money, assuming that the payment is made at the end of each period, and that the interest rate is
compounded at the end of each period.
Example:
Let's say you have a bond with a face value (F) of $10,000, a 5-year maturity, and an annual interest rate
(i) of 4%. You want to set up a sinking fund to accumulate enough money over the 5-year period to be
able to repay the bond in full when it comes due.
Using the sinking fund factor formula, we can calculate the amount (A) that needs to be deposited into
the sinking fund each year:
A = F * i / [(1+i)^n -1]
A = $10,000 * 0.04 / [(1+0.04)^5 - 1]
A = $2,309.06
So, to accumulate enough money to repay the bond in full, you would need to deposit $2,309.06 into the
sinking fund each year for the next 5 years. At the end of the 5-year period, you would have accumulated
a total of $11,545.30 ($2,309.06 * 5) in the sinking fund, which you could then use to repay the bond in
full.

Capital Recovery Factor

The capital recovery factor (CRF) is a financial formula used to calculate the equal periodic payments
needed to recover the initial investment over a certain period of time, assuming a fixed interest rate.
The formula for the capital recovery factor is:
A = P i(1+i) ^n/ (1+ i)^n -1
where:
• A = period payment amount
• P= present worth of money
The capital recovery factor is used to calculate the periodic payment needed to recover the initial
investment over a certain period of time, assuming that the payment is made at the end of each period,
and that the interest rate is compounded at the end of each period.
Example:
Let's say you're the safety officer of a construction site, and you're tasked with calculating the required
safety equipment budget for the upcoming project. You need to determine the monthly payment needed
to purchase a set of safety equipment that will last for 2 years.
Assuming the total cost of the safety equipment is $100,000, and you've decided to use a capital
recovery factor of 0.06 (based on the expected interest rate and payment period), you can use the
formula to calculate the monthly payment required:
A = P i(1+i) ^n/ (1+ i)^n -1
A = 100,000 * 0.06(1+0.06)^24 / ((1+0.06)^24 - 1)
A = $5,567.56 (rounded to the nearest cent)
So your monthly payment will need to be $5,567.56 in order to purchase the required safety equipment
and pay off the cost over the course of 2 years.
By using the capital recovery factor formula, you can ensure that the cost of the safety equipment is
spread out over time and is financially manageable for the construction company. This will help ensure
that the necessary safety equipment is available on the job site to prevent accidents and protect the
workers.
Series Present Worth Factor
The series present worth factor (SPWF) is a financial formula used to calculate the present value of a
series of equal periodic payments that occur at the end of each period, assuming a fixed interest rate.
The formula for the series present worth factor is:
P= A (1+ i)^n -1 / i(1+I )^n
where:

The series present worth factor is used to determine the present value of a series of equal periodic
payments, such as loan repayments, lease payments, or annuities. By calculating the present value of
the series of payments, you can determine the lump sum amount that would be required to replace the
series of payments, assuming a certain interest rate.
Example:
Suppose you're considering investing in a project that requires you to make regular payments over a
period of 5 years. The interest rate for this investment is 8% per year. You want to know the present
value of these payments, i.e., how much you would need to invest today to have enough money to make
these payments.
Using the present worth factor formula, we have:
P = A(1+i)^n - 1 / i(1+i)^n
where:
A = the amount of each payment
i = the interest rate per payment period (in this case, per year)
n = the total number of payment periods
Let's say each payment is $1000. Plugging in the values, we get:
P = $1000(1+0.08)^5 - 1 / 0.08(1+0.08)^5
P = $1000(1.469) - 1 / 0.08(1.469)
P = $1000(1.469) - 1 / 0.120
P = $6135.60
So you would need to invest $6135.60 today to have enough money to make the five $1000 payments
over the next five years, assuming an 8% annual interest rate.
Statistics for interpreting data (e.g., mean, median, mode, confidence intervals, probabilities, and pareto
analysis)
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that deals with summarizing, organizing, and presenting a
set of data in a meaningful way. The goal of descriptive statistics is to provide a concise and accurate
representation of the main features of the data, such as the central tendency, dispersion, and shape of
the distribution. Descriptive statistics methods include measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode), measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard deviation), and graphical techniques
(histograms, box plots, scatter plots). These methods help to identify patterns and trends in the data and
provide a better understanding of the underlying structure of the data.
Mean
The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency and is defined as the sum of all the
values in a dataset, divided by the number of values. In mathematical terms, the mean of a dataset, X, is
represented as:
μ = (X1 + X2 + ... + Xn) / n
where n is the number of values in the dataset and X1, X2, ..., Xn are the individual values in the
dataset.
For example, consider the following dataset of exam scores for 5 students: [90, 85, 95, 80, 100]. The
mean of this dataset can be calculated as:
μ = (90 + 85 + 95 + 80 + 100) / 5 = 90
So, the mean score for the 5 students is 90.
Mode
Mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set. It is a measure of central tendency in
descriptive statistics.
For example, consider a data set of the test scores of 5 students: [95, 88, 86, 88, 90]. The mode of this
data set is 88, as it appears twice in the set, the highest frequency. If there are multiple values with the
highest frequency, the data set is considered to have multiple modes.
Median
Median is the middle value in a data set, when the data is arranged in order. It is also a measure of
central tendency in descriptive statistics.
For example, consider a data set of the test scores of 7 students: [95, 88, 86, 92, 90, 91, 89]. When the
data is arranged in order, the median is 90, as it is the fourth value in the ordered set. If the data set has
an odd number of values, the median is the middle value. If the data set has an even number of values,
the median is the average of the two middle values.
Mean, mode, and median are all measures of central tendency.
Variance
Variance is a measure of how spread out a set of data is from its mean (average). It is calculated by
taking the squared differences between each data point and the mean, adding them up, and dividing by
the total number of data points minus one. This formula is used when using data for entire population.
The equation for variance is:
Var = Σ (xi - μ)² / (n - 1)
where:
• Σ (xi - μ)² means the sum of the squared differences between each score (xi) and the mean (μ)
• n is the number of scores in the sample
Example:
Suppose we have a sample of 10 test scores: 80, 85, 90, 75, 95, 85, 80, 85, 90, and 85. We want to
calculate the variance of this sample.
Find the mean of the sample:
Mean = (80 + 85 + 90 + 75 + 95 + 85 + 80 + 85 + 90 + 85) / 10 = 85
Subtract the mean from each data point and square the result:

(80 - 85)² = 25
(85 - 85)² = 0
(90 - 85)² = 25
(75 - 85)² = 100
(95 - 85)² = 100
(85 - 85)² = 0
(80 - 85)² = 25
(85 - 85)² = 0
(90 - 85)² = 25
(85 - 85)² = 0
Sum up the squared deviations:
25 + 0 + 25 + 100 + 100 + 0 + 25 + 0 + 25 + 0 = 300
Divide the sum by n-1, where n is the sample size:
Variance = 300 / (10 - 1) = 33.33 (rounded to two decimal places)
Therefore, the variance of this sample is 33.33.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is another measure of the spread or variability of a set of data. It is simply the
square root of the variance. This formula is used when taking data from a sample of the population. The
formula for standard deviation is:
SD = sqrt(Σ (xi - μ)² / (n - 1))
where:
• Σ (xi - μ)² means the sum of the squared differences between each score (xi) and the mean (μ)
• n is the number of scores in the sample
Example:
Let's say we have the following set of scores: 10, 12, 14, 16, 18.
To calculate the standard deviation of this sample, we need to follow these steps:
1. Calculate the mean (μ):
μ = (10 + 12 + 14 + 16 + 18) / 5 = 14
2. Calculate the sum of the squared differences between each score and the mean:
Σ (xi - μ)² = (10 - 14)² + (12 - 14)² + (14 - 14)² + (16 - 14)² + (18 - 14)² = 16 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 16 = 40
3. Divide the sum by (n-1) and take the square root:
SD = sqrt(Σ (xi - μ)² / (n - 1)) = sqrt(40 / 4) = sqrt(10) ≈ 3.16

Therefore, the standard deviation of this sample is approximately 3.16.

Normal Distribution
Normal distribution is a type of probability distribution that is often used in statistics to describe a wide
range of phenomena in the natural world. It is also known as Gaussian distribution or the bell curve due
to its characteristic bell-shaped curve.
The normal distribution is symmetric around the mean, which is the center of the curve. The mean
represents the average value of the data being studied. The standard deviation determines the spread of
the curve. A small standard deviation means the data is tightly clustered around the mean, while a large
standard deviation means the data is more spread out.
Many natural phenomena, such as heights, weights, IQ scores, and errors in measurements, tend to
follow a normal distribution. The normal distribution is also used in hypothesis testing and in statistical
inference, where it is assumed that the data being studied follows a normal distribution.
The normal distribution has several important properties, such as the empirical rule, which states that
about 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean, about 95% falls within two
standard deviations, and about 99.7% falls within three standard deviations. This rule is useful for
making predictions and understanding the distribution of data.
One example of using the normal distribution in safety is in the analysis of workplace injuries. Suppose a
company wants to analyze the distribution of injuries that occur in its workplace to develop safety
protocols and minimize risk to its employees.
The company can collect data on the number of injuries that occurred over a certain period of time, such
as a year. They can then calculate the mean and standard deviation of the injuries using the normal
distribution.
For example, suppose the company collects data and finds that the average number of injuries per
month is 10, and the standard deviation is 2. Using this information, they can construct a normal
distribution curve that describes the distribution of injuries over time.
Based on this curve, the company can estimate the probability of a certain number of injuries occurring
in a given month. For example, they can estimate the probability of having 12 injuries in a month or the
probability of having fewer than 8 injuries in a month. This information can be used to identify high-risk
periods and develop safety protocols to minimize the risk of injuries during those periods.
Additionally, the company can use the empirical rule of the normal distribution to estimate the
percentage of injuries that fall within one, two, or three standard deviations from the mean. This
information can be used to develop safety protocols that target the most common types of injuries and
minimize their occurrence.
Overall, using the normal distribution in safety analysis can help companies identify high-risk periods,
develop safety protocols, and minimize the risk of injuries to their employees.
Calculating Correlation Coefficient
The Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure that represents the strength of the relationship
between two variables. The correlation coefficient can range from -1 to 1, where:
• A value of -1 represents a perfect negative correlation, meaning as one variable increases, the
other decreases.
• A value of 0 represents no correlation between the variables.
• A value of 1 represents a perfect positive correlation, meaning as one variable increases, the
other also increases.
The formula for calculating correlation coefficient is:
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient formula is as follows:
Where,
• r = Pearson Coefficient
• n= number of pairs of the stock
• ∑xy = sum of products of the paired stocks
• ∑x = sum of the x scores
• ∑y= sum of the y scores
• ∑x2 = sum of the squared x scores
• ∑y2 = sum of the squared y scores
Example:
let's say we have the following data for two stocks, stock A and stock B:
Stock A: 10, 12, 15, 18, 20 Stock B: 8, 10, 12, 14, 16
To calculate the correlation coefficient using the Pearson formula, we can use the following steps:
1. Calculate the sum of the x scores (∑x) and the sum of the y scores (∑y):
∑x = 10 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 20 = 75 ∑y = 8 + 10 + 12 + 14 + 16 = 60
2. Calculate the sum of the squared x scores (∑x2) and the sum of the squared y scores (∑y2):
∑x2 = 10^2 + 12^2 + 15^2 + 18^2 + 20^2 = 1349 ∑y2 = 8^2 + 10^2 + 12^2 + 14^2 + 16^2 = 750
3. Calculate the sum of the products of the paired stocks (∑xy):
∑xy = (108) + (1210) + (1512) + (1814) + (20*16) = 1908
4. Calculate the correlation coefficient (r):
r = [ n(∑xy) - (∑x)(∑y) ] / [ sqrt(n(∑x^2) - (∑x)^2) * sqrt(n(∑y^2) - (∑y)^2) ]
r = [ 5(1908) - (75)(60) ] / [ sqrt(5(1349) - (75)^2) * sqrt(5(750) - (60)^2) ]
r = 0.994
Therefore, the correlation coefficient between stock A and stock B is 0.994, indicating a very strong
positive correlation between the two stocks.

Spearman Rank Coefficient of Correlation

The Spearman rank coefficient of correlation, also known as Spearman's rho, is a measure of the
statistical association between two variables that is based on the ranks of the data rather than the actual
values. It is used when the variables being analyzed are not normally distributed.
It is denoted by the symbol "rs" and ranges from -1 to 1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative
correlation, 0 indicates no correlation, and 1 indicates a perfect positive correlation.
Let's say we have the following set of 6 observations and their corresponding ranks:
Observation Rank
10 2
15 4
20 6
5 1
25 5
30 3
To calculate the Spearman rank correlation coefficient, we first need to calculate the differences between
the ranks of each observation, or di. We can do this by subtracting the rank of the first observation from
the rank of the second observation, the rank of the third observation from the fourth observation, and so
on. The resulting differences are:
d1 = 2 - 1 = 1 d2 = 4 - 3 = 1 d3 = 6 - 5 = 1 d4 = 1 - 2 = -1 d5 = 5 - 4 = 1 d6 = 3 - 6 = -3
Next, we need to square each of these differences:
d1^2 = 1^2 = 1 d2^2 = 1^2 = 1 d3^2 = 1^2 = 1 d4^2 = (-1)^2 = 1 d5^2 = 1^2 = 1 d6^2 = (-3)^2 = 9
We can then sum up these squared differences:
Σd^2 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 9 = 14
We also know that n, the number of observations, is 6. We can plug these values into the formula for the
Spearman rank correlation coefficient:

p = 1 - (6Σd^2) / (n(n^2 - 1)) p = 1 - (6*14) / (6(6^2 - 1)) p = 1 - 84 / 330 p = 0.745

Therefore, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient for this set of observations is 0.745. This indicates a
strong positive correlation between the observations and their ranks.
Calculating the t Test for Comparing Means
The t-test is a statistical test used to determine whether the means of two groups are significantly
different from each other. It is used when the data being compared are normally distributed and have
equal variances. Here are the steps for calculating the t-test:
Example:
Suppose a researcher wants to test whether a new drug reduces blood pressure in patients. The
researcher selects a random sample of 30 patients and measures their blood pressure before and after
taking the drug. The mean blood pressure before taking the drug is 140 mmHg, with a standard deviation
of 10 mmHg. The mean blood pressure after taking the drug is 130 mmHg, with a standard deviation of 8
mmHg. The researcher hypothesizes that the drug reduces blood pressure by an average of 10 mmHg.
To test this hypothesis, the researcher can use a one-sample t-test with the following formula:
t = (x - u) / s
where:
• x is the sample mean blood pressure after taking the drug
• u is the hypothesized population mean reduction in blood pressure of 10 mmHg
• s is the sample standard deviation of blood pressure after taking the drug
Using the given data, we can calculate the t-value as follows:
t = (130 - 140) / 8 t = -1.25
The calculated t-value is -1.25. To determine whether this value is statistically significant, the researcher
can compare it to a critical t-value from a t-distribution table with 29 degrees of freedom (N-1), assuming
a chosen significance level of 0.05. For a one-tailed test with a negative direction (since we hypothesized
that the drug reduces blood pressure), the critical t-value is approximately -1.699.
Since the calculated t-value of -1.25 is greater than the critical t-value of -1.699, but in the opposite
direction (negative vs. positive), we cannot reject the null hypothesis that the drug does not reduce blood
pressure by an average of 10 mmHg. In other words, there is not sufficient evidence to support the
hypothesis that the drug has a significant effect on blood pressure.
Chi-Square (χ2) Statistic
The chi-square (χ2) statistic is a statistical test used to determine whether there is a significant
association between two categorical variables. It is used to test the null hypothesis that there is no
relationship between the two variables against the alternative hypothesis that there is a relationship.

The test involves comparing the observed frequencies of the categories with the expected frequencies if
there were no relationship between the two variables. The test statistic is calculated as the sum of the
squared differences between the observed and expected frequencies, divided by the expected
frequencies.
The chi-square test is commonly used in social science research, marketing research, and public health
research to investigate the relationship between two categorical variables, such as gender and
occupation, or smoking status and disease risk.
The test can be performed using a chi-square distribution table or a statistical software program, and the
level of significance is typically set at 0.05. If the calculated chi-square value is greater than the critical
value from the table, then the null hypothesis is rejected, and it is concluded that there is a significant
association between the two variables. If the calculated value is less than the critical value, then the null
hypothesis is not rejected, and it is concluded that there is no significant association between the two
variables.
Example:
Suppose we want to test whether there is a significant difference between the observed and expected
frequencies of different colors of candies in a bag of 100 candies.
We expect the following frequencies based on the manufacturer's information:
• Red: 20
• Green: 30
• Blue: 25
• Yellow: 25
After counting the candies, we observe the following frequencies:
• Red: 15
• Green: 35
• Blue: 20
• Yellow: 30
To calculate the chi-square statistic, we use the formula:
χ2 = Σ (oj - ej)2 / ej
where
• oj = the observed frequency of each color

• ej = the expected frequency of each color
Substituting the values, we get:
χ2 = [(15-20)2/20] + [(35-30)2/30] + [(20-25)2/25] + [(30-25)2/25] = 1.25 + 0.83 + 1 + 0.2 = 3.28
The degrees of freedom for a chi-square test of independence are (number of rows - 1) * (number of
columns - 1). In this case, there are 4 colors, so the degrees of freedom are (4-1)*(1-1) = 3.
We can then use a chi-square distribution table (or software) to find the critical value for a given level of
significance and degrees of freedom. If the calculated chi-square statistic is larger than the critical value,
we reject the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a significant difference between the observed and expected
frequencies).
Degrees of Freedom
In statistics, degrees of freedom (df) refer to the number of values in a calculation that are free to vary. It
is a mathematical concept that is used to determine the number of independent pieces of information
available for calculating a statistical parameter, such as a mean, variance, or regression coefficient.
In general, degrees of freedom are calculated as the difference between the total number of
observations and the number of parameters estimated in a statistical analysis. For example, if you have
a sample of n observations and you want to estimate the sample mean, you need to use one parameter
(the mean) to describe the data. Therefore, the degrees of freedom for the mean would be n-1.
Degrees of freedom play an important role in statistical hypothesis testing, as they determine the
distribution of test statistics, such as the t-test or F-test. For example, in a t-test, the degrees of freedom
for the test statistic are calculated as the total sample size minus the number of parameters estimated in
the calculation of the sample variance.
In summary, degrees of freedom refer to the number of independent pieces of information available for
estimating a statistical parameter, and they are an important concept in statistical analysis and
hypothesis testing.
p Values
In statistics, the p-value is a measure of the strength of evidence against the null hypothesis. The null
hypothesis is a statement about a population parameter that is being tested, and the alternative
hypothesis is the complement of the null hypothesis.
The p-value represents the probability of obtaining a test statistic as extreme or more extreme than the
one observed, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. If the p-value is very small (usually less than
0.05), it is considered strong evidence against the null hypothesis, and it suggests that the alternative
hypothesis is more likely to be true.
For example, let's say we are testing the null hypothesis that the mean weight of a certain species of bird
is 50 grams. We take a random sample of birds, calculate the sample mean weight, and obtain a test
statistic. If the p-value associated with that test statistic is 0.01, we would conclude that the evidence
against the null hypothesis is strong, and we would reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative
hypothesis that the mean weight is different from 50 grams.
It's important to note that a significant p-value does not necessarily mean that the alternative hypothesis
is true, but rather that there is strong evidence against the null hypothesis. Additionally, a non-significant

p-value (usually greater than 0.05) does not necessarily mean that the null hypothesis is true, but rather
that there is not enough evidence to reject it.
Example:
a pharmaceutical company wants to test whether their new drug is effective in treating a certain
condition. The null hypothesis is that the drug has no effect, while the alternative hypothesis is that the
drug is effective.
They conduct a clinical trial and randomly assign participants to either receive the drug or a placebo.
After a certain period of time, they measure the outcome variable (e.g., improvement in symptoms) and
calculate the difference in means between the drug group and the placebo group.
Assuming a significance level of 0.05, they perform a two-sample t-test to compare the means and
obtain a p-value of 0.02. This means that there is a 2% chance of obtaining a difference in means as
extreme or more extreme than the one observed if the drug has no effect. Since the p-value is less than
0.05, they reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the drug is effective in treating the condition.
Permutations with Repetition
Permutations refer to the number of ways that a set of objects can be arranged in a particular order. In
other words, it is the number of ways that the objects can be ordered such that the order matters.
The formula for finding the number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is:
Example:
Suppose we have a set of 5 letters: A, B, C, D, E. We want to find the total number of permutations of
length 4 that can be formed using these letters, with repetition allowed.
Using the formula n^r = n x n x n x ... x n, where n = 5 and r = 4, we get:
n^r = 5^4 = 625
Therefore, there are 625 possible permutations of length 4 that can be formed using the letters A, B, C,
D, E, with repetition allowed.
Permutations without Repetition
Permutations without repetition are arrangements of a set of distinct objects where the order of the
objects matters, and no object can be repeated. In other words, each object can only be used once in a
permutation.
The formula for finding the number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time without repetition is:

Example:
Suppose we have a set of 7 books, and we want to find the number of ways we can arrange 4 of these
books on a shelf, with no repetitions (i.e., each book can only appear once in any given arrangement).
Using the formula Pk^n = n! / (n - k)!, where n = 7 and k = 4, we get:
Pk^n = 7! / (7 - 4)! = 7! / 3! = 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 = 840
Therefore, there are 840 possible permutations of 4 books that can be arranged on the shelf, with no
repetitions.
Combinations
Combinations refer to the number of ways that a set of objects can be selected from a larger set, where
the order of the objects does not matter. In other words, it is the number of ways that a subset of objects
can be chosen without regard to the order in which they are selected.
The formula for finding the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is:
Example:
Suppose we have a group of 10 people, and we want to choose a committee of 4 people from this group.
Using the formula Ck^n = n! / (k! (n - k)!), where n = 10 and k = 4, we get:
Ck^n = 10! / (4! (10 - 4)!) = 10! / (4! 6!) = (10 x 9 x 8 x 7) / (4 x 3 x 2 x 1) = 210
Therefore, there are 210 possible combinations of 4 people that can be chosen from the group of 10.

Z-Score
Z-score, also known as standard score, is a statistical measure that indicates how many standard
deviations an observation or data point is away from the mean of a distribution. The Z-score is a way to
standardize data so that it can be compared across different populations, variables, or time periods.
The formula for calculating the Z-score of a data point x in a population with mean μ and standard
deviation σ is:
Z = (X^2 - μ) / σ
Where X^2= chi square value
Example:
Suppose a class of 80 students took a physics test. The mean score on the test was 70 and the standard
deviation was 8. If a student scored 85 on the test, how many students scored higher than that student?
To answer this question, we can first calculate the z-score of the student who scored 85:
z = (85 - 70) / 8 = 1.875
We can then use a table of the normal distribution to find the proportion of scores that fall above a z-
score of 1.875. For example, we can use the table in the link below:
https://www.math.arizona.edu/~rsims/ma464/standardnormaltable.pdf
Looking up the value of 1.8 in the left column and 0.07 in the top row, we find that the proportion of
scores above a z-score of 1.875 is 0.0301, or approximately 3.01%.
Therefore, approximately 3.01% of students scored higher than the student who scored 85 on the
physics test.
To find the number of students who scored higher than this student, we can multiply the proportion of
students scoring higher by the total number of students:
number of students scoring higher = proportion of students scoring higher * total number of students
number of students scoring higher = 0.0301 * 80 number of students scoring higher = 2.408
Therefore, approximately 2 or 3 students scored higher than the student who scored 85 on the physics
test.
Coefficient of Determination
The coefficient of determination, often denoted by the symbol R^2, is a statistical measure that indicates
the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that is explained by the independent variable(s)
in a regression model.
In other words, R^2 is a measure of how well the independent variable(s) explain the variation in the
dependent variable. It ranges from 0 to 1, with a value of 0 indicating that none of the variation in the
dependent variable is explained by the independent variable(s), and a value of 1 indicating that all of the
variation in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable(s).
The formula for calculating R^2 is:
R^2 = explained variation/ total variation

Example:
Suppose you are analyzing the relationship between a person's age and their income. You collect data
from a sample of 100 individuals and perform a linear regression analysis, obtaining the following results:
Total Variation = 2000 Explained Variation = 1400
To calculate the R-squared value, you simply divide the explained variation by the total variation:
R-squared = Explained Variation / Total Variation = 1400 / 2000 = 0.7
This means that 70% of the variation in income can be explained by age, as modeled by the linear
regression. The remaining 30% of the variation in income is unexplained and may be due to other factors
not included in the model.
To calculate the r value (correlation value):
r= square root (0.7) = 0.83666.
The r value is close to 1 which indicates strong linear relationship. Value close to 0 indicates a weak
relationship.
Coefficient of Correlation
The coefficient of correlation, denoted by the symbol r, is a statistical measure that indicates the strength
and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to 1, with a value of -1
indicating a perfect negative linear relationship, a value of 0 indicating no linear relationship, and a value
of 1 indicating a perfect positive linear relationship.
The coefficient of correlation measures the degree to which the values of one variable are associated
with the values of the other variable. A positive value of r indicates a positive association, meaning that
as the values of one variable increase, the values of the other variable also tend to increase. A negative
value of r indicates a negative association, meaning that as the values of one variable increase, the
values of the other variable tend to decrease. The magnitude of r indicates the strength of the
association, with larger values indicating a stronger association.
It is important to note that the coefficient of correlation only measures the strength and direction of the
linear relationship between two variables. It does not indicate causation or imply that one variable
causes the other variable to change.
The coefficient of correlation is often used in regression analysis to assess the goodness of fit of the
model and to identify outliers or influential observations that may affect the results of the analysis. It is
also used in correlation analysis to examine the relationship between two variables without fitting a
model.
See example above for calculation example.
Component Reliability
In the field of engineering, component reliability refers to the likelihood that a component will perform its
intended function for a specified period of time under given operating conditions. The component
reliability formula can be expressed as:
R(t) = e^(-λt)
where R(t) is the reliability of a component at time t, λ is the failure rate of the component, and e is the
base of the natural logarithm (approximately equal to 2.71828).
This formula indicates that the probability of a component operating successfully without failure for a time
period t is proportional to e raised to the power of the product of the failure rate λ and the time t.
Example:
Suppose we have a safety-critical system, such as an elevator in a high-rise building. The reliability of
various components of the elevator system, such as the motor, brakes, and control system, is critical to
ensure the safety of passengers using the elevator.
Let's say we want to calculate the probability that the elevator motor will operate without failure for
10,000 hours of use. Suppose the motor has a failure rate of 0.001 per hour, which means that on
average, 0.001 motors fail per hour of operation. Using the reliability formula, we get:
R(10,000) = e^(-0.001 x 10,000) ≈ 0.3679
This means that there is a 36.79% chance that the motor will operate without failure for 10,000 hours of
use.
To ensure the safety of the elevator system, engineers would likely set a higher reliability requirement for
the motor, such as a probability of failure of less than 1% over its expected lifespan. This would require
the motor to have a lower failure rate or a higher redundancy, which would increase its reliability and
reduce the likelihood of failure.
By analyzing the reliability of various components in safety-critical systems, engineers can identify
potential failure modes and design solutions to mitigate them, ensuring the safety and reliability of the
system for its intended use.
Probability of Failure (Component)
The formula for calculating the probability of failure of a component is:
Pf = 1 - Rt
where:
• Pf is the probability of failure of the component during the given time period
• Rt is the reliability of that period
The formula is derived from the exponential distribution, which is commonly used to model the time
between failures of components that experience random failures.
For example, if a component has a failure rate of 0.001 failures per hour and we want to calculate the
probability of failure over a period of 1,000 hours, we can use the formula as follows:
P = 1 - e^(-0.001 x 1000) = 1 - e^(-1) ≈ 0.6321 or 63.21%
This means that there is a 63.21% chance that the component will fail at least once during the 1,000-
hour period.
The probability of failure of a component is an important factor in evaluating the reliability and safety of a
system. Engineers can use this formula to estimate the probability of failure of individual components
and the system as a whole, and to design solutions to mitigate potential failure modes and improve the
overall reliability and safety of the system.

System Reliability
System reliability is a measure of the probability that a system will operate without failure over a given
period of time. It is the likelihood that the system will perform its intended function under specified
conditions, without any adverse impact on performance or safety.
System reliability is typically expressed as a probability, and can be calculated by considering the
reliability of each component of the system and how they interact with each other. The reliability of a
system is dependent on the reliability of its components, the system design, and the operating
conditions.
Series Reliability
Series reliability refers to a type of reliability in which a system is composed of several components or
elements, and the system will only work if all the components are working properly. In other words, the
failure of any single component will cause the entire system to fail.
An example of series reliability can be found in a simple light bulb circuit. Imagine a circuit with two light
bulbs connected in series. The electricity flows through one light bulb and then through the other before
returning to the power source. If one of the bulbs burns out, the entire circuit will be broken, and both
bulbs will stop working.
Another example could be a car engine. A car engine has many components, such as pistons,
crankshaft, camshaft, valves, and timing belt, among others. If any of these components fails, the engine
will stop working. Therefore, the car engine can be seen as a series system of components, where the
failure of any one component will cause the entire system to fail.
here's an example calculation for series reliability:
Suppose you have a system with three components (A, B, and C), and the probability of each
component working correctly is as follows:
• Component A has a reliability of 0.95
• Component B has a reliability of 0.90
• Component C has a reliability of 0.85
To calculate the reliability of the entire system, we can use the formula for series reliability, which is:
R_series = R1 x R2 x R3 x ... x Rn
where R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn are the reliability values of each component.
So, in our example, the reliability of the entire system can be calculated as follows:
R_series = 0.95 x 0.90 x 0.85
R_series = 0.72225
Therefore, the reliability of the entire system is approximately 0.72225 or 72.225%.
This means that there is a 72.225% chance that the entire system will work correctly, assuming that
each component operates independently of the others. However, if any one of the components fails, the
entire system will fail.

Parallel Reliability
Parallel reliability is a type of reliability in which a system is composed of multiple components or
elements that are connected in parallel, and the system will continue to function as long as at least one
of the components is working properly. In other words, the failure of one component will not cause the
entire system to fail.
An example of parallel reliability can be found in a power grid. A power grid consists of multiple power
generators, each of which is connected in parallel to the grid. If one generator fails, the other generators
can continue to provide power to the grid, and the overall power supply will not be affected.
Another example could be a redundant server system. In a redundant server system, multiple servers
are connected in parallel to a network, and if one server fails, the other servers can continue to provide
service to the network.
In parallel reliability, the overall reliability of the system is determined by the reliability of each component
and the number of components that are connected in parallel. As the number of components connected
in parallel increases, the overall reliability of the system also increases.
here's an example calculation for parallel reliability:
Suppose you have a system with three components (A, B, and C), and the probability of each
component working correctly is as follows:
• Component A has a reliability of 0.95
• Component B has a reliability of 0.90
• Component C has a reliability of 0.85
To calculate the reliability of the entire system, we can use the formula for parallel reliability, which is:
R_parallel = 1 - (1 - R1) x (1 - R2) x (1 - R3) x ... x (1 - Rn)
where R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn are the reliability values of each component.
So, in our example, the reliability of the entire system can be calculated as follows:
R_parallel = 1 - (1 - 0.95) x (1 - 0.90) x (1 - 0.85)
R_parallel = 1 - (0.05 x 0.10 x 0.15)
R_parallel = 0.997625
Therefore, the reliability of the entire system is approximately 0.997625 or 99.7625%.
This means that there is a 99.7625% chance that the entire system will work correctly, assuming that
each component operates independently of the others. Even if one of the components fails, the other
components can continue to provide service to the system, and the overall system will still work with a
high level of reliability.
Probability of Failure (System)
The probability of failure of a system (Pf) is the probability that the system will fail to perform its intended
function. This can be calculated based on the probability of success of the system (Ps), which is the
probability that the system will perform its intended function.
The relationship between Pf and Ps can be expressed as:

Pf = (1 - Ps)
In other words, the probability of failure is equal to 1 minus the probability of success. This formula is
based on the fact that the two probabilities are complementary events, meaning that they represent all
possible outcomes of the system performing its intended function.
For example, if the probability of success for a system is 0.8 (or 80%), then the probability of failure
would be:
Pf = (1 - Ps)
Pf = (1 - 0.8)
Pf = 0.2
So, the probability of failure for the system would be 0.2 or 20%.
Note that this formula assumes that the system can either succeed or fail, and that there are no other
possible outcomes. In reality, there may be other factors that affect the performance of the system, such
as external conditions or human error, that are not accounted for in this formula.
Core research methodology
Research methodology refers to the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of
study. It outlines the techniques and principles used by researchers to conduct their research and
describes the strategies and processes they use to gather, analyze, and interpret data. Research
methodology is an important aspect of the scientific method and is used to ensure that research is
rigorous, reliable, and valid. Examples of research methodologies include quantitative research,
qualitative research, mixed-methods research, and action research.
In the context of safety, core research methodology focuses on gathering and analyzing data to better
understand various aspects of safety in order to make informed decisions and develop practical
solutions. The research methodologies used in safety research can range from qualitative methods such
as surveys, interviews and case studies, to quantitative methods like statistical analysis, experiments
and mathematical modeling. A combination of these methods is often used in order to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand. It is important for researchers to choose the most
appropriate method(s) based on the nature of the problem being studied, the available resources and the
desired outcomes.
What is research methodology?
Research methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It
constitutes the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of
knowledge. Research methodology can be broken down into a number of steps, including:
1. Define the research question: The first step in research methodology is to clearly define the
research question. This step involves specifying the research question in a concise and precise
manner.
2. Literature Review: The second step involves conducting a literature review. This involves
searching for and reviewing relevant research articles, books, and other sources of information in
order to gain a better understanding of the research topic.
3. Design the study: The third step involves designing the study. This involves developing a plan for
how the research will be conducted, including the selection of the participants, the data collection
methods, and the data analysis procedures.
4. Data Collection: The fourth step involves collecting the data. This can involve a variety of
methods, including surveys, experiments, observations, and interviews.
5. Data Analysis: The fifth step involves analyzing the data. This may involve statistical analysis,
content analysis, or other methods, depending on the research question and the data collected.
6. Results and Interpretation: The sixth step involves presenting the results of the research and
interpreting the findings. This may involve summarizing the results, drawing conclusions, and
making recommendations based on the findings.
7. Conclusion and Future Research: The final step involves drawing a conclusion about the
research and suggesting directions for future research. This may involve synthesizing the
findings, discussing limitations, and suggesting avenues for future research.
What are qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method methodologies?
Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method methodologies are different approaches to conducting
research.
Quantitative research is focused on collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical methods.
The goal is to identify relationships, patterns, and trends. Surveys and experiments are common
examples of quantitative research methods.
Qualitative research is focused on understanding the experiences and perspectives of individuals. It is
usually done through observation, interviews, and focus groups. The goal is to gain insights into people's
attitudes, beliefs, and motivations.
Mixed-method methodology combines both qualitative and quantitative methods to gain a more complete
understanding of a research problem. This approach can help to triangulate findings and ensure that
research results are more robust.
Each methodology has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of which to use will depend on
the research question being asked, the type of data required, and the context of the research.
What are the main sampling design approaches?
The main sampling design approaches are:
1. Simple Random Sampling: A simple random sample is a subset of the population selected in
such a way that each possible sample of a given size has an equal probability of being selected.
2. Stratified Random Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into subgroups (strata)
based on certain characteristics, and a random sample is then selected from each stratum.
3. Cluster Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into groups (clusters) and a random
sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members of the selected clusters are included in the
sample.
4. Systematic Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into equal intervals and one
member is randomly selected from each interval to form the sample.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling: This method combines different sampling techniques, such as simple
random sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling, to select a sample from a
population.

6. Convenience Sampling: In this method, the researcher simply selects the most convenient or
accessible members of the population to form the sample. This method is often used in
exploratory research or when the population is difficult to define.
What are the main data collection methods?
The main data collection methods in research are:
1. Surveys/questionnaires: This method involves collecting data through self-administered or
interviewer-administered questionnaires.
2. Observations: This method involves observing and recording behavior, attitudes, and other
variables of interest in a natural setting.
3. Interviews: This method involves collecting data through face-to-face or phone conversations with
participants.
4. Focus groups: This method involves bringing together a group of individuals to discuss a
particular topic in a structured setting.
5. Case studies: This method involves a thorough examination of a single individual, group, or event
to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular issue.
6. Experiments: This method involves manipulating an independent variable and observing its effect
on a dependent variable in a controlled setting.
7. Archival data: This method involves collecting and analyzing existing data, such as government
records, historical documents, or previous studies.
8. Content analysis: This method involves analyzing written or visual material to identify patterns,
themes, and trends.
These are some of the most commonly used data collection methods, and the choice of method
depends on the research question, data type, and the resources available.
What are the main data analysis methods?
The main data analysis methods are:
1. Descriptive Statistics: This method summarizes and describes the features of the data. It includes
measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), measures of variability (range, variance,
standard deviation), and graphical representation (histograms, box plots, scatter plots).
2. Inferential Statistics: This method makes inferences about the population from the sample data. It
includes hypothesis testing, regression analysis, correlation analysis, and t-tests.
3. Qualitative Data Analysis: This method is used to analyze non-numerical data, such as interview
transcripts, open-ended survey responses, or focus group discussions. It includes content
analysis, thematic analysis, discourse analysis, and grounded theory.
4. Quantitative Data Analysis: This method is used to analyze numerical data, such as survey
responses, demographic information, or performance scores. It includes statistical methods, such
as regression analysis, factor analysis, and logistic regression.
5. Mixed-Method Data Analysis: This method combines qualitative and quantitative data analysis
approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question. It includes
sequential, concurrent, and transformative mixed methods designs.
How do I choose a research methodology?

Choosing the right research methodology involves several steps:
1. Define the research question: The first step is to identify the problem or question you want to
answer through your research.
2. Review the existing literature: Study the existing research studies in your area to identify the most
appropriate methodology.
3. Determine your research design: Based on the research question, determine if you need a
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods design.
4. Identify the data sources: Determine what kind of data you need to collect to answer your
research question.
5. Choose the data collection methods: Based on the data sources, choose the data collection
methods that are most appropriate for your study.
6. Decide on the data analysis methods: Choose the data analysis methods that are most
appropriate for your study, based on the research question, data sources, and data collection
methods.
7. Evaluate the feasibility of the methodology: Consider the practical limitations and feasibility of
your chosen methodology.
8. Get approval: Get approval from relevant ethical and institutional committees before conducting
the research.
Ultimately, the choice of research methodology depends on the nature of the research question,
available resources, and the goals of the study.
Microbiology (e.g., nanotechnology, waterborne pathogens, and bloodborne pathogens)
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology refers to the science, engineering, and application of materials and devices on a
nanoscale, typically with dimensions of less than 100 nanometers. In the workplace, nanotechnology has
the potential to provide significant benefits, but it also introduces new safety concerns.
Some of the potential workplace hazards associated with nanotechnology include:
Exposure to nanoparticles: Workers who handle or work with nanoscale materials may be exposed to
nanoparticles through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact, leading to potential health effects such as
respiratory irritation, genotoxicity, and oxidative stress.
Fire and explosion hazards: Nanoscale materials have unique properties, including high surface area
and reactivity, that can increase the risk of fire and explosion.
Toxicity: Some nanoparticles have been shown to have toxic effects on living organisms, leading to
concerns about the safety of workers who handle them.
Environment contamination: Nanoparticles have the potential to spread and persist in the environment,
which could lead to unintended consequences for the environment and human health.
To minimize these risks, it is important for organizations to implement effective hazard identification, risk
assessment, and control strategies. This can include:

Proper PPE: Workers who handle or work with nanoparticles should wear appropriate personal
protective equipment, such as respirators and gloves, to minimize their exposure.
Good housekeeping practices: Keeping workspaces clean and free of nanoscale materials can help
minimize the spread of nanoparticles and reduce the risk of exposure.
Proper storage and handling: Nanoscale materials should be stored and handled in a manner that
minimizes the risk of fire, explosion, and exposure.
Employee training: Workers should be trained on the proper handling, storage, and disposal of
nanoscale materials, as well as the associated health and safety risks.
By taking these steps, organizations can help ensure that the benefits of nanotechnology can be realized
while minimizing the associated risks to workers and the environment.
Waterborne Pathogens
Waterborne pathogens are microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites that are present in
contaminated water and can cause illness when ingested or come into contact with skin. In the context of
workplace safety and OSHA, employers are responsible for providing safe working conditions for their
employees, including protecting them from potential exposure to waterborne pathogens.
OSHA has guidelines for employers to help prevent exposure to waterborne pathogens in the workplace.
For example, employers must provide workers with clean and safe drinking water and must ensure that
toilet facilities are readily available and maintained in a clean and sanitary condition. In addition,
employers must provide workers with appropriate personal protective equipment and training on how to
use it.
Employers must also consider the risk of exposure to waterborne pathogens when selecting work tasks
and locations and must have procedures in place to address potential exposure in emergency situations,
such as flooding or contaminated water supply.
Employers can also take steps to reduce the risk of exposure to waterborne pathogens by using proper
hygiene practices, such as hand washing, and by using disinfectants and sanitizers on surfaces and
equipment. Regular monitoring and testing of water sources for the presence of pathogens is also
recommended.
In summary, workplace safety and OSHA play an important role in protecting workers from exposure to
waterborne pathogens by providing guidelines, training, and resources to help employers create a safe
work environment.
Bloodborne Pathogens
Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms that are present in human blood and other bodily fluids and
can cause disease. They include, but are not limited to, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B
(HBV), and hepatitis C (HCV). In the workplace, bloodborne pathogens can pose a significant hazard to
employees who may come into contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials (OPIM) as a
result of performing their job duties.
OSHA has established standards under its Bloodborne Pathogens Standard (29 CFR 1910.1030) to
protect employees from exposure to bloodborne pathogens in the workplace. The standard requires
employers to implement measures to reduce the risk of exposure to bloodborne pathogens, including
providing training to employees, implementing engineering and work practice controls, providing
personal protective equipment (PPE), and having a written exposure control plan.

Engineering and work practice controls are used to eliminate or minimize employee exposure to
bloodborne pathogens. Examples include sharps containers, self-sheathing needles, and safer medical
devices. Employers must also provide employees with appropriate personal protective equipment, such
as gloves, gowns, and eye protection, and must ensure that employees have access to medical
evaluation and follow-up in the event of an exposure incident.
The standard also requires employers to maintain a written exposure control plan that outlines the steps
that the employer is taking to reduce the risk of exposure to bloodborne pathogens, including a list of all
job classifications in which employees may be at risk of exposure and a description of the protective
measures being taken for each job classification. Additionally, the standard requires employers to
maintain accurate records of employee exposure incidents and provide employees with access to these
records.
Employees who may be exposed to bloodborne pathogens must receive training on the nature of the
hazards, the methods used to control exposure, the use and limitations of PPE, and the signs and
symptoms of bloodborne pathogen diseases. The standard also requires employers to provide post-
exposure evaluation and follow-up to employees who have been exposed to blood or OPIM as a result of
performing their job duties.

Domain 2- Management Systems

Benchmarks and performance standards/metrics
Benchmarks, Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), performance standards, and metrics are all tools used
to measure and evaluate safety performance. These tools help organizations identify areas for
improvement, track progress, and ensure that safety standards are being met.
Here is a brief overview of each with examples:
1. Benchmarks: A benchmark is a standard or reference point used to measure performance. In
safety, benchmarks may be used to compare an organization's safety performance to that of its
peers or to industry standards. For example, the frequency rate of workplace injuries in a
manufacturing plant might be benchmarked against the average frequency rate in the industry.
2. KPIs: KPIs are specific, measurable, and time-bound indicators that organizations use to track
their performance. In safety, common KPIs include the number of workplace injuries and
illnesses, the number of safety incidents, and the rate of employee compliance with safety
policies and procedures. For example, an organization might set a KPI of reducing the frequency
rate of workplace injuries by 10% over the next year.
3. Performance standards: Performance standards are minimum levels of performance that
organizations aim to meet or exceed. In safety, performance standards may be set for various
aspects of safety, such as the use of personal protective equipment, the maintenance of safety
equipment, and the training of employees on safety procedures. For example, an organization
might set a performance standard that all employees must complete annual safety training.
4. Metrics: A metric is a numerical value used to measure performance. In safety, metrics are used
to quantify aspects of safety performance, such as the number of safety incidents or the rate of
employee compliance with safety policies and procedures. For example, an organization might
use metrics such as the total number of lost-time injuries or the percentage of employees who
have completed safety training.
It's important to note that different organizations may use different benchmarks, KPIs, performance
standards, and metrics, depending on their specific needs and goals. The most effective approach is to
use a combination of these tools to get a comprehensive picture of safety performance and identify
areas for improvement.
Problems with Injury Statistics
There are several major problems with injury and illness health statistics in general, which include:
1. Underreporting: Many injuries and illnesses go unreported, either because people do not seek
medical attention or because the healthcare providers do not record the data. This can lead to
underestimation of the true prevalence of these conditions.
2. Inconsistent data collection: There is a lack of consistency in the way data is collected, recorded
and reported across different regions, healthcare facilities, and countries. This can result in a lack
of comparability and reliability of the data.
3. Data quality issues: Data quality can be affected by a variety of factors, including inaccuracies in
the recording and reporting of information, lack of standardization of data collection methods, and
insufficient training for healthcare providers and data collectors.

4. Availability of data: In some countries, health statistics may not be readily available or accessible
to the public, which can hinder the ability of researchers, policymakers, and the public to use the
data for informed decision making.
5. Timeliness of data: Data may be outdated by the time it is published, which can limit its
usefulness in informing current policy and practice.
6. Bias in data collection: There may be bias in the collection and reporting of data, either intentional
or unintentional, which can affect the validity of the data.
Overall, these issues can make it challenging to accurately understand and respond to the burden of
injury and illness, and to develop effective policies and interventions to improve health outcomes.
Importance of Measuring Safety Performance
Measuring performance in safety is important for several reasons:
1. Improved safety outcomes: Measuring safety performance helps organizations identify areas for
improvement, and track progress towards reducing the incidence of injury and illness. This can
lead to improved safety outcomes for employees, customers, and other stakeholders.
2. Compliance with regulations: Many industries are subject to regulations and standards that
require the tracking and reporting of safety performance. Measuring performance helps
organizations ensure compliance with these regulations and standards.
3. Increased efficiency: By tracking safety performance, organizations can identify areas where they
may be able to improve processes or implement new technologies to enhance safety outcomes
while also reducing costs.
4. Enhanced reputation: Organizations with a strong safety record are often seen as more
trustworthy and reliable by employees, customers, and other stakeholders. Measuring safety
performance helps organizations maintain and enhance their reputation.
5. Improved decision making: By tracking and analyzing safety performance data, organizations can
make informed decisions about investments in safety and risk management programs.
6. Better risk management: Measuring safety performance helps organizations identify risks and
prioritize risk management activities, which can help reduce the likelihood of incidents and
accidents.
Overall, measuring performance in safety is crucial for ensuring the well-being of employees, customers,
and other stakeholders, as well as for meeting regulatory requirements and maintaining a strong
reputation.
Safety Performance Metrics to measure.
There are several key metrics that organizations can measure to assess their performance in safety,
including:
1. Injury and illness rates: This includes the number of lost-time injuries, restricted-duty injuries, and
illnesses per unit of exposure, such as the number of employees or the number of hours worked.
2. Near misses: These are incidents that have the potential to cause injury or harm, but do not
result in actual harm. Tracking near misses can help organizations identify areas for improvement
before a more serious incident occurs.

3. Employee involvement and training: Measuring employee involvement in safety programs and
their level of training can help organizations assess the effectiveness of their safety initiatives and
identify areas for improvement.
4. Compliance with regulations: This includes tracking the number of citations, fines, and penalties
received for safety violations.
5. Accident investigation and root cause analysis: Tracking the number and outcome of accident
investigations can help organizations identify patterns and trends in incidents, and implement
measures to prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future.
6. Total recordable incident rate (TRIR): This metric is used to track the overall performance of an
organization's safety program, and is calculated as the number of recordable injuries and
illnesses per million hours worked.
7. Days away, restricted, or transferred (DART) rate: This metric measures the number of injuries
and illnesses that result in employees taking time off from work, being restricted in their duties, or
being transferred to a different job.
Organizations may choose to focus on different metrics depending on their specific needs and goals, but
regularly tracking and analyzing these metrics can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of
their safety program.
Measuring the Health and Safety Management System
Measuring the health and safety management system involves assessing the performance and
effectiveness of an organization's health and safety program. This can help organizations identify areas
for improvement, track progress over time, and ensure compliance with regulations and standards.
There are several key metrics that organizations can use to measure the health and safety management
system, including:
1. Compliance with regulations: This includes tracking the number of citations, fines, and penalties
received for safety violations, as well as the percentage of inspections that pass without any
violations.
2. Employee involvement and training: Measuring employee involvement in health and safety
initiatives, such as safety committees and training programs, can provide insights into the
effectiveness of these initiatives and help identify areas for improvement.
3. Injury and illness rates: This includes tracking the number of lost-time injuries, restricted-duty
injuries, and illnesses per unit of exposure, such as the number of employees or the number of
hours worked.
4. Near misses: These are incidents that have the potential to cause injury or harm, but do not
result in actual harm. Tracking near misses can help organizations identify areas for improvement
before a more serious incident occurs.
5. Accident investigation and root cause analysis: Tracking the number and outcome of accident
investigations can help organizations identify patterns and trends in incidents, and implement
measures to prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future.
6. Total recordable incident rate (TRIR): This metric is used to track the overall performance of an
organization's health and safety program, and is calculated as the number of recordable injuries
and illnesses per million hours worked.
7. Days away, restricted, or transferred (DART) rate: This metric measures the number of injuries
and illnesses that result in employees taking time off from work, being restricted in their duties, or
being transferred to a different job.
8. Audits and assessments: Regularly conducting internal and external audits and assessments of
the health and safety management system can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of
the program and help identify areas for improvement.
By regularly measuring and analyzing these metrics, organizations can gain a better understanding of
the performance of their health and safety management system and make informed decisions about
investments in health and safety initiatives.
Leading versus Lagging Indicators
Leading indicators and lagging indicators are terms used to describe different types of performance
metrics in the field of safety management.
Lagging indicators are metrics that measure the outcome of an event after it has occurred. These
indicators provide a snapshot of past performance, but do not provide any information about the root
cause of an event or how to prevent similar events from occurring in the future. Examples of lagging
indicators include the number of injuries and illnesses that have occurred, the number of accidents or
incidents, and the amount of time lost due to injury or illness.
Leading indicators, on the other hand, are metrics that provide early warning signs of potential problems
or areas for improvement. These indicators help organizations identify trends and patterns in safety
performance, and take proactive measures to prevent incidents and accidents from occurring. Examples
of leading indicators include the number of near misses, employee involvement in safety programs, and
the effectiveness of training programs.
By tracking both leading and lagging indicators, organizations can gain a comprehensive view of their
safety performance and make informed decisions about investments in safety programs and initiatives.
Leading indicators provide early warning signs of potential problems and help organizations take
proactive measures to prevent incidents and accidents, while lagging indicators provide a snapshot of
past performance and help organizations track progress over time.
Continuous Improvement
Continuous improvement in safety refers to the ongoing process of evaluating and improving health and
safety performance in the workplace. The goal of continuous improvement is to reduce the number and
severity of accidents, injuries, and illnesses, and to create a safer work environment for employees.
To achieve continuous improvement in safety, organizations can implement the following strategies:
1. Set clear safety goals and objectives: Establishing clear, measurable safety goals and objectives
helps organizations track their progress and identify areas for improvement.
2. Involve employees in safety initiatives: Encouraging employee participation in safety initiatives
and programs can help build a culture of safety and create a sense of ownership among
employees.
3. Conduct regular safety audits and assessments: Regularly conducting internal and external
safety audits and assessments can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of the safety
program and help identify areas for improvement.

4. Analyze data and track metrics: Collecting and analyzing data on safety performance and
incidents, and tracking key safety metrics, such as injury and illness rates, near misses, and
employee involvement, can help organizations identify trends and patterns in safety performance.
5. Implement corrective and preventive measures: Based on the results of safety audits,
assessments, and data analysis, organizations can implement corrective and preventive
measures to reduce the risk of accidents, injuries, and illnesses in the workplace.
6. Continuously evaluate and improve: Continuously evaluating and improving the safety program
helps organizations stay ahead of changing risks and hazards, and ensure that their safety
initiatives remain effective over time.
By adopting a continuous improvement approach to safety, organizations can create a safer work
environment, reduce the risk of accidents, injuries, and illnesses, and promote a culture of safety within
the workplace.
Near Misses
A near miss is an event that has the potential to cause injury or harm, but does not result in actual harm.
Near misses are often referred to as "close calls" or "close to miss" incidents.
In the context of safety, near misses are considered valuable opportunities for learning and
improvement. By identifying and analyzing near misses, organizations can gain a better understanding of
the causes of potential accidents and take proactive measures to prevent similar incidents from
occurring in the future.
To effectively manage near misses, organizations can implement the following steps:
1. Encourage reporting: Encouraging employees to report near misses helps organizations identify
potential hazards and assess the risk of similar incidents occurring in the future.
2. Investigate: Conducting a thorough investigation of each near miss can help organizations
understand the root cause of the incident and identify areas for improvement.
3. Analyze data: Collecting and analyzing data on near misses can help organizations identify
patterns and trends in incidents, and prioritize areas for improvement.
4. Implement corrective and preventive measures: Based on the results of near miss investigations,
organizations can implement corrective and preventive measures to reduce the risk of similar
incidents occurring in the future.
5. Continuously evaluate and improve: Continuously evaluating and improving the near miss
reporting and investigation process can help organizations stay ahead of changing risks and
hazards, and ensure that their safety initiatives remain effective over time.
By effectively managing near misses, organizations can improve the safety of their workplace, reduce
the risk of accidents, injuries, and illnesses, and promote a culture of safety within the organization.
Employee Perceptions of the Safety Culture
Employee perceptions of the safety culture within an organization can greatly impact the overall health
and safety performance of the workplace. A positive safety culture is characterized by a strong
commitment to safety at all levels of the organization, effective communication, employee engagement
and involvement, and continuous improvement in safety performance.

When employees have positive perceptions of the safety culture within their organization, they are more
likely to be engaged in safety initiatives, take ownership of their own safety, and report near misses and
potential hazards. This can lead to a safer workplace, reduced accidents and incidents, and improved
health and safety performance.
On the other hand, if employees have negative perceptions of the safety culture within their organization,
they may be less likely to be engaged in safety initiatives, less likely to report near misses and potential
hazards, and may not take personal responsibility for their own safety. This can lead to a less safe
workplace, increased accidents and incidents, and lower health and safety performance.
Organizations can measure employee perceptions of the safety culture by conducting surveys, focus
groups, or other forms of feedback, such as anonymous suggestion boxes. The results of these efforts
can provide valuable insights into the perceptions and attitudes of employees towards safety, and help
organizations identify areas for improvement.
By actively seeking and responding to employee perceptions of the safety culture, organizations can
improve the overall health and safety performance of the workplace, create a safer work environment,
and promote a positive safety culture within the organization.
How to measure, analyze, and improve organizational culture
Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, behaviors, and customs that characterize a
company. Measuring, analyzing, and improving organizational culture can be done through several
methods including:
1. Surveys and questionnaires: Employee opinions and feedback can be gathered through surveys
or questionnaires to understand the current state of organizational culture and identify areas for
improvement.
2. Observations: An on-site observation can provide insight into the day-to-day practices and
behavior of employees and help identify any cultural gaps.
3. Employee engagement metrics: Metrics such as turnover rate, absenteeism, and employee
satisfaction can provide valuable information about the level of employee engagement and their
overall experience within the company.
4. Focus groups: Focus groups can provide more in-depth feedback and allow employees to
express their views on the organization's culture and its impact on their work and overall
satisfaction.
To improve organizational culture, organizations can:
1. Foster a positive work environment: Encourage a supportive and inclusive work environment by
promoting open communication, teamwork, and trust.
2. Encourage employee involvement: Allowing employees to have a voice in the decision-making
process and providing opportunities for professional growth can improve employee satisfaction
and engagement.
3. Align organizational values: Ensure that organizational values are clearly communicated and
actively promoted in all aspects of the company's operations.
4. Foster a continuous improvement culture: Encourage a culture of continuous improvement by
regularly reviewing and making changes to policies, procedures, and processes based on
feedback and results.

5. Lead by example: Senior leaders and managers play a critical role in setting the tone for
organizational culture. By demonstrating ethical behavior, promoting a positive work environment,
and encouraging employee involvement, leaders can help shape and improve organizational
culture.
Regular monitoring and evaluation of organizational culture can help organizations identify areas for
improvement and take proactive steps to foster a positive and productive workplace culture.
An organizational culture that supports safety is essential for the prevention of injuries and illness.
Management systems and programs can provide an effective safety framework; however, it ultimately is
the worker's perception of the value of safety to himself and the importance of safety to the organization
that governs safety performance.
What is a safety culture?
"Culture" is defined in my version of Webster's Dictionary as "the concepts, habits, skills, arts,
instruments, institutions, etc., of a given people." This definition also can be applied to how organizations
and the people who make up organizations feel about safety. The British Health and Safety Executive
has one of the better definitions, which was derived from its work in the safety of nuclear installations.
Paraphrasing, it defines safety culture as the product of the individual and group values, attitudes,
competencies and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency
of, an organization"s health and safety programs. Safety culture is "the way we do things around here,"
and reflects how we collectively value safety.
Organizational culture is learned quickly by those joining an organization and is supported by the
[organization's] survivors. It is learned by observing the successes and failures of their peers and others
in the work environment, from written and unwritten organizational rules and through their own job
experiences. Once established, it can be difficult to change corporate culture, since one aspect of
essentially all cultures is that they resist change. This has been dramatically demonstrated by the failure
of recent large merger attempts in which the two partnering companies had vastly different
organizational cultures.
The best examples of how safety culture can affect work are the ones that we have all experienced at
some time in our careers. As we all know, safe work rules can be destined to failure if management and
the workers do not equally support them. For example, a rule requiring the use of safety glasses can be
quickly diminished if a senior manager walks around the plant without them. In this case, the
organizational or safety culture promotes a sense that the rules do not really matter.
A situation in which the supervisor and fellow workers look the other way "in order to get the job done,"
is a more subtle, but equally destructive practice that leads to an undesirable safety culture. I recall a
serious chemical accident that resulted from the use of an air-powered wrench to unbolt a large pipe
flange. The supervisors and workers knew that the work rules required use of a hand wrench in case the
pipe was under pressure.
Nevertheless, the supervisor looked the other way at the common practice of using prohibited air
wrenches, since they were much faster and easier to use. The organizational culture supported this
practice by promoting the unwritten message that the faster turnaround was more important than safety.
Assessing Safety Culture
How does one assess the safety culture in an organization? There are a number of methods available;
however, they generally center on worker and management perceptions and opinions as they relate to
safety. In this case, it is perceptions and opinions that count, not reality or facts. (I know this is difficult for
most of us to handle.)
The most common means for collecting this information is through questionnaires or interviews. The
interview technique, while more labor-intensive and generally requiring a third party, is probably the best
method to explore employee perceptions and opinions about the organization and safety. A combination
of focused interviews and general questionnaires can also be used.
Whatever method is used, the survey must be done in a way that protects the anonymity of the
respondents. It is also very important to make sure that the sponsor is prepared for potentially bad news.
(Remember the old saying, "Don't ask the question unless you are prepared for the answer."?)
The typical diagnosis is not hard to predict. It usually involves a serious gap in the safety message and
philosophy between the most senior management and the supervisor and workers. My experience is that
the message typically gets lost within middle management. Usually, this is a consequence of what we
described previously as the unwritten rules of the game: saying that safety is most important; but
rewarding those whose behaviors and actions provide short-term gains, while placing others at risk (e.g.,
allowing the unit to run outside operating limits so as not to lose production, postpone repairs or require
tired workers to work overtime). Based on this experience, I would identify key stakeholder groups as:
• Senior management
• Middle management
• Supervisors
• Workers
• Safety, health, and environmental personnel
• Contractors (supervisors and workers)
Information collected can be used to compare and contrast the perceptions among each of these groups.
Contractor information is quite useful, since it will have a substantially different perspective that is based
on comparing your company with others for whom it has worked.
Typical questions that might be used in a worker interview include:
• What are the company policy and goals for safety?

• What do you feel is your role in the safety program?
• How does your immediate supervisor support safety?
• Do you feel that senior management actively supports safety?
• Do you feel adequately trained to do your job safely?
• Do you feel that the work rules and regulations for safety are necessary?
• What pressures are put on you that may affect safety?
• How would you compare safety at your company, compared with others of a similar business?
• Do you and other workers have a say in identifying and fixing hazards?
• What do you feel should be done to improve safety?
While these examples are typical, they will vary, depending on the audience and the means of collecting
the information. Whatever the means of data collection, the ultimate goal is to evaluate the existing
organizational culture and identify gaps and unwritten rules of the game that discourage safe behaviors
and practices. These leverage points then can be used to help gradually change the organizational
culture and the perceptions of the employees about the importance and value of safety.
Improving Safety Culture
How do you improve the safety culture of an organization?
First, it is important to recognize that organizational culture develops over the life of an organization. As
many CEOs have found, culture is difficult to change quickly - if at all. Dr. Steve Simon, an organizational
psychologist who has published in the health and safety literature on safety culture, has said, "To change
organizational behavior, group norms, not individual attitudes, should be addressed." How does one go
about moving that big ship at sea?
While there are a number of ways to stimulate cultural change, most focus on employee involvement,
two-way communication and training. Employee involvement may include such measures as visioning to
establish the safety goals and philosophy, establishing clear employee responsibilities and accountability
in safety, sharing performance data with all employees, and instituting programs that encourage active
employee involvement in safety.
It is not enough to simply state a new policy or rule. Effective, two-way communication that emphasizes
shared values and goals, rather than the traditional top-down, hierarchical policies, is necessary.
Training that is keyed to the role and responsibility of each participant in the safety program is the third
key element. Training should be used to make sure that we equip each person with the knowledge and
tools necessary to carry out his function and make sound decisions. For example, how can we expect a
worker to report hazards if he does not know what they are? How can we expect a supervisor to do a
great accident investigation if the supervisor has never been adequately trained in root cause analysis?
All of this takes on even greater importance when you consider the widespread push to move safety and
health responsibility down through the line organization.
There are many tools and approaches available today that can drive safety performance improvement,
but they all require a workplace culture that recognizes and embraces safety as a key goal of the
organization and its employees in order to be successful. Likewise, an organizational culture that does
not value safety and that rewards risky or unsafe behaviors is destined for a major adverse event, no
matter how hard the safety manager works or how good the systems are. If you're not getting the safety
performance you need or deserve, it may be time for a culture check.
Accident Causation and Incident investigation techniques and analysis (e.g., causal factors)
Accident causation refers to the process by which an accident occurs. Accident causation models are
used to identify the causes of accidents and help organizations understand the factors that contribute to
incidents.
Domino Theory
The Domino Theory is a model of accident causation that was developed by James Reason. According
to this theory, accidents are not the result of a single event or cause, but are the result of a chain of
events, each of which increases the likelihood of an accident occurring.
The Domino Theory suggests that accidents occur when a series of failures, known as "dominoes," align
and create the conditions for an accident to occur. The first domino represents the initiating event or the
trigger that sets off the chain of events. This can be a human error, equipment failure, design flaw, or
other contributing factor.
Each subsequent domino in the chain represents a failure or error that contributes to the accident. These
can include inadequate training, lack of communication, inadequate safety procedures, or other factors
that increase the likelihood of an accident occurring.
The Domino Theory is useful for organizations because it helps them understand the multiple factors that
contribute to accidents and identify areas for improvement. By breaking down accidents into a series of
failures, organizations can address each of the contributing factors and reduce the likelihood of an
accident occurring in the future.

Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety

Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety are a set of five principles developed by industrial hygienist and
safety engineer Herbert W. Heinrich in the early 20th century. These principles provide a framework for
understanding the root causes of industrial accidents and form the basis for many modern safety
programs.
The five axioms are:
1. For every accident that causes injury, there are many near misses or minor accidents that go
unreported.
2. The majority of accidents are caused by a small number of root causes.
3. Most accidents are caused by human error.
4. Accidents are the result of a combination of factors, including unsafe acts, hazardous conditions,
and inadequate safety management systems.
5. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.
Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety continue to be influential in the field of safety and are widely used
by organizations to guide their safety programs. By understanding and addressing the root causes of
accidents, organizations can reduce the likelihood of future incidents and create a safer work
environment for their employees.
Human Factors Theory
Human Factors Theory is a field of study that focuses on understanding how human characteristics,
abilities, and limitations interact with the physical and social environment to impact performance. The
theory is interdisciplinary, drawing on knowledge from fields such as psychology, engineering, and
industrial design.
In the context of safety, Human Factors Theory recognizes that most accidents and incidents are
caused, in part, by human error. The theory seeks to understand why human errors occur and how to
design systems and procedures that minimize the likelihood of these errors.
Human Factors Theory has been used to identify and address a variety of issues related to safety,
including:
1. Design of equipment and tools to reduce the likelihood of human error
2. Development of training programs to improve human performance
3. Examination of work processes and procedures to identify and eliminate sources of human error
4. Evaluation of organizational culture and leadership practices to support safe behavior and
decision making
The goal of Human Factors Theory is to create a safer and more efficient working environment by
understanding the complex interplay between humans, technology, and the environment. By taking a
human-centered approach, organizations can reduce the likelihood of accidents, improve safety
outcomes, and increase overall productivity.
Accident/Incident Theory
Accident/Incident Theory is a field of study that focuses on understanding the causes of accidents and
incidents, and how to prevent them from occurring. The theory is based on the idea that accidents and
incidents are not random events, but are the result of underlying causes that can be identified and
addressed.
Accident/Incident Theory is based on a number of models, including the Swiss Cheese model, the
Domino Theory, and Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety. These models provide a framework for
analyzing accidents and incidents, and identifying the contributing factors that led to their occurrence.
The main goal of Accident/Incident Theory is to improve safety and prevent future accidents and
incidents by understanding the underlying causes. This is accomplished by:
1. Conducting investigations into accidents and incidents to identify the causes
2. Analyzing data and trends to identify common causes and underlying factors
3. Developing and implementing safety programs and procedures to address identified causes
4. Regularly monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of safety programs and procedures
By applying Accident/Incident Theory, organizations can improve their understanding of why accidents
and incidents occur, and take steps to prevent them from happening in the future. This leads to a safer
working environment for employees and a reduction in the number of accidents and incidents that occur.
Epidemiological Theory
Epidemiological Theory is a branch of medical science that focuses on the distribution and determinants
of health and disease conditions in populations. It is a systematic approach to understanding how
diseases spread and how they can be prevented or controlled.
In the context of safety, Epidemiological Theory is used to understand and address the distribution of
safety incidents and injuries within a population, such as a workplace. The theory provides a framework
for identifying the risk factors that contribute to incidents and injuries, and for developing and evaluating
interventions to reduce these risks.
The main components of Epidemiological Theory include:
1. Identification of the population at risk: This involves defining the population of workers or
individuals who are at risk of injury or illness.
2. Measurement of the incidence and prevalence of incidents and injuries: This involves collecting
data on the number and types of incidents and injuries that occur within the population.
3. Determination of risk factors: This involves identifying the factors that contribute to incidents and
injuries, such as age, gender, job type, and workplace conditions.
4. Implementation of interventions: This involves developing and implementing strategies to reduce
the risk of incidents and injuries, such as safety training programs, safety equipment, and
changes to work processes.
5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions: This involves monitoring and evaluating the
impact of interventions on the incidence and prevalence of incidents and injuries, and making
changes as needed.
By applying Epidemiological Theory, organizations can improve their understanding of the distribution of
incidents and injuries within their population, identify the risk factors that contribute to these events, and
develop and evaluate interventions to reduce these risks. This leads to a safer working environment for
employees and a reduction in the number of incidents and injuries that occur.

Systems Theory
Systems Theory is a theoretical framework that provides a holistic approach to understanding complex
systems and the relationships between their parts. In the context of safety, Systems Theory is used to
understand the interrelated factors that contribute to the occurrence of incidents and injuries, and how
these factors interact to create a complex system of risks.
The main components of Systems Theory include:
1. Understanding the components of the system: This involves identifying and understanding the
various components of the workplace, such as work processes, equipment, and human factors,
that contribute to the risk of incidents and injuries.
2. Understanding the relationships between the components: This involves identifying how the
components of the system interact with each other and contribute to the overall risk of incidents
and injuries.
3. Understanding the dynamics of the system: This involves understanding how the system
changes over time and how it responds to internal and external influences.
4. Identifying the points of intervention: This involves identifying the key points within the system
where interventions can be made to reduce the risk of incidents and injuries.
By applying Systems Theory, organizations can gain a more holistic understanding of the complex
relationships between the components of the workplace and the factors that contribute to the risk of
incidents and injuries. This leads to the development of targeted and effective interventions that can
reduce these risks, improve the safety of the workplace, and reduce the number of incidents and injuries
that occur.
Energy Release Theory
Energy Release Theory is a concept in safety that explains the occurrence of incidents and injuries as
the result of the release of stored energy in a system. According to this theory, incidents and injuries are
caused by the release of energy that was previously stored within a system, such as a workplace.
The main components of Energy Release Theory include:
1. Stored energy: This refers to the energy that is stored within a system, such as mechanical
energy stored in a machine, or potential energy stored in a raised platform or elevated structure.
2. Energy release: This refers to the release of stored energy, which can occur suddenly and
unexpectedly, such as the release of mechanical energy in a machine failure, or the release of
potential energy in a fall from height.
3. Resulting harm: This refers to the harm that results from the release of energy, such as injury or
damage to equipment.
By applying Energy Release Theory, organizations can understand the underlying causes of incidents
and injuries as the result of the release of stored energy within the workplace. This leads to the
development of targeted and effective interventions, such as regular maintenance and inspection of
equipment, or the provision of fall protection equipment, to reduce the risk of energy release and the
harm that results from it.
Behavior Theory
Behavior Theory is a theoretical framework that explains human behavior as the result of environmental
and individual factors that interact to influence behavior. In the context of safety, Behavior Theory is used
to understand the factors that influence employee behavior in the workplace, and how these factors can
be managed to reduce the risk of incidents and injuries.
The main components of Behavior Theory include:
1. Environmental factors: This refers to the physical and social environment in which an individual
operates, including the workplace culture, policies, procedures, and equipment.
2. Individual factors: This refers to the unique characteristics and attributes of an individual,
including their knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values.
3. Interaction of environmental and individual factors: This refers to the way in which environmental
and individual factors interact to influence behavior.
By applying Behavior Theory, organizations can understand the factors that influence employee behavior
in the workplace and can develop targeted and effective interventions to improve safety. For example,
organizations can create a safety culture that values safety and encourages safe behavior, provide
training and resources to support employees in making safe choices, and establish policies and
procedures that promote safe behavior. By addressing both environmental and individual factors,
organizations can reduce the risk of incidents and injuries and improve the overall safety of the
workplace.
Combination Theory
Combination Theory is a concept in safety that explains incidents and injuries as the result of the
interaction of multiple factors, rather than a single cause. According to this theory, incidents and injuries
are the result of a combination of factors, including human behavior, organizational culture, and
environmental factors, that interact in complex and dynamic ways.
The main components of Combination Theory include:
1. Human behavior: This refers to the actions and decisions of individuals in the workplace,
including employees, supervisors, and managers.
2. Organizational culture: This refers to the shared values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that
characterize an organization and influence employee behavior.
3. Environmental factors: This refers to the physical and social environment in which an individual
operates, including the workplace culture, policies, procedures, and equipment.
By applying Combination Theory, organizations can understand that incidents and injuries are the result
of multiple factors and that a more comprehensive approach is needed to address these factors and
reduce the risk of incidents and injuries. This leads to the development of a more holistic and integrated
approach to safety, where organizations address both individual and organizational factors and provide
the necessary resources, support, and training to support safe behavior.
Modern Causation Model
The Modern Causation Model is a concept in safety that provides a framework for understanding the
multiple factors that contribute to incidents and injuries. This model emphasizes the importance of
considering both individual and organizational factors and the interaction between these factors in
causing incidents and injuries.
The Modern Causation Model consists of three main components:

1. Active failures: This refers to the actions and decisions of individuals in the workplace that directly
contribute to incidents and injuries, such as incorrect procedures or equipment misuse.
2. Latent failures: This refers to the underlying organizational and environmental factors that
contribute to incidents and injuries, such as inadequate training, lack of resources, or poor safety
culture.
3. Preconditions for unsafe acts: This refers to the individual and organizational factors that create
an environment in which unsafe acts are likely to occur, such as stress, time pressures, or
inadequate safety systems.
By applying the Modern Causation Model, organizations can understand the multiple factors that
contribute to incidents and injuries and can develop targeted and effective interventions to reduce the
risk of incidents and injuries. This leads to a more comprehensive approach to safety that addresses
both individual and organizational factors and provides the necessary resources, support, and training to
support safe behavior.
Operating Errors
Operating Errors theory is a concept in safety that explains incidents and accidents as the result of
human performance issues, rather than simply the result of equipment failure or system defects. This
theory recognizes that humans make mistakes, and that these mistakes can have serious consequences
in safety-critical environments.
The theory of operating errors focuses on the factors that contribute to human performance issues and
the ways in which these factors can be addressed. These factors include:
1. Individual factors: This includes personal characteristics, such as age, experience, and fatigue,
that can impact an individual's ability to perform safely.
2. Organizational factors: This includes the work environment, such as workload, work hours, and
work pressure, as well as the organizational culture, which can impact an individual's ability to
perform safely.
3. Task factors: This includes the design of the task itself, such as the complexity of the task, the
instructions provided, and the equipment used.
By applying the theory of operating errors, organizations can understand the importance of considering
human performance factors in accident and incident investigations, and can take steps to mitigate the
risk of human error. This may involve improving the design of tasks, providing more training and
resources, and creating a more positive safety culture.
Systems Defects
The Systems Defects theory is a concept in safety that explains incidents and accidents as the result of
deficiencies in the design or operation of systems, rather than as the result of individual human error.
This theory recognizes that systems, including equipment, processes, and procedures, can have defects
that can contribute to incidents and accidents.
The theory of systems defects focuses on identifying and addressing the root causes of system
deficiencies. This involves analyzing the design and operation of systems to identify potential risks and
to develop solutions that reduce these risks. The factors that can contribute to systems defects include:
1. Design deficiencies: This refers to flaws in the design of systems, including equipment and
processes, that can increase the risk of incidents and accidents.

2. Operations deficiencies: This refers to problems with the way systems are operated, including
inadequate training, maintenance, and inspection.
3. Management deficiencies: This refers to issues with the way organizations manage safety, such
as inadequate safety policies, inadequate resource allocation, and insufficient safety culture.
By applying the theory of systems defects, organizations can develop a more comprehensive approach
to safety that addresses both individual and systemic factors. This can involve improving the design of
systems, providing more training and resources to support safe operations, and developing a more
positive safety culture.
Command Error
Command Error theory is a concept in safety that explains incidents and accidents as the result of poor
decision-making and ineffective leadership, rather than as the result of individual human error. This
theory recognizes that decisions made by those in leadership positions can have significant
consequences for the safety of operations, and that these decisions can be influenced by various
factors, such as inadequate information, time pressure, and organizational culture.
The theory of command error focuses on improving decision-making and leadership in safety-critical
environments, and on reducing the risks associated with command error. This involves:
1. Improving decision-making processes: This involves providing leaders with the information they
need to make informed decisions, and ensuring that they have adequate time to make these
decisions.
2. Improving leadership skills: This involves providing training and development opportunities to
help leaders develop the skills they need to make effective decisions, such as risk assessment,
problem-solving, and crisis management.
3. Promoting a positive safety culture: This involves creating an organizational culture that values
safety, and that provides leaders with the support they need to make effective decisions.
By applying the theory of command error, organizations can develop a more proactive approach to
safety, and can reduce the risks associated with poor decision-making and ineffective leadership. This
can result in improved safety performance, and a safer work environment for employees.
Safety Program Defect
The Safety Program Defect theory is a concept in safety that explains incidents and accidents as the
result of deficiencies in safety programs, rather than as the result of individual human error. This theory
recognizes that safety programs, including policies, procedures, and training, can have defects that can
contribute to incidents and accidents.
The theory of safety program defects focuses on identifying and addressing the root causes of safety
program deficiencies. This involves analyzing safety programs to identify potential risks and to develop
solutions that reduce these risks. The factors that can contribute to safety program defects include:
1. Inadequate policies and procedures: This refers to flaws in the design of safety programs, such
as policies and procedures that are not clear, concise, or comprehensive.
2. Inadequate training: This refers to problems with the way employees are trained, including
training that is insufficient, inadequate, or outdated.
3. Management deficiencies: This refers to issues with the way organizations manage safety, such
as inadequate resource allocation, insufficient safety culture, and a lack of commitment to safety.
By applying the theory of safety program defects, organizations can develop a more comprehensive
approach to safety that addresses both individual and systemic factors. This can involve improving the
design of safety programs, providing more training and resources to support safe operations, and
developing a more positive safety culture.
Safety Management Errors
The Safety Management Errors theory is a concept in safety that explains incidents and accidents as the
result of failures in safety management, rather than as the result of individual human error. This theory
recognizes that the management of safety is a complex and dynamic process that requires the
integration of various safety-related activities, including risk assessment, hazard control, training, and
monitoring.
The theory of safety management errors focuses on improving the effectiveness of safety management
systems and processes. This involves:
1. Improving risk assessment: This involves developing and implementing comprehensive risk
assessment processes that identify and prioritize hazards and assess their impact on safety.
2. Implementing hazard control measures: This involves developing and implementing effective
measures to control hazards, such as engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal
protective equipment.
3. Providing effective training: This involves providing employees with the training and resources
they need to work safely, and regularly assessing and updating training programs.
4. Monitoring safety performance: This involves regularly monitoring safety performance to identify
areas for improvement, and using this information to adjust safety management processes as
needed.
By applying the theory of safety management errors, organizations can improve the effectiveness of their
safety management systems and reduce the risks associated with safety management failures. This can
result in improved safety performance and a safer work environment for employees.
Countermeasures
The Countermeasures theory is a concept in safety that suggests that incidents and accidents can be
prevented by implementing countermeasures that address the underlying causes of these events. This
theory recognizes that incidents and accidents are not solely the result of human error, but can also be
caused by systemic factors such as inadequate policies, procedures, and training.
The theory of countermeasures focuses on developing and implementing measures to prevent incidents
and accidents from occurring. This involves:
1. Identifying the causes of incidents and accidents: This involves conducting a thorough
investigation of incidents and accidents to identify the underlying causes and contributing factors.
2. Developing countermeasures: This involves developing measures to address the underlying
causes of incidents and accidents, such as modifying policies and procedures, providing
additional training, or improving equipment design.
3. Implementing countermeasures: This involves implementing the countermeasures developed in
step 2 to prevent similar incidents and accidents from occurring in the future.

4. Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of countermeasures: This involves regularly

monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of the countermeasures to ensure that they are
working as intended and to identify opportunities for improvement.
By applying the theory of countermeasures, organizations can proactively prevent incidents and
accidents from occurring by addressing the underlying causes of these events. This can result in a safer
work environment for employees and improved safety performance for the organization.
Investigation Techniques
An incident is defined as an undesired event that may cause personal harm or other damage. An
accident is defined as an occurrence in a sequence of events that produces unintended injury, death or
property damage. The different definitions emphasize the reality that accidents are not random events
but rather preventable events. All incidents should be investigated regardless of the severity of the injury
or property damage.
Purpose of the Investigation

The purpose of an investigation is to determine the root causes of an event, such as an accident,
incident, or near miss, and to identify the factors that contributed to it. The goal of the investigation is to
gather evidence and information in a systematic and comprehensive manner, in order to understand the
circumstances that led to the event and to develop recommendations for preventing similar events in
the future.
The specific purpose of an investigation may vary depending on the nature and circumstances of the
event, but typically includes one or more of the following:
1. To determine the cause of the event: The investigation aims to identify the root cause of the
event, including any factors that contributed to it, such as human error, equipment failure, or
systemic issues.
2. To identify lessons learned: The investigation aims to identify lessons learned from the event,
such as best practices or areas for improvement, that can be used to prevent similar events from
happening in the future.
3. To develop recommendations: The investigation aims to develop recommendations for
preventing similar events in the future, such as changes to policies and procedures,
improvements to equipment, or additional training for employees.
4. To provide closure: The investigation aims to provide closure for those affected by the event, by
providing answers about what happened and why, and by demonstrating that the organization is
taking steps to prevent similar events from occurring in the future.
Overall, the purpose of an investigation is to use the information and evidence gathered to improve
safety performance, prevent similar events from happening in the future, and create a safer work
environment for employees.
Investigation Techniques
Incident investigation is the process of examining an incident or accident in order to determine the
cause or causes and to identify ways to prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future. There are
several techniques and approaches used in incident investigation, including:
1. Root cause analysis: This is a systematic process of identifying the underlying cause or causes
of an incident by examining the various factors that contributed to it. The goal of root cause

analysis is to identify the root cause, which is the most basic underlying cause of an incident,
rather than just the immediate or apparent cause. For example, an incident investigation into a
workplace injury might identify the immediate cause as a slippery floor, but the root cause could
be a lack of proper maintenance procedures for the floor.
2. Causal factor analysis: This is a systematic process of identifying and evaluating the factors that
contributed to an incident, with the goal of identifying ways to prevent similar incidents from
occurring in the future. Causal factor analysis involves examining the chain of events that led to
the incident, as well as the conditions and circumstances that allowed the incident to occur.
3. Fishbone (Ishikawa) diagram: This is a graphical tool used to help identify the possible causes of
an incident. A fishbone diagram consists of a central line representing the incident, with
branches representing the various factors that may have contributed to the incident. The
branches can be broken down into sub-branches to identify more specific causes.
4. Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA): This is a systematic process of identifying and
evaluating the potential failure modes of a system and the consequences of those failures, with
the goal of identifying ways to prevent the failures from occurring. FMEA can be used to identify
potential incidents before they occur and to develop plans to prevent them.
The goal of incident investigation is to identify the cause or causes of an incident, to determine how to
prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future, and to improve the overall safety and reliability of
the system. The results of incident investigations can be used to develop recommendations for changes
to procedures, processes, and equipment to improve safety and prevent future incidents.
The persons who may be involved in an investigation vary with the complexity of the incident, the
jurisdiction and legislation. Usually, a supervisor is, or should be, instrumental in the investigation. The
safety personnel advises and guides the supervisor. Education, instruction, and training of supervisors
in incident investigation are an important aspect of a safety professional activity.
Incident investigation reports follow a prescriptive format that reflects the core of investigation.
• Who was injured?
• What equipment/machinery/condition was involved? What was the nature of the injury, if any?
• Where did the incident occur?
• Why did the incident happen?
• When did the incident occur?
• How did the incident happen, how can a re-occurrence of the incident be prevented?
The extent of the investigation should reflect the potential for injury or property damage.
The primary purpose of an incident report is to obtain accurate, objective information about the causes of
incidents in order to prevent incidents from reoccurring. It is emphasized that gathering information
through record collection is of little use if not shared with management and staff.
Records are required to be kept for workers’ compensation, government agencies having jurisdiction
over occupational health and safety, incidents/injuries of workers, insurance and various internal
company policies.
Fact Finding
A safety investigation is an inquiry that is carried out to determine the cause(s) of an accident, injury, or
near miss in order to identify any underlying problems and make recommendations for preventing similar
incidents from happening in the future. A fact-finding investigation is a type of investigation that aims to
gather as much information as possible about a specific incident in order to determine what actually
happened and why. This information can come from a variety of sources including witnesses, physical
evidence, and technical data. The goal of a fact-finding investigation is to establish the facts surrounding
an incident in order to determine if any safety violations or other problems occurred, and to identify any
contributing factors. The results of a fact-finding investigation can be used to make improvements to
processes, procedures, and equipment in order to prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future.
Interviews
Interviews are a common tool used in investigations, including safety investigations. They can be
conducted with witnesses, employees, or others who may have information about the incident being
investigated. The purpose of conducting interviews is to gather information and gain a deeper
understanding of what happened and why.
When conducting an interview, it is important to be well prepared and organized, and to have a clear
understanding of the purpose of the interview. The interviewer should have a list of questions to ask, and
should be respectful and professional in their interactions with the interviewee.
During the interview, it is important to listen carefully to the responses of the interviewee and to ask
follow-up questions as needed. The interviewer should also take detailed notes of the conversation,
including the specific words used by the interviewee and any important details they provide.
Interviews can be conducted in person, by phone, or through other means, such as video conferencing.
The method of conducting the interview will depend on the circumstances and the preferences of the
interviewee.
The results of the interviews can be used to gain a deeper understanding of the incident being
investigated and to help identify any potential causes or contributing factors. They can also be used to
validate or disprove information gathered from other sources, such as physical evidence or technical
data.
Management of change techniques (prior, during, and after)

Defining Change
Change is an essential part of creativity and innovation in organizations. A change agent is a person or
group who takes responsibility for changing the existing pattern of behaviour of another person or social
system. Change agents make things happen, and part of every manager’s job is to act as a change
agent in the work setting. Most often, OHS professionals are engaged in a continuous process of
engaging and soliciting change within their respective organizations. Some of the concepts here can be
very helpful in facilitating effective, positive and sustained changes.
Top-down change
Is a process that is initiated and directed by top management. Strategic and comprehensive changes
typically follow this pattern. When done well, top-down change can occur rather quickly and with a
comprehensive impact on the organization. It runs the risk of being perceived as insensitive to the needs
of lower-level management and can suffer from implementation problems brought on by resistance and a
lack of organization-wide commitment to change.
Bottom-up change
Is also important in organizations. In such cases, the initiatives for change come from persons
throughout an organization and are supported by the efforts of middle and lower-level managers acting
as change agents. This type of change is essential to organizational innovation and is very useful in
terms of adapting operations and technologies to the changing requirements of work. It is especially
effective at creating the advantages of empowerment and participation. Not all changes in organizations
occur at a manager’s direction. Unplanned changes occur spontaneously or at random, and without a
change agent’s attention. They may be destructive, such as a wildcat strike that results in a plant closure
or a disastrous accident; or beneficial, such as an interpersonal conflict that results in a new procedure
or policy to guide interdepartmental relations.
Planned change.
Happens as a result of specific efforts by a change agent. Planned change is a direct response to
someone’s perception of a performance gap, a discrepancy between the desired and actual state of
affairs.
Organizational change involves some modification in the various components that constitute the essence
of an organization. The possible targets of the change process are:
1. Tasks: the nature of work as represented by organizational mission, objectives and strategy, and
job designs for individuals and groups.
2. People: the attitudes and competencies of the organization’s human resources, and the staffing
processes used to acquire and maintain high-quality personnel over time.
3. Culture: the predominant value system for the organization as a whole, the norms and values
guiding individuals and groups at all levels in the organization.
4. Technology: the operation systems used to support job designs, arrange the flow of work, and
integrate people and machines in well-functioning sociotechnical systems.
5. Structure: the configuration of the organization as a complex system, including its bureaucratic
features, forms of departmentalization, and other formal aspects of authority and
communications.
Performance gaps and the impetus for change in any one or more of these targets can arise from the
variety of external forces for change. These include the global economy and market competition, local
economic conditions, government legislation and regulations, technological developments, market
trends, and social forces, among others.
Internal forces for change are important too. Any change in one part of the organization as a complex
system can result in the need for change in another part of the system. The organizational targets for
change listed above are highly interrelated.
Managing Change Kurt Lewin, a noted psychologist, recommends that any planned-change effort be
viewed as the three-phase process shown below.

Managers use various approaches when attempting to get other persons to adopt a desired change. The
following diagram demonstrates three broad change strategies.
John Kotter, professor of leadership at Harvard Business School, has built on Lewin's three-step model
explained above. He has used it to create a more detailed, step-by-step approach to implementing
change effectively. This approach is based on studying the common failures that occur when managers
try to initiate change:
1. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed.
2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change.
3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision.
4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.
5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk-
taking and creative problem-solving.
6. Plan for, create, and reward short-term “wins” that move the organization toward the new
vision.
7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new
programs.
8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviours and
organizational success.
Managers are the keys to organizational productivity. Productivity, in turn, is the key to economic
development and growth. Without a doubt, managers of the 21st century will have to excel as never
before to meet the expectations held of them and of the organizations they lead. A report from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology identified these persistent weaknesses in corporate management
in North America: overemphasis on short-term results, parochialism, failure to adequately train and
motivate workers, inability to turn innovations into viable products, and a lack of cooperation within and
among firms. Many of these shortcomings are evident in our OHS management systems as well. The
skills necessary to succeed in today’s changing workplace:
1. Maximizing innovation and change: conceptualizing as well as setting in motion ways of
initiating and managing change that involve significant departures from the current modes.
2. Managing people and tasks: accomplishing the tasks at hand by planning, organizing,
coordinating, and controlling both resources and people.
3. Communicating: interacting effectively with a variety of individuals and groups to facilitate the
gathering, integrating, and conveying of information in many forms.
4. Managing self: constantly developing practices and internalizing routines for maximizing one’s
ability to deal with the uncertainty of an ever-changing environment.
Management of change (MOC) in the context of safety refers to the process of identifying, evaluating,
and controlling the impacts of changes to a system, with the goal of ensuring that the system remains
safe after the change. There are three stages in the MOC process for safety: prior to the change, during
the change, and after the change.
1. Prior to the change: During this stage, the potential impacts of the change on safety are
evaluated, and risk assessments are performed to identify potential safety hazards associated
with the change. This stage also involves developing a plan for implementing the change,
ensuring that the necessary resources and approvals are in place, and preparing the system and
personnel for the change. For example, prior to upgrading a process control system in a chemical
plant, the potential impacts of the change on the existing system would be evaluated, and a plan
for implementation would be developed, including steps to minimize disruption to the existing
system and measures to ensure that the upgraded system is properly integrated with the existing
system while maintaining the required level of safety.
2. During the change: During this stage, the change is implemented, and the impacts of the change
on safety are monitored. This stage also involves implementing measures to manage any
unanticipated safety impacts that may occur. For example, during the upgrade of a process
control system, the performance of the existing system and the upgraded system would be
monitored, and any safety issues that arise would be addressed in real-time to minimize the
impact of the change on the system's safety.
3. After the change: After the change has been implemented, the impacts of the change on safety
are evaluated, and the system is returned to normal operations. This stage also involves
conducting a post-change review to identify any areas for improvement and to ensure that the
system remains safe. For example, after upgrading a process control system in a chemical plant,
the performance of the upgraded system would be evaluated, and any necessary changes would
be made to ensure that the system remains safe for normal operations.
The goal of MOC in the context of safety is to ensure that changes to a system are made in a controlled
and systematic manner, while maintaining the required level of safety throughout the process.
System safety analysis techniques (e.g., fault tree analysis, failure modes and effect analysis [FMEA],
Safety Case approach, and Risk Summation)
System safety analysis is a process of evaluating and reducing the risks associated with a system, with
the goal of ensuring that the system operates within acceptable levels of risk. There are several
techniques used in system safety analysis, including:
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA):
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a systematic approach used to identify and analyze potential causes of
system or equipment failures. It is a top-down, deductive analytical method that starts with the undesired
event and works backwards to identify the causes or failures that can lead to that event. FTA is often
used in risk management and safety engineering to identify the most critical failure modes and to
implement measures to prevent or mitigate those failures.
The FTA process typically involves the following steps:
1. Define the undesired event: Identify the system or equipment failure that needs to be analyzed,
such as a fire or a shutdown.
2. Create the fault tree diagram: This is a visual representation of the potential causes of the
undesired event. The fault tree diagram is created by breaking down the undesired event into its
component parts and identifying the possible causes of each part.
3. Identify the basic events: These are the most basic causes that can lead to the undesired event.
Basic events can be identified by analyzing failure data, conducting experiments, or using expert
opinions.
4. Determine the intermediate events: Intermediate events are the events that are caused by the
basic events and can lead to the undesired event. The relationship between the basic and
intermediate events is represented by logic gates, such as AND and OR gates.
5. Analyze the fault tree: Analyze the fault tree to identify the most critical failure modes and the
most effective measures to prevent or mitigate those failures.
6. Implement measures: Based on the analysis, implement measures to prevent or mitigate the
most critical failure modes.
FTA can be a complex and time-consuming process, but it can be a valuable tool for identifying potential
failure modes and for implementing measures to prevent or mitigate those failures.

Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA):

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a risk assessment technique used to identify and evaluate
potential failure modes of a product or process, and their potential effects. FMEA is used to proactively
identify and eliminate or reduce potential failures and improve reliability and safety of products or
processes.
The FMEA process typically involves the following steps:
1. Define the scope: Identify the product or process to be analyzed, and the objectives and scope of
the analysis.
2. Create a cross-functional team: Assemble a team of experts from various disciplines to perform
the analysis.
3. Identify the potential failure modes: Brainstorm all the possible failure modes that could occur in
the product or process.
4. Assign a severity rating: Evaluate the potential severity of each failure mode, based on its
potential impact on the customer or end-user.
5. Assign a probability rating: Evaluate the likelihood of occurrence of each failure mode.
6. Assign a detection rating: Evaluate the ability to detect each failure mode before it causes a
problem.
7. Calculate the risk priority number (RPN): The RPN is calculated as the product of the severity,
probability, and detection ratings.
8. Prioritize and take action: Prioritize the failure modes with the highest RPN and take action to
eliminate or reduce their potential risks.
9. Monitor and review: Regularly review the FMEA results and update them as needed to reflect
changes in the product or process.
FMEA can be used in a variety of industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, and service industries,
to identify and reduce potential risks and improve safety, reliability, and quality.
Safety Case approach:
The Safety Case approach is a structured and systematic process used to demonstrate the safety of a
system, facility, or operation. It is commonly used in industries such as nuclear power, aviation, and oil
and gas to ensure that risks associated with complex systems are properly assessed, managed and
minimized.
The Safety Case approach typically involves the following steps:
1. Hazard identification: Identify potential hazards associated with the system, facility or operation.
2. Risk assessment: Analyze the likelihood and consequences of identified hazards to assess the
overall risk associated with the system, facility or operation.
3. Risk reduction: Implement measures to reduce the identified risks.
4. Safety arguments: Develop safety arguments that demonstrate how the implemented measures
reduce the identified risks.

5. Safety Case documentation: Document the safety arguments, including relevant evidence,
analysis and data.
6. Independent review: Have the Safety Case documentation reviewed by independent experts to
ensure its completeness and correctness.
7. Safety Case acceptance: The Safety Case is accepted when it is demonstrated that the risks
associated with the system, facility, or operation have been reduced to an acceptable level.
The Safety Case approach provides a structured and systematic way to assess, manage and minimize
risks associated with complex systems, and provides assurance that the risks are being properly
controlled. It helps ensure that all relevant hazards have been identified and that appropriate measures
have been taken to control the risks associated with them.
Risk Summation:
Risk summation is a method of combining the risks associated with individual events or factors to obtain
an overall assessment of risk. It involves quantifying the likelihood and consequences of each individual
risk factor and then combining them using a mathematical formula to obtain an overall risk value.
The most common method of risk summation is the use of a risk matrix, which is a graphical
representation of the likelihood and consequence of different risks. The risk matrix is typically divided
into a grid with different levels of likelihood and consequence, and each cell in the grid is assigned a risk
value. By combining the risk values associated with individual risks, an overall risk value can be
obtained.
Other methods of risk summation include the use of fault tree analysis and event tree analysis, which are
both analytical techniques used to model complex systems and assess the risks associated with different
failure modes.
The goal of risk summation is to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the risks associated with a
system, process, or operation, and to identify the most critical risks that need to be addressed in order to
mitigate the overall risk. It is an important tool in risk management and is used in a wide range of
industries, including manufacturing, aviation, and healthcare.
The elements of business continuity and contingency plans
Business Continuity Planning
The Role of Prevention

An unexpected emergency may cause significant damage to a business. The business site, resources,
employees, systems, and reputation may all be impacted by the damage an emergency can achieve. A
business continuity plan can help minimize the damages and allow the business to re-start with a
minimum of downtime and lost revenue. The aim of the planning is to evaluate the most likely and/or
most damaging risks, determine ways to minimize their impacts, and achieve capabilities within the
business to allow it to continue operations after an event occurs.
Business Impact Analysis

To better understand the vulnerable operations of a business it is important to conduct an impact
assessment. This assessment attempts to identify the operations and systems that may be impaired or
lost during an event. The BIA will attempt to identify and estimate the consequences of an emergency
event. What systems and operations may fail, and how critical are they to the continuation of the
business? How rapidly can the operational capability be regained? These questions should be asked
and explored prior to an event. It is useful to include others in the organization such that an
organizational intelligence can be developed to improve the resilience of the business in the event of a
possible emergency event.
1. A useful starting point is the Risk Assessment (RA) study that has been done for your site. This
should provide an examination of the type of hazards that exist and what portions of the facility
site are at risk. If the scope of the RA is not broad enough (e.g. perhaps the RA evaluates
chemical hazards but does not include natural disasters and/or vandalism risks), it should be
expanded. The intention is to set out all the possible emergencies that pose a risk. Each hazard
should have some estimate of its probability of occurrence, and the consequences of it
happening at the site.
2. Develop this information for a questionnaire that can be used to inquire with other parts of the
organization about the operational and system weaknesses and strengths of the facility. If
possible, use interviews and follow-up meetings to discuss the information provided.
3. Organize the results, document, and prioritize the vulnerabilities of the business during and after
an event.
Developing Recovery Strategies

On the basis of the BIA information, identify strategies to minimize the vulnerability of the systems and
operations within the organization and facility. Conduct a gap analysis to assess the difference between
what will be available before and after an emergency event, and what is needed to continue doing
business. Where there are significant gaps there are potential obstacles to continuing business. This
may require looking for more robust systems or having back-up resources to use in the case of an
incident. Select appropriate strategies that have the support of management and work to have these in
place.
Business Continuity Plan Development

The information and organizational resources that are developed in the first two stages are then put into
a formalized plan of action. The plan may include a summary of the intent of the BCP and how it will be
achieved. This may include:
• Procedures for emergency shutdown and start-up of operations
• Preservation of electronic information and software systems
• Fallback communication systems
• Public interface strategies,
• Descriptions of medical and health support systems
• Security systems
The plan needs to have input and agreement from all facets of the organization. Consequently, the
report document needs to be validated, approved, and communicated. As part of the roll-out of the plan,
there needs to be training and assignment of responsibilities to ensure the plan is affected. Training
modules may also be needed for consultants to the facility and the public that are impacted by facility
operations.
Follow-up Testing and Review

The Business Continuity Plan should be tested through practice and emergency drills designed to
simulate emergency events. Not only does this improve the organizational intelligence and ability to
respond to real-life events, but it also helps identify weaknesses in the plan so that they can be
modified. It is advisable to have the plan evaluated and brought up to current standards periodically.
This may be done on a regular basis just as emergency response plans are periodically reviewed. It is
good management practice to assign responsibility for this and pre-set meetings and information
update events to maintain currency in the plan.
A business continuity plan (BCP) is a document that outlines how an organization will continue to
operate during and after a disaster, such as a fire, flood, or cyberattack. A contingency plan is similar but
focuses on specific events or scenarios and outlines the steps an organization will take to minimize their
impact. Both types of plans are essential for ensuring the safety and continued operation of a business.
The elements of a comprehensive BCP or contingency plan typically include:
1. Risk Assessment: Identifying potential risks and hazards that could disrupt business operations,
including natural disasters, cyber threats, power outages, and supply chain disruptions.
2. Business Impact Analysis: Evaluating the potential impact of each risk on business operations,
including financial losses, reputation damage, and the duration of the disruption.
3. Emergency Response Plan: Outlining the steps to be taken in the event of an emergency,
including evacuation procedures, communication protocols, and assignment of roles and
responsibilities.
4. Continuity of Operations Plan: Describing the processes and procedures necessary to maintain
critical business functions during and after a disaster, including data backup and recovery,
alternative worksites, and alternative communication methods.
5. Disaster Recovery Plan: Outlining the steps to be taken to restore normal business operations
after a disaster, including the identification of critical resources, the implementation of recovery
procedures, and the testing of the plan.
6. Training and Testing: Providing training for employees on emergency procedures and testing the
plan to ensure its effectiveness.
7. Maintenance and Updating: Regularly reviewing and updating the plan to ensure it remains
relevant and effective in light of changes to the business or environment.
For example, a safety element in a business continuity plan might include procedures for evacuating a
building in case of a fire. This could include identifying designated evacuation routes, establishing a
system for accounting for all employees, and providing training for employees on how to safely evacuate
the building. Similarly, a safety element in a contingency plan for a power outage might include
procedures for safely shutting down equipment and securing the facility until power is restored.
Types of leading and lagging safety, health, environmental, and security performance indicators
Performance indicators are metrics used to measure the effectiveness of various safety, health,
environmental, and security programs. There are two main types of performance indicators: leading
indicators and lagging indicators.
Leading indicators are measures of proactive or preventative activities that can be used to predict future
performance or identify potential issues before they become problems. Some examples of leading
safety, health, environmental, and security performance indicators include:
1. Safety Observations: Number of safety observations conducted, and the resulting feedback used
to identify and address potential safety hazards.
2. Near Miss Reporting: Number of near misses reported, and the resulting corrective actions taken
to prevent future incidents.
3. Employee Training: Number of employees trained on safety procedures and the effectiveness of
the training program.
4. Environmental Audits: Number of environmental audits conducted, and the resulting actions
taken to reduce environmental impacts.
5. Security Threat Assessments: Number of security threat assessments conducted, and the
resulting measures taken to reduce the risk of security incidents.
Lagging indicators are measures of past performance that reflect the results of previous activities. Some
examples of lagging safety, health, environmental, and security performance indicators include:
1. Recordable Injuries: Number of recordable injuries, such as lost time injuries, in a given time
period.
2. Reportable Incidents: Number of reportable incidents, such as spills or releases, in a given time
period.
3. Health and Safety Inspections: Number of health and safety inspections conducted and the
resulting findings.
4. Environmental Compliance: Percentage of environmental compliance with regulations and
guidelines.
5. Security Breaches: Number of security breaches in a given time period and the resulting impact.
Both leading and lagging indicators are important for understanding the performance of safety, health,
environmental, and security programs. Leading indicators provide early warning signs of potential issues,
while lagging indicators help to measure the overall effectiveness of these programs over time.
Safety, health, and environmental management and audit systems (e.g., ISO 14000, 45001, 19011,
ANSI Z10)
Safety, health, and environmental management systems (SHEMS) are formalized systems designed to
manage and control the risks associated with workplace activities. SHEMS are typically based on
international standards, such as ISO 14000 (for environmental management), ISO 45001 (for
occupational health and safety management), and ISO 19011 (for auditing). These standards provide
guidelines and best practices for organizations to follow to promote a safe and healthy work
environment, while minimizing the impact of their activities on the environment.
An SHEMS audit is a systematic examination of an organization's SHEMS to assess its conformance to
the relevant standards and determine its effectiveness in managing workplace risks. Audits are typically
conducted by independent third-party auditors and can lead to certification, demonstrating the
organization's commitment to safety, health, and environmental performance.
For example, an organization that is certified to ISO 45001 has implemented a formal occupational
health and safety management system that meets the requirements of the standard. This may include
regular risk assessments, employee training programs, and regular monitoring and reporting of safety
performance. Similarly, an organization that is certified to ISO 14000 has implemented a formal
environmental management system that meets the requirements of the standard and is committed to
reducing its environmental impact through a structured approach to environmental management.
Another example of an SHEMS is ANSI Z10, which is a standard for occupational health and safety
management in the United States. It provides a framework for organizations to develop and implement a
comprehensive health and safety management system, and includes guidelines for program

development, implementation, and evaluation. Organizations can use ANSI Z10 as a basis for their
health and safety management program and can also use it as a guide for conducting internal or external
audits to assess their conformance to the standard.
In conclusion, SHEMS and SHEMS audits play a critical role in promoting workplace safety, health, and
environmental performance. By following established standards and best practices, organizations can
minimize workplace risks and demonstrate their commitment to these important issues.
Conducting a safety audit is a systematic process of evaluating an organization's safety management
system and practices to identify opportunities for improvement and ensure compliance with relevant
regulations and standards. Here are the steps for conducting a safety audit:
1. Planning: Define the scope of the audit, identify the audit team members, and establish the
schedule and timeline for the audit.
2. Preparation: Review relevant safety regulations and standards, gather information on the
organization's safety management system and procedures, and develop a checklist of items to be
reviewed during the audit.
3. On-site Assessment: Conduct a thorough examination of the organization's facilities, processes,
and procedures to identify potential hazards and assess compliance with relevant regulations and
standards. This may include reviewing records, observing work practices, and conducting
interviews with employees.
4. Data Collection: Record the findings of the audit, including any hazards or non-compliances
identified, and collect any relevant documentation or evidence.
5. Reporting: Prepare a report that summarizes the findings of the audit, including any
recommendations for improvement. The report should be clear, concise, and provide specific
recommendations for addressing identified issues.
6. Follow-Up: Review the findings of the audit with the organization's management and establish a
follow-up plan to address any identified issues. This may include implementing corrective actions,
retraining employees, or modifying procedures.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation: Regularly monitor the implementation of the follow-up plan and
evaluate the effectiveness of the audit by re-assessing the areas identified for improvement.
It is important to note that safety audits should be conducted by trained and qualified personnel, and that
the audit process should be systematic, thorough, and impartial. Regular safety audits can help
organizations identify and address potential hazards, improve their safety management systems, and
ensure compliance with relevant regulations and standards.
Introduction to Auditing Health and Safety Management Systems
Health and safety management systems refer to the formal structures in place to manage health
and safety in an organization. A management system is a framework of accountabilities to ensure
the following critical components are developed, implemented, and documented:
1. there is an effective health and safety policy.
2. planning occurs to address all aspects of health and safety.
3. effective practices, programs and procedures are implemented.
4. performance is measured and monitored.
5. problems or deficiencies are corrected.
6. the system is evaluated on a regular basis.
Management system audits are designed to evaluate the effectiveness of these complex systems.
Often conducted by external consultants, these audits involve the entire company by assessing the
effectiveness of the processes in place to prevent injuries and improve health and safety in the
workplace. Environmental management system auditing has been well established for many years
with standards such as ISO 14001 well utilized in many industries). Most occupational health and
safety management system standards parallel those of environmental standards, incorporating a
continuous cycle of planning, doing work to meet the standards, checking to validate work done
and acting to improve on performance.
The focus on health and safety management systems has been increasing over the past two decades. A
greater emphasis is being placed upon safety as a close relative to quality. As management strategies
evolved to meet current models, new approaches to managing health and safety began to parallel the
approaches designed to manage continual quality improvement of products and processes. As
companies and organizations became less paternalistic or autocratic in their relationships with
employees, a culture of sharing responsibilities was accompanied by a greater awareness of employee
rights. The promotion of the internal responsibility system (IRS) fostered the understanding of this shared
responsibility. Health and safety issues were often rallying points for unions and employees, who
demanded more attention to this vital area. The workers “right to know”, understand and be protected
from workplace hazards became enshrined in law, and a new era of communication and injury
prevention arrived.
Legislation has become more aggressive in defining the employer as ultimately legally responsible for
worker health and safety; penalties and increased Workers’ Compensation costs have further focused
the attention of company executives on occupational health and safety. Once a delegated OHS
department responsibility and accountability, occupational health and safety has graduated to the status
of being on the radar of company executives and being “everyone’s responsibility”.
For many health and safety professionals, a major focus has traditionally been on the health and
safety programs in their organizations. These are usually developed to facilitate a specific
objective, often compliance with regulations or best practice guidelines. The basic idea is to identify
a prevention-oriented program that is missing and develop and implement it so that it can work in a
specific company. The identification of a missing program is often facilitated through a review of
legislation as well as an analysis of incidents and accidents that a company may have had and
identify what could have been done to prevent them.
These programs typically are almost “stand-alone” programs, though they share some common
features, including a policy with designated accountabilities, forms and other tracking/reporting
documentation, training programs, and follow-up requirements. Often these programs are
designed and managed by occupational health and safety professionals, though in more
progressive organizations, they are “owned” by line management. There are also generic
programs available commercially that are customizable for the organization.
Inspection Programs
A good example of a health and safety program that is often confused with auditing is the
workplace inspection program. Workplace inspections are systematic reviews of processes,
procedures, equipment and materials to ensure that all potential hazards are being controlled.
Generally, the workplace inspection program is developed by health and safety professionals, and
includes a policy that identifies the required frequency of inspections, designation of those
accountable for performing inspections, standardized inspection forms that identify risks that
should be reviewed, classified and corrected, and a reporting and follow-up procedure. In most
cases, senior management is far removed from the inspection process and often is unaware of the
results. Inspections are conducted in specific areas, usually by internal staff.
Health and Safety Management Systems
An occupational health and safety management system is a quality and content control system –
making sure all programs and all aspects of each program are in place and functional at all levels of
the organizations. A key feature of a management system is the system to “close the loops”,
ensuring that all aspects of the activity are carried out, reviewed and acted upon.
As with quality, health and safety in progressive companies is integrated into all aspects of the work. The
infrastructure of accountabilities, program development and implementation, enforcement, and continual
improvement has become the health and safety management system, and underpins the company’s
ability to prevent injuries in the workplace.
Health and Safety Management System Audits Evaluate the OHS Management System
Evaluating health and safety management systems is an important process to ensure that the
fundamental management infrastructure is in place to effectively manage health and safety. Audits
have become a primary tool for assessing the health and safety management system, with the
development of audit protocols and instruments to meet a variety of objectives. An audit is basically
a gap analysis of the status of health and safety management system elements compared to a set
of standards. The set of standards is used as the basis of an audit.
instrument, which describes the standard and often identifies information to be obtained about the
company’s status relative to the standard. A variety of audit instruments exists and ranges from
general to very prescriptive documents. The audit instrument also identifies required validation
techniques for each standard. These usually include an examination of company documents,
interviews with all levels of staff, or direct observation in the workplace, and often a mixture of one
or more of these validation methods is required.
Reasons for Conducting HSE Management Systems Audits
To establish a baseline from which to measure improvements

As a result of a serious incident
To comply with a government order
To demonstrate due diligence
To benchmark with other company branches
As part of a financial incentive program
To enable the company to bid on certain jobs
For public relations purposes
The growth in popularity of auditing has led to a proliferation of audit instruments, auditor
certifications, and certification organizations. In some cases, it is not easy to choose an audit
instrument that is most appropriate for a company’s current management system. Several
industry-specific audit instruments are available. Some instruments provide scores, while others
do not. Some instruments require reports with detailed recommendations; others may require a list
of non-compliances. The challenge is to select an instrument that will be most beneficial in helping
a company improve their health and safety system. This depends on several factors, including the

level of internal OHS expertise, the motivation of the company, requirements for an audit to be
conducted, and the current status of the system. In addition, an organization that is striving to
continually improve may choose increasingly sophisticated audit instruments over time.
Organizational Culture and Auditing
In the introduction section, changes in management style were discussed in terms of their impact on
health and safety management. As organizations and companies have distinct corporate cultures,
health and safety may be managed in different ways over the course of the evolution of the culture.
While audits often provide insight into a company’s culture, the culture also impacts the audit process.
The following table lists several impacts of culture on the audit process:
Impacts of Corporate Culture on the Audit Process
Executive management may be unavailable for interviews if they do not place a priority on
health and safety or value the audit process.
Management may attempt to control the audit process.
Companies with adversarial relationships between management and employees may inhibit
honest interviews.
Executive management may ignore the completed audit report.
In some cases, organizations that have annual audits look for alternatives that may require less
time and inject a fresh perspective on the occupational health and safety management system. If
the organization has a good safety culture and wants to maintain its continual improvement, it may
elect to focus on action plans on years between formal audits. The action plans are used to
supplement and expand upon the audit, by identifying the high priority audit recommendations and
developing detailed action plans, with designated timeframes and accountabilities for
implementation. If a company has specific certification that requires annual audits, this may not be
an option. We will discuss the use of action plans later in this document.
Auditors
The value of an audit is directly related to what the company executive does with the final report.
What the company executive does with the final audit report is directly related to the quality of the
audit. Over the years, many different certification and training programs for auditors have been
developed. The quality of auditors is of paramount importance to the future usefulness of auditing
as a tool to improve health and safety. Audits that are professionally conducted, with reports that
are clear, well written, and accurately reflect the status of the health and safety management
system, will be valued by companies that commission them. Audit recommendations that are
feasible and consistent with company culture are more likely to be implemented. To ensure that
the audit will be valued and lead to improvement for the company, it is critical to select a well-
trained and experienced auditor.
Auditors may be internal auditors or external auditors. The type of audit or the reason the audit is
being conducted may impact the choice of internal or external auditors. External auditors are often
external OHS professional consultants, while internal auditors are often operational experts
working in the company. The following table (Table 4) identifies advantages and disadvantages of
each:

Advantages/Disadvantages of Internal or External Auditors
Professional Auditor - Advantages

• No history with the company
• No vested interest in the audit results
• Familiar with basic OHS regulations and principles
• Trained in audit technical skills (interviews, document review, etc.)
Professional Auditor - Disadvantages
• Not aware of hidden hazards
• May be unaware of industry specific hazards or regulations
• May not understand history of program development
Internal Auditor - Advantages
• Knowledgeable about industry or organization hazards
• Aware of historical information regarding program development
• Understands objectives of organization
• Knows the people
Internal Auditor - Disadvantages
• May be subjective
• Vested interest in the audit results
• May be inexperienced in audit skills
• Position may report to those audited
• May be seen as a policeman
Some employers prefer to use external auditors to conduct their internal audits. Reasons for this include:
• The time and effort required to train (internal) auditors

• The perception of bias of internal auditors who may be auditing their own work
• The value of having a third party assessment
For larger audits, audit teams are often used. Audit teams enable the blending of experience,
industry expertise, and professional auditing skills. Audit teams must have a strong team leader
and be very well coordinated to ensure an efficient and effective audit process.
Several organizations have assumed the role of training and certifying auditors. Auditor certification
usually involves an approved training program where all auditor skills are taught and practiced, an
exam to verify knowledge, a signed code of ethics statement, and the submission of a “qualifying”
audit that is critically reviewed. The organizations that certify auditors usually certify them to use a
specific audit instrument.
Many organizations or associations that train and certify auditors have requirements for refresher training
and certification maintenance. Certification maintenance usually requires the submission of a certain
number of audits over a designated period of time, attendance at regular update sessions, and the
signing of a Code of Ethics. In addition, some certification bodies require certain scores on quality control
reviews.
Personal Attributes of Auditors

Open-minded
Mature
Possess sound judgment
Have good analytical skills
Have tenacity
Ability to perceive situations realistically
Understand complex operations from a broad perspective
Ethics
Honesty
Objectivity
Completeness
Accuracy
Professional conduct
Separation of fact from opinion
Maintain anonymity of interviewees
Confidentiality
Avoid disclosing information gained in audit for personal gain
Avoid conflict of interest
For many certification bodies, disciplinary action is possible for auditors who are deemed to be using
questionable practices or have breaches of ethics. Most certification bodies require the auditor to
sign a Code of Ethics periodically. The Code of Ethics may include quality aspects (as indicated
above), but may also provide specific requirements, such as:
• Prohibiting the auditor from auditing an organization for which he or she has provided program
development and other consulting services for a year prior to the audit.
• Restricting auditors from auditing a company with a key employee who is a close friend or
family member
• Prohibiting auditors from making recommendations with the intent to market additional
services.
Professional auditors may be required to be certified by several different certification bodies to meet
the range of client industries. Some auditors may find it challenging and expensive to maintain many
certifications.
Key Elements of Health and Safety Management Systems
The various Health and Safety Management System audits evaluate several common elements.
Common elements in many health and safety management system audits
Management policies and commitment

Hazard identification and evaluation process
Hazard control process
Work area inspections
Incident reporting, investigations and follow-up
Employee competency
Emergency preparedness
System administration and quality control
Workers’ Compensation Board claims management and return to work processes
Management commitment
The foundation of a health and safety management system is executive management commitment
to the health and safety of workers as evidenced by effective systems in place to prevent workplace
injury and to continually assess and improve health and safety in the workplace.
Indicators of management commitment
A health and safety policy that is current, communicated to employees, promoted, and enforced
Strategic direction that integrates health and safety with quality and production
Health and safety objectives that support the strategic direction
Specific measurable goals to guide improvement in health and safety
Designation of roles, responsibilities, and accountabilities to ensure oversight and compliance
Maintaining health and safety on the management agenda
Supporting employee health and safety performance through individual evaluations, recognition,
and promotion of involvement
Provision of appropriate health and safety resources
A focus on injury prevention and hazard control
Management commitment is demonstrated to employees by:
• Management actions – does management obviously support safety in terms of accountability,

integration of safety into management functions, allocation of sufficient resources, and
consideration in performance appraisals?
• What gets management’s attention – does management review leading and lagging indicators
of performance and activities, does management request proactive health and safety advice
in purchasing decisions, design considerations, etc., does management support a health and
safety management systems audit and provide an action plan to address the
recommendations?
• What doesn’t get management’s attention – is there a tendency to ignore workplace hazards,
housekeeping, equipment failures, reports of health and safety indicators and activities, and
audit reports?
• What management uses to measure and control – is there a greater emphasis on production
and profit at the expense of employee health and safety?
• How management responds to crises – does management attempt to cover up problems or
learn from and correct errors?
Perception surveys have shown that there is often a discrepancy between the employees’
perceptions of safety and management commitment to a healthy and safe work environment and
the perceptions of management of the status of safety in the organization and their own level of
commitment. This discrepancy is also frequently evident in the interview phase of an audit.
In some cases, management support may be superficial. This is evidenced by a lack of management
performance measures related to health and safety system activities and a lack of management roles
and accountabilities in all aspects of the program. True management commitment and support can be
distinguished from “token” support by documented OHS performance measures for all levels of

management, the establishment of OHS goals and objectives, attention to OHS performance metrics,
and the regular review and updating of OHS processes and results.
Hazard identification and evaluation process

This critical element is part of the planning process for hazard control. All potential hazards must
be identified and evaluated to enable the implementation of appropriate control measures. A
documented hazard identification process is key to demonstrating due diligence and is a legislated
requirement in many jurisdictions. Hazard identification is made systematic through the use of
detailed checklists that provide a template for identifying chemical, biological, physical, ergonomic,
and psychosocial hazards. In developing the checklists, health and safety professionals review
legislation, equipment specifications and maintenance documentation, incident reports, speak at
length with workers who perform the tasks, and observe tasks being performed. Both health and
safety hazards should be included in hazard assessments. Many audit instruments require the
assignment of a risk factor for each hazard. This is usually calculated as a function of the
probability of exposure, the severity of consequences of exposure and the frequency that workers
perform the task.
It is important to understand and document the physical requirements for various jobs. Some tasks will
become hazardous if the employee is not able to meet the physical demands of the tasks. Job hazard
analyses and physical demands assessments will assist in the creation of a job hazard inventory, which
will allow for a systematic approach to controlling hazards. In addition, job hazard analyses and physical
demands assessments are also useful in the hiring of qualified staff and in modified work planning for
employees returning to work after an illness or injury. The hazard identification, assessment and control
process should include communication of the information to all staff who occupy the positions assessed.
Hazard control
The major purpose of identifying and evaluating hazards is to determine and implement effective
controls that will minimize employee exposure to the hazards. From the perspective of proving that
an employer is duly diligent in managing health and safety in the workplace, effective hazard
control is a critical requirement. Most health and safety legislation has statements holding
employers accountable for ensuring that everything that is practicable and reasonable is done to
ensure the health and safety of workers. Generally, this means that controls must be employed to
reduce or eliminate exposure.
The traditional approach to classify controls consists of engineering controls, administrative
controls, and personal protective equipment. Examples of engineering controls are local exhaust
ventilation systems, substitution with less dangerous chemicals, and isolating the process.
Administrative controls usually refer to work scheduling, training requirements, and workplace
safety policies and procedures. Personal protective equipment provides a barrier at the employee
interface with the environment. Usually worn by employees, personal protective equipment such
as respirators, gloves, safety clothing is considered the “last line of defense” to worker exposure.
When auditing, it is important to identify the type of control used, as the most effective controls are
engineering or controls at the source, with the least effective controls being PPE or controls at the
worker. Legislation usually requires consideration of the “hierarchy of controls”, with a preference for
controls at the source of the hazard.
Sometimes employers have identified controls but are not diligent in implementing them and enforcing
their use. The auditor is required to verify that the appropriate controls are implemented and in use, often
through a combination of documentation, interviews, and actual observations. Controls also take into
consideration legislated requirements (for example, requirements to have a Code of Practice for specific
hazards or controls). When engineering controls include equipment, a preventive maintenance program
may be necessary. When PPE is required, there may be additional controls related to the selection, use,
fit testing and disposal of the items.
Workplace Inspections
Another control process that assists employers in identifying and correcting hazards is the workplace
inspection process. Many audit instruments include an assessment of the workplace inspection process
as a required element. The standard may require that the process be supported by a policy, with
designated roles, responsibilities, specified inspection frequency, classification of hazards, and follow-up
to identified hazards. Workplace inspections are facilitated by a checklist that covers the site-specific
conditions. Employees familiar with the specific activities conducted at the worksite often develop the
checklists. In most good management systems, the inspection results are documented, with a
classification of the hazards and a designated time frame for corrective action. In addition, a follow-up
procedure is implemented to “close the loop” and ensure that the inspections produce results that are
meaningful in reducing injury in the workplace. Auditors often review inspection reports as part of the
document review and make a list of items that were identified as needing correction, then visit those
areas and verify that corrective action occurred. For example, a deficiency identified on several
consecutive inspection reports signals that the corrective action has not been implemented or is not
effective in controlling the hazard.
Incident reporting and investigation
An effective OHS management system enables the development of injury prevention strategies that are
based on best practices, and also takes into account lessons learned from company experience.
Incidents often result from multiple causes that, when occurring in a series or simultaneously, cause a
breakdown of the control system. To ensure that information about the system breakdown is understood
and utilized to identify effective corrective actions, an incident investigation process is used. The OHS
management system defines the parameters and processes to obtain information and learn lessons from
an incident.
An incident reporting and investigation process requires a policy that identifies responsibilities and
accountabilities, forms, and training programs on incident investigation techniques that direct the
investigator to identify root causes of the incident and formulate recommendations to correct any
deficiencies that contributed to the incident. For greater effectiveness, the policy should require the
reporting and investigation of all incidents resulting in injury or property loss, plus all work-related
illnesses and near miss incidents. In addition, like other health and safety processes, incident
investigation protocols require a mechanism to ensure that follow-up corrective actions occur and that
lessons can be learned through the communication of the investigation findings. As per the audit
process, auditors will review completed investigation reports to determine the quality of investigations
and the ability to effectively identify the root causes associated with the incidents.
Employee Competency
Employees who are competent to perform the tasks are less likely to be injured than those who are not
prepared. OHS management systems must address the issue of employee qualifications, orientation and
training to ensure employees are able to perform their work safely. Generally in this element, the Human
Resources system must ensure that qualified employees are hired for the positions in the company. This
requires an understanding of what qualifications are required, including educational qualifications,
current certifications, trade “tickets”, or physical requirements. These requirements should be
documented for each specific position and verified for each new employee.

Employee orientation should include an understanding of basic safety rights and responsibilities, as well
as information about company safety policies and procedures. Audit instruments may specify information
required in new hire orientation. Examples include the process to report hazards, emergency response
procedures including
location of muster points, and incident reporting requirements. Orientation is an excellent opportunity to
showcase the importance and value of OHS in the organization.
On-going training is also important to ensure that employees are kept current with health and safety
issues and procedures in the workplace.
Manager education is another critical process, as management has ultimate responsibility for health and
safety in the workplace. An effective health and safety management system includes manager education
to ensure managers have the tools necessary to assume this responsibility.
Auditors usually must verify orientation and training by reviewing training materials and attendance lists
to ensure that skill and safety related training is provided to all employees. In addition to general
orientation, job-specific health and safety training is often provided when the employee starts work.
Auditors should verify that employees obtain critical safety information before starting regular work.
Emergency Preparedness
Another factor in injury prevention is minimizing the impact of emergencies in the workplace. Emergency
situations with significant risk may have serious consequences, including property damage and injury or
illness to employees, customers, visitors, and contractors. Being prepared for emergencies enables
quick reaction to protect those who may be impacted by the situation. OHS management systems
provide for the identification of all potential emergencies that may occur at the worksite. This is followed
by a careful development of a response plan, with the identification of those responsible for each aspect
of the response. Communication and practice (drills) of the response are important components of the
emergency response plan. Follow-up to all drills and incidents enables lessons learned to contribute to
improvements. Auditors often verify that first aid plans.
(including the number of trained first aid providers) and equipment are appropriate and that a sufficient
number of emergency response plan drills/exercises are conducted and evaluated for effectiveness.
In organizations where shift work occurs, the auditor must verify that those working all shifts are aware of
the emergency response plans, have opportunities to practice responses (drills) and that adequate
numbers of trained first aiders are available.
System Administration and Quality Control
Responsibilities for the ongoing maintenance of the system are identified in the management system.
Employee participation is a desirable factor and communication is a critical component. Occupational
Health and Safety committees play a significant role in the administration or oversight of the system in
many jurisdictions, with legislated requirements regarding the membership of the committees, roles and
responsibilities of the committee and required training for committee members. Quality control efforts
must review all program aspects and outcomes and provide information for the continuous
evolution/improvement of the health and safety management system.
Management Systems are often described as a continuous improvement cycle of activities, which
includes the setting of standards, the identification of gaps between the current status and what the
standards prescribe, the planning and implementation of work needed to close that gap, the
measurement of program success, and the review/revision of standards. The audit process functions to

address two major components of this cycle – the identification of gaps and the measurement of
program effectiveness.
This is depicted in a well-established PLAN-DO-CHECK-ACT diagram:
Set/Revise
Standard
Measure
effectivenes s Identify
Gaps
Implement Action Develop

Plan A ction Plan
Audit function
Audit instruments
In recent years, the evaluation of health and safety management systems has been demonstrated to be
an effective tool to improve health and safety in the workplace. As a result, there has been increased
interest in both developing audit instruments appropriate to the various industries and in standardizing
the audit instruments to enable more accurate benchmarking. In addition, the evolving merger of the
environment and health and safety functions in many companies has led to a desire to use a common
audit process, and perhaps a common audit instrument, to evaluate both domains. OHSAS 18001, the
US ANSI Z10 and the Canadian CSA Z1000 all utilize a Plan-Do-Check-Act approach introduced in
auditing by the environmental ISO 9000 and 14000 audits.
Audit instruments are tools designed to guide the auditor towards a systematic, standardized review of a
company’s health and safety management system. There is a broad range of instruments available to
the company being audited. The desired outcome of the audit often dictates the content of the questions
and the required validation methods. Some of the desired audit outcomes are listed in the table below.
Possible Audit Report Outcomes
List of conformances/non-conformances
Points awarded as scores on audit elements
Recommendations for program improvement
Gap Analysis comparing status to standards
Compliance verification
Due diligence report

Specific types of audits are conducted based on a company’s desired outcomes. In some cases,
certification bodies may prescribe a specific format and report contents that the auditor must abide by.
Auditors may be required to be certified to use specific audit instruments. Most often, the company
selects the standards and the audit instrument to be used, with the guidance of the auditor. There is
considerable similarity in the OHS Management Systems standards currently in use.
In 2005, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published ANSI Z10, which endorsed the
principles and tool used by OSHA (Voluntary Protection Program).
Key topics covered in ANSI Z10

Management leadership and employee participation
Policy
Accountability
Initial and ongoing reviews
Assessment and prioritization
Implementation plans
Allocation of resources
Hierarchy of controls
Change management
Procurement and contractors
Emergency preparedness
Education, training and communication
Documentation and record control
Incident investigation
Monitoring and measurement
Corrective and preventive actions
Feedback, review and follow-up
OHSAS 18001 is an audit specification document, not a standard. It provides details about what auditors
should be looking for in assessing OHS Management System Elements.
Core OHS Management System elements described in OHSAS 18001

OHS policy
Hazard identification, risk assessment and control
Legal requirements
OHS objectives
OHS roles, responsibilities and accountabilities
Training and communication
Documents and record control
Emergency response
Performance measurement and monitoring
Accident and incident investigation and corrective action implementation
Audit program
Management review
Two general classes of audit instruments are used – the scored instruments and the un-scored
instruments. Within these two classes, audit instruments range in complexity from simple worksheets
with a checklist of items to review to complex forms with detailed verification procedures for each
question. Companies with continuous improvement processes often migrate from simple audit
instruments to more demanding complex instruments over the evolution of their health and safety
programs.
Benefits of Scored Instruments
Enable the tracking and measuring of program improvements

Enable benchmarking among company facilities or branches
Focus on results rather than auditor style
Facilitate objectivity
May require less professional judgment
Meet the requirement for some certifications
Benefits on Un-scored Instruments
Give auditors freedom to address systemic issues

Meet the requirement for some certifications
Allow for auditor-determined weighting of importance of items
Do not specify the numbers of interviews required
Do not result in a focus on “scores”, but rather on findings and recommendations
Overview of the Audit Process

The audit process constitutes a formal, standardized approach to evaluating the effectiveness of the
H&S management system. Each protocol includes specific instructions that must be closely followed. All
audit instruments require that certain information be verified using one or more of three validation
methods – documentation, interviews and observations in the workplace.
The audit process is frequently broken down into three phases – the work done before the audit on-site
activities start, the on-site activities, and the work done after the on-site activities have been completed.
These are often referred to as pre-audit, audit, and post-audit phases, although they are all included in
the term “audit”.
The following diagram depicts the activities conducted in the various audit phases:

Auditor Employer
Activities Activities
Requests
Writes proposal
proposal
Initial meeting/
Selects auditor
clarification of issues PRE-
AUDIT
Writes contract
Writes contract
Communicates
Develops audit plan
with staff
Pre-audit meeting
Pre-audit meeting
Provides
On-site validation –
Documentation,
document review,
interviews, ON-SITE Arranges
interviews and
observation tours (AUDIT) tours
Post audit
Post-audit debriefing
debriefing
Analyzes finding,
complete report POST- Receives report
AUDIT Audit
Audit presentation
presentation
Implements
action plan
Pre-audit Activities
As shown in the diagram above, considerable activity occurs before the on-site phase of the audit. When
an audit is requested, understanding the reason a company wants to have an audit conducted impacts
the auditor’s decision about whether to conduct the audit. Ideally audits are conducted for constructive
purposes, including establishing a performance baseline, benchmarking between company branches,
identifying issues that have impacted safety performance with a view to correcting deficiencies,
measuring improvement, and communicating the importance of health and safety to employees. When
an employer seeks an audit as a result of a compliance order, to be eligible to bid on projects and
contracts, or strictly to obtain a specific score to profit from financial incentives, the auditor must ensure a
clear understanding of the audit process and value. Auditors may be placed under substantial pressure
to give a “passing mark” to an employer, and must avoid conducting an audit in which their objectivity
may be compromised.
The discussion that takes place before the auditor is selected and elects to perform the audit should be
directed towards understanding the motivation for having the audit performed, the scope of the audit,
and the appropriateness of the auditor’s qualifications to conduct the audit requested. The following
issues should be clarified prior to the auditor’s acceptance of the contract:
• The employer’s motivation for requesting an audit
• The industry/products/processes involved
• The number and geographical distribution of facilities or worksites
• The number of employees

• The hours of operation
• Seasonal difference in staff and work
• Completion date required
• OHS Management System standard and audit instrument to be used
• Any potential disruptions to the audit process (strikes, vacations, etc.)
The auditor should be familiar with the employer’s industry and be certified (if required) to use the audit
instrument desired. Auditors are usually trained on the use of specific audit instruments to help address
inter-auditor consistency. Auditor training may be intensive and extensive, or may be a brief refresher
course given periodically. It is particularly critical that, if certification based on the audit results is desired,
the auditor must be qualified and in good standing to utilize the audit instrument.
In addition, the auditor must be available to conduct the size and scope of audit within the requested
timeframe, and be comfortable that he or she will be able to conduct the audit objectively prior to
accepting the contract.
If the company is requesting its first audit, the auditor is best advised to discuss the audit process and
ensure the company understands what is required.
After initial discussion between the company representative and the auditor and the decision is made to
proceed with the audit, the auditor should confirm what was discussed in a proposal letter. The key
components of an audit proposal letter include:
• Introduction
• Identification of health and safety issues of concern to the company
• Choice of audit instrument to be used
• Scope of audit (facilities to be audited, etc.)
• Audit process and schedule
• Sampling strategy
• Audit team (if applicable)
• Administrative details – space required, access, any orientation required, any personal protective
equipment required
• Deliverables, including the format, process and timing of report submissions.
• Fee structure
This letter may serve as the contract if there is a space for signatures and dates. In addition to the
contract, auditors may be required to sign non-disclosure and confidentiality statements.
In some cases, an employer may not be sure the organization is ready to conduct its first audit. An
employer may request that an auditor provide an early warning if it is very clear that the organization is
not ready. Some auditors offer a “readiness assessment” prior to the audit. A readiness assessment
consists of asking questions to ascertain the level of documentation available that could support the
audit requirements. It is not in any way a “pre-audit”, as the quality and quantity of documentation is not
assessed, nor is there any confirming observation or interviewing done. A readiness assessment does
not imply that audit standards will be met, only that there is documentation related to the specific
requirements. A readiness assessment is not usually conducted for an employer that has already had an
audit conducted.

Preparing for the audit

Once the decision is made to conduct the audit, the auditor must determine if an audit team is required.
Generally, if the audit can be conducted with on-site activities of 10 days or less, a single auditor may be
sufficient. If the completion time for a single auditor would be more than two weeks of on-site activities, it
would be wise to consider obtaining assistance. As an audit is considered a “snapshot” of the health and
safety management system, it should not be conducted over a lengthy period of time where the
possibility exists that significant changes occur while the on-site audit activities are in progress.
The auditor is responsible for developing the audit plan, and ensuring all aspects of the audit process are
followed. When an audit team is involved, coordination of the auditors is vital to ensure the most efficient
use of resources and to avoid confusion for the audited company.
The responsibilities of the auditor(s) include the following:
• Communicate and explain audit requirements to the company’s management. This is usually
done in the initial contract discussions, confirmed in writing, and re-stated at the pre-audit
meeting.
• Comply with all audit instrument requirements. These vary by instrument but usually include a
required sampling strategy, compliance with verification methods and scoring, documents
required for submission, and format of the audit report.
• Document all observations, verifying effectiveness of any corrective action taken as a result of
incident investigations, inspections or hazard reports. Specific observation requirements are
supplied in some audit instruments. Effort should be made to avoid random comments during the
observation tours.
• Report results and provide recommendations. This is also a requirement of the audit instrument.
It should be noted that audit instruments vary in their approach towards recommendations. Some
require a specific recommendation for every item in the audit that does not receive 100% of the
possible marks, others expect the auditor to determine general themes and choose a reasonable
number of recommendations. Recommendations are always expected to be feasible and within
the scope of the audit. Some audit instruments require that findings are presented as referenced
observations of conformances or nonconformances and do not permit recommendations.
• Conduct themselves professionally and avoid conflict of interest situations.
• Ensure the audit plan is carried out effectively. This usually requires planning and the
development of information collection tools to ensure that time is spent efficiently.
• Stay within the scope of the audit. The scope of the audit refers to what is actually being
evaluated, both in terms of aspects of the company, as well as specific elements being audited.
The auditor is sometimes tempted to comment on aspects of health and safety that are not being
assessed with the audit instrument. These are considered “out of scope” and should be avoided.
• Report imminent danger situations immediately. Health and safety professionals conducting
audits occasionally find themselves in a situation where they are observing behaviours or
conditions that pose an immediate danger to workers or others. It is their professional
responsibility to report the situation or stop the work. Auditors often identify this issue in their
contract discussions to ensure the employer understands and accepts this position.
• Maintain objectivity.
• Collect and analyze sufficient data. Though an audit instrument often defines the amount of
“sampling” to be done (i.e. the number of documents to review, the number of people to
interview), auditors sometimes are required to increase the data reviewed to ensure that they are
correct in their evaluation. This is particularly the case when the data appears to be contradictory.

Assisting the company with communications

At times, companies experiencing their first audit do not effectively communicate the audit objectives and
process to employees. This may result in a higher anxiety level related to misunderstandings about the
interview process. It is not uncommon in a first audit for employees to perceive that the interviews are
“tests” of their health and safety awareness or knowledge, and some worry about “passing”. Experienced
auditors will address the communication issues with the company contact and may provide the company
with template notices or letters that the company may customize for use prior to the audit. In addition to
providing valuable information about the audit process, a notice to employees from senior management
serves to demonstrate support for the audit process and encourage cooperation from all staff.
Early communications can also alleviate problems that may arise related to confidential information.
Some employers are reluctant to allow auditors to review employee files that may contain training
records or disciplinary notes. Yet these may be required verifications. It can be advantageous to
emphasize the confidentiality agreements that have been signed and to find ways to minimize the impact
of these activities. For example, having a human resources person with the auditor often reduces the
anxiety that may accompany the auditor review of employee information.
The Audit Plan
An audit plan is a written outline defining the parameters of the audit. It is usually developed by the
auditor and approved by both the employer and the auditor. The plan sets forth responsibilities, expected
activities and timeframes, but should remain flexible enough to be modified as a result of information
gathered during the audit.
The audit plan includes the following parameters:
• Audit scope and objectives
• Identified employer contact person
• Identified audit team members (if applicable)
• Identification of audit instrument to be used
• List of required documentation for review
• Date, time, location of on-site audit activities
• Dates and durations of all audit activities
• Statements of confidentiality
• Identification of deliverables – date, media, number of copies, and format of report delivery
Auditors are responsible for ensuring that all audit activities occur on schedule, even if this means
working late or reassigning audit team members. The auditors must take into account and perform audit
verifications for all shifts. There may be many challenges related to scheduling, particularly the
scheduling of interviews. The auditor would be wise to allow for some flexibility in the schedule, as there
may be some “no shows” for interviews, incidents or situations may prevent the observation tour from
occurring as planned, and documentation may not be available (particularly if in electronic format).
Auditor Preparatory Tools
One of the most significant challenges faced by auditors is the organization of all the data that is being
collected.
In many cases, more than one validation method is used to assess the status of compliance to various
standards. Assembling interview notes in a meaningful manner becomes more complicated with
increased numbers of interviews. To ensure the most efficient collection of data, the auditor develops
tools to assist in all phases of the information gathering.

Sampling Tools for Interviews

The ideal way for an auditor to be certain that he or she is accurately assessing the status of the health
and safety management system is to interview all employees and review all documentation pertaining to
the system. However, this is not practical for most companies. Therefore the auditor must take a sample
of available data – a number of people to interview, a number of documents to review, a number of
places to visit – that would be an accurate representation of the whole company. The question faced by
auditors is “how large a sample do I need to be convinced that this is an accurate representation of the
whole company?” Many audit instruments or audit certification organizations have developed sampling
tables that suggest or require “representative” numbers of interviews or documents. These are usually
set as minimum standards; however, the greater the discrepancy in the information collected or the
greater diversity of work being done, the larger the sampling size that will be required to be confident that
a true assessment can be made. The auditor should ask himself this question in determining the correct
sampling size – Is this sample size sufficient to give me the confidence that I am correctly perceiving an
accurate picture of the health and safety management system? The auditor should not rely completely
on the minimum sample size required on audit sampling tables provided by certifying bodies, as this may
be inadequate in providing the auditor with that sense of confidence.
Most sampling for interviews is done using a semi-randomized technique. True randomization means
that every person has an equal likelihood of being selected for an interview. This is not appropriate for
audit interviews, as there are specific individuals who will be required to be interviewed. In a semi-
randomized technique, a stratification of employees by level is first done, as most audit instruments
require interviews with senior managers, frontline managers and employees, as well as contractors. With
this list, specific individuals may be required for interviews, such as the company president, a human
resources person responsible for training, a purchasing department manager, etc. When there are many
persons occupying the same level/occupation, a random selection can be made. The random selection
can be performed in several ways
Audit Communication Tools

Timely communication about the audit strongly impacts the success of the on-site activities. Auditors can
assist the company in communicating the purpose and activities of the audit by providing template letters
that the company can customize. When employees understand how interviews are conducted, the
commitment to confidentiality and the fact that there are “no right or wrong answers”, they are much less
anxious about the interview process and more willing to participate.
The pre-audit and post-audit debriefing meetings are also important tools for communicating about the
audit. The auditor who recognizes this prepares carefully for these meetings.
Field note tools

Comprehensive field notes must justify all evaluation comments or scores. These notes are the
summation of all information collected about a certain topic, including the tally of interview responses or
documents reviewed or observations that support or do not support compliance to the standards.
The format for note taking should be determined before the on-site activities take place. Worksheets for
easy use should be developed and all team members should utilize the same format for taking notes
during interviews, document review and observation tours.
Worksheets should be developed that will assist the auditor in integrating information collected through
interviews, document review and observation. These worksheets should also provide a mechanism to
indicate what follow-up audit activities may be necessary to validate the various aspects/elements
audited.
Some electronic instruments have very specific formats for documenting field notes, and some certifying
bodies have specific requirements as to the format and terminology that should be used in field notes.
Electronic tools
In recent years, there has been a move to develop and use electronic audit tools. Some of these are
useful for data collection, including checklists that are adapted to handheld electronic devices. There are
also several audit instrument software packages associated with specific instruments that assist the
auditor in collecting and organizing data, scoring elements, and writing recommendations. While there
are many benefits to using these and they may well prove to be extremely popular in the future, the
auditor should not rely exclusively on these devices and programs to produce the audit report.
Professional judgment is a critical skill in auditing and a “cookie cutter” approach may stifle individuality
and style in the audit report. With some electronic instruments, common errors are reduced. For
example, instruments that automatically calculate scores or ensure that the correct validation methods
are used can be very helpful. Electronic instruments often are beneficial in amalgamating results from
multiple auditors in a team.
Preparing to go on-site.
Once the tools that the auditor will use during the audit are completed, the auditor also ensures that all
required equipment is brought to the site. This may include personal protective equipment, specific
legislation that will be referenced, all worksheets and checklists that have been created, the interview
schedule, a watch or clock, note paper, and a calculator. In addition, the auditor may find it useful to
bring a computer and a camera. In some companies, the auditor is considered a “contractor”; in others, a
“visitor.” The auditor should note what orientation is provided for him or her (or the audit team) and what
rules must be followed, as this is a good indication of how contractor and visitor safety is managed.
Audit Team Communication
There are many advantages to using a team to conduct an audit. The availability of team members with
varied backgrounds and experience can ensure that an objective understanding of the health and safety
management system occurs and can strengthen the thought and discussion processes in the developing
of recommendations. The time required to complete an audit will be reduced with an audit team.
However, the use of an audit team also poses significant challenges. Communication must occur on a
regular basis to ensure that there is no redundancy of work, that issues that surface are dealt with
quickly, and that trends that may require additional data collection or communication with company
officials are discussed. The audit team leader is responsible for the coordination of all audit activities and
for ensuring a good communication system is in place for the auditors. Specific instructions to team
members about the format of notes will facilitate the report writing. Requiring auditors to input data on a
daily basis into prepared worksheets or electronic audit instruments will provide the lead auditor with the
overview of the audit as it progresses, and provide an opportunity to intervene early if necessary. Team
“check-in” points or regular meetings are also useful for keeping the audit process on-track and
identifying and correcting any logistics problems before they seriously impact the process.
The “kick-off” Meeting
The formal introduction of the company to the audit process first occurs at an opening meeting (the “kick-
off meeting”) usually on the first day the auditors are on site. This meeting establishes the tone of the
audit and contributes to ensuring the cooperation of company personnel. The company usually selects
those invited to attend the meeting. In addition to the audit team, this group may include senior
management, frontline managers, internal health and safety staff, representatives of frontline workers
(including unions), and/or health and safety committee members. The meeting serves to initiate the on-
site audit activities, familiarize those attending with the audit instrument and activity timetable, introduce
the auditor(s), and provide an opportunity for participants to have questions answered. The opening
meeting is approximately 30 minutes to 90 minutes long, depending on the client’s level of familiarity with
the audit process. At this point, employees and managers should already be prepared for the audit; they
should have received communication, been scheduled for interviews, and submitted required
documentation for review. The opening meeting presents an opportunity to respond to any questions and
clarify any issues. The auditor can often gauge the level of support for the audit process as well as the
organization’s communication strategy and culture in the opening meeting. A typical opening meeting
agenda is shown below:
Opening Meeting Agenda
1. Introductions
2. Purpose and scope of audit
3. Audit instrument – major areas covered
4. Validation methods Documentation
Interviews
Observation
5. Confidentiality and privacy issues
6. Imminent danger and other tour issues
7. Audit schedule
8. Audit deliverables
9. Questions and answers
As with any formal meetings, success depends upon good planning and preparation. If there is a formal
presentation, the auditor(s) should prepare slides that follow the agenda, and should anticipate potential
questions and prepare responses. Often a discussion with the company contact person will provide
information about the attendees at the meeting that will enable the auditor(s) to address specific issues
of interest to them.
Attendees may ask a variety of questions at the opening meeting. The types of questions asked are
often a reflection of the level of awareness about the auditing process and may sometimes reflect
individual agendas.
Examples of questions/comments an auditor should be prepared to address
1. Why is it necessary to observe various sites? Isn’t one site visit enough since we all do the same
thing? The auditor is auditing the organization as a whole. In many cases, environmental
conditions at sites may vary considerably. Site management may differ in implementing policies
and procedures.
2. Why do you have to speak to our contractors? They have their own safety programs. A health
and safety management system works to ensure that all aspects of health and safety are
managed. Auditors are not assessing the contractors’ safety programs during the audit, but are
verifying that there are adequate safety requirements provided by the employer’s contractor
safety program.
3. What if someone has a bone to pick with management and fabricates stories? Auditors are
trained to interview an adequate number of people to feel confident that they see a true picture of
the organization.
4. What if our employees do not speak English well? It may be necessary in some cases to have an
interpreter present.

5. Our senior management team is very busy and doesn’t have time for interviews. Management
commitment is the underlying element in health and safety management systems audits; it is
important for senior management to demonstrate and reinforce that commitment by participating
in audit interviews.
6. What if we fail the audit? Audits provide recommendations for improvement in each audit
element. A company that does not pass its audit should be encouraged to develop an action plan
to implement the recommendations. In some cases, when a company narrowly misses the cut-off
for a “pass”, there may be processes in place for a limited scope audit. A limited scope audit
addresses the element(s) that did not achieve a “pass”.
7. What if we pass the audit – what are the next steps? It is important for a company that has
passed its audit to continue improving its management system. This can be done by
implementing audit recommendations. When a company attains high results on several audits, it
may want to consider other audit instruments with a greater scope.
8. What type of reward will we receive if we pass the audit? This depends on the reason for the
audit and the type of audit. A passed compliance audit may provide validation that required
processes are in place. An audit may lead to a “Certificate of Recognition” or similar rewards;
these may be useful in advertising for the company, in qualifying to submit a bid for work, or in
monetary rewards depending upon the type of audit.
Documentation
One of the three critical validation processes used in health and safety system auditing is the review of
company documentation. Documents provide an evidence trail that may prove that a company is or is
not duly diligent in protecting the health and safety of workers. For all elements of a health and safety
system that are evaluated by auditing, certain basic documents are required to describe the system.
Policies, procedures, and guidelines are reviewed to determine what the company’s expectations are. As
a validation method, documents are reviewed to ensure they contain critical elements and to help identify
specific aspects of the system that will be validated by other methods. For example, if a policy identifies
that managers are required to correct deficiencies identified in incident investigation reports, the auditor
will review completed investigation reports, noting the corrective action required and will then verify that
the corrective action occurred by observation. In a similar vein, if the policy states that all employees
must wear eye protection, this is validated by interviewing employees and also by observing that they do
indeed wear the required personal protective equipment.
Two major classifications of documents are reviewed in the audit. These are “directive documents” that
describe what should be done and how it should be done, and “operational records” that document what
actually occurs in the company. This is an important distinction because it enables an auditor to
distinguish between the company’s intent and its practice. Companies often develop good policies,
procedures and guidelines that would effectively create and maintain a healthy and safe workplace, but
actual practices may be quite different from those required in the directive documents. This gap in the
application of the directive documents sometimes leads to unsafe conditions and actions. Examples of
related directive documents and operational records are provided in the following table:
DIRECTIVE DOCUMENTS OPERATIONAL REPORTS
Occupational/Environmental health and safety

policy

Statement of Management Commitment • Minutes from management meetings

• Review of management communiqués about
health and safety
• Current goals and objectives
• Bulletins/ newsletters from management
• Data/reports presented to senior management
Roles and responsibilities statements • Job descriptions
• Performance evaluations
Hazard identification policies and procedures • Completed hazard assessment forms

• Attendance lists for hazard assessment
• Hazard reports
Hazard control policies and procedures • Maintenance records for engineering controls
• Training records for personal protective
equipment use and maintenance
• Respirator fit-testing records
• Safe Operating Procedures
• Hazard report follow-up
• Occupational hygiene reports
Health and Safety Committee Terms of Reference • Minutes of meetings
• Attendance lists from meetings
• Follow-up to resolutions or issues discussed
Orientation and training requirements • Orientation material and checklists

• Orientation attendance lists
• Training records
• Completed examinations or tests
Hiring policies and procedures • Completed checklists

• Pre-placement health assessment records
• Criminal records checks
Inspection policy, procedures and forms • Completed inspection reports

• Follow-up reports
• Inspection training records
Incident reporting and investigation procedures • Completed incident investigation reports

and forms • Follow-up reports for correction of deficiencies
• Incident investigation training records
Emergency response plans • Current lists of trained First Aiders

• Emergency response drill reports
• Emergency response records
The company safety manual is often a compilation of the company’s directive documents and sets forth
the expectations for how health and safety should be managed. Directive documents are frequently
found on the company website. How a company implements and enforces the policies and procedures is
assessed by reviewing the operational records. Operational records may be maintained in many different
locations, both centrally and in specific departments. The auditor usually supplies a list of required
documentation to the company contact, who gathers it from various sources for the auditor. Often the
company contact attempts to select the specific records for the auditor. An auditor may be presented
with “examples” of completed hazard assessment or inspection of incident investigation documents, and
has no way to validate that these are representative “samples”. In addition, a few samples rarely
suffices to validate the quality of a process overall, especially in a larger organization. The auditor must
make the sampling requirements known to the company contact, and be very clear on the number and
type of documents to be provided to ensure that a representative sample is examined as part of the
documentation reviews.
At times, the auditor will need to review the operational reports at the specific department. For example,
training records may be maintained by the department manager or maintained centrally; MSDS binders
are usually kept at the department level; hiring and orientation records may be housed in the Human
Resources department or by the department manager.
In the increasingly common situation where records are maintained solely electronically, the auditor often
must have access to the company’s internal website and record files. In this case, the auditor should
identify required types of documentation and request access to the electronic files. Usually, a company
representative will assist the auditor by guiding him or her through the electronic documentation system
and allowing access to individual files. The auditor should ensure that field notes are complete, as he or
she may not have the opportunity to revisit the electronic files.
Conducting the Document Review
Many auditors choose to conduct the document review at the initial stage of data collection. This enables
the auditor to make notes for required follow-up to verify that corrective action has taken place, and
allows for a more efficiently conducted audit. There is no required format for the document review
process. The critical task is to ensure that sufficient documentation is reviewed so that the auditor is
confident that the documentation is representative and reflects the company’s health and safety system
accurately. Auditors may choose to schedule the document review to occur all at once, or in segments
over the course of on-site activities,
Where significant numbers of records exist (as in incident reports, inspection reports, etc.) the auditor
must use a sampling strategy to determine which specific documents will be reviewed.
These same tools as those previously discussed for interview selection can be utilized when there are
large numbers of documents to review. All available reports may be given a number, and the auditor can
select a sample using a random sampling technique. In a very large audit, the auditor may randomly
select departments from which to review records, such as training records or inspection reports. An
additional technique for selecting documents is called “chronological blocks”. For this technique,
documents created in a specific time frame are reviewed. For example, if a company has 100 incident
reports, the auditor may choose to review all incident reports for January, April, July, and October. The
larger the number of documents, the smaller the time periods that are chosen. When selecting
documents for review, the auditor should include records over a period of time, usually a year, to enable
a review of the follow-up that occurred. If an audit is conducted in October, for example, reviewing
incident investigation or workplace inspection reports from earlier in the year allows the auditor to verify
the length of time taken for corrective actions to be implemented.
Even if the document review is conducted as the first step in the on-site activities, auditors often request
that the documentation remain available throughout the course of the on-site activities. This allows the

auditor to go back and verify specific issues that may be brought up in the course of interviews or
observations.
For team audits, it is usually most efficient to have the entire team review the documentation, as the
understanding of the system as designed and implemented enables more effective interviews and
observation tours. Some audit teams assign responsibilities for specific audit elements to individual
auditors. Though all audit team members review the documentation, the individual auditors may be
responsible for validating the specific elements they are assigned and writing the relevant field notes for
those elements.
As the documentation is reviewed, the auditor should maintain good notes that will help justify scores or
findings.
A closer look at the documents
When reviewing documents, the following aspects should be considered:
What to look for in reviewing documents
The quality and contents of the documents

The date the document was created and/or reviewed
Time/frequency requirements in documents
The communication surrounding the document
The life cycle or travel path
The specificity of documents
Quality and contents

In many audit instruments, specific elements are required to be present in the documents. For example,
an audit instrument may specify that incident investigation policies and procedures require the
identification of the root cause of incidents; worksite inspection policies include risk classification and
follow-up process; emergency response plans include emergency contact information, and health and
safety policies be signed by the current senior operating officer. Auditors must follow the audit
instructions to ensure that they can justify their evaluation of the documents.
As the auditor reviews the documentation, it is useful to make lists of corrective action items that were
identified in inspection reports and incident investigations. This list could then be used during the
observation tour to verify that corrective action occurred.
Currency of documents
The documents should be current. In many companies, directive documents such as policies remain in
effect for a long time, while procedures may change more frequently to reflect internal processes. A
process should be in place for periodic review of policies and procedures. When there is no “expiry” date
for policies and procedures, the auditor considers whether the document is still applicable. In the case of
general polices, a change in senior management signals the need for a review and reaffirmation of the
policy contents.
Time and frequency requirements
In many policies and procedures, specific timeframes or frequency requirements are specified. Examples
include requirements for worksite inspections at a specified frequency, an allocated time frame for
correction of deficiencies, a specified number or frequency of health and safety committee meetings, a
specified frequency of emergency response drills, etc. The auditor notes these requirements in the
directive documents, and verifies that they are met in the operational records.
Communication
Effective communication of policies and procedures helps to ensure that employees are aware of them.
The auditor reviews how the communication occurs and the availability of the documents to employees.
This may include the use of the company’s internal web site.
Life cycle of documents
The life cycle or travel path of documents refers to how documents originate, where they go and what is
done with them from their creation until they are filed or considered complete. For many documents, the
travel path is lengthy and sometimes complex.
Document specificity
When reviewing directive documents, auditors sometimes encounter very detailed policies, procedures
and manuals that appear to be generic “off-the shelf” documents. With so many commercial suppliers of
programs available, many companies have purchased programs to meet their needs and have
customized these ‘model documents” to avoid the effort required developing company specific programs.
Benefits of accessing these prepared materials include the avoidance of having to “start from scratch”
and the confidence that legal requirements will be addressed. However, these “off-the-shelf” programs
are sometimes not customized by the company being audited, and, as a result, are not seen as pertinent
to the company, which may result in workers not reading or following them. In fact, some of these
commercially available programs are placed in binders that are kept on shelves or filing cabinets and
brought out only during the audit. The auditor usually can identify when this is the situation by reviewing
the contents of these documents to see if there has been any customization to make them applicable to
the company. For example, if a company’s safety manual contains policies for confined space entry or
forklift safety and there are no confined spaces or forklifts on the sites, the auditor may suspect that an
“off-the-shelf” program has not been appropriately customized.
The auditor should keep an open mind when requesting or reviewing documents. A flexible approach is
necessary, as a company may use different terminology than the audit instrument uses. For example,
some companies do not have “policies”, but rather have company “standards” that fulfill the same
requirement. Another example is the use of the term “inspection”. Some companies may refer to
inspections as “safety checks” or use other terms. The auditor should keep in mind the intent of the
question.
Interviews
Validating the health and safety system particulars relies heavily on interviewing all levels of staff and
employees, as well as contractors who may be working on site. This reliance on interviews is one of the
key factors differentiating the health and safety management system audits from the environmental
management system audits. One major reason for this is that the impact of an environmental
management system is seen to be the environment or legislative compliance to environmental laws,
whereas the impact of a health and safety management system is on the health and safety of those who
work in the company.
With established management commitment to the health and safety system and good communication
processes, the interviewing process should parallel and validate the document review and observation
processes. If, on the other hand, documentation defines a process that has not actually been
implemented, interviews and observations are likely to show disparate results from the documentation
review.

The following table lists the key outcomes of interviews as part of the audit process.
Outcomes of the Interview Process
Confirmed validation of documentation and observations

Compliance with audit instructions regarding validation methods
Provision of a human perspective and verbal account of the system
Representative sampling providing information quickly
Evidence of system impacts on employees
Interviewing Skills
The skilled auditor is an effective communicator. Audits require interviews with all levels of staff and the
auditor is responsible for facilitating the discussion with each interviewee in such a manner that the
interviewee is able to speak frankly and openly about the health and safety management system and
does not feel “interrogated” or pressured to respond in specific ways.
The auditor recognizes that different personalities come into play in an organization, and that roles and
experiences influence how the interviewees respond. Language and cultural considerations also impact
the interview process, and the skilled auditor develops a communication style that will be flexible and
adapt to the individual circumstances presented in the interviews.
The preparation or lack of preparation by senior management also impacts the perception of the
interview process even before it begins. It is not uncommon to discover that employees have been told
little about the audit purpose and process and appear at the interviews in a somewhat anxious state,
fearing that they might “fail” what they perceive to be a test of their safety knowledge. On the other end
of the scale, employees may have been coached as to what to say in the interviews. When interviewees
arrive for interviews with the same Questions & Answers printed out, it is reasonable to assume that the
employees are being “coached” in their answers. The auditor uses communication skills to put the
interviewees at ease and obtain information that reflects the individual’s true experience with the health
and safety program and management system.
Interview questions
Audit instruments vary in the provision of interview questions. Many instruments leave the formulation of
questions up to the auditor, with the understanding that the auditor must ask questions that will enable
him or her to validate specific audit elements. Some instruments provide a list of questions to ask each
level of employee in the organization and cross-reference the questions to the specific audit elements.
While this appears to greatly assist the auditor, it sometimes has the opposite effect, in that auditors
(particularly inexperienced auditors) may rely heavily on the list of questions and proceed through them
without enough personalization to make the questions relevant or understandable to the interviewee.
Auditors also may become caught up in “checking off” the questions and hardly listen to the responses.
Interviewees may feel that they are being bombarded with questions and lose the perception that this is
a discussion. Auditors should view questions supplied with an audit instrument as a guideline only and
they should formulate questions in ways that are meaningful to the interviewee.
When choosing interview questions, the auditor must consider the interviewee and at what level the
interviewee experiences the health and safety program. For example, asking an employee who has been
working for the company for 20 years about the contents of new hire orientation may not be fruitful.
Auditors often target employees for more specific information based on their experience. Examples
where this is useful include asking questions about incident investigation to employees who have had
reported incidents, asking health and safety committee members about the OHS committee processes
and activities, and asking employees hired within the past year about their hiring and orientation
experience.
Interview Planning
The interview process consists of preparing for the interviews, conducting the interviews, and
summarizing results. Preparing for the interviews includes identifying those who will be interviewed.
Factors to be considered in an interview plan are shown in the following table.
Factors Considered in the Interview Plan
Size, structure and geography of the organization

Hours of operation of company/ number of shifts
Seasonal workers
Length of interviews
Type of interviews (individual, group, questionnaire)
Order of interviews
Background information about departments and employees
Location of interviews
Key questions for various types of employees
Recording information from interviews
Confidentiality of interviews
Selection of interviewees
Size, structure and geography of the organization

To ensure that a representative sample of employees is interviewed, the auditor must take into account
the number of people who work in the company, the locations of company facilities, the major
processes/products/services of each facility, the shifts that are worked, any seasonal worker fluctuations,
if unions are present, the utilization of contractors, and any site-specific health and safety concerns.
Length of interviews
The length of each interview will vary depending upon the number of questions required to validate audit
elements and the position of the interviewee as able to provide the required information. Generally,
frontline staff is interviewed for 20-30 minutes, and management for a somewhat longer period. The
longest interviews are usually held with professional members of the health and safety department and
the health and safety committee, who are more knowledgeable about the program details. These
interviews can last an hour or more.
Type of interviews (individual, group, or written questionnaire)
The most effective type of interview is the face-to-face, one-on-one interview. With these interviews,
interviewees are generally more comfortable and are better assured of confidentiality of the information
they chose to share. These interviews also allow the auditor to rephrase questions in several ways, if
necessary, and to check that the employee understands the question. Occasionally, a one-on-one
interview may require the presence of an interpreter.
Group interviews are sometimes useful for obtaining information from health and safety committees or
health and safety staff. The auditor is cautioned that people sometimes edit their comments when they

are in a group, so there may be individuals who are particularly quiet during group interviews who may
be more expressive if interviewed alone.
Some audit instruments permit the use of written questionnaires for a certain percentage of the worker
interviews. While this appears to be an effective mechanism to collect individual perceptions from an
employee base that may be unavailable at a specific location (drivers for trucking companies, etc.), the
questionnaire process has limitations. There is no opportunity to probe responses more fully or
paraphrase questions to ensure understanding; literacy, penmanship, and writing styles impact
responses and may pose difficulties for the auditor in reading and interpreting the responses; and
employees may not trust the level of confidentiality, given that they have provided a written document.
For the auditor, the use of questionnaires does not significantly reduce the length of time required for
interviews, as the auditor must review each questionnaire in detail and make field notes in a similar
fashion as for in-person interviews. This is complicated by the limitations mentioned above. In addition, a
certain number of interviewees may choose to not send in their completed questionnaires, affecting the
sampling size.
Order of interviews
Most auditors prefer to interview senior management first and then work down the hierarchy based on
the organizational chart. This is not always possible, as the interviews are scheduled to be least
disruptive to operations. In addition, senior management availability may impact the schedule. For shift
workers, it is often most efficient for the auditor to conduct interviews during the various shifts.
Background information about departments and employees
The auditor prepares for the interviews by reviewing information about the department and individuals to
be interviewed (such as their roles and responsibilities, length of service with the company, and any
special considerations that may have led to the targeting of the employee for the interview).
Location of interviews
Interviews should be conducted in locations that provide a quiet, non-threatening atmosphere where
confidentiality can be assured. For workers, this is often in a meeting room near the work area; for
management staff, interviews are often conducted in their own offices.
Key questions for various types of employees
Questions to validate various audit elements are designed for senior management, management,
supervisory staff, workers, and contractors. All questions cannot be answered by all those interviewed,
as their roles and responsibilities bring expectations of awareness of different aspects of the element. In
audit instruments that provide prepared questions, the questions are usually broken down into groups to
be used with the various levels of management and staff. For those auditors designing their own
questions, it is important to look at the interview validation requirements, which may specify, for example,
that a majority of supervisors must respond positively to validate a specific question.
Recording information from interviews
Novice auditors often make the mistake of thinking that they will remember what an interviewee has said
during the course of the interview. This, coupled with a level of inexperience in writing notes while
conducting the interview, often leads to insufficient information being recorded. The auditor must take
sufficient notes to be able to reconstruct the response and to ensure that examples provided by the
employee are available to justify the final evaluation or score. Interviewees should be made aware of the
auditor’s need to take brief notes. The notetaking should not dominate the interview process, but should
complement it. Experienced auditors have learned to use symbols and brief “trigger” words that will
enable a more descriptive summary to be written later.
In general, interviewees do not feel comfortable having their interviews taped, nor do they feel a personal
connection when the auditor is typing responses into a computer as the interview progresses. Some
electronic instruments encourage the taking of interview notes directly into a computer. In this case, the
auditor may choose to use this method, but may also choose to facilitate a more personal connection by
taking written notes and completing the electronic interview note section in between interviews.
Confidentiality of interviews
The auditor assures the interviewee that all responses will be kept confidential. This implies that
interviewee names are not disclosed, nor is any information provided on the audit report that would
suggest the interviewee as an obvious source (e.g., when there is a small department, or a unique
position referred to).
Selection of interviewees
The selection of interviewees was addressed earlier in this guide. Auditors must understand the
organizational structure, the roles and responsibilities, work schedules, and the numbers of all levels of
employees to ensure a representative selection is made for interviews. In addition to having a
representative sample for interviews, the auditor may be required to have a flexible approach to selection
of interviewees. In some case, the nature of the work may lead to the interviewees being selected on the
day of the interview rather than booked in advance. In this case, the auditor must ensure that the
appropriate types and levels of employees are selected. The company contact usually provides
assistance in the selection and scheduling of interviewees, bearing in mind the required levels, the
employee schedules and workloads, and the need for any targeted interviews.
Conducting interviews
In conducting the interview, the auditor must balance the need to obtain specific information with the
need to ensure that the interviewee is comfortable and is speaking openly. For some auditors, this is a
challenge, as the auditor may become side-tracked by trying to make the interviewee comfortable. The
quality of the interview impacts its outcome, which should be the recording of relevant information while
instilling confidence in the interviewee that the information they are providing is useful and will be kept
confidential. The more experience an auditor has with interviewing, the more easily the interviews
proceed. Interviews generally have three phases – the Opening, the Questioning, and the Closing.
Interview Phases
OPENING QUESTIONING CLOSING
Clarification
Introduction Questions
Reflection
Explanation Listening
Transition
Opening Phase
The beginning of the interview often foretells its success. The interviewee must feel comfortable in the
interview location, have time to collect his or her thoughts and make the transition from work activity to
focus on the audit. The auditor also needs to make the transition from the last interview (or other activity
they were conducting) and focus on the interviewee’s needs, initial attitude and concerns.
The auditor sets the tone for the conversation in the introductory comments. He or she tries to put the
interviewee at ease by making eye contact, asking him or her to take a seat, asking questions about
where the employee works and what his or her job is, and generally establishing a good rapport. The
auditor proceeds with providing an explanation of the interview process, assuring confidentiality, and
explaining that the auditor will be taking notes during the interview. If the auditor notices that the
interviewee is anxious, this explanation may take longer, and the interviewee should be assured that the
interview is not a test and there are no “correct” or “incorrect” answers.
The auditor then transitions the interview to focus on the specific questions that will be asked. An initial
question often used in this transition is an open-ended “Would you please describe your work activities
and how you are involved in health and safety?” This sets the stage for the more detailed questions that
follow.
Questioning Phase
The auditor must be vigilant about the duration of the various phases of the interview. Effort is often
required to ensure that all required questions are asked in the designated time frame of the audit. An
experienced auditor usually prefers to ask some broad general questions, and then, taking into account
the interviewee’s understanding of the health and safety system, delve into more detail to answer
specific audit questions. For example, the auditor may ask the interviewee to describe how health and
safety is managed in the company. From that question, the auditor can probe specific roles and
responsibilities, how these are monitored and evaluated, and how workers are made aware of their
responsibilities.
It is not usually possible or advisable to ask each employee all the questions required by the audit
instrument. The pace would be too quick and both the employee and the auditor would likely feel too
rushed. The auditor should determine what questions will be asked of each employee, making sure that
there are sufficient responses to each question to enable the auditor to be confident that he or she is
obtaining a representative sample. There are some questions that will be best addressed by specific
groups of employees. For example, when asking questions related to the orientation program for newly
hired workers, the auditor will want to ensure that these questions are posed to employees hired within
the past year. Questions related to work conducted by health and safety committees should be
addressed to committee members. One question that is quite useful to ask any or all employees is a
good one on which to end, “What improvements would you recommend for the company’s health and
safety program?” This may provide information that is not uncovered in the specific interview questions,
provides good suggestions that may be integrated into recommendations, and reaffirms that the
employee’s interests and suggestions are sought and valued.
A critical aspect of interviewing is the posing of open-ended questions. These are questions that are not
answered with a simple yes or no, but require the interviewee to provide more detailed information. The
auditor is often challenged by the requirement to give sufficient time to the interviewee to collect thoughts
and respond completely to the question. Novice auditors sometimes become impatient and push the
interviewee to respond quickly (and often incompletely). There is a need to balance quantity and quality
of information; auditors are well cautioned to ensure that they actually listen to the responses and avoid
asking “leading questions” that telegraph the expected answer to the interviewee. This is more likely to
occur later in the interview schedule, as the auditor gains confidence that he or she is obtaining an
accurate picture of the status of the health and safety system. The auditor must stay focused on the
interview and not assume or predict the interviewee’s responses. The novice auditor is less likely to
actively listen to the response of a question, but instead listens for key words that will allow the auditor to
mark the question as having a positive or negative response, and focus his or her attention on asking the
next question. Active listening encourages the interviewee to provide more complete information.
Tips for Active Listening

Maintain eye contact
Summarize what the interviewee has said
Be aware of emotional words and tone of voice
Avoid disruptions or interruptions
Take notes
Paraphrase to confirm understanding
Taking notes is both a way to ensure active listening, and a critical technique for recording information.
Given the need to identify specific issues for follow-up, auditors frequently develop a short hand notation
system that includes symbols to identify what must be checked or followed up upon, or what may be
useful for recommendations.
Interviewing people gives rise to a variety of potential issues that are common in all types of human
communication. This includes experiencing a wide range of personality types, motives, perceptions, and
communication styles. In addition to interviewee communication factors, auditors also have personalities
and styles that impact communication. The experienced auditor knows how to read “body language”,
how to avoid telegraphing their own impressions and feelings, and how to identify and deal with
resistance, anger, fear, and other emotions.
As the auditor chooses those to be interviewed, it sometimes happens that the interviewee is an
unwilling participant. This can occur when the individual is fearful that what they say will not be held in
confidence, when there is a history of animosity towards the employer, when the labour relations climate
is stressed, or when the employee resents being chosen for an interview. Resistance can be displayed in
a number of ways. The interviewee can simply refuse to answer specific questions, purposely give an
answer which does not address the question asked, ask the auditor to repeat the question several times,
or display anger towards the employer and sidetrack the interview into personal issues. In all shows of
resistance, the auditor must respect the interviewee, restate the commitment to confidentiality, and steer
the conversation back to the desired interview questions.
Auditors are responsible for keeping the interview on track. This is not always easy, both because time is
limited, and because communication styles vary considerably. Critical questions must be asked in all
interviews; this means that the auditor must find ways to gently lead the conversation back to the critical
issues. It is not always the interviewee who diverts the interview - chatty auditors are also guilty of
causing the interview to go off track.
Closing Phase
The auditor should move into the closing phase of the interview in the last 4-5 minutes. Recapitulating
what has been said in the interview is a good way to ensure that the information gathered is correct and
the auditor has summarized the critical points correctly. The auditor looks quickly back through his or her
notes, summarizing the main points, especially those that he or she indicated by symbols as items to
check back on, follow-up with, or make recommendations about. This form of paraphrasing also ensures
the interviewee that the auditor has captured what he or she was saying.
Once the summary is completed, the auditor asks the interviewee if he or she has any questions, and
lets the interviewee know how the information collected will be used, describes the next steps for the
audit, and provides the interviewee with contact information should there be any questions. Interviewees
sometimes ask questions related to the availability of the results. It is best to clarify that with the
company contact person prior to the start of the interview process. Some organizations make the entire
audit available to employees, some provide a summary, and others provide access only to management
staff.
The auditor ends the interview on a positive note, and thanks the employee for his or her participation
and valuable input into the audit process.
The auditor should allow at least five to ten minutes between interviews to make any summary notes
necessary and allow for a transition to the next interview. Interviews that are properly conducted, with the
auditor fully “present” and engaged in active listening, are tiring; more than about ten interviews in a day
can leave the auditor quite exhausted. The experienced auditor paces himself/herself well and
sometimes interjects site visits or rest periods between groups of interviews.
Site Tours – Familiarization Tour
The auditor normally has two site tours during the course of the audit. The first most often occurs early in
the audit, usually on the first day, following the kick-off meeting. The purpose of this tour, called the
“familiarization tour” is to enable the auditor to have an overview of the facility, what processes are
conducted, where and how employees are working, and the general layout of the plant. The auditor
forms first impressions about how the health and safety system functions, as it is demonstrated by the
housekeeping, orderliness, and lack of clutter and congestion. Whether employees heed rules for
wearing personal protective equipment and following safe work practices is sometimes readily apparent
in the familiarization tour. This tour also sheds light on the style and content of management
communication about safety in the workplace. This is not a very extensive, detailed tour, but rather an
overview, through which the auditor should become familiar with aspects listed in the following table.
The Familiarization Tour – Desired Outcomes
Logic and history of facility layout

Outdoor versus indoor activities of the workplace
Location of areas of major activities including administrative functions, operations, laboratories,
shipping and receiving, etc.
Locations of fixed and mobile equipment
Storage areas
Location of sources of environmental emissions
Locations of electrical and mechanical facilities and controls
Location of exits and evacuation paths
Locations where health and safety documents are kept or available.
The auditor should wear the appropriate personal protective equipment in all work areas visited during
the familiarization tour.
The auditor uses the five senses (Figure 5) to obtain a clear picture of the environment in a short period
of time. Some of the observations that reflect on the health and safety management system include the
following.

Eyes:
Cleanliness
Signage
Spills
PPE use
Nose:
Ears: Smells
Noise
Employee
remarks Auditor’s Senses
Warnin g s Active during
Observation Tours
Mouth: Touch:
Tastes Vibration
The auditor obtains an overview of the organization during the familiarization tour. Environmental
conditions such as noise, lighting, temperature, egress, congestion of the work area, orderliness, and
facility condition (including damages, etc.) are readily evident to the auditor during this walkthrough. In
addition, the auditor notices several aspects while observing workers, including their use of required
controls, how they are using tools and equipment, the speed at which they work, the number of people in
the area, and how attentive they are to their work. Equipment is also noted during this tour. The auditor
notices if equipment has guarding, signage, lock out or tag out practices, and is well maintained.
This familiarization tour is not designed to be a comprehensive review of the facilities and processes. It
therefore has several limitations and the auditor must be cautious about drawing too many far-reaching
conclusions during the familiarization tour.
Limitations of the Familiarization Tour
Observations may not cover all functions that are normally occurring
Observations may not be in the scope of the audit
Implications for audit findings may need to be validated by other methods
Opportunities to ask questions may be limited
The tour guide may not be able to provide answers to health and safety-related questions
It is sometimes difficult to take notes during the tour.
The familiarization tour must be carefully planned and include major areas and processes, so that the
auditor has a good understanding of how the company functions. A representative of the company
usually acts as a tour guide, explaining the processes and answering questions along the way. In very
noisy environments, it is beneficial to stop periodically to ensure that there is an opportunity for questions
and answers. In the case of a team audit, it is usually advisable to have all team members participate in

the familiarization tour, as the tour helps the auditors gain the necessary understanding of the
environment and processes.
Site Tours – Observation Visits
Several audit questions specifically require observation as a validation method. These questions usually
are those where direct observation of the policies and procedures in practice assists in determining the
level of compliance. This requirement for observation ensures that the policies and procedures are not
just theoretical documents, but are substantiated by observation as implemented.
The observation tour may take longer and is usually more targeted than the familiarization tour. It occurs
after the auditor has conducted the document review and often after or in conjunction with the interview
phase, as items reviewed in the documents or disclosed in the interviews may need verification by an
observation visit to a specific area. The auditor chooses sites to visit based on notes he or she has made
during documentation and interviews.
Examples of Items Verified in Observation Visits
Location and availability of policies

Availability of applicable legislation
Completed corrective action related to specific incident investigation or inspection reports
If workers are wearing required PPE
If required engineering controls are in use
First aid supplies
Emergency response procedures and equipment
In either type of tour, the auditor may come upon a situation (work environment or work procedures) that
he or she believes is dangerous to the workers or the public. The auditor must be able to ensure that
work that may be imminently dangerous is stopped immediately. This is a legal requirement, and should
be addressed by the auditor in the initial contract. The most effective way to stop work is to have the
immediate supervisor actually direct the work to stop and then follow the required procedures to address
the dangerous situation.
The observation tour enables the auditor to informally ask workers questions. Any questions should be
brief and should not be disruptive to the work process.
Notes taken during the observation visits must be incorporated into the rest of the audit notes and added
to the audit field notes. Notes should include the location and time of day the observation occurred.
In cases where there are multiple sites, the company may request separate observation reports for each
site. This provides the company with more specific information applicable to each site and enables the
site to develop action plans related to specific observations. These additional site observation reports are
not usually part of an audit and are provided at the discretion of the auditor, usually at a company’s
request.
The auditor may request the right to take photographs during the observation tour. Photographs are
useful in illustrating specific hazards or positive observations, and may be included in site observation
reports. If the company permits the taking of photographs, the auditor should avoid taking photographs
that include people, but rather focus on equipment and conditions.
Audit Close-out or Debriefing Meeting

At the end of on-site activities, it is customary to have a “debriefing” meeting, which is usually a face-to-
face meeting between the auditor(s) and company representatives (often the same individuals who
attended the kick off meeting). The meeting also may be conducted by teleconference if several sites are
involved in the audit. This meeting signals the end of on-site activities and the beginning of the final,
report-writing phase of the audit. It should be remembered that final scoring (of scored instruments) or
final evaluations are not yet completed, so the type of information presented at the debriefing meeting is
necessarily incomplete. The debriefing meeting has several purposes.
Purpose of Audit Debriefing meeting

Signal the end of on-site information gathering
Restate purpose and scope of the audit and the methodology for verification methods used
Provide general recommendations that are obvious to the auditor from the initial review of
information collected
Identify clear strengths that are evident to the auditor
Thank those involved in the coordination of the audit, as well as all participants
Answer any questions from company representatives.
The debriefing meeting often lasts between 45 minutes to an hour, though the time may vary with the
number of participants. A typical debriefing meeting agenda is illustrated in the following table.
Audit Debriefing Meeting Agenda
Introductions
Restatement of audit purpose, scope and validation methodology
Review of positive observations
Review any preliminary recommendations for each audit element
Review of next steps in the audit process, including timelines
Questions and answers
In some cases where multiple sites are visited, the auditor may be requested to provide individual site
“debriefings.” This is usually well appreciated by the management at specific sites, as it enables them to
obtain an overview of the positive and negative findings for their specific site. These individual site
debriefings are usually informal and short.
Completing the Audit
Once the on-site activities are completed, the audit findings must be aggregated and evaluated and the
final audit report must be written. The type and contents of the report may vary considerably with the
instrument used, as well as any requirements of certifying bodies. Some instruments have very specific
report requirements, even specifying the terminology that may or may not be used. The auditor should
verify report requirements before starting to write the report. Electronic instruments may collate the
various sections and produce a report with a consistent format.
Scoring an audit (scored instruments)
In an effort to ensure uniformity and consistency of scoring, many scored audit instruments have very
stringent validation requirements. Scoring generally is of two types – the “all or nothing” scoring (e.g. 0 or
5 points given) or “range” scoring (e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 points allowed). These traditionally are
designated as “(5 points)” for all-ornothing questions worth either 0 or 5 points, or “(0-5)” for a range
questions worth any number of points between 0 and 5 to 5 points.
Range scores often require more professional judgment and may lead to inconsistent scoring; however,
this type of scoring allows the auditor to award partial points to give credit for what the employer may
have in place, even if it doesn’t quite meet the standard.
In any scored instrument, the auditor is required to justify the scores awarded for each section or
question. In some situations, “N/A” may be used if the question is not applicable for the particular
employer. N/A is used infrequently, and only when the question does not apply to a specific employer.
For example, if a small company does not have supervisors, then questions requiring a response
specifically from supervisors would be scored N/A.
It may be necessary to pro-rate scores for documentation that has not been in place for a full year. In
cases where the company develops a policy or procedure only weeks before the audit, very few points
are awarded. However, in the recommendation, auditors sometimes indicate that the newly developed
policies or procedures are a good starting point and will be fully counted in subsequent audits.
For scored instruments, instructions for scoring are usually very detailed and must be rigidly adhered to.
Instructions usually cover several different scoring issues. These are summarized in the table below.
Scored Audit Instructions

The percentage of positive indicators required to allot points in “all or nothing” questions
When the use of N/A is allowed
What types of validation methods are required for each question
Whether scores should be rounded off and in what way
The number of sites to be visited and the number of people to interview
The format of field notes and final report
Scoring by an Audit Team
In team audits, the lead auditor usually makes the final scoring decisions after discussions with the audit
team members. Generally, the lead auditor takes into account the experience of the team members.
Frequently novice auditors score significantly higher or significantly lower than experienced auditors for
the first couple of audits they conduct; this is primarily a result of their more limited perspective of how
the various system elements can be implemented. With electronic instruments, individual scores and
notes may be automatically amalgamated and do not take into account the experience of the auditor.
Scoring Errors
Quality control reviewers of scored audit instruments often discover similar “common mistakes” made by
auditors. The following chart lists some of the more frequently occurring errors related to scoring audits.
Common Scoring Errors

Math errors
Inconsistent “rounding off”
Inconsistency between scores and justification

Awarding points as “range scores” when “all or nothing scoring is required”

Using N/A inappropriately
Using improper validation methods
Not deducting N/A points from the total possible points for the audit
Some electronic audit instruments have built-in control features to correct these mistakes.
Results Using Un-scored Instruments
Un-scored instruments are often preferred by professional auditors, as there is frequently more leeway in
how the final report is written. The auditor may be better able to make recommendations that address
systemic issues noted in the course of the audit that will significantly assist the company in improving its
program. These recommendations may be considered out of scope for some scored instruments and
therefore not permitted in the report.
Unscored audits enable the auditor to identify system “ themes” for improvement. For example, the
auditor may note that there is little participation by employees in several processes, such as inspections,
incident investigations or hazard assessments. Another example of a system theme is lack of
documentation (for training, drills, hazard follow-up, etc.).
For compliance audits, or for those designed to provide a conformance/non-conformance assessment of
the company’s system, the auditor must be certain that he or she has correctly understood the directions
and applied the criteria to determine compliance or non-compliance. Reference to the specific standard
is usually required.
For some audit instruments, results are primarily in the form of “yes”, “no” or “partial” meeting of a
standard. In some cases, there is a section as to what actions must be undertaken to completely meet
the standard.
Depending upon the structure and contents of un-scored audit instruments, they can vary considerably in
their usefulness to a company in helping to formulate an action plan to address deficiencies and make
program improvements.
Field Notes
Field notes are used to justify scores in scored instruments and to provide examples to support
evaluations in unscored instruments. Some audit instruments specify the type, format, and content of
field notes, while others leave these to the discretion of the auditor. In all cases, field notes should
provide the company with an understanding of the evaluation results. Field notes usually refer to the
validation method used (e.g. “75% of workers interviewed indicated that they had received health and
safety orientation in their first week of work”; “20% of incident investigation reports reviewed identified
root causes of the incidents”).
For audit teams, the information gathered for each question by each required validation method must be
integrated to determine a score, or other evaluation result. If four team members interviewed a total of 80
people, the interview validation would require adding all of the positive responses together and dividing
by 80, then multiplying by 100 to obtain the score.

Example of team scoring results

# who were asked the # positive responses # negative, no
question comment responses
Team Member 1 15 10 5
Total 80 63 17
63/80 = 0.7875 X100 = 78.75% = 79% (rounded off to nearest whole number)
Non-conformances and Corrective Action Requests (CAR)
Un-scored audit protocols (such as those evaluating systems relative to ISO requirements) may require
a report of non-conformances to standards and the development of corrective action requests (CARs).
The CAR is a factual statement of the non-conformance identified, which element it relates to, and
includes a reference to company documents, interview responses or observation related to the issue
(basically the same information as provided in the field note).
In some audit instruments, findings are restricted to identifying deficiencies, citing the standards where
nonconformance has been identified, and citing the validation information. In these, there may be a strict
requirement to offer no recommendations, relying on the company to develop its own remedial action
plan.
Recommendations
In audit instruments requiring or permitting recommendations, the auditor has an opportunity to provide
significant value to the organization. Writing recommendations, however, can be challenging. For each
element, the auditor usually identifies the company’s successes and strengths related to the element, as
well as areas where improvement is warranted. Several guidelines that are useful in writing
recommendations are listed in the table below.
Guidelines for Writing Recommendations
Ensure that the number of recommendations reflect the score or number of non-conformances.
Elements in which a low score or many non-conformances are noted should warrant more (and
stronger) recommendations.
Keep the number of recommendations reasonable. The number of recommendations should not
be overwhelming.
Make recommendations that are reasonable and achievable.
Ensure that a feature identified as a “strength” of the company’s system is, in fact, a strength,
and not just a first step in meeting a standard.
Avoid putting recommendations in the strengths section.
Avoid contradictions, such as making a recommendation to correct an identified strength.
Stay within the scope of the audit. The auditor should not be addressing aspects of the company
that are not covered by the audit instrument.

Avoid being prescriptive in writing recommendations. Focus on the outcomes desired, rather
than telling the company how they should attain the desired results.
Ensure that recommendations address management systems, rather than inspection items or
other symptomatic deficiencies.
Include a perspective of how the recommendations, if followed, will benefit the company.
Prioritize the recommendations within each element.
Consider the company culture and communication style when composing the recommendations.
Ensure that any compliance issues are referenced.
Liability Concerns with Regards to Recommendations

Auditors are required to be careful in the wording of recommendations to avoid having the document
raise liability issues for the company. From a due diligence as well as a freedom of information
perspective, statements by a health and safety professional indicating that a company “must” or “shall”
take some specific action may be perceived as constituting a legal requirement. Audit recommendations
are just that - recommendations (hopefully well written to avoid prescriptive directions) that a company
may utilize in developing its action plan to improve the health and safety management system. The
auditor should be careful in the wording of recommendations, and reserve the use of “must” for clear
cases of non-compliance with referenced legal requirements.
The Audit Report
Audit instruments may be detailed to the extent that the contents of the audit report are well-defined. In
other cases, the format of the report is left to the auditor’s discretion. A typical audit report contents are
listed in the following table.
Audit Report Contents

Title Page
Executive Summary
Description of Methodology
Company Profile
Element Profiles – strengths and recommendations in each element
Scoring summary (if scored)
Conclusion
Completed audit instrument (checklist or scored instrument)
Field Notes
In some cases, for accreditation, quality control, or certification purposes, the auditor is also required to
include pre-audit communications, a company organizational chart, “kick-off” meeting notes, the
sampling strategy, the list of documents reviewed, observation tour notes, and closing meeting notes.
Auditors may use checklists to ensure proper submission of all documentation required to complete the
audit report.

The importance of writing style cannot be overemphasized. The quality of the writing, as well as the use
of proper spelling and grammar, often impacts the credibility of the report. Auditors who do not have
strong writing skills are advised to seek additional education and guidance to improve these important
skills.
The auditor should deliver the report on time and in the format agreed upon. This may include a certain
number of hard copies of the audit, as well as an electronic copy (usually as a PDF file). In some cases,
the completed audit must be sent to a certification body for a quality control review prior to submitting it
to the audited company.
The Audit Report Presentation
In many cases, the auditor is requested to formally present the audit findings/results to company
representatives. Typical presentation points are listed in the table below.
Agenda for Audit Report Presentation

Greetings
Introductions
Identified strengths and recommendations for each audit element
Review of scoring (if applicable)
Closing comments
Question period
Some company representatives at the audit report presentation may question the scoring or non-
conformances identified, or provide examples that support their views that these results are not accurate.
The auditor can usually dispel these concerns by ensuring that the company representatives understand
that the audit captures a “snapshot” of the system at a specific time, and that results are based on the
use of specific validation methods to provide an overall picture of the company’s system.
Other audit report presentation responses may include a request for changes to the document (which the
auditor may or may not do, depending on the nature of changes as well as any contractual agreements
made related to changes), requests for more information (especially for referenced legislation, etc.),
requests for costing of recommendations (usually outside the scope of the audit itself), and requests for
assistance in developing action plans to address audit recommendations.
Supplemental Reports
As mentioned previously, the auditor may be requested to provide supplemental reports, such as site
observation reports. Another common request is for a more detailed “inspection” of a specific area with a
separate report. These are out of the scope of an OHS management system audit and not considered
part of the audit report. The auditor who agrees to the supplemental report(s) should ensure that the
company understands that these are not part of the audit and that copies of these reports are not
submitted to certification bodies, but remain the property of the company only.
Action Plans
Some certifying bodies provide an “action plan” option for the years in between required external audits.
In this case, a specific action plan format is followed. This usually includes the description of 5-10
objectives based on the previous year’s audit recommendations. The objectives must usually be
accompanied by specific milestones, designation of responsibilities for meeting the objective, target
dates and deliverables. There are various submission requirements related to action plans.
As mentioned, auditors may be requested to assist in the development of action plans. While this may be
tempting from a consulting perspective, the auditor should approach this request with caution. It may
impact his or her ability to perform future audits for the company. In addition, and more importantly, audit
action plans are usually most effective if they are designed (and therefore “owned”) by internal members
of the company. The auditor can assist by identifying top priorities for an internal action plan group.
Future Audits
Some certification bodies limit the number of times an auditor may perform the audit for the same
company. While continuity has benefits for a few years, the fresh perspective provided by a different
auditor is recommended after three or four audits.
Auditing the Auditors
Certifying bodies have quality control processes in place to ensure the quality of audits performed by
auditors. The quality control processes often relate to the following aspects of the audit process and
report:
• Timing requirements for the performance of the audit

• Timing requirements for the submission of the audit report
• Sampling strategy for interviews, documents and representative sites
• Application of appropriate scoring methods (for scored instruments)
• Justification of scores
• Contradictions between similar questions
• Calculation of scores
• Appropriateness of recommendations
• Appropriateness of identified “strengths”
In addition, the company audited may be requested to complete an auditor evaluation that would cover
performance aspects.
Applicable requirements for plans, systems, and policies (e.g., safety, health, environmental, fire, and
emergency action)
The requirements for plans, systems, and policies related to safety, health, environmental, fire, and
emergency action vary depending on the type of organization, the industry, and the jurisdiction.
However, in general, these requirements include the following:
1. Safety plans: Safety plans outline procedures for identifying and addressing potential hazards, as
well as procedures for responding to emergencies. Safety plans are typically developed by a
cross-functional team that includes representatives from management, health and safety, and
operations. The plan should be reviewed and updated regularly to ensure its effectiveness.
2. Health and environmental plans: Health and environmental plans outline procedures for
managing health and environmental risks. These plans may include provisions for controlling
exposure to hazardous substances, managing waste and pollutants, and ensuring safe working
conditions. Health and environmental plans are typically developed by a cross-functional team
that includes representatives from management, health and safety, and operations, and are
reviewed and updated regularly.
3. Fire and emergency action plans: Fire and emergency action plans outline procedures for
responding to fires and other emergencies. These plans should include procedures for
evacuating the building, calling for emergency services, and providing first aid to injured
employees. Fire and emergency action plans are typically developed by a cross-functional team
that includes representatives from management, health and safety, and operations, and are
reviewed and updated regularly.
4. Policies: Policies outline the expectations and responsibilities of employees with regards to
safety, health, environmental, fire, and emergency action. Policies are typically developed by
management and reviewed and updated regularly to ensure their effectiveness.
5. Systems: Systems for managing safety, health, environmental, fire, and emergency action risks
include procedures for reporting incidents, conducting regular safety inspections, and maintaining
records of training and hazard assessments. Systems are typically developed by a cross-
functional team that includes representatives from management, health and safety, and
operations, and are reviewed and updated regularly.
To ensure the effective development and implementation of plans, systems, and policies related to
safety, health, environmental, fire, and emergency action, organizations should:
1. Involve relevant stakeholders, including employees, in the development and implementation of
these plans, systems, and policies.
2. Ensure that the plans, systems, and policies are aligned with the organization's overall goals and
objectives.
3. Ensure that the plans, systems, and policies are developed and implemented in accordance with
relevant regulations and standards (e.g., ISO 14000, 45001, ANSI Z10).
4. Provide training to employees on the plans, systems, and policies to ensure their understanding
and adherence.
5. Regularly review and update the plans, systems, and policies to ensure their effectiveness.
6. Ensure that the plans, systems, and policies are integrated into the day-to-day operations of the
organization and are fully supported by management.
Document retention or management principles (e.g., incident investigation, training records, exposure
records, maintenance records, environmental management system, and audit results)
Document retention and management principles refer to the processes and policies that organizations
implement to ensure that important documents are properly stored, organized, and retained for a
specified period of time. The principles of document retention and management include:
1. Record keeping: All relevant documents should be recorded and stored in a secure and
accessible location. This may include incident investigation reports, training records, exposure
records, maintenance records, and audit results.
2. Organization: Documents should be organized in a logical and consistent manner to make it easy
to locate and retrieve them when needed. This may include the use of a document management
system that categorizes and indexes documents according to specific criteria.
3. Retention period: Each type of document should have a specified retention period that outlines
how long the document should be kept. The retention period will depend on the type of
document, the industry, and the jurisdiction. For example, incident investigation reports may need
to be kept for several years, while training records may only need to be kept for a few years.
4. Accessibility: Documents should be easily accessible to authorized personnel, who need to use
them to support ongoing operations, make decisions, or comply with legal requirements. This

may involve implementing security controls to ensure that only authorized personnel have access
to sensitive information.
5. Preservation: Documents should be preserved in a manner that ensures their long-term
accessibility and readability. This may involve digitizing paper records, using backup systems to
protect against data loss, or using preservation techniques to prevent physical deterioration.
6. Disposition: At the end of the retention period, documents should be disposed of in a secure and
responsible manner. This may involve destroying the physical copies of paper records, or
securely deleting electronic copies.
An example of how document retention and management principles can be applied in practice is as
follows:
A manufacturing company implements a document management system that categorizes and indexes all
its relevant documents, including incident investigation reports, training records, exposure records, and
audit results. The system is accessible to authorized personnel, and documents are stored in a secure
and easily accessible location. The retention period for each type of document is specified, and
documents are regularly reviewed and disposed of at the end of their retention period. This helps the
company to comply with legal requirements, support ongoing operations, and make informed decisions
based on accurate and up-to-date information.
Incident investigation
Document retention and management for incident investigation is critical to effectively investigate
incidents and implement corrective actions. The following are some important document retention and
management principles for incident investigation:
1. Incident Reports: All incident reports must be retained for a specified duration, as required by
regulatory or legal requirements. Incident reports should include information such as the date,
time, location, description of the incident, individuals involved, and any corrective actions taken.
2. Witness Statements: Witness statements must be retained to document the witness's account of
the incident. These statements can be used to corroborate or challenge other evidence gathered
during the investigation.
3. Photos and Videos: Photos and videos taken during the incident investigation must be retained
for the specified duration. These visuals can provide additional evidence of the incident and can
help identify potential causes.
4. Root Cause Analysis: The root cause analysis report must be retained for the specified duration.
This report should include a detailed analysis of the incident and a determination of the
underlying causes.
5. Corrective Actions: The documentation related to corrective actions taken as a result of the
incident investigation must be retained. This includes any implementation plans, timelines, and
follow-up activities.
6. Retention Schedule: An incident investigation document retention schedule should be
established to ensure that all documents are retained for the required duration and that they are
disposed of in a manner that complies with regulatory and legal requirements.
By following document retention and management principles for incident investigation, organizations can
ensure that important information is retained for future reference and that the corrective actions taken

are properly documented. This can help prevent similar incidents from occurring in the future and
demonstrate compliance with regulatory and legal requirements.
Training records
Document retention and management for training records is essential to ensure that employees are
properly trained and competent to perform their tasks safely and effectively. The following are some
important document retention and management principles for training records:
1. Training Records: All training records, including employee training history, must be retained for a
specified duration, as required by regulatory or legal requirements. Training records should
include information such as the date of the training, the name of the training program, the training
provider, and the employee's name.
2. Certifications: All certifications related to employee training must be retained for the specified
duration. This includes certificates of completion, training course attendance, and any other
documentation verifying that the employee has successfully completed the training.
3. Training Materials: Training materials used during the training, such as presentations, handouts,
and videos, must be retained for the specified duration. These materials can be used to
demonstrate compliance with regulatory or legal requirements and can be used to train new
employees in the future.
4. Retention Schedule: A training records document retention schedule should be established to
ensure that all documents are retained for the required duration and that they are disposed of in a
manner that complies with regulatory and legal requirements.
By following document retention and management principles for training records, organizations can
ensure that employees are adequately trained and competent to perform their tasks safely and
effectively. This can help prevent accidents and injuries, improve productivity, and demonstrate
compliance with regulatory and legal requirements.
Exposure record
Document retention and management for exposure records is important to protect the health and safety
of employees who work with hazardous substances. The following are some important document
retention and management principles for exposure records:
1. Exposure Records: All exposure records related to hazardous substances, including employee
exposure records, must be retained for a specified duration, as required by regulatory or legal
requirements. Exposure records should include information such as the name of the substance,
the employee's name, the exposure level, and the duration of exposure.
2. Sampling Results: Sampling results obtained during exposure monitoring must be retained for the
specified duration. These results can be used to identify trends in exposure levels and to ensure
that employees are not exposed to hazardous substances beyond the permissible exposure
limits.
3. Medical Records: Medical records related to employee exposure to hazardous substances must
be retained for the specified duration. These records can include pre-placement physicals,
medical surveillance records, and records of medical treatment for exposure-related illnesses or
injuries.

4. Retention Schedule: An exposure records document retention schedule should be established to

By following document retention and management principles for exposure records, organizations can
ensure that employees are not exposed to harmful substances beyond the permissible exposure limits.
This can help prevent occupational illnesses and injuries, improve productivity, and demonstrate
compliance with regulatory and legal requirements.
Maintenance records
Document retention and management for maintenance records is important to ensure that equipment is
properly maintained and to reduce the risk of equipment failure, which can result in accidents or
downtime. The following are some important document retention and management principles for
maintenance records:
1. Maintenance Records: All maintenance records related to equipment, including repair history and
preventive maintenance, must be retained for a specified duration, as required by regulatory or
legal requirements. Maintenance records should include information such as the date of the
maintenance, the type of maintenance performed, the equipment identification number, and the
name of the technician who performed the maintenance.
2. Inspection Reports: Inspection reports related to equipment maintenance must be retained for the
specified duration. These reports can be used to identify potential equipment problems and to
schedule preventive maintenance.
3. Calibration Records: Calibration records related to equipment maintenance must be retained for
the specified duration. These records can be used to ensure that the equipment is functioning
properly and to provide evidence of compliance with regulatory or legal requirements.
4. Retention Schedule: A maintenance records document retention schedule should be established
to ensure that all documents are retained for the required duration and that they are disposed of
in a manner that complies with regulatory and legal requirements.
By following document retention and management principles for maintenance records, organizations can
ensure that equipment is properly maintained and operating efficiently, which can help prevent
accidents, reduce downtime, and demonstrate compliance with regulatory and legal requirements.
Environmental management system
Document retention and management for environmental management systems (EMS) is important to
demonstrate compliance with environmental regulations, to track environmental performance, and to
identify areas for improvement. The following are some important document retention and management
principles for EMS records:
1. EMS Documents: All EMS documents, including policies, procedures, and work instructions,
must be retained for a specified duration, as required by regulatory or legal requirements. EMS
documents should include information such as the date of the document, the version number,
and the name of the person who developed or reviewed the document.
2. Environmental Permits: Environmental permits, including air permits, wastewater permits, and
hazardous waste permits, must be retained for the specified duration. These permits can be used
to demonstrate compliance with regulatory or legal requirements.

3. Monitoring Results: Results of environmental monitoring and testing must be retained for the
specified duration. These results can be used to track environmental performance and to identify
areas for improvement.
4. Retention Schedule: An EMS document retention schedule should be established to ensure that
all documents are retained for the required duration and that they are disposed of in a manner
that complies with regulatory and legal requirements.
By following document retention and management principles for EMS records, organizations can ensure
that they are in compliance with environmental regulations, are tracking environmental performance, and
are identifying areas for improvement. This can help reduce the risk of environmental incidents, improve
environmental performance, and demonstrate compliance with regulatory and legal requirements.
Audit results
Document retention and management for audit results is important to track compliance, identify areas for
improvement, and demonstrate continuous improvement. The following are some important document
retention and management principles for audit results:
1. Audit Reports: All audit reports must be retained for a specified duration, as required by
regulatory or legal requirements. Audit reports should include information such as the date of the
audit, the scope of the audit, the audit findings, and the recommendations for improvement.
2. Corrective Action Reports: Corrective action reports related to audit findings must be retained for
the specified duration. These reports can be used to track the implementation of corrective
actions and to demonstrate continuous improvement.
3. Follow-up Reports: Follow-up reports related to audit findings must be retained for the specified
duration. These reports can be used to ensure that corrective actions are effective and that the
organization is in compliance with regulatory or legal requirements.
4. Retention Schedule: An audit results document retention schedule should be established to
By following document retention and management principles for audit results, organizations can track
compliance, identify areas for improvement, and demonstrate continuous improvement. This can help
reduce the risk of noncompliance, improve performance, and demonstrate compliance with regulatory
and legal requirements.
Budgeting, finance, and economic analysis techniques and principles (e.g., timelines, budget
development, milestones, resourcing, financing risk management options, return on investment,
cost/benefit analysis, and role in procurement process)
Budgeting, finance, and economic analysis techniques and principles refer to the methodologies used to
plan and manage the financial resources of an organization, as well as to make informed decisions
about investments and expenditures. Some of the key principles and techniques in this area include:
1. Timelines: Establishing a clear timeline for budgeting, financing, and economic analysis helps to
ensure that resources are allocated and tracked effectively.
2. Budget development: This involves creating a detailed plan for how financial resources will be
used to support organizational goals and objectives. It typically involves forecasting revenue and
expenses and determining how to allocate resources to different programs or projects.

3. Milestones: Defining key milestones in the budgeting and financing process helps to track
progress and ensure that resources are being used effectively.
4. Resourcing: Ensuring that adequate resources, including personnel, are available to support
budgeting, financing, and economic analysis efforts.
5. Financing risk management options: This involves considering and managing the financial risks
associated with investments and expenditures.
6. Return on investment (ROI): This is a measure of the efficiency and effectiveness of an
investment and is calculated as the gain from the investment compared to the cost of the
investment.
7. Cost/benefit analysis: This is a systematic approach to evaluating the costs and benefits of a
particular investment or decision and is used to determine if the benefits of an investment
outweigh the costs.
8. Role in procurement process: Budgeting, finance, and economic analysis techniques and
principles also play a key role in the procurement process, as they help organizations to
determine the most cost-effective way to purchase goods and services.
Timelines
Developing timelines for budgeting involves creating a schedule that outlines the key steps and
milestones in the budgeting process. A well-designed timeline helps to ensure that the budgeting
process is efficient, accurate, and completed on time. Here are the steps to develop a timeline for
budgeting:
1. Determine the budgeting cycle: The first step in developing a timeline for budgeting is to
determine the budgeting cycle, which is the period of time over which the budget will be prepared
and used. This could be a calendar year, a fiscal year, or another period of time that is
appropriate for the organization.
2. Identify key budgeting activities: Next, identify the key activities that must be completed in order
to prepare the budget. This may include forecasting revenue and expenses, preparing
departmental budgets, and reviewing budgets for accuracy and consistency.
3. Assign dates to each activity: Assign a start date and an end date to each key budgeting activity.
Consider factors such as the availability of data, the complexity of the activity, and the time
required to complete each step.
4. Create a detailed timeline: Using the dates assigned to each key budgeting activity, create a
detailed timeline that outlines the entire budgeting process, from start to finish. The timeline
should be easily accessible to all stakeholders, and should be updated regularly to reflect any
changes to the budgeting cycle or key budgeting activities.
5. Review and revise the timeline: Finally, review the timeline regularly and revise it as needed. This
could be necessary if the budgeting cycle changes, if key budgeting activities are added or
removed, or if the timing of key activities is altered.
An example of a timeline for budgeting might look like this:
• Month 1: Begin preparing budgeting materials and forecast revenue and expenses
• Month 2: Prepare departmental budgets and review for accuracy and consistency

• Month 3: Review budgets with senior management and make any necessary revisions
• Month 4: Finalize budgets and prepare budget reports
• Month 5: Begin using the budget to guide decision-making and allocate resources.
By following this timeline, the budgeting process can be completed in an efficient and effective manner,
with all stakeholders aware of their responsibilities and the timing of key budgeting activities.
Budget Development
Budget development is the process of creating a plan that outlines expected income and expenditures
over a specified period of time, typically a fiscal year. The budget is used to guide decision-making,
allocate resources, and track performance. Budget development typically involves the following steps:
1. Review past performance: The first step in budget development is to review past financial
performance, including actual revenue, expenses, and profits. This information can be used to
identify trends and make informed predictions about future performance.
2. Forecast revenue: Based on the past performance review and any other relevant information,
forecast expected revenue for the upcoming fiscal year. Consider factors such as economic
conditions, industry trends, and the performance of similar organizations.
3. Estimate expenses: Estimate the expenses that will be incurred in the upcoming fiscal year,
including both fixed costs (such as rent and salaries) and variable costs (such as materials and
supplies). Consider the impact of any planned changes to operations or products.
4. Allocate resources: Based on the expected revenue and expenses, allocate resources to each
department or project. Consider factors such as the availability of funding, the priorities of the
organization, and the needs of each department.
5. Review and revise: Review the budget with senior management and make any necessary
revisions. This may include adjusting revenue and expense estimates, changing the allocation of
resources, or re-prioritizing projects.
An example of a budget for a small retail store might look like this:
• Revenue: $500,000 (forecast based on past performance and industry trends)
• Expenses:
• Rent: $50,000 (fixed cost)
• Salaries: $200,000 (fixed cost)
• Materials and supplies: $100,000 (variable cost)
• Marketing: $50,000 (variable cost)
• Utilities: $40,000 (variable cost)
• Total expenses: $440,000
• Profit: $60,000
In this example, the budget forecasts a revenue of $500,000, with estimated expenses of $440,000,
resulting in a profit of $60,000. The budget allocates resources to each department based on the

expected expenses and priorities of the organization. This budget can be used to guide decision-making,
allocate resources, and track performance throughout the fiscal year.
Budgeting Milestones
Budgeting milestones are key events or dates that occur during the budget development process. These
milestones serve as checkpoints to ensure that the budget is being developed on schedule and that the
final budget is completed in a timely manner. Some common budgeting milestones include:
1. Planning and Preparation: This stage involves gathering information about past performance,
setting goals, and determining the scope of the budget.
2. Revenue Forecasting: This stage involves estimating expected revenue for the upcoming fiscal
year based on past performance, industry trends, and other relevant information.
3. Expense Estimation: This stage involves estimating expenses for each department or project
based on past performance, current needs, and future plans.
4. Resource Allocation: This stage involves allocating resources to each department or project
based on expected revenue, expenses, and priorities.
5. Review and Revisions: This stage involves reviewing the budget with senior management,
making any necessary revisions, and getting approval from the appropriate parties.
6. Implementation: This stage involves putting the budget into action by allocating resources,
monitoring performance, and making any necessary adjustments.
7. Review and Assessment: This stage involves reviewing the budget after it has been
implemented, assessing its effectiveness, and making any necessary changes for the next fiscal
year.
For example, a budgeting timeline for a small retail store might look like this:
• Month 1: Planning and Preparation
• Month 2: Revenue Forecasting
• Month 3: Expense Estimation
• Month 4: Resource Allocation
• Month 5: Review and Revisions
• Month 6: Implementation
• Month 12: Review and Assessment
This timeline provides a high-level view of the key milestones in the budget development process, from
planning and preparation to implementation and review. By establishing these milestones, organizations
can ensure that the budget is being developed in a timely and organized manner, and that the final
budget is completed in a way that meets the needs of the organization.
Budget Resourcing
Budget resourcing refers to the allocation of resources such as money, manpower, and materials to a
budget. It is a key component of budget development and involves determining the level of resources
needed to achieve the goals and objectives of the budget.

Examples of budget resourcing include:

1. Personnel: The budget might allocate a certain amount of money for hiring new employees,
paying salaries, and providing benefits.
2. Equipment and Supplies: The budget might allocate funds for purchasing equipment, supplies,
and materials needed to complete a project.
3. Travel: The budget might allocate funds for travel expenses such as airfare, hotel stays, and
meals.
4. Capital expenditures: The budget might allocate funds for major purchases such as property,
buildings, or equipment.
5. Operating expenses: The budget might allocate funds for day-to-day operating expenses such as
utilities, rent, and office supplies.
For example, a small retail store might have the following budget resourcing plan:
• Personnel: $100,000 for salaries, benefits, and hiring
• Equipment and Supplies: $50,000 for new point-of-sale system, merchandise displays, and
supplies
• Travel: $5,000 for trade shows and market research
• Capital expenditures: $25,000 for store remodel
• Operating expenses: $30,000 for rent, utilities, and office supplies
This budget resourcing plan provides an outline of how the budget will be funded, and how the resources
will be allocated to support the goals and objectives of the budget. By developing a clear and
comprehensive budget resourcing plan, organizations can ensure that they have the resources they
need to achieve their goals and operate effectively.
Financing Risk Management
Financing risk management refers to the process of identifying, assessing, and controlling risks
associated with financing activities. It is an important aspect of financial management and helps
organizations minimize the potential for losses and ensure the stability of their financial position. Some of
the common financing risk management options include:
1. Diversification: Diversifying investments and financing sources can help reduce the impact of risk
by spreading it across multiple assets and sources of funding.
2. Hedging: Hedging involves using financial instruments such as derivatives or insurance policies
to mitigate the impact of potential losses.
3. Credit risk management: This involves evaluating the creditworthiness of potential borrowers and
monitoring existing loans to manage the risk of default.
4. Liquidity management: Maintaining adequate levels of liquidity, such as cash reserves or short-
term investments, can help organizations manage the risk of having insufficient funds to meet
their obligations.

5. Debt management: Managing debt levels and structure, such as choosing between short-term
and long-term debt, can help organizations manage interest rate risk and other financial risks
associated with debt financing.
For example, a company might implement the following financing risk management options:
• Diversification: The company might invest in a portfolio of stocks, bonds, and real estate to
diversify its investments and reduce risk.
• Hedging: The company might purchase currency options to protect against fluctuations in
exchange rates.
• Credit risk management: The company might use credit scoring models to evaluate the
creditworthiness of potential borrowers and monitor existing loans to manage the risk of default.
• Liquidity management: The company might maintain a cash reserve of three months' worth of
operating expenses to ensure that it has sufficient funds to meet its obligations.
• Debt management: The company might choose to finance a large capital expenditure with a
combination of short-term debt and long-term debt to balance the benefits and risks of each
financing option.
By implementing these financing risk management options, the company can minimize its exposure to
risk and ensure the stability of its financial position.
Cost Benefit Analysis
Cost-benefit analysis is a technique used to evaluate the potential benefits and costs of a proposed
project or decision. It involves identifying and quantifying all the costs and benefits associated with the
project and comparing them to determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs.
The process of cost-benefit analysis includes the following steps:
1. Identifying the costs: This involves identifying all the direct and indirect costs associated with the
project or decision, including capital expenditures, operating costs, and ongoing expenses.
2. Identifying the benefits: This involves identifying all the potential benefits of the project or
decision, including increased revenue, reduced costs, and improved customer satisfaction.
3. Quantifying the costs and benefits: This involves putting a dollar value on each of the costs and
benefits to make it easier to compare them.
4. Comparing the costs and benefits: This involves comparing the total costs and total benefits of
the project or decision to determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs.
5. Evaluating the results: This involves evaluating the results of the cost-benefit analysis and
deciding whether to proceed with the project or decision.
For example, a company might conduct a cost-benefit analysis to decide whether to implement a new
marketing campaign. The costs of the campaign might include the cost of designing and producing the
advertisements, the cost of media placement, and the cost of market research. The benefits of the
campaign might include increased sales, improved brand recognition, and increased customer
satisfaction.
By conducting a thorough cost-benefit analysis, the company can make an informed decision about
whether the benefits of the marketing campaign outweigh the costs. This helps the company allocate its

resources in the most efficient and effective way, and minimize the risk of making decisions that could
negatively impact its financial position.
Budgeting
Budgeting plays a critical role in the procurement process as it provides the financial framework for
procurement activities. The budget determines the amount of funds that are available for procurement,
which in turn affects the types and quantities of goods, works, or services that can be procured.
The budgeting process is usually integrated with the procurement process and takes into account the
following steps:
1. Planning: This involves developing a procurement plan that identifies the goods, works, or
services that are needed, the timeline for procurement, and the estimated cost of procurement.
2. Sourcing: This involves identifying and evaluating potential suppliers, and selecting the most
suitable supplier based on factors such as price, quality, and delivery time.
3. Contract negotiation: This involves negotiating the terms and conditions of the contract with the
supplier, including the price, payment terms, and delivery schedule.
4. Contract award: This involves awarding the contract to the selected supplier and documenting
the terms and conditions of the contract.
5. Implementation: This involves managing the procurement process, monitoring the delivery of
goods, works, or services, and ensuring that the supplier complies with the terms and conditions
of the contract.
The budget provides a key reference point throughout the procurement process, as it sets the
parameters for procurement activities and helps ensure that procurement activities are aligned with the
overall financial objectives of the organization. It also helps to ensure that procurement activities are
transparent, accountable, and subject to appropriate levels of financial control.
Management leadership techniques (e.g., management theories, leadership theories, motivation,
discipline, and communication styles)
Management theories
Are various frameworks, models, and approaches that organizations use to guide their decision making
and approach to management. Here are some examples of management theories and how they can be
applied in practice:
1. Scientific Management: This theory, developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the late 19th
century, emphasizes the importance of using scientific methods to study work processes and
improve efficiency. For example, a company might use time and motion studies to determine the
most efficient way to perform a task, and then train employees to perform the task in that manner.
2. Bureaucratic Management: This theory, developed by Max Weber, emphasizes the importance of
a formal, hierarchical organizational structure and the use of rules and procedures to ensure
efficiency and control. For example, a company might use a formal system of job descriptions
and performance evaluations to ensure that employees understand their roles and
responsibilities, and to evaluate their performance.
3. Human Relations Movement: This theory, which emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, focuses on the
importance of considering the needs and motivations of employees and recognizing their
contributions to the organization. For example, a company might provide opportunities for

employees to give input and provide feedback, and might recognize and reward employees for
their contributions to the company.
4. Contingency Theory: This theory suggests that there is no one best way to manage, and that the
best approach depends on the specific situation and context. For example, a company might use
different management styles and techniques depending on the specific challenges it is facing,
such as a focus on efficiency during a period of cost cutting, and a focus on employee motivation
during a period of growth.
5. Systems Theory: This theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of all parts of an organization
and the importance of considering the organization as a whole, rather than focusing on individual
parts. For example, a company might use systems thinking to understand the impact of changes
in one part of the organization on other parts of the organization, and to make decisions that take
into account the impact on the organization as a whole.
6. Total Quality Management (TQM): This theory focuses on continuous improvement and customer
satisfaction, and emphasizes the importance of involving all employees in the improvement
process. For example, a company might use quality circles, where employees are invited to
provide input and suggestions for continuous improvement, and might implement a suggestion
system to encourage employees to suggest improvements.
7. Lean Management: This theory, which has its roots in the Toyota Production System, emphasizes
the importance of minimizing waste and maximizing value in all aspects of an organization's
operations. For example, a company might use value stream mapping to identify areas of waste
in its processes and to identify opportunities for improvement, and might use continuous
improvement teams to drive improvements in those areas
Leadership theories
Refer to the various approaches and ideas that have been developed to explain how and why individuals
become effective leaders. Here are some examples of leadership theories and how they can be applied
in practice:
1. Trait Theory: This theory suggests that certain personality traits, such as confidence, integrity,
and intelligence, are common among effective leaders. For example, a leader who is confident
and assertive might be better equipped to make decisions and take action in a crisis, while a
leader who is honest and has a strong sense of integrity might be more effective in building trust
and credibility with followers.
2. Behavioral Theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders exhibit specific behaviors, such as
being supportive, directive, or participative, and that these behaviors can be learned and
developed. For example, a leader who is supportive might provide praise, recognition, and
positive feedback to employees, while a leader who is directive might provide clear instructions
and guidelines to help employees understand what is expected of them.
3. Situational Theory: This theory suggests that effective leadership depends on the specific
situation, and that different leadership styles may be appropriate in different circumstances. For
example, a leader who is highly directive might be effective in a crisis situation, where quick
action is needed, while a leader who is highly participative might be more effective in a situation
where collaboration and teamwork are needed.
4. Transformational Theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders inspire and motivate
followers to achieve a common goal, by creating a vision, setting high expectations, and

providing support and guidance. For example, a leader who is transformational might provide a
clear and compelling vision for the organization, and might inspire and motivate employees to
work together to achieve that vision.
5. Authentic Theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders are authentic, and that they lead by
example, demonstrating their values and beliefs in their actions. For example, a leader who is
authentic might act in accordance with their personal values and beliefs, even if those values and
beliefs are not popular, and might demonstrate integrity and credibility by keeping their promises
and following through on their commitments.
6. Charismatic Theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders have charisma, which is a
combination of personal qualities, such as confidence, energy, and vision, that inspire and
motivate followers. For example, a leader who is charismatic might be able to rally support and
motivate employees to achieve a common goal, even in the face of difficult challenges.
7. Servant Theory: This theory suggests that effective leaders put the needs of others, such as
employees and customers, ahead of their own needs, and that they work to serve others and
create value for all stakeholders. For example, a leader who is a servant leader might listen to
employee concerns and make decisions that take into account the needs and interests of all
stakeholders, and might prioritize customer service and satisfaction.
Workplace motivation
Refers to the factors that drive and inspire employees to engage in their work and achieve their goals.
There are several different theories and approaches to workplace motivation, and the following are some
examples:
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: This theory suggests that employees are motivated by a series of
basic and higher-level needs, including physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem
needs, and self-actualization needs. For example, an employee might be motivated to work hard
to provide for their family, secure their job, or receive recognition and respect from others.
2. Self-Determination Theory: This theory suggests that employees are motivated by three basic
psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. For example, an employee might
be motivated to work hard if they feel they have control over their work, are skilled and confident
in their abilities, and have positive relationships with coworkers.
3. Expectancy Theory: This theory suggests that employees are motivated by the belief that their
effort will lead to desired outcomes, such as promotions, bonuses, or recognition. For example,
an employee might be motivated to work hard if they believe that their hard work will lead to a
promotion or recognition from their boss.
4. Goal Setting Theory: This theory suggests that employees are motivated by specific, challenging
goals that are aligned with their personal values and aspirations. For example, an employee
might be motivated to work hard if they have a goal of earning a certain salary or being
recognized as the top performer in their department.
5. Reinforcement Theory: This theory suggests that employees are motivated by rewards and
consequences, and that positive reinforcement (such as praise and rewards) and negative
reinforcement (such as fines and penalties) can both be used to motivate employees. For
example, an employee might be motivated to work hard if they receive a bonus or recognition for
their hard work, or if they face consequences for not meeting their goals.

6. Intrinsic Motivation: This type of motivation comes from within the individual and is driven by
personal interest and enjoyment in their work. For example, an employee might be motivated to
work hard if they find their work to be challenging and rewarding, and if they feel that their work is
making a positive impact in their community.
Discipline theories
In management refer to the methods and techniques used by leaders and managers to ensure that
employees comply with rules, policies, and procedures. Some of the most commonly used discipline
theories include:
1. Hierarchical Authority: This theory is based on the idea that employees are bound to follow
orders from those in higher positions of authority.
2. Self-Regulation: This theory emphasizes that employees are motivated to follow rules and
procedures because they want to maintain their own personal sense of order and stability.
3. Social Learning: This theory suggests that employees are motivated to follow rules and
procedures because they want to fit in with the group and be seen as a team player.
4. Expectancy Theory: This theory states that employees are motivated to follow rules and
procedures because they believe that doing so will lead to positive outcomes, such as rewards or
promotions.
5. Equity Theory: This theory suggests that employees are motivated to follow rules and procedures
because they want to feel that they are being treated fairly and equitably compared to their
coworkers.
Workplace discipline
Is the process of correcting and improving employee behavior and performance in a professional and
consistent manner. The principles of workplace discipline can help organizations create a positive and
productive work environment, while also supporting employee growth and development.
Here are some examples of workplace discipline principles:
1. Consistency: Consistency is key in the application of discipline. Organizations should have clear
and consistent policies and procedures for disciplinary actions, and these should be applied
evenly and fairly to all employees. For example, if an organization has a policy that requires
employees to be punctual, this policy should be applied consistently to all employees, regardless
of their position or seniority.
2. Fairness: Fairness is another important principle of workplace discipline. Organizations should
ensure that discipline is based on facts and evidence, and that the disciplinary process is
impartial and unbiased. For example, if an employee is accused of violating a workplace policy,
the organization should conduct a thorough investigation, hear both sides of the story, and make
a decision based on the evidence and not on personal biases or opinions.
3. Timeliness: Timeliness is also a critical principle of workplace discipline. Organizations should act
quickly and promptly when it comes to disciplinary matters, in order to resolve issues and
maintain a positive work environment. For example, if an employee is consistently tardy, the
organization should address the issue promptly, and provide clear and specific guidelines on the
consequences of continued tardiness.

4. Communication: Communication is an important aspect of workplace discipline. Organizations

should ensure that employees are aware of their responsibilities and expectations, and that they
are informed of any disciplinary actions taken. For example, if an employee is given a warning for
a violation, the manager should clearly explain the violation, the consequences, and the steps the
employee can take to correct the behavior.
5. Progression: Workplace discipline should be progressive, meaning that it should escalate in
severity based on the seriousness of the violation and the employee's previous behavior. For
example, if an employee has repeatedly violated a workplace policy, the organization may start
with a verbal warning, followed by a written warning, and then a final warning before considering
termination. This allows employees to understand the consequences of their actions and gives
them an opportunity to improve their behavior.
6. Rehabilitation: Workplace discipline should also focus on rehabilitation, helping employees to
understand why their behavior was wrong and how to improve. For example, if an employee is
disciplined for poor customer service, the organization may offer additional training or coaching to
help the employee improve their communication and customer service skills.
7. Documenting: Documenting disciplinary actions is important for record keeping and for tracking
the employee's progress. Organizations should maintain accurate and detailed records of
disciplinary actions, including the date of the violation, the nature of the violation, and the
disciplinary action taken. For example, if an employee receives a written warning, the manager
should document the date of the warning, the nature of the violation, and the steps the employee
must take to improve their behavior.
These principles can help organizations establish a fair and effective workplace discipline process, while
also promoting positive employee behavior and performance.
Communication Styles
There are several different communication styles, including:
1. Aggressive: Aggressive communication is characterized by an assertive delivery and an
emphasis on one's own needs and wants. People who use this style tend to be forceful and
demanding, and may use language that is confrontational or threatening. For example, an
aggressive communicator may raise their voice or interrupt others when speaking.
2. Passive: Passive communication is characterized by an unassertive delivery and an emphasis on
avoiding conflict or preserving relationships. People who use this style tend to avoid expressing
their own opinions and needs, and may have trouble standing up for themselves. For example, a
passive communicator may avoid expressing their opinion in a meeting or accept tasks they don't
want to do because they don't want to upset others.
3. Assertive: Assertive communication is characterized by an honest and direct delivery that
balances the speaker's own needs and the needs of others. People who use this style are able to
express their opinions and feelings clearly and effectively, while also considering the
perspectives and needs of others. For example, an assertive communicator may ask for
clarification in a meeting when they don't understand something, or may respectfully express a
differing opinion.
4. Passive-Aggressive: Passive-aggressive communication is characterized by an indirect delivery
that often masks the speaker's true feelings and intentions. People who use this style may use
sarcasm, procrastination, or other indirect forms of communication to express frustration or

anger. For example, a passive-aggressive communicator may say "Sure, no problem" when
asked to do something they don't want to do, but then avoid actually doing it.
It's important to note that different situations and relationships may call for different communication
styles, and that the most effective communicators are able to adapt their style to fit the situation.
Additionally, different cultures may have different norms and expectations around communication, so it's
important to be mindful of these differences when communicating with people from different
backgrounds.
Project management concepts and techniques (e.g., RACI charts, project timelines, and budgets)
Project management involves planning, organizing, and executing projects within defined time, cost, and
quality constraints. Some key concepts and techniques in project management include:
RACI Charts
A RACI chart is a project management tool used to clarify roles and responsibilities of team members.
RACI stands for Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed, which are the four types of roles
that can be assigned to team members in a project.
Responsible: This person is responsible for completing the task or delivering the project outcome.
Accountable: This person is ultimately accountable for the task or project outcome and is responsible for
making the final decision.
Consulted: This person is consulted for their expertise or input before a decision is made.
Informed: This person is kept informed of progress and decisions, but does not contribute to decision-
making or task completion.
RACI charts are typically represented as a grid with tasks or project deliverables listed on one axis and
team members listed on the other axis. Each team member is assigned one or more of the RACI roles
for each task or deliverable. The purpose of the RACI chart is to avoid confusion and ensure that each
team member knows what they are responsible for and who to consult or inform during the project.
Project Timelines
A project timeline is a tool used in project management to visually represent the sequence of tasks,
milestones, and deadlines involved in a project. It typically shows the start and end dates of each task
and how they relate to each other, allowing the project team to track progress and identify potential
delays or roadblocks.
To create a project timeline, you first need to identify all the tasks involved in the project, estimate the
duration of each task, and determine their dependencies. Then, you can use a timeline software or tool
to create a graphical representation of the project, including:
• Tasks: These are the individual activities required to complete the project, such as research,
design, development, testing, and implementation.
• Milestones: These are significant points in the project timeline, such as the completion of a major
deliverable, a key decision point, or a critical deadline.
• Dependencies: These are the relationships between tasks, such as when one task can't start until
another is completed, or when two tasks need to be done in parallel.
• Durations: These are the estimated timeframes for each task, based on factors such as available
resources, complexity, and risk.
Once the project timeline is created, it becomes a useful tool for tracking progress, adjusting schedules,
and communicating with stakeholders. By identifying potential delays and risks in advance, the project
team can take proactive measures to mitigate them and ensure that the project is completed on time and
within budget.
Project Budgets
A project budget is a financial plan that outlines the estimated costs and expenses of a project. It
includes all the resources required to complete the project, such as personnel, materials, equipment, and
overhead costs. The project budget is an essential component of project management, as it helps to
ensure that the project is completed within the allocated budget and resources.
To create a project budget, you need to follow these steps:
1. Identify all the resources required for the project, including personnel, materials, and equipment.
2. Estimate the costs associated with each resource. This may include salaries, hourly rates,
material costs, and equipment rental fees.
3. Determine the duration of the project and the estimated time each resource will be needed.
4. Multiply the estimated costs and the duration to get the total cost for each resource.
5. Add up all the resource costs to get the total estimated project cost.
6. Set aside a contingency budget for unexpected expenses or risks.
7. Present the budget to stakeholders for approval.
Throughout the project, it's important to track the actual expenses and compare them to the budget. This
allows the project manager to identify any budget overruns or underutilized resources and make
adjustments to ensure the project stays within budget. By managing the project budget effectively, the
project team can ensure that the project is completed on time and within budget, while also meeting the
desired quality standards.
Cost/Benefit Analysis
Cost-benefit analysis is a project management technique used to evaluate the potential financial benefits
of a project against its expected costs. The goal of cost-benefit analysis is to determine whether a project
is worth pursuing, and if so, what level of investment is justified.
The steps involved in a cost-benefit analysis are as follows:
1. Identify the costs associated with the project, such as labor, materials, equipment, and overhead.
2. Estimate the benefits of the project, such as increased revenue, reduced costs, or improved
efficiency.
3. Assign a monetary value to the costs and benefits, and calculate the net present value (NPV) of
the project. NPV takes into account the time value of money, meaning that future benefits are
discounted to their present value.
4. Determine the internal rate of return (IRR) of the project. This is the discount rate at which the
present value of the project's benefits equals the present value of its costs.
5. Compare the NPV and IRR to the company's required rate of return or other financial
benchmarks.

6. Conduct a sensitivity analysis to determine how the project's financial returns would be affected
by changes in key variables, such as revenue, costs, or market conditions.
By conducting a cost-benefit analysis, project managers can identify the potential risks and benefits of a
project, assess its financial feasibility, and make informed decisions about project selection, prioritization,
and resource allocation. This allows the project team to focus on the most valuable and feasible projects
that can generate the greatest return on investment for the company.
Project Risk Management
Project risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and mitigating the potential risks and
uncertainties associated with a project. The goal of project risk management is to minimize the negative
impact of risks on the project's objectives and maximize the opportunities for positive outcomes.
The steps involved in project risk management are as follows:
1. Risk identification: This involves identifying all the potential risks and uncertainties that could
affect the project. This can be done through brainstorming, risk checklists, or other risk
identification techniques.
2. Risk assessment: This involves assessing the likelihood and potential impact of each identified
risk. This can be done through qualitative or quantitative risk analysis, such as probability and
impact matrices or Monte Carlo simulations.
3. Risk response planning: This involves developing strategies and plans to mitigate or avoid the
identified risks. This can include risk avoidance, risk transfer, risk reduction, or risk acceptance.
4. Risk monitoring and control: This involves tracking the identified risks and their associated
response plans throughout the project, and making adjustments as needed. This includes
ongoing risk assessment, risk reporting, and risk response plan execution.
By implementing a project risk management process, project managers can proactively identify and
address potential risks before they become major issues, reducing the likelihood of project delays,
budget overruns, or quality issues. It also allows the project team to take advantage of potential
opportunities for positive outcomes, such as increased efficiency, cost savings, or improved stakeholder
satisfaction.
Concepts and Techniques for Project Management
Project management is the process of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the
successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. Here are some of the key concepts and
techniques that professional project managers use:
1. Project Planning: This is the process of defining a project's goals, objectives, tasks, and
resources. Project planning typically includes creating a project charter, a project schedule, and a
budget.
2. Project Scheduling: This is the process of creating a timeline for a project, including the start and
end dates for each task and the dependencies between tasks. Project scheduling tools, such as
Gantt charts, are often used to help visualize the project timeline.
3. Resource Management: This is the process of acquiring and allocating the resources necessary
to complete a project, including human resources, materials, and equipment. Project managers
must also monitor and manage resource utilization to ensure that resources are being used
effectively.

4. Risk Management: This is the process of identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risks.
Project managers must identify potential risks, assess the likelihood and impact of those risks,
and develop plans to mitigate or avoid the risks.
5. Change Management: This is the process of controlling changes to the project scope, schedule,
and budget. Project managers must have a process in place for reviewing, approving, and
implementing changes to the project plan.
6. Quality Management: This is the process of ensuring that the project deliverables meet the
required quality standards. Project managers must develop a quality plan and implement quality
control processes to monitor and improve the quality of the project deliverables.
7. Stakeholder Management: This is the process of communicating with and managing the
expectations of the stakeholders involved in a project. Project managers must identify the
stakeholders, understand their interests and concerns, and develop strategies for managing
stakeholder relationships.
8. Monitoring and Control: This is the process of tracking the progress of a project and making
adjustments as necessary. Project managers must have a process in place for regularly
monitoring and updating the project schedule, budget, and risks.
Here is an example to help illustrate these concepts:
Imagine that you are a project manager responsible for building a new office building. During the project
planning phase, you would create a project charter that outlines the goals and objectives of the project,
as well as the tasks and resources needed to complete the project. You would also create a project
schedule, using a Gantt chart, to visualize the timeline for the project, including the start and end dates
for each task and the dependencies between tasks.
During the resource management phase, you would acquire and allocate the resources necessary to
complete the project, such as architects, engineers, construction workers, and materials. You would also
monitor and manage resource utilization to ensure that resources are being used effectively.
During the risk management phase, you would identify potential risks to the project, such as a shortage
of materials or a delay in the construction schedule, and develop plans to mitigate or avoid those risks.
During the change management phase, you would review and approve changes to the project plan, such
as changes to the project scope, schedule, or budget.
During the quality management phase, you would ensure that the project deliverables meet the required
quality standards, and implement quality control processes to monitor and improve the quality of the
project deliverables.
During the stakeholder management phase, you would communicate with and manage the expectations
of the stakeholders involved in the project, including the building owner, the construction workers, and
the surrounding community.
During the monitoring and control phase, you would track the progress of the project and make
adjustments as necessary, updating the project schedule, budget, and risks as needed.


Domain 3- Risk Management

This section presents the fundamental concepts and terminology of the Risk Management domain. An
understanding of these concepts will allow the practitioner to analyze and assess a potentially hazardous
workplace situation. Practical application of the concepts helps the practitioner to develop an
understanding of risk management processes. The qualitative and quantitative outcomes of the risk
management process allow the practitioner to apply good judgment to each new case.
What is Risk Management?
All organizations and individuals face risks on a regular basis. Some risks are considered significant and
warrant concern and action to minimize their likelihood and impact, while other lesser risks are generally
tolerated and accepted if their probability of occurrence is very low, or their likely health and safety
consequences are thought to be small.
Risk management attempts to define the concept of 'safety' in terms of risks to human health that are
sufficiently small to be deemed 'acceptable' to the exposed individuals. Since perfect safety can never be
absolutely assured in the presence of potentially hazardous materials and processes, risk managers
must be able to identify those risks that have the highest priority for abatement or control, and then must
identify and select control measures that are both effective and cost efficient.
Sometimes parts of the risk management process are combined within other activities that concern
occupational health and safety matters—such as quality management, environmental systems
management, process safety, or disaster planning. More recently, the term and the practice of risk
management has been used as a broader framework for information gathering, and as a decision
making process for safety and health issues.
Uncertainty and Decision-Making: Since many risks are, by their nature, uncertain or incompletely
characterized, it is also important to address the issue of timely decision-making under conditions of
considerable uncertainty and time-urgency. Other key activities of paramount importance include
adequate provision for worker participation in the risk decision-making process and ensuring effective
means of risk communication among all potentially affected groups during and after these deliberations.
Perceptions of Risk Management: Unfortunately, the term risk management is sometimes misperceived
as a strategy that encourages managerial practices that permit substantial levels of environmental
hazards or unsafe working conditions to persist to the detriment of employees or the general public. This
is a false perception. In the recent past, the frequent use of so-called 'behaviour based safety programs'
often lead to an excessive emphasis on 'behavioural management' to discourage unsafe employee
practices in the workplace. This has produced accusations by some critics that such programs simply
seek to identify unsafe behaviour among workers and punish those who practice it, while ignoring the
unsafe workplace itself. The contemporary practice of risk management in occupational health and
safety has no meaningful relationship to such a traditional 'behavioural management' approach, and it is
important to distinguish clearly between these similar-sounding terms. Risk management emphasizes
the essential role of managers, workers, and regulators acting in concert to ensure a safe and healthful
workplace for all workers, with emphasis on system-wide approaches to risk control, while rejecting
simplistic programs directed solely at influencing worker behaviour or blaming victims of accidents and
illness.
Hazard and Risk
Although hazard and risk are used indiscriminately in everyday situations, there is a fundamental
distinction to be made between a hazard and a risk. A hazard is defined as the inherent property of a
substance, process, or activity that predisposes it to the potential for causing harm to health, safety or
human welfare. Risk is defined as the chance that someone or something will be adversely affected in a
particular way by unintended exposure to the hazard. Risk therefore refers to the possibility of danger,
rather than actual danger. The probability of an event occurring is inherent in the concept of risk, but not
in the concept of hazard.
Since any given workplace may contain a very large number of identifiable hazards, it is important for
risk managers to concentrate on those hazards whose risks that are 'reasonably foreseeable' as having
a significant potential for harm. Future risks are often foreseeable based on past experience in
workplace settings—as demonstrated by accident reporting, illnesses monitoring statistics, or reports of
similar hazards in other domains (e.g. environmental hazards). Many other risks are only foreseeable
through basic research on the toxicological and physico-chemical properties of various substances and
products. How these concepts are brought together into practice involves the use of a risk management
framework that integrates the flow of available information and arrives at a sound decision about how to
deal with a specific risk.
EXAMPLES OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORKPLACE HAZARDS AND WORKPLACE
RISKS
Hazard Risk
Work The likelihood that a worker may suffer from carbon monoxide poisoning
Environment: because they are using a petrol operated pump in a well (ie. An inadequately
ventilated space).
confined space
Energy: electricity The likelihood that a worker may be electrocuted because they are exposed
to electrical wires while using a deep fryer that has inadequate insulation on
the power cable.
Manual Handling The likelihood that a worker may suffer back strain from manually lifting 40
kg bags.
Noise The likelihood that workers and others in the area may suffer irreparable
hearing damage because they work near someone continuously using a jack
hammer which emits noise over 85 dB(A)
Noise The likelihood that office workers may suffer stress in the form of fatigue,
anxiety and or aggression because they are exposed to constant low level
noise of below
75 dB(A)
Substance: The likelihood that a worker may sustain a needlestick injury and become
infected while taking a blood sample from an infected patient.
infected blood
Plant: printing The likelihood that a worker’s hand may be crushed while using a printing
machine machine because unguarded rollers drew in the worker’s hand.

Hazard identification and analysis methods (e.g., job safety analysis, hazard analysis, human
performance analysis, and audit and causal analysis)
Hazard identification and analysis methods are safety tools used to identify potential hazards in the
workplace and evaluate the risks associated with these hazards. These methods can be applied in
various industries, including manufacturing, construction, transportation, and healthcare, to name a few.
Some of the commonly used hazard identification and analysis methods include:
1. Job Safety Analysis (JSA) - a procedure for systematically examining a job or task to identify
potential hazards and assess the risk associated with these hazards. The goal of JSA is to
develop safe work procedures that minimize the risk of injury or illness to employees.
2. Hazard Analysis - a systematic examination of a workplace to identify and evaluate hazards that
pose a risk to employees. This method may involve the use of checklists, surveys, and site
inspections to identify potential hazards.
3. Human Performance Analysis - a systematic examination of human factors that may contribute to
errors and incidents in the workplace. This method is used to identify and address human factors
that may contribute to workplace accidents, such as fatigue, distractions, or lack of training.
4. Audit and Causal Analysis - a systematic examination of workplace procedures, processes, and
equipment to identify areas for improvement and identify the root causes of incidents and
accidents. This method is used to identify trends, patterns, and common causes of workplace
hazards and develop strategies for mitigating these hazards.
Hazard analysis
Will locate hazards that are probable and/or that can have the most severe consequences. The analysis
can uncover hazards that have been overlooked in the original design or setup of a particular process,
operation or task. It can identify hazards in new equipment or processes before an employee is exposed
to them.
What factors need to be identified and analyzed?
• Frequency of incidents
• Potential for injury
• Severity of injury
• New or altered equipment, processes and operations
• Excessive waste or damage to equipment.
Hazard/Risk Assessment Process
1. Establish manageable parameters – task (operation, maintenance, start-up)
2. Identify the potential hazards (technology or activity producing risks)
3. Consider failure modes
4. Determine frequency and duration of exposure
5. Assess potential severity or harm
6. Determine occurrence probability
7. Define the risks
8. Rank the risks in priority
9. Develop remediation proposals
10. Follow up action
11. Document results

Job Safety Analysis

Is closely associated with a Job Task Analysis insofar as the subject jobs are selected as a result of
several factors; frequency of accidents, disabling injuries, potential for severe consequences or newly
created jobs. The selected jobs should be broken down into steps and sequenced in a logical manner.
The potential hazards should be identified and there should be recommendations for action or
procedures.
What jobs should be selected for a JSA? Suitable jobs are those that require several steps or activities to
accomplish a work goal. Jobs that can be narrowly defined such as turning on a switch, tightening a
screw, pushing a button are not suitable for a JSA. Jobs should not be selected at random, those with
the highest injury frequency should be analysed first:
• Injury frequency
• Disabling injuries
• Severity potential
• New process.
Once completed, a JSA has benefits that are gained from developing the analysis jointly. Supervisors
learn more about the job they supervise noting what is being done and how it is accomplished, as well as
noting the key safety points. Participating workers expand their knowledge of safety and as a JSA is
worked out, safer and better job procedures and conditions are developed.
The principal benefits of a JSA include:
• Reducing injury frequency and severity

• Providing information to develop effective training programs
• Instructing a new worker on the job
• Giving instructions on irregular jobs
• Reviewing job procedures after incidents occur
• Studying jobs for possible improvement in methods
• Identifying hazards and potential incident causes.
The final step in the JSA is to develop a recommended ‘safe job procedure’ to prevent the occurrence of
incidents by recommending:
• a new way to do the job

• changes to the physical conditions that create hazards
• changes to the work procedure
• reducing the frequency.
Systems review at the design level should be undertaken. To eliminate hazards in the design process
one would assess the severity of consequences. When hazards are not eliminated at this stage the
assessment should look at probability and severity.
Acting in a prescribed order is both feasible and practical and is the most effective means to achieve risk
reduction; note the following hierarchy of controls:
1. Eliminate or reduce risks in the design and redesign processes.
2. Reduce risks by substituting less hazardous methods or materials.
3. Incorporate safety devices/guarding.
4. Providing warning systems.
5. Apply administrative controls.
6. Providing personal protective equipment.

The risks may not be eliminated entirely through administrative controls, engineering, or technology but
risks can be reduced to as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) and tolerable through good safety
management.
The risk management process (risk identification, analysis, evaluation, control, monitor and review)
Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing risks (uncertainties) that could
negatively impact an organization or individual's ability to achieve their goals, and taking steps to
minimize or mitigate those risks. The goal of risk management is to minimize potential harm and
maximize the potential for success or rewards.
This process involves a systematic evaluation of potential risks, identification of the likelihood and impact
of those risks, and the development and implementation of strategies to minimize or mitigate the risks.
This can include creating contingency plans, allocating resources to high-priority risks, and implementing
controls to minimize the chances of risks occurring or reduce their impact if they do occur.
Risk management is a critical component of effective decision-making and is used in a wide range of
industries, including finance, insurance, healthcare, construction, and government, among others. It is an
ongoing process that should be regularly reviewed and updated to consider changes in the organization
or environment.
The general process for risk management is outlined below:
Risk Identification
Risk identification is the first step in the risk management process, where potential risks are identified
and documented. This step involves identifying the sources of risk and the specific events or
circumstances that could give rise to the risk. This can be done through various methods such as
brainstorming sessions, reviewing past experiences, or reviewing organizational policies and
procedures.
Examples of risk identification techniques include:
1. Brainstorming: Bringing together a group of stakeholders to identify potential risks, brainstorming
is a common method used to identify risks in organizations. This approach can be useful for
identifying risks that may not be immediately apparent to individuals working in the organization.
2. Root Cause Analysis: This approach involves identifying the underlying causes of past problems
or incidents and using that information to identify potential risks. For example, after a data
breach, a root cause analysis might be used to identify the cause of the breach and identify
potential risks that could lead to similar breaches in the future.
3. SWOT Analysis: A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) is a
commonly used method for identifying risks in organizations. This approach involves identifying
internal strengths and weaknesses, as well as external opportunities and threats that could
impact the organization.
4. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Study: This is a structured and systematic examination of a
complex system or process that is used to identify potential risks and hazards. HAZOP studies
are commonly used in the chemical and process industries to identify potential hazards in
industrial processes.

5. Checklists: Simple checklists can be used to identify risks in an organization. For example, a
checklist for data security risks might include items such as unsecured servers, poor password
management, and unpatched software.
These are just a few examples of risk identification techniques that can be used to identify risks in an
organization. The goal of risk identification is to identify as many potential risks as possible so that they
can be analyzed and evaluated in subsequent steps in the risk management process.
Risk Analysis
Risk analysis is the second step in the risk management process, where the likelihood and impact of
each identified risk are assessed. This includes an evaluation of the likelihood of the risk occurring, the
potential consequences if it does occur, and the probability of those consequences.
Examples of risk analysis techniques include:
1. Probabilistic Analysis: This approach involves assigning probabilities to the likelihood of risks
occurring and to the potential consequences if they do occur. This information can then be used
to prioritize risks and develop a risk management strategy. For example, a financial institution
might use probabilistic analysis to evaluate the likelihood and impact of a market downturn on
their investments.
2. Scenario Analysis: This approach involves considering various hypothetical scenarios and
evaluating the potential impact of each scenario. This can help organizations better understand
the potential consequences of risks and develop contingency plans. For example, a
transportation company might use scenario analysis to evaluate the potential impact of a major
weather event on their operations.
3. Decision Trees: This approach involves using a diagram to represent a sequence of decisions
and the consequences of each decision. This can help organizations understand the potential
consequences of risks and make informed decisions about how to manage those risks. For
example, a healthcare organization might use a decision tree to evaluate the potential
consequences of a pandemic and make decisions about how to allocate resources in response to
the pandemic.
4. Sensitivity Analysis: This approach involves evaluating the potential impact of changes in key
variables on the likelihood and consequences of risks. This can help organizations understand
the potential impact of risks and make informed decisions about how to manage those risks. For
example, a construction company might use sensitivity analysis to evaluate the potential impact
of changes in construction costs on the timeline and budget for a construction project.
These are just a few examples of risk analysis techniques that can be used to assess the likelihood and
impact of risks. The goal of risk analysis is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the potential
consequences of risks, which can then be used to prioritize risks and develop a risk management
strategy.
Risk Evaluation
Risk evaluation is the third step in the risk management process, where the risks identified in the
previous step are evaluated and compared to determine which risks should be addressed. This involves
comparing the likelihood and impact of each risk to determine its priority and determining which risks are
most important to address.
Examples of risk evaluation techniques include:

1. Risk Matrix: This approach involves plotting the likelihood and impact of each risk on a matrix,
with higher likelihood and impact risks appearing in higher risk categories. This can help
organizations prioritize risks and make informed decisions about which risks to address first.
2. Cost-Benefit Analysis: This approach involves evaluating the costs and benefits of different risk
management options to determine which options are most effective. For example, a company
might evaluate the costs and benefits of different insurance options to determine which option is
best for their organization.
3. Risk Tolerance: This approach involves evaluating the risk tolerance of an organization, which is
the level of risk the organization is willing to accept. This can help organizations determine which
risks are most important to address based on the organization's risk tolerance.
4. Stakeholder Analysis: This approach involves evaluating the concerns and priorities of different
stakeholders in the organization to determine which risks are most important to address. For
example, a company might conduct a stakeholder analysis to determine the concerns of
shareholders, employees, and customers to determine which risks are most important to
address.
These are just a few examples of risk evaluation techniques that can be used to prioritize and evaluate
risks. The goal of risk evaluation is to determine which risks are most important to address and to
prioritize risk management activities based on the results of the evaluation.
Risk Control
Risk control is the final step in the risk management process, where the risks that have been identified
and evaluated are controlled and managed. This involves implementing risk management strategies to
reduce the likelihood of risks occurring, or to mitigate the impact of risks if they do occur.
Examples of risk control techniques include:
1. Avoidance: This approach involves avoiding risks altogether by not engaging in activities that are
likely to lead to risks. For example, a company might avoid investing in a particular stock if they
believe the stock is likely to be volatile.
2. Transfer: This approach involves transferring the risk to another party, such as through insurance
or a contract. For example, a company might transfer the risk of a natural disaster by purchasing
insurance to cover the costs of any damage that might occur.
3. Mitigation: This approach involves reducing the likelihood of risks occurring or mitigating the
impact of risks if they do occur. For example, a company might implement security measures to
reduce the likelihood of a data breach or have a contingency plan in place in case a disaster
occurs.
4. Acceptance: This approach involves accepting the risk and taking no action to control it. This is
usually done when the costs of controlling the risk are higher than the potential consequences of
the risk. For example, a company might choose to accept the risk of a natural disaster if the cost
of controlling the risk, such as through insurance, is higher than the potential consequences of
the disaster.
These are just a few examples of risk control techniques that can be used to manage risks. The goal of
risk control is to implement effective risk management strategies that reduce the likelihood of risks
occurring, or mitigate the impact of risks if they do occur.

Monitoring and Review

Monitoring and review is an ongoing step in the risk management process, where the effectiveness of
the risk management strategies implemented in the previous step (risk control) is continuously monitored
and reviewed to ensure that they are effective and that any changes in the risk environment are taken
into account.
Examples of monitoring and review techniques include:
1. Regular Risk Assessments: This approach involves regularly conducting risk assessments to
identify any changes in the risk environment and to ensure that the risk management strategies in
place are still effective. For example, a company might conduct an annual risk assessment to
ensure that their risk management strategies are up-to-date.
2. Key Risk Indicators (KRIs): This approach involves monitoring key risk indicators to track the
performance of risk management strategies and to identify any changes in the risk environment.
For example, a company might monitor the number of security breaches to track the
effectiveness of their security measures.
3. Internal Audit: This approach involves conducting internal audits to review the effectiveness of
the risk management process and to identify any areas for improvement. For example, a
company might conduct an internal audit of their risk management process to ensure that they
are following best practices and to identify any areas for improvement.
4. Performance Metrics: This approach involves tracking performance metrics to assess the
effectiveness of risk management strategies and to identify any areas for improvement. For
example, a company might track the number of insurance claims to assess the effectiveness of
their insurance coverage.
These are just a few examples of monitoring and review techniques that can be used to ensure the
effectiveness of risk management strategies and to take into account any changes in the risk
environment. The goal of monitoring and review is to continuously assess the effectiveness of risk
management strategies and to make any necessary changes to ensure that they are effective and up-to-
date.
Likelihood, Consequence, and Risk
As explained previously, risk is the likelihood of death, injury or illness that could result from exposure to
a hazard. Therefore, to assess risk, one needs to consider:
1. likelihood of exposure (this may be how often the exposure occurs, and at what intensity of
exposure) to a given hazard, and
2. the corresponding severity of consequences arising from that exposure or event.
For example, a worksite may have physical hazards associated with hot surfaces. The frequency of the
contact with the surfaces is the probability of contact. The severity is a different measure and may be a
mild sensation (a low consequence) of heat, or an ability to burn and maim the employee (a severe
consequence).
Likelihood
This is the frequency or probability over a period of time that an event may occur. In risk analysis,
likelihood is defined differently for discrete hazards as opposed to continuous hazards

Discrete hazards
Are those that are either present or absent from the exposed worker—such as electrical faults, unsafe
mechanical devices, or fire hazards. We can assume that any exposure to such hazards presents
potentially serious consequences, so there cannot be any tolerable threshold of exposure that would
permit the occurrence of 'mild shocks' or 'minor burns', etc. The risks from discrete hazards are usually
defined as the probability (or likelihood) that a harmful incident might occur in the present workplace,
keeping in mind existing control measures.
SIMPLE SCALE FOR EXPRESSING THE LIKELIHOOD (PROBABILITY) OF A HARMFUL INCIDENT
IN THE WORKPLACE.
Likelihood Frequency Example
Very Likely Could happen frequently Motor oil spills in vehicle service area
Likely Could happen occasionally Fuel overspills during loading of tanker cars
Unlikely Could happen, but rarely Tanker accident occurs and spills in
populated area
Very Could happen, but probably Massive fuel spill enters pedestrian
never will concourse
Unlikely
Continuous hazards
are those that occur all the time at varying levels of exposure—such as hazardous dusts, toxic
chemicals, noise levels, and radiation. The risks from exposure to continuous hazards are usually
defined by the level of exposure to each individual worker over time periods that range from minutes
(peak exposure) to hours (short-term exposure) to years (time-weighted average exposure).
Thus, likelihood of adverse health effects in the case of continuous hazards is considered in the context
of their dose-response (exposure-response) characteristics. If there are sufficient sources of scientific
evidence, it may be concluded that low levels of exposure fall below a toxicity threshold, such that very
low doses are essentially without significant probability of harmful health consequences. Higher
workplace exposure levels approaching the threshold of toxicity would be expected to produce a small
but significant probability of harmful health effects in the most heavily exposed and/or most susceptible
workers, and such exposures must be reduced or eliminated.
Consequence
The consequences of a harmful exposure, whether discrete or continuous, are normally expressed as
the severity of adverse health effects to workers. An example of this range would be the difference
between a minor burn that did not require medical treatment, and an extreme consequence such as a
worker’s death.
Risk managers have considerable difficulty assessing the scale of severity of adverse health effects. In
contrast to incident probabilities or exposure levels, health consequences are generally unquantifiable in
any objective sense. To simplify this severity measurement, a simple consequence scoring system can
be developed in several different ways. It is common for a four or five stage scale to be used to describe
the increasing severity of a potential event. The characteristics of the hazard itself may indicate the most
likely consequence—for example, electrical hazard: electrocution risk or carcinogenic hazard: cancer

risk. Alternatively, consequences may be scaled more objectively according to the observed frequency of
various levels of severity in the affected industry or activity.
A SIMPLE SCALE FOR EXPRESSING THE SEVERITY OF CONSEQUENCES OF ADVERSE
HEALTH EFFECTS IN THE WORKPLACE
Rating of Severity Example

Consequence
Extreme Death or permanent disablement
Major Serious bodily injury or serious work caused illness
Moderate Moderate injury or illness requiring casualty treatment
Minor Minor injury or illness requiring first aid only, no lost time.
The scale has been developed within the context of worker safety. The scale can also be used in a
similar manner for public health severity (e.g risk of harm to residents surrounding an industrial facility).
There are several other “measures” that can be employed. The scale can be translated to
economic/financial impacts (e.g. the cost of an accident may be measured in costs that include
insurance premiums, facility downtime, etc.) and the cost range may run from minor (less than $1000) to
severe (several million dollars) in consequences for an event.
Similarly, the consequences on the environment can be rated using this scale. A minor consequence
may not impair a habitat at all, while a major consequence can be considered to be wide-scale, long-
term irreparable damage to an ecosystem.
The scale has also been translated to rate the negative impact on the reputation of a company or
organization in the event of a serious accident. For example, the consequences of the Exxon Valdez oil
tanker accident was considered to be “catastrophic” in terms of environmental damage, costs in
damages, and to the reputation of the corporation.
Decision-Making in Risk Management
There are several methods to estimate the magnitude of risk in the workplace. Many methods have
been developed to estimate the potential outcomes of technological failures such as train derailments,
missile mis-firings, and chemical facility explosions. Other health-oriented methods have been developed
to estimate the outcomes associated with disease and injuries. The safety professional should consider
these to be a toolbox of methods that can be employed to small or large-scale hazards in the workplace.
Two methods are briefly described here; they are the (i) Risk Measurement Matrix, and (ii) Event Tree
Analysis. They are based on current best practices in risk estimation and are useful to the practicing
safety professional. They provide a logical framework for the professional to estimate risks, and this will
reduce errors in decision-making.

The Risk Measurement Matrix

Risk can then be calculated as the product of two key variables:
1) the likelihood of effects and
2) severity of effects.
This can be summarized as the relationship:
Risk = Frequency x Severity
This relationship is often depicted as a matrix that can be used to determine a 'risk score', by plotting the
scales for likelihood and consequence.
Note that such risk-ranking schemes provide no absolute quantifiable values, and therefore by
themselves do not constitute a quantitative risk assessment (risk estimation). They are valuable,
however, as tools for setting priorities for workplace hazard control programs and assisting in the
decision-making process for risk reduction. They rely on the same basic conceptual underpinnings as
more sophisticated quantitative risk assessment methods.
EXAMPLE OF A LIKELIHOOD: CONSEQUENCE MATRIX USED FOR RANK-ORDERING
WORKPLACE RISKS ACCORDING TO A RISK PRIORITY SCALE
RISK PRIORITY CHART
Consequences: How severely could it affect health and

safety?
Likelihood
Extreme (death Major (serious Moderate (injury Minor (injury or
How likely could it
or permanent bodily injury or or illness requiring illness requiring
happen?
dismemberment) serious casualty treatment) first aid only, no
workcaused lost time)
illness)
Very Likely (could 1 2 3 4

happen frequently)
Likely (could 2 3 4 5
happen
occasionally)
Unlikely 3 4 5 6
(could
happen, but rare)
Very Unlikely 4 5 6 7
(could happen, but
probably
never will)

Score Action
1, 2 or 3 Do something about these risks immediately
4 or 5 Do something about these risks as soon as possible
6 or 7 These risk may not need immediate attention
Although the risk matrix is a simplified form of the calculation, it can be very useful. The matrix provides
the means for estimating the risk form several different hazards. It has a simple ability to quantify the
risk, and allows the different risks to be ranked and prioritized. It is a very useful tool. In addition, the
results of the matrix can be communicated easily. This communication is important when safety
initiatives need to be implemented within an organization and the cooperation of others is needed to be
successful.
Event Tree Analysis
Event Tree Analysis is a technique that was developed in engineering science to estimate the outcomes
from a single event. The event may be very specific (e.g. what happens when an electrical power failure
occurs in a chemical facility), but it may generate a multitude of consequential events that may be
undesirable. The Event Tree assists with the delineation and estimation of the secondary outcome
events (NIOSH IX-3 to IX-7).
The Event Tree is based on a single primary event that generates subsequent secondary and tertiary
events. Each event generates a success and a failure branch (binary branches) and diagrammatically
this can be extended to estimate the probable endpoints of concern. The probability of each event can
be included within the event tree. Usually, these probabilities are estimated or based on historical
records of occurrence.
The Event Tree is particularly useful for understanding the outcomes of an initiating event and this
includes the usefulness of emergency response measures. The development of event trees can
improve emergency response capabilities. It is common for response efforts to focus on the main failure
event (e.g. power outage) and overlook secondary and tertiary outcomes that may require resources.
An example of this is that a power outage at a chemical production facility may be caused by a storm-
related failure. The power outage is the main event and this may be the focus of emergency responders.
However, the power failure also limits the ability of the crew to reduce flooding due to excessive rainfall
and pump systems cannot be used to limit other plant failures during the storm event. The use of the
Event Tree during emergency planning will assist in the identification of these secondary events and
provide a measure of their importance (NIOSH IX-3 to IX-7).
Clear decision-making within a risk management process is a key aspect of the ability of risk managers
and administrators to arrive at effective risk control measures. There is considerable disagreement within
the risk management community as to the extent that decisions about environmental or occupational
health risks should be based strictly on scientific and technical criteria (i.e. 'trust the experts'), as
opposed to more subjective criteria such as transparency and openness of the process, adequate
consultation, perceived fairness, equity of treatment, stakeholders' perceptions and preferences, and
social determinants of risk tolerance (i.e. 'participatory consensus-making').
Usually both aspects of decision-making play some considerable role in risk decision-making, depending
on the context of the risk problem, and the willingness of participants to collaborate in a cooperative
fashion. Decision-making that derives its mandate from legislated government regulatory powers, for
example occupational exposure standards for hazardous chemicals, often tends to be more adversarial
and legalistic than those risk management approaches that seek to create 'voluntary' or
'consensusbased' guidelines (i.e. non-enforceable standards) derived by non-governmental

organizations or by industry-labour agreements at the sectoral or local level.
Regardless of how the risk management decision is finally achieved, certain critical decision-criteria will
generally need to be considered carefully in most environmental or occupational health risk decisions—
these include the following:
Weight-Of-Evidence
The weight-of-evidence approach seeks to ensure that the process of considering the evidence about
the existence and magnitude of a risk is scientifically defensible, such that the available evidence is of
sufficient strength, coherence, and consistency to support the conclusion that a serious hazard may
exist.
Precautionary Principle
In cases where the available scientific evidence is incomplete or contradictory, the precautionary
principle implies decision-makers toward timely preventive action whenever a serious or irreversible
health hazard is believed to exist as a significant possibility. This principle is especially important in
situations where the decision is time-urgent because: (1) a newly discovered risk is imminent or already
present; (2) exposure to the hazard is likely to produce harmful effects rapidly within the immediate
future; (3) the potential consequences would be serious and perhaps widespread. Not every suspected
occupational hazard can be dealt with according to the precautionary principle, as such hazards are too
numerous to address immediately, and many may be remote or inconsequential. In addition, the
preliminary scientific evidence, while incomplete, must at least provide a sufficient weight-of-evidence to
support a plausible inference of potential harm.
Sound Science
The principle of sound science assumes that appearances can often be deceiving if they are based on
incomplete or biased information or inadequate scientific studies. The principle tends therefore to
emphasize the need for collection of better quality and more complete scientific information before a risk
decision is made, to avoid erroneous or excessive responses to trivial or non-existent hazards. Thus the
precautionary principle and the principle of sound science are often seen to be in dynamic opposition
with each other, although a reasonable middle ground is usually achievable if different stakeholders (e.g.
management, labour) are willing to modify their respective starting positions.
The ALARA Principle
The ALARA principle is an acronym for 'As Low As Reasonably Achievable'. It is a pragmatic
technologybased approach to minimizing health risk that seeks to reduce potentially harmful exposures
to known hazards to the greatest extent possible, consistent with technical feasibility and 'reasonable
achievable' costs. The difficulty here lies in defining what exactly constitutes a technically feasible and
reasonably achievable control measure.
Reasonable Relationship
This concept proposes that the costs of control for environmental or occupational hazards should bear a
"reasonable relationship' with respect to the corresponding reduction in health risk that are likely to be
achieved.
It must also be recognized that even the most stringent adherence to scientific objectivity in risk
assessment will inevitably be influenced to some extent by the unintended inclusion of value
assumptions, that is, subjective interpretations and judgements of evidence that are based on personal
or societal values. Many psychological factors may also intrude on the subjective perception of risk by
various parties, depending on the inherent contextual qualities of hazards—such as voluntary versus
involuntary, commonplace versus uncommon, dreaded versus tolerated, known versus unknown,
immediate versus delayed. Such risk perception characteristics, while not directly related to the
numerical estimates of risk, nonetheless may play a major role in the subjective risk tolerance for various
types of hazards and may bias the judgment of one of the affected parties towards or away from
effective risk control actions.
Very low levels of exposure to hazards may be estimated to produce attendant risks that are so low for
any exposed individual as to be considered trivial for practical purposes—this is commonly designated
by risk managers as the de minimis (insignificant) risk level. However, the numerical definition of 'de
minimis' varies from place to place across a range of values from 10-6 (1 in million) to 10-4 (1 in 10,000)
for a working lifetime. Moreover, the argument is sometimes advanced that occupational risks should be
more tolerable to workers at a higher level of likelihood than the public, because their exposure is
'voluntary' and brings them substantial benefits in terms of wages. Such arguments are obviously
contentious and illustrate how value judgements and risk perception characteristics can often influence
risk decision-making.
Additional methods of Decisions in Risk Management
Decision-making in risk management involves determining which risk management strategies to
implement based on the results of the risk identification, analysis, evaluation, and control processes.
This involves weighing the potential benefits and costs of different risk management options, considering
the organization's risk tolerance and available resources, and making informed decisions about which
strategies are most appropriate for the organization.
The following are some factors to consider when making decisions in risk management:
1. Risk Tolerance: The level of risk the organization is willing to accept will play a major role in
determining which risk management strategies are implemented. Organizations with a higher risk
tolerance may choose to implement less stringent risk management strategies, while
organizations with a lower risk tolerance may choose to implement more stringent strategies.
2. Cost-Benefit Analysis: This involves evaluating the costs and benefits of different risk
management options to determine which options are most effective. For example, a company
might evaluate the costs and benefits of different insurance options to determine which option is
best for their organization.
3. Stakeholder Analysis: This involves evaluating the concerns and priorities of different
stakeholders in the organization to determine which risks are most important to address. For
example, a company might conduct a stakeholder analysis to determine the concerns of
shareholders, employees, and customers to determine which risks are most important to
address.
4. Legal and Regulatory Requirements: Organizations must comply with relevant laws and
regulations, and this will impact the risk management strategies that can be implemented. For
example, a company must comply with privacy laws and regulations when handling personal
data, which will impact the risk management strategies that can be implemented to protect this
data.
These are just a few factors to consider when making decisions in risk management. The goal of
decision-making in risk management is to make informed decisions about which risk management
strategies to implement based on the results of the risk management process and the organization's
specific needs and constraints.

Hierarchy of Controls to Reduce Risk

The Hierarchy of Controls is a systematic approach to evaluating and implementing controls for
workplace hazards. The approach involves prioritizing controls based on their effectiveness in reducing
risk. The following is a standard hierarchy of controls in the context of safety:
1. Elimination: This involves removing the hazard altogether. For example, eliminating the use of
toxic chemicals in a workplace.
2. Substitution: This involves replacing a hazardous substance or process with a safer alternative.
For example, replacing toxic solvents with water-based alternatives.
3. Engineering controls: This involves redesigning equipment or processes to eliminate or reduce
the hazard. For example, installing ventilation systems to control exposure to toxic fumes.
4. Administrative controls: This involves implementing procedures and policies to minimize
exposure to hazards. For example, implementing safe work practices or training programs for
employees.
5. Personal protective equipment (PPE): This involves using protective gear to reduce exposure to
hazards. For example, using gloves and eye protection when handling hazardous substances.
It is important to note that the hierarchy of controls is a framework to guide decision-making, not a strict
set of rules. In some cases, a combination of controls may be necessary to adequately address a
hazard.
The costs and benefits of risk assessment process
The costs and benefits of the risk assessment process in safety refer to the trade-off between the
resources (such as time, money, and effort) required to perform a risk assessment and the potential
benefits (such as improved safety, reduced costs, and increased efficiency) that may result from
implementing the recommendations of the risk assessment.
Benefits of risk assessment:
1. Improved safety - A comprehensive risk assessment can help identify potential hazards and
prioritize risk reduction strategies, resulting in a safer work environment.
2. Reduced costs - Implementing risk control measures can help prevent accidents and incidents,
reducing the costs associated with workplace injuries, damage to equipment, and lost time.
3. Increased efficiency - By identifying and addressing potential hazards, a risk assessment can
help streamline processes and improve overall efficiency.
4. Compliance - Risk assessment can help organizations comply with relevant laws and regulations,
reducing the risk of legal or financial penalties.
The costs of risk assessment:
1. Time and resources - The risk assessment process can be time-consuming and require
resources such as personnel, equipment, and materials.
2. Interruption to operations - The risk assessment process may involve temporarily shutting down
operations to gather data, conduct interviews, or observe work processes.
3. Upfront costs - Implementing risk control measures may require an initial investment in
equipment, training, or personnel.

However, it is important to consider that the benefits of risk assessment typically outweigh the costs in
the long run, as they can help organizations prevent accidents, reduce costs, and improve efficiency.
Calculating metrics for organizational risk
Calculating metrics for organizational risk involves quantifying the likelihood and potential impact of a risk
event. This can help organizations prioritize and allocate resources towards managing their risk
exposure. Some common metrics for organizational risk include:
1. Probability of occurrence: The likelihood of a particular risk event occurring, which can be
assessed based on historical data, expert opinion, or mathematical models.
2. Impact score: A measure of the potential harm caused by a risk event, which can be based on
factors such as financial loss, injury, or damage to reputation.
3. Risk exposure: The product of the probability of occurrence and the impact score, which provides
an overall assessment of the risk.
4. Return on Investment (ROI) analysis: This assesses the costs and benefits of risk mitigation
strategies, such as investing in safety equipment or training programs, to determine the most
effective risk management measures.
5. Key Risk Indicators (KRI): Metrics that help organizations track and monitor specific risks, such
as the frequency of near misses or accidents.
These metrics can be combined and analyzed to form a comprehensive view of the organization's risk
profile and help to inform risk management decisions.
Insurance/risk transfer principles
Insurance/risk transfer principles in safety refer to the use of insurance as a tool to manage the financial
impact of potential accidents or losses in a workplace or other safety setting. The basic principle behind
risk transfer is to transfer the financial burden of a loss from the individual or organization that is directly
affected by the loss to another party, such as an insurance company. This allows the individual or
organization to better manage the financial impact of a loss, as they are able to transfer the risk to a third
party that is better equipped to handle it. The principles of insurance/risk transfer include:
1. Identifying the risks: Understanding and identifying the potential risks to be insured is the first
step in the risk transfer process.
2. Assessing the likelihood and severity of losses: The next step is to assess the likelihood and
severity of the losses that may occur from the identified risks.
3. Transferring the risk: Once the risks have been identified and assessed, the next step is to
transfer the risk to an insurance company.
4. Premium payment: The insured pays a premium to the insurance company in exchange for the
protection offered.
5. Policy underwriting: The insurance company assesses the risks and decides if it wants to accept
the risk and offer coverage.
6. Claims handling: If a loss occurs, the insurance company provides financial compensation as per
the terms of the policy.
7. Review and renewal: The insurance policy is reviewed and renewed annually, and the premium
may be adjusted based on the updated risk assessment.
Examples of insurance/risk transfer principles in safety include liability insurance, which provides
coverage for claims made against an individual or organization for damages resulting from an accident

or injury that occurred in the workplace. Another example is workers' compensation insurance, which
provides financial benefits to employees who are injured on the job, regardless of who is at fault.
Overall, insurance/risk transfer principles play an important role in promoting safety in the workplace, as
they help organizations to better manage the financial impact of accidents or losses, and to reduce the
risk of financial hardship for individuals and organizations in the event of an accident or loss.

Domain 4- Advanced application of key safety concepts

Regulations
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) is a federal law that was passed in 1970 to ensure safe
and healthy working conditions for employees. The act applies to most private sector employers and
their employees, as well as some public sector employers and employees.
Under the OSHA Act, employers are required to provide a workplace free from recognized hazards that
could cause death or serious physical harm to their employees. This includes implementing safety and
health programs, providing training, and maintaining accurate records of workplace injuries and
illnesses.
The act also establishes the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), which is
responsible for enforcing workplace safety and health standards and investigating workplace accidents
and hazards. OSHA has the authority to issue citations and penalties for noncompliance with the act.
Employees are also given certain rights under the OSHA Act, including the right to file complaints about
unsafe working conditions and the right to participate in OSHA inspections and investigations.
Who Does the Act Apply to?
Most private sector employers and their employees, as well as some public sector employers and
employees, are covered under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). Specifically, the act
applies to employers engaged in a business affecting interstate commerce who have one or more
employees. This includes:
• Manufacturing and construction industries
• Hospitals and healthcare facilities
• Retail and service industries
• Federal, state, and local government agencies (in some cases)
Exempt from OSHA coverage are self-employed individuals, farms that employ only immediate family
members, and workplaces regulated by other federal agencies, such as mining or nuclear power plants,
which are covered by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC), respectively.
Horizontal, Vertical and General Duty Clause Standards
Horizontal standards and vertical standards are two types of standards that are used by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to set workplace safety and health requirements.
Horizontal standards are general industry standards that apply to all industries and businesses
regardless of their specific work or industry. These standards are broad and address hazards that are
common across different industries, such as electrical hazards, chemical hazards, and machinery
hazards. Horizontal standards are designed to establish a baseline level of safety and health that all
employers must meet.
Vertical standards, on the other hand, are industry-specific standards that apply to a particular industry
or type of work. These standards are more specific and tailored to address the unique hazards and risks
associated with a particular industry. For example, OSHA has vertical standards for industries such as
construction, maritime, and agriculture.
In addition to these standards, OSHA also has a General Duty Clause (GDC), which is a catch-all
provision that requires employers to provide a workplace that is free from recognized hazards that are
likely to cause death or serious physical harm to employees, even if there is no specific OSHA standard
addressing the hazard. The GDC requires employers to take reasonable steps to identify and control
potential hazards in their workplace, even if those hazards are not specifically addressed in OSHA
regulations. Employers can be cited and fined for violating the GDC if they fail to provide a safe and
healthy workplace for their employees.
Rights and Responsibilities
Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), both employers and employees have certain
rights and responsibilities to ensure a safe and healthy workplace.
Employer Rights and Responsibilities:
• Providing a workplace free from recognized hazards that could cause death or serious physical
harm to employees.
• Complying with OSHA standards and regulations.
• Providing employees with necessary safety equipment and training.
• Keeping accurate records of workplace injuries and illnesses.
• Allowing OSHA inspectors to conduct workplace inspections and investigations.
• Informing employees about hazardous chemicals in the workplace through labels, safety data
sheets, and training.
Employee Rights and Responsibilities:
• Working in a safe and healthy environment.
• Reporting workplace hazards to the employer and/or OSHA.
• Participating in OSHA inspections and investigations.
• Refusing to work if there is an imminent danger of death or serious physical harm and the
employer has not provided adequate protection.
• Using the provided safety equipment and following safety procedures.
• Reporting work-related injuries and illnesses to the employer.
Both employers and employees have a shared responsibility to maintain a safe and healthy workplace.
Employers are responsible for creating and maintaining a safe work environment, while employees are
responsible for following safety procedures and using safety equipment to prevent accidents and injuries.
OSHA provides resources and assistance to help both employers and employees meet their obligations
under the OSHA Act.
Inspection Process
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has the authority to conduct workplace
inspections to ensure that employers are complying with OSHA standards and regulations. The OSHA
inspection process typically involves the following steps:
1. Opening Conference: When an OSHA inspector arrives at the workplace, they will typically begin
by conducting an opening conference with the employer or their representative. During this
conference, the inspector will explain the purpose of the inspection, the scope of the inspection,
and any specific areas of concern.
2. Walkaround Inspection: After the opening conference, the OSHA inspector will conduct a
walkaround inspection of the workplace to identify potential hazards and violations. The inspector
may take photographs, measurements, and samples during the inspection.
3. Employee Interviews: During the inspection, the OSHA inspector may interview employees to
gather information about workplace safety and health practices.
4. Closing Conference: At the end of the inspection, the OSHA inspector will conduct a closing
conference with the employer or their representative to discuss the findings of the inspection. The
inspector will typically provide a written report detailing any violations and recommended
corrective actions.
5. Citations and Penalties: If OSHA finds that an employer has violated safety and health standards,
the agency may issue citations and penalties. Employers have the right to contest the citations
and penalties through an informal conference or a formal hearing process.
It's important to note that employers cannot refuse to allow OSHA inspectors to conduct an inspection,
and that OSHA inspectors are required to follow specific procedures to ensure that the inspection
process is fair and objective. Employers can also request a consultation from OSHA's On-Site
Consultation Program, which provides free and confidential advice to small and medium-sized
businesses on how to comply with OSHA regulations and improve workplace safety and health.
Citation Penalties
When the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) finds that an employer has violated
safety and health standards during an inspection, the agency may issue citations and penalties. The
severity of the citation and the amount of the penalty depends on the type and severity of the violation.
There are four categories of OSHA citations:
1. Other Than Serious: This category includes violations that have a direct relationship to job safety
and health, but are not serious in nature. The penalty for an Other Than Serious citation is
typically up to $13,653 per violation.
2. Serious: This category includes violations where there is a substantial probability that death or
serious physical harm could result from the hazard. The penalty for a Serious citation is typically
up to $13,653 per violation.
3. Willful: This category includes violations where the employer knowingly disregards OSHA
requirements or is indifferent to employee safety and health. The penalty for a Willful citation can
be up to $136,532 per violation.
4. Repeat: This category includes violations that are similar or substantially similar to previous
violations cited by OSHA. The penalty for a Repeat citation can be up to $136,532 per violation.
In addition to these categories, OSHA can also issue penalties for failure to abate, which is a penalty that
can be assessed if an employer fails to correct a violation within the required time period.
It's important to note that employers have the right to contest OSHA citations and penalties through an
informal conference or a formal hearing process. Employers also have the right to request an informal
conference with OSHA to discuss the citation and penalty and to propose a settlement agreement.

Appeals
If an employer is cited by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) for violations of
safety and health standards, both the employer and employees have the right to appeal the citation and
penalty.
Employer Appeals:
Employers have the following options for appealing OSHA citations and penalties:
1. Informal Conference: Employers can request an informal conference with OSHA to discuss the
citation and penalty and propose a settlement agreement. The conference is usually held with the
OSHA area director.
2. Formal Hearing: Employers can contest the citation and penalty by requesting a formal hearing
before an administrative law judge within 15 working days of receiving the citation. During the
hearing, both the employer and OSHA present evidence and witnesses, and the judge issues a
decision.
3. Review Commission: Employers can appeal the administrative law judge's decision to the
Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC) within 30 days. The OSHRC is
an independent agency that reviews and decides cases involving OSHA citations and penalties.
4. Court of Appeals: Employers can appeal the OSHRC's decision to a federal court of appeals.
Employee Appeals:
Employees have the following options for appealing OSHA citations and penalties:
1. Informal Settlement: Employees can work with their employer and OSHA to reach an informal
settlement agreement that addresses the hazards identified during the inspection.
2. Formal Complaint: Employees can file a formal complaint with OSHA if they believe that their
employer is not providing a safe and healthy workplace. OSHA will investigate the complaint and
issue citations and penalties if violations are found.
3. Whistleblower Protection: Employees who believe that they have been retaliated against for
reporting safety and health violations can file a complaint with OSHA. OSHA will investigate the
complaint and take appropriate action if retaliation is found.
It's important to note that both employers and employees have the right to legal representation during the
appeal process.
Petition for Modification Abatement
After an employer has been cited by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) for
violating safety and health standards, the employer is required to correct the cited hazards and provide
proof of abatement to OSHA. If the employer needs more time to correct the hazards, they can request a
Petition for Modification of Abatement (PMA) from OSHA.
A PMA is a written request that asks OSHA to extend the abatement period or change the terms of the
citation. To be considered for a PMA, the employer must demonstrate that:
1. They have taken all feasible steps to correct the hazard;
2. They are making progress toward correcting the hazard; and
3. They need additional time to correct the hazard due to circumstances beyond their control.
The employer must also provide a detailed abatement plan, including the steps they will take to correct
the hazard and the timeline for completion. OSHA will review the PMA and either approve or deny the
request.
If the PMA is approved, OSHA will issue a modified citation that reflects the new abatement dates or
terms. If the PMA is denied, the employer must correct the hazards within the original abatement period
or face additional penalties.
It's important to note that the PMA process is not a way to challenge the original citation. Employers who
wish to contest the citation must follow the appeal process outlined by OSHA.
Notice of Contest
A Notice of Contest is a written statement submitted by an employer to the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) to formally contest a citation and proposed penalty issued by OSHA. The
notice must be submitted within 15 working days of receipt of the citation and proposed penalty.
The Notice of Contest must include the following information:
1. The name and address of the employer;
2. The citation and proposed penalty being contested;
3. The specific grounds for contesting the citation and proposed penalty;
4. A request for a hearing before an administrative law judge; and
5. The signature of the employer or their authorized representative.
Once OSHA receives the Notice of Contest, the agency will forward the case to the Occupational Safety
and Health Review Commission (OSHRC), an independent agency that adjudicates disputes over OSHA
citations and penalties. The OSHRC will assign an administrative law judge to the case and schedule a
hearing.
During the hearing, both OSHA and the employer will present evidence and witnesses to support their
positions. The administrative law judge will issue a decision based on the evidence presented. If either
party disagrees with the administrative law judge's decision, they may appeal to the OSHRC, and from
there to a federal court of appeals.
It's important to note that employers who fail to submit a Notice of Contest within the 15-day deadline
may lose their right to contest the citation and penalty.
Review Procedure
The review procedure is an appeal process that an employer can use to challenge a citation or penalty
issued by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). If an employer disagrees with the
citation and penalty issued by OSHA, they have the right to request an informal conference with OSHA,
contest the citation and penalty, and appeal the decision to an independent review commission.
The review procedure involves the following steps:
1. Informal Conference: The first step in the review procedure is an informal conference with OSHA.
During the conference, the employer and OSHA discuss the citation and penalty, and the
employer can propose a settlement agreement. If a settlement is reached, the case is closed. If a
settlement is not reached, the employer may contest the citation and penalty.

2. Contesting the Citation and Penalty: To contest the citation and penalty, the employer must
submit a written Notice of Contest to OSHA within 15 working days of receiving the citation and
penalty. The Notice of Contest must include specific grounds for contesting the citation and
penalty, a request for a hearing before an administrative law judge, and the signature of the
employer or their authorized representative.
3. Hearing before an Administrative Law Judge: Once the employer has requested a hearing, the
case is forwarded to the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC), an
independent agency that adjudicates disputes over OSHA citations and penalties. The OSHRC
will assign an administrative law judge to the case and schedule a hearing. During the hearing,
both the employer and OSHA present evidence and witnesses to support their positions.
4. Review Commission Appeal: If either party disagrees with the administrative law judge's decision,
they may appeal to the OSHRC. The OSHRC will review the case and issue a final decision. If
either party disagrees with the OSHRC's decision, they may appeal to a federal court of appeals.
It's important to note that the review procedure can be time-consuming and costly, and employers should
carefully consider their options before contesting a citation and penalty. Employers may want to seek
legal advice before initiating the review procedure.
OSHA’s Process Safety Management Standard
OSHA's Process Safety Management (PSM) Standard is a set of regulations that are designed to
prevent or minimize the occurrence of catastrophic incidents resulting from uncontrolled releases of
hazardous chemicals or energy sources in the workplace. The PSM standard applies to any facility that
processes, handles, stores, or transports highly hazardous chemicals (HHCs) in quantities exceeding
certain thresholds.
The PSM standard requires covered employers to develop and implement a comprehensive program
that includes the following elements:
1. Process safety information: Employers must compile and maintain accurate and up-to-date
information about the hazards associated with the HHCs they handle.
2. Process hazard analysis: Employers must conduct a thorough evaluation of the potential hazards
associated with their processes and identify and analyze potential accident scenarios.
3. Operating procedures: Employers must develop and implement written procedures to ensure that
processes are operated safely and consistently.
4. Training: Employers must provide initial and ongoing training to employees to ensure that they
are competent to perform their assigned tasks.
5. Mechanical integrity: Employers must establish and implement procedures to maintain and test
equipment to ensure that it is in good condition and functioning properly.
6. Management of change: Employers must establish and implement procedures to manage
changes to processes, equipment, and procedures to ensure that they do not introduce new
hazards.
7. Pre-startup safety review: Employers must conduct a safety review of new or modified processes
and equipment to ensure that they are safe to operate.
8. Emergency planning and response: Employers must establish and implement procedures to
respond to emergencies and mitigate the consequences of releases of hazardous chemicals.
9. Compliance audits: Employers must conduct regular audits of their PSM program to ensure that it
is being implemented effectively.
10. Trade secrets: Employers must disclose to employees any trade secrets or confidential business
information that may affect their safety.
OSHA’s Laboratory Safety Standard (29 CFR 1910.1450)
OSHA's Laboratory Safety Standard (29 CFR 1910.1450) is a set of regulations that are designed to
protect workers from the hazards associated with laboratory work. The standard applies to any
laboratory that uses hazardous chemicals in a laboratory-scale process.
The Laboratory Safety Standard requires covered employers to develop and implement a
comprehensive Chemical Hygiene Plan (CHP) that includes the following elements:
1. Chemical Hygiene Officer (CHO): Employers must designate a Chemical Hygiene Officer who is
responsible for implementing and enforcing the CHP.
2. Chemical inventory: Employers must maintain an inventory of all hazardous chemicals used in
the laboratory.
3. Hazard assessment: Employers must conduct a hazard assessment of each laboratory operation
and process to identify and evaluate potential hazards.
4. Standard operating procedures (SOPs): Employers must develop and implement written standard
operating procedures for all laboratory operations and processes.
5. Training: Employers must provide initial and ongoing training to employees to ensure that they
are competent to perform their assigned tasks safely.
6. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Employers must provide appropriate PPE to employees
and ensure that it is used properly.
7. Engineering controls: Employers must provide and maintain appropriate engineering controls,
such as ventilation systems, to minimize exposure to hazardous chemicals.
8. Emergency procedures: Employers must develop and implement written procedures for
responding to emergencies, such as spills or accidents involving hazardous chemicals.
9. Medical consultations and examinations: Employers must provide medical consultations and
examinations to employees who may be exposed to hazardous chemicals.
10. Recordkeeping: Employers must maintain and retain records related to employee exposure to
hazardous chemicals, training, medical consultations and examinations, and laboratory incidents.
Fall Protection Standard (29 CFR 1926.500–503) (Subpart M)
The Fall Protection Standard is a set of regulations issued by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) that aims to protect workers who are exposed to fall hazards in the workplace by
requiring employers to provide and ensure the use of appropriate fall protection. The standard applies to
all employers in the construction industry whose workers are exposed to fall hazards.
The Fall Protection Standard requires employers to:
1. Conduct a hazard assessment: Employers must conduct a hazard assessment to determine the
fall hazards present in the workplace and the appropriate fall protection measures that must be
implemented.
2. Provide fall protection equipment: Employers must provide fall protection equipment to workers at
no cost, and the equipment must be suitable for the specific hazards present in the workplace.
3. Train workers: Employers must train workers on the proper use, inspection, and maintenance of
the fall protection equipment.
4. Establish a fall protection program: Employers must establish a written fall protection program
that outlines the procedures for selecting and using fall protection equipment, the procedures for
inspecting and maintaining fall protection equipment, and the procedures for rescuing workers
who have fallen.
The Fall Protection Standard also requires employers to ensure that workers use fall protection
equipment when working at heights that exceed specific thresholds, such as six feet in construction.
Additionally, the standard requires employers to inspect and maintain fall protection equipment and to
keep records of the fall protection program.
Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.134)
The Respiratory Protection Standard is a regulation issued by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) that aims to protect workers who are exposed to respiratory hazards in the
workplace by requiring employers to provide and ensure the use of appropriate respiratory protection.
The standard applies to all employers whose workers are exposed to respiratory hazards, such as
airborne contaminants or oxygen-deficient atmospheres.
The Respiratory Protection Standard requires employers to:
1. Develop and implement a written respiratory protection program: Employers must develop and
implement a written respiratory protection program that outlines the procedures for selecting and
using respirators, the procedures for medical evaluation and fit testing of workers who use
respirators, and the procedures for maintenance and storage of respirators.
2. Provide appropriate respiratory protection: Employers must provide appropriate respiratory
protection to workers at no cost, and the respiratory protection must be suitable for the specific
hazards present in the workplace.
3. Train workers: Employers must train workers on the proper use, maintenance, and limitations of
the respiratory protection.
4. Establish procedures for medical evaluation and fit testing: Employers must establish procedures
for medical evaluation and fit testing of workers who use respirators.
5. Maintain and replace respiratory protection: Employers must maintain and replace respiratory
protection as needed to ensure that it continues to provide adequate protection.
The Respiratory Protection Standard also requires employers to evaluate the workplace for respiratory
hazards, establish procedures for emergency situations, and keep records of the respiratory protection
program.
Personal Protective Equipment (29 CFR 1910.132)
The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Standard is a regulation issued by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) that aims to protect workers from job-related injuries and illnesses by
requiring employers to provide and ensure the use of appropriate PPE. The standard applies to all
employers whose workers are exposed to hazards that require the use of PPE.
The PPE Standard requires employers to:
1. Assess workplace hazards: Employers must assess the workplace to determine if there are
hazards that require the use of PPE.
2. Provide appropriate PPE: Employers must provide appropriate PPE to workers at no cost, and
the PPE must be suitable for the specific hazards present in the workplace.
3. Train workers: Employers must train workers on the proper use, maintenance, and limitations of
the PPE.
4. Maintain and replace PPE: Employers must maintain and replace PPE as needed to ensure that
it continues to provide adequate protection.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness of the PPE program: Employers must regularly evaluate the
effectiveness of their PPE program to ensure that it is protecting workers from job-related
hazards.
The PPE Standard also requires employers to ensure that workers use the PPE provided, and to enforce
the use of PPE through workplace rules and disciplinary actions.
Confined Space Entry Standard (29 CFR 1910.146)
The Confined Space Entry Standard is a regulation issued by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) that aims to protect workers who enter confined spaces in the workplace. The
standard applies to all employers who have workers that enter permit-required confined spaces, which
are spaces that have limited entry and exit, are not designed for continuous occupancy, and may contain
hazards such as toxic gases, flammable materials, or engulfment hazards.
The Confined Space Entry Standard requires employers to:
1. Identify permit-required confined spaces: Employers must identify all permit-required confined
spaces in the workplace and ensure that workers are informed of the hazards associated with
these spaces.
2. Develop and implement a written permit space program: Employers must develop and implement
a written permit space program that outlines the procedures for entering, working in, and exiting
permit-required confined spaces. The program must identify the hazards associated with the
space, the procedures for controlling those hazards, and the roles and responsibilities of workers
involved.
3. Provide training: Employers must provide training to all workers who may enter permit-required
confined spaces. The training must cover the hazards associated with confined spaces, the
procedures for entering, working in, and exiting permit-required confined spaces, and the proper
use of personal protective equipment.
4. Use engineering and work practice controls: Employers must implement engineering and work
practice controls to eliminate or control the hazards associated with permit-required confined
spaces before workers enter the space.
5. Provide personal protective equipment (PPE): Employers must provide appropriate PPE, such as
respiratory protection, fall protection, and protective clothing, to workers who enter permit-
required confined spaces.
6. Establish rescue procedures: Employers must establish rescue procedures to ensure that
workers can be quickly and safely rescued in the event of an emergency.

The Confined Space Entry Standard also requires employers to maintain certain records, such as
training records and permits, and to make these records available to workers and OSHA inspectors upon
request.
Control of Hazardous Energy Standard (29 CFR 1910.147)
The Control of Hazardous Energy Standard, also known as the Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) Standard, is a
regulation issued by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) that aims to protect
workers from the unexpected start-up of machinery and equipment during maintenance or repair work.
The standard applies to all employers who have workers that service or maintain machines or equipment
where the unexpected start-up or release of stored energy could occur and cause injury.
The Control of Hazardous Energy Standard requires employers to:
1. Develop and implement a written LOTO program: Employers must develop and implement a
written program that outlines the procedures for controlling hazardous energy during
maintenance and repair work. The program must identify the machinery and equipment covered,
the energy control procedures to be used, and the roles and responsibilities of workers involved.
2. Conduct periodic inspections: Employers must conduct periodic inspections of the LOTO
program to ensure that it is effective and up-to-date.
3. Provide training: Employers must provide training to all workers who may be exposed to
hazardous energy. The training must cover the energy control procedures, the hazards
associated with servicing and maintaining machines and equipment, and the proper use of locks,
tags, and other devices used to control energy.
4. Use lockout/tagout devices: Employers must use lockout/tagout devices to prevent the
unexpected start-up or release of hazardous energy during maintenance and repair work.
5. Provide equipment-specific procedures: Employers must provide equipment-specific procedures
that workers must follow to control hazardous energy during maintenance and repair work.
6. Ensure workers are authorized: Employers must ensure that only authorized workers are allowed
to perform maintenance or repair work on equipment that is covered by the LOTO program.
The Control of Hazardous Energy Standard also requires employers to maintain certain records, such as
LOTO procedures and training records, and to make these records available to workers and OSHA
inspectors upon request.
Bloodborne Pathogen Standard (29 CFR 1910.1030)
The Bloodborne Pathogen Standard is a regulation issued by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) that aims to protect workers who may be exposed to blood or other potentially
infectious materials (OPIM) in the workplace. The standard applies to all employers who have workers
that are reasonably expected to be exposed to blood or OPIM as a result of performing their job duties.
The Bloodborne Pathogen Standard requires employers to:
1. Develop an exposure control plan: Employers must develop and implement an exposure control
plan that identifies workers who may be exposed to blood or OPIM, outlines the measures the
employer will take to minimize exposure, and provides procedures for reporting and responding
to exposure incidents.

2. Provide training: Employers must provide training to all workers who may be exposed to blood or
OPIM. The training must cover the risks associated with exposure, the employer's exposure
control plan, and the procedures for reporting and responding to exposure incidents.
3. Provide personal protective equipment (PPE): Employers must provide appropriate PPE, such as
gloves, gowns, face shields, and respirators, to workers who may be exposed to blood or OPIM.
4. Use engineering and work practice controls: Employers must implement engineering and work
practice controls, such as using safer medical devices, to minimize exposure to blood or OPIM.
5. Offer the hepatitis B vaccine: Employers must offer the hepatitis B vaccine to all workers who
may be exposed to blood or OPIM at no cost.
6. Provide post-exposure evaluation and follow-up: Employers must provide immediate medical
evaluation and follow-up to workers who experience an exposure incident involving blood or
OPIM.
The Bloodborne Pathogen Standard also requires employers to maintain certain records, such as
training records and medical evaluations, and to make these records available to workers and OSHA
inspectors upon request.
Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200)
The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is a regulation issued by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) that requires employers to communicate information about hazardous
chemicals to their employees. The purpose of the HCS is to ensure that employees are informed about
the hazards associated with the chemicals they work with, and how to protect themselves from these
hazards.
The HCS applies to all employers who use hazardous chemicals in their workplaces. It requires
employers to develop a written hazard communication program that includes the following elements:
1. Hazard classification: Employers must evaluate the hazards of the chemicals they use and
classify them according to the criteria specified in the HCS.
2. Safety data sheets (SDS): Employers must obtain SDS for each hazardous chemical they use
and make them readily accessible to employees.
3. Labels: Employers must ensure that all containers of hazardous chemicals are labeled with the
identity of the chemical, appropriate hazard warnings, and the name and address of the
manufacturer, importer, or distributor.
4. Employee training: Employers must provide employees with information and training on the
hazards of the chemicals they work with, as well as the measures they can take to protect
themselves.
The HCS also requires employers to maintain a list of hazardous chemicals used in the workplace, and
to make this list available to employees upon request.
The HCS was revised in 2012 to align with the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and
Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). The revised HCS, known as HazCom 2012, requires employers to use
standardized labeling and SDS formats to ensure consistency and clarity in hazard communication.

Principles of safety through design and inherently safer designs (e.g., designing out hazards during
design phase, avoidance, elimination, and substitution)
Safety through design (STD) is a risk management approach that integrates safety considerations into
the design of products, processes, and systems. The goal of STD is to minimize the potential for
accidents, injuries, and other safety-related incidents by considering safety issues during the design
phase of a project, rather than trying to address them after the product, process, or system has already
been built.
The STD approach is based on the idea that it is much easier and more cost-effective to incorporate
safety considerations into the design of a product, process, or system than to try to address safety
issues after the fact. By considering safety issues early in the design phase, STD enables designers,
engineers, and other stakeholders to identify and eliminate hazards, reduce the potential for accidents,
and minimize the risk of harm to workers, the public, and the environment.
The STD process typically involves the following steps:
1. Identify hazards: The first step in the STD process is to identify potential hazards that may be
associated with the product, process, or system being designed. This may involve reviewing
existing information and data, conducting site visits and inspections, and consulting with
stakeholders and experts in the field.
2. Assess risks: Once potential hazards have been identified, the next step is to assess the risks
associated with each hazard. This may involve evaluating the likelihood and consequences of
each hazard, and considering the effectiveness of existing control measures.
3. Develop and evaluate options: After the risks have been assessed, the next step is to develop
and evaluate options for controlling the hazards. This may involve considering a range of different
control measures, including eliminating the hazard, reducing the likelihood of the hazard
occurring, or reducing the consequences if the hazard does occur.
4. Implement and monitor: The final step in the STD process is to implement the chosen control
measures and monitor the effectiveness of the safety controls over time. This may involve regular
inspections and maintenance, ongoing risk assessments, and reviews of the safety performance
of the product, process, or system.
The STD approach is often used in a wide range of industries, including construction, manufacturing,
transportation, and energy production. By incorporating safety considerations into the design of products,
processes, and systems, STD can help to reduce the potential for accidents, injuries, and other safety-
related incidents, and create safer, more sustainable, and more cost-effective products, processes, and
systems.
Designing out hazards during the design phase
Designing out hazards during the design phase is an important component of the STD approach. This
involves identifying potential hazards associated with the product, process, or system being designed
and eliminating or reducing these hazards during the design phase, rather than trying to address them
after the fact.
Some examples of designing out hazards during the design phase include:
1. Incorporating Safety Features: This involves designing products, processes, and systems with
built-in safety features that reduce the potential for hazards to occur. For example, a company

might design a machine with safety interlocks to prevent workers from coming into contact with
hazardous parts while the machine is in operation.
2. Eliminating Hazardous Materials: This involves removing hazardous materials from a product,
process, or system altogether. For example, a company might eliminate the use of hazardous
chemicals in a process, reducing the risk of exposure to dangerous substances.
3. Reducing the Potential for Hazards: This involves designing products, processes, and systems to
reduce the potential for hazards to occur. For example, a company might design a system with
redundant safety features, such as backup power supplies, to ensure that the system continues
to operate safely even if one component fails.
4. Substituting Safer Materials: This involves substituting safer materials for hazardous materials
where possible. For example, a company might use a safer alternative to a hazardous chemical
in a process, reducing the risk of exposure to the hazardous substance.
5. Simplifying Processes: This involves simplifying processes to reduce the potential for errors and
increase safety. For example, a company might design a process with fewer steps and simpler
procedures, reducing the potential for human error and increasing the overall safety of the
process.
By incorporating safety considerations into the design of products, processes, and systems, and by
designing out hazards during the design phase, companies can create safer and more sustainable
products and processes that minimize the potential for accidents, injuries, and other safety-related
incidents.
Safety Design- Avoidance, elimination, and substitution
One key aspect of design for safety is the use of avoidance, elimination, and substitution to minimize the
potential for accidents, injuries, and other safety-related incidents.
1. Avoidance: This involves avoiding hazards altogether by designing products, processes, and
systems to eliminate or minimize the potential for hazards to occur. For example, a company
might design a machine with safety interlocks to prevent workers from coming into contact with
hazardous parts while the machine is in operation, avoiding the hazard of contact with hazardous
parts altogether.
2. Elimination: This involves removing hazards from a product, process, or system altogether. For
example, a company might eliminate the use of hazardous chemicals in a process, reducing the
risk of exposure to dangerous substances.
3. Substitution: This involves substituting safer materials for hazardous materials where possible.
For example, a company might use a safer alternative to a hazardous chemical in a process,
reducing the risk of exposure to the hazardous substance.
By avoiding, eliminating, and substituting hazards in the design phase, companies can create safer and
more sustainable products and processes that minimize the potential for accidents, injuries, and other
safety-related incidents. This helps to ensure that the products, processes, and systems being designed
are as safe as possible, reducing the need for retroactive safety measures and improving overall safety
performance.
Engineering controls (e.g., ventilation, guarding, isolation, and active vs. passive)
Engineering controls are methods used to control hazards in the workplace through physical or design
changes to equipment, facilities, or processes. They are a key component of occupational safety and
health programs and are designed to eliminate or reduce exposure to hazardous substances and
physical hazards in the workplace.
Engineering controls are often used in conjunction with administrative controls (such as policies,
procedures, and training programs) and personal protective equipment (such as gloves, respirators, and
eye protection) to create a comprehensive approach to hazard control.
Examples of engineering controls include:
1. Ventilation systems: These systems help to control exposure to hazardous substances in the air
by removing contaminated air and replacing it with fresh air.
2. Enclosures: This involves physically separating workers from hazards by enclosing equipment or
processes in a barrier that isolates workers from exposure to hazardous substances or physical
hazards.
3. Guardrails and machine guards: These physical barriers help to protect workers from hazardous
parts or moving equipment.
4. Lighting: This involves improving lighting in the workplace to help workers see hazardous
conditions and reduce the risk of accidents.
5. Noise-control systems: This involves using noise barriers, mufflers, or other methods to reduce
the levels of noise in the workplace, reducing the risk of hearing loss and other health problems
associated with exposure to loud noise.
6. Machine design: This involves designing equipment with safety features, such as interlocks and
emergency stop buttons, to help prevent accidents.
Engineering controls are a key component of any safety and health program, as they are often more
effective and longer-lasting than other methods of hazard control. By incorporating engineering controls
into their safety and health programs, companies can create safer and healthier work environments for
their employees, reducing the risk of accidents, injuries, and illnesses.
Active and Passive Engineering Controls
Engineering controls refer to measures that are taken to reduce or eliminate exposure to hazardous
substances in the workplace. There are two main types of engineering controls: active and passive.
Active Engineering Controls: These are systems that require energy or motion to function. They actively
move air, chemicals, or other substances away from the worker. Examples of active engineering controls
include:
• Exhaust hoods: Exhaust hoods are used to capture and remove hazardous fumes, vapors, or
particles from the work area.
• Local exhaust ventilation: Local exhaust ventilation uses ducts and fans to capture and remove
contaminants at their source.
• Dilution ventilation: Dilution ventilation mixes contaminated air with clean air to reduce exposure
to hazardous substances.
Passive Engineering Controls: These are systems that do not require energy or motion to function. They
rely on natural processes or physical barriers to prevent or reduce exposure to hazardous substances.
Examples of passive engineering controls include:

• Enclosures: Enclosures are physical barriers that isolate the work area from other areas,
preventing the spread of hazardous substances.
• Interlocked barriers: Interlocked barriers are doors or panels that automatically close when a
process starts or a hazard is detected.
• Ventilated cabinets: Ventilated cabinets provide a protective barrier for workers and the
environment, while allowing air exchange to control the buildup of hazardous substances.
Both active and passive engineering controls are important in creating a safe and healthy workplace.
The choice of control will depend on the specific hazards present, the materials being used, and the
specific processes involved.
Ventilation
Ventilation systems are a type of engineering control used to control exposure to hazardous substances
in the air. These systems help to remove contaminated air from the workplace and replace it with fresh
air, reducing the concentration of hazardous substances and minimizing the risk of exposure.
There are two main types of ventilation systems: local exhaust ventilation (LEV) and general ventilation.
1. Local exhaust ventilation (LEV): This type of ventilation system is designed to capture and
remove hazardous substances at the source, before they can be released into the workplace air.
For example, a LEV system might be used in a laboratory to capture and remove hazardous
fumes generated during experiments, reducing the risk of exposure to laboratory workers.
2. General ventilation: This type of ventilation system is designed to provide a continuous supply of
fresh air to the workplace. General ventilation systems are often used in conjunction with other
types of ventilation systems to help control exposure to hazardous substances in the air. For
example, a general ventilation system might be used in a factory to help control exposure to dust
generated during manufacturing processes.
Ventilation systems can be used alone or in combination with other engineering controls and personal
protective equipment to create a comprehensive approach to hazard control. By incorporating ventilation
systems into their safety and health programs, companies can create safer and healthier work
environments for their employees, reducing the risk of accidents, injuries, and illnesses.
Determining the right type of ventilation and calculating its requirements involves a number of steps,
including:
1. Identifying the hazard: The first step in determining the right type of ventilation is to identify the
hazard that needs to be controlled. This might involve conducting air quality tests or
assessments, or reviewing information on the hazardous substances used in the workplace.
2. Assessing exposure levels: Once the hazard has been identified, the next step is to assess the
levels of exposure to that hazard. This might involve measuring the concentration of the
hazardous substance in the air, or estimating the amount of exposure based on the quantity of
the substance used and the duration of exposure.
3. Selecting the right type of ventilation: Based on the hazard and the exposure levels, the next step
is to select the right type of ventilation. For example, if the hazard is a localized source, such as a
laboratory experiment, a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system may be appropriate. If the hazard
is more widespread, such as dust generated during a manufacturing process, a general
ventilation system may be more appropriate.

4. Calculating ventilation requirements: Once the type of ventilation has been selected, the next
step is to calculate the ventilation requirements. This might involve using engineering formulas or
computer software to estimate the air flow rate needed to control the hazard, or working with a
ventilation expert to determine the specific requirements for the workplace.
5. Designing and installing the ventilation system: Based on the ventilation requirements, the next
step is to design and install the ventilation system. This might involve working with a ventilation
contractor to design and install the system, or using in-house engineering resources to design
and install the system.
6. Monitoring and maintaining the ventilation system: Finally, it is important to monitor and maintain
the ventilation system to ensure that it is working properly and providing adequate protection
against the hazard. This might involve conducting regular air quality tests, checking and cleaning
the ventilation system, and replacing components as needed.
By following these steps, companies can determine the right type of ventilation and calculate the
requirements needed to control exposure to hazardous substances in the workplace, reducing the risk of
accidents, injuries, and illnesses.
Ventilation Measurement Equipment
There are several types of ventilation measurement equipment used to determine the amount of air flow
in a ventilation system, including:
1. Anemometers: Anemometers are handheld devices that measure air velocity. They use a rotating
vane, hot wire, or thermal mass flow sensor to measure air flow. Anemometers are useful for
measuring air flow in ducts, as well as for determining if a ventilation system is functioning
correctly.
2. Velocity Pressure Stations: Velocity pressure stations are permanent installations that measure
air velocity and pressure. They are typically used in larger ventilation systems, such as those in
industrial plants or commercial buildings. Velocity pressure stations can provide real-time data on
air flow, allowing for adjustments to be made to the ventilation system as needed.
3. Air Flow Meters: Air flow meters are devices that measure the amount of air flowing through a
duct or ventilation system. They use sensors to determine the velocity and pressure of the air,
and then calculate the volume of air flowing through the system. Air flow meters are commonly
used in HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems to determine if the system is
operating efficiently.
4. Balometers: Balometers are devices used to measure air flow in ducts. They use a built-in fan to
create a pressure difference in the duct, which is then measured by a pressure sensor.
Balometers can provide an accurate measurement of air flow, even in large or complex duct
systems.
5. Manometers: Manometers are devices used to measure pressure in a ventilation system. They
can be used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a duct or between the
inside of a duct and the surrounding atmosphere. Manometers can be used to determine if a
ventilation system is functioning correctly and to diagnose problems such as air leaks.
These are some of the most commonly used ventilation measurement equipment. When selecting
equipment, it is important to consider the size of the ventilation system, the type of hazard being
controlled, and the specific measurement requirements.

Ventilation Calculations
Calculating for Volumetric Air Flow
Volumetric air flow is the volume of air that passes through a particular point in a given amount of time,
and it is usually expressed in cubic meters per second (m³/s) or cubic feet per minute (CFM).
The formula for calculating volumetric air flow is:
Q= V x A
Where:
• A= Area of the duct or opening is measured in square meters (m²) or square feet (ft²)
• V = Air velocity is measured in meters per second (m/s) or feet per minute (ft/min)
• Q= volumetric flow rate (expressed in cfm)
For example, suppose you have a circular duct with a diameter of 0.5 meters and an air velocity of 10
meters per second. To calculate the volumetric air flow, you would use the formula as follows:
• First, calculate the area of the circular duct using the formula for the area of a circle:
Area = π x (diameter/2)² = π x (0.5/2)² = 0.1963 m²
• Then, multiply the area by the air velocity to get the volumetric air flow:
Volumetric Air Flow = Area x Air Velocity = 0.1963 m² x 10 m/s = 1.963 m³/s
Therefore, the volumetric air flow through the circular duct is 1.963 cubic meters per second.
Calculating Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Total Pressure
In the context of ventilation, air is typically moved through ducts or other enclosed spaces using fans or
other mechanical devices. Understanding the pressure relationships in these systems is important for
designing and maintaining effective ventilation systems.
The formula TP = SP + VP is particularly useful in this context.
Where TP= total pressure (in inches, water guage)
SP= static pressure (in inches, water guage)
VP= velocity pressure (in inches, water guage)
Static Pressure: Static pressure in ventilation refers to the pressure that is exerted by the air when it is at
rest. In a duct or other enclosed space, this is the pressure that is exerted by the air on the walls of the
duct. The static pressure can be measured using a manometer or other pressure measuring device. The
static pressure in ventilation systems is typically measured at various points in the ductwork to ensure
that the system is balanced and delivering the required amount of air to each room or space.
Velocity Pressure: Velocity pressure in ventilation refers to the pressure that is created by the motion of
the air. In a duct or other enclosed space, this is the pressure that is exerted by the air due to its velocity.
The velocity pressure can also be measured using a pitot-static tube or a velocity probe. The velocity
pressure in ventilation systems is typically used to measure the air velocity in the ductwork, which is
important for ensuring that the air is moving at the required speed to deliver the necessary air flow to
each room or space.

Total Pressure: The total pressure in ventilation refers to the sum of the static pressure and the velocity
pressure. It represents the total energy that is present in the air in the duct or other enclosed space. The
total pressure can be used to calculate other properties of the air, such as the dynamic pressure and the
total head. In ventilation systems, the total pressure is often used to measure the pressure drop across
filters, dampers, and other components in the system. By monitoring the total pressure at various points
in the system, it is possible to identify areas of the system that may be clogged or obstructed, or that
may require adjustment to ensure proper airflow.
The formula TP = SP + VP is a useful tool for understanding the pressure relationships in ventilation
systems. By measuring the static pressure and the velocity pressure, it is possible to calculate the total
pressure and gain insight into the behavior of the air in the duct or other enclosed space. This
information can be used to design and maintain effective ventilation systems that deliver the required air
flow to each room or space, while minimizing energy consumption and ensuring a comfortable and
healthy indoor environment.
Example:
HVAC System Pressure Drop Calculation Suppose you are an HVAC engineer designing a ventilation
system for a large commercial building. You need to calculate the pressure drop across various
components in the system, including air filters and dampers, to ensure that the system is delivering the
required air flow to each room or space.
You measure the static pressure in the main supply duct using a manometer and obtain a reading of 200
Pa. You also measure the velocity pressure in the same duct using a pitot-static tube and obtain a
reading of 100 Pa. What is the total pressure in the duct, and what does this tell you about the system
performance?
Using the formula TP = SP + VP, we have: TP = 200 Pa + 100 Pa TP = 300 Pa
Therefore, the total pressure in the main supply duct is 300 Pa.
This information can be used to calculate the pressure drop across various components in the system.
For example, if the pressure drop across a filter is 50 Pa, this means that the total pressure downstream
of the filter will be 250 Pa (i.e., 300 Pa - 50 Pa). By monitoring the total pressure at various points in the
system, it is possible to identify areas where pressure drops are excessive, which can indicate clogged
filters or other obstructions. This information can be used to optimize the system design and ensure that
the required air flow is being delivered to each room or space in the building.
In this example, the formula TP = SP + VP is a critical tool for understanding the pressure relationships
in the ventilation system and ensuring that the system is functioning properly.
Calculating Velocity of Air
Air velocity and velocity pressure are important parameters that are commonly used to measure air flow
rates in ventilation systems.
Velocity is a measure of how fast air is moving in a particular direction, typically expressed in feet per
minute (fpm) or meters per second (m/s). In ventilation systems, air velocity can be measured using
anemometers or pitot tubes, which are devices that measure the pressure of air moving through the
system.
Velocity pressure, on the other hand, is a measure of the pressure generated by the velocity of air
flowing through a duct. It is typically measured using a pitot tube, which has two openings - one facing
directly into the air stream and the other perpendicular to the air flow. The difference in pressure

between these two openings is the velocity pressure, which is typically expressed in inches of water (in
H2O) or pascals (Pa).
The formula V = 4005 x √(VP)
Where
V= velocity (fpm)
VP= velocity pressure (H2O)
Can be used to calculate the air velocity based on the velocity pressure measured using a pitot tube.
This formula relates the velocity of air to the velocity pressure and is derived from the Bernoulli equation,
which relates the pressure and velocity of a fluid.
Example:
Calculating Air Velocity Using Velocity Pressure
Suppose you are measuring the velocity pressure of air in a duct using a pitot tube and you get a reading
of 0.5 inches of water (in H2O). What is the velocity of the air in the duct?
Using the formula V = 4005 x √(VP), we can calculate the air velocity as follows:
V = 4005 x √(0.5 in H2O)
V = 4005 x √(0.0417 ft H2O) (since 1 in H2O = 0.0833 ft H2O)
V = 4005 x 0.2042 V = 817.7 fpm
Therefore, the velocity of the air in the duct is 817.7 feet per minute (fpm).
Contaminant Generation
We use the formula:
ln(G-QC2/G-QC1) = Q’(t2 - t1) / V
where
G = rate of generation of contaminant (cfm)
Q′ = (Q/K)
K = design distribution constant (a constant factor [1–10])
C = concentration at a given time (parts per million [ppm])
V = volume of room or enclosure (ft3 )
Q = flow rate (cfm)
t2 − t1 = time interval or Δt
Example:
Suppose we have a room with a volume of 1000 cubic feet (V = 1000 ft^3), and a contaminant is being
generated at a rate of 200 cubic feet per minute (G = 200 cfm). The flow rate of air entering the room is
100 cubic feet per minute (Q = 100 cfm), and the concentration of the contaminant at time t1 is 2 ppm

(C1 = 2 ppm). We want to calculate the concentration of the contaminant at time t2, which is 10 minutes
later.
We'll assume a design distribution constant K of 5.
First, we can calculate Q' as follows: Q' = (Q/K) = (100 cfm / 5) = 20 cfm
Next, we can plug in the values we know into the formula: ln(G-QC2/G-QC1) = Q’(t2 - t1) / V
ln(200 - 20C2 / 200 - 20(2)) = 20(10) / 1000
Simplifying:
ln(180/160) = 0.2
ln(1.125) = 0.2
C2 = (200 - 160e^(0.2)) / 20
C2 ≈ 3.31 ppm
Therefore, the concentration of the contaminant at time t2 is approximately 3.31 ppm.
Calculating Purge Rates

Purge rate refers to the rate at which a contaminated air volume is replaced with fresh air in order to
reduce the concentration of contaminants to an acceptable level. The calculation of purge rates can be
useful in a variety of settings, such as in industrial plants or laboratories where hazardous materials are
used.
The formula for calculating purge rates based on the natural logarithm is:
ln (C2/C1) = -Q/V x (t2-t1)
Where:
• C1 is the initial (measured) concentration of the contaminant
• C2 is the final (desired) concentration of the contaminant
• Q is the flow rate of air in cubic feet per minute (cfm)
• V is the volume of the room or space in cubic feet
• t2 - t1 is the time interval over which the purge is taking place, typically measured in minutes
• ln is the natural logarithm
Example:
Suppose you have a room with a volume of 1000 cubic feet that has a starting concentration of a
contaminant at 100 parts per million (ppm), and you want to decrease the concentration to 10 ppm in 30
minutes. You have a ventilation system that can move air at a rate of 500 cubic feet per minute (cfm).
Using the formula:
ln (C2/C1) = -Q/V x (t2-t1)

We can solve for ln(C2/C1):
ln (10/100) = -(500/1000) x 30
ln (0.1) = -0.5 x 30
ln (0.1) = -15
Next, we can solve for C2:
ln (C2/100) = -15
C2/100 = e^(-15)
C2 = 100 x e^(-15)
C2 = 0.0071 ppm
Therefore, in order to decrease the concentration of the contaminant from 100 ppm to 10 ppm in 30
minutes, the ventilation system would need to reduce the concentration to 0.0071 ppm.
Example 2
Suppose we have a room with a volume of 2000 cubic feet that has an initial concentration of a
contaminant at 80 parts per million (ppm), and we want to decrease the concentration to 20 ppm using
an airflow rate of 100 cubic feet per minute (cfm). Using the given formula:
ln (C2/C1) = -Q/V x (t2-t1)
We can solve for the time interval (t2-t1):
ln (C2/C1) = -Q/V x (t2-t1)
ln (20/80) = -(100/2000) x (t2-t1)
ln (0.25) = -0.05 x (t2-t1)
Next, we can isolate the time interval (t2-t1) by dividing both sides by -0.05:
(t2-t1) = ln (0.25) / -0.05
(t2-t1) ≈ 13.86 minutes
Therefore, to decrease the concentration of the contaminant from 80 ppm to 20 ppm using an airflow
rate of 100 cfm in a room with a volume of 2000 cubic feet, it would take approximately 13.86 minutes of
purging.
Steady-State Concentration
Steady-state concentration dilution ventilation is a method used to reduce the concentration of a
contaminant in a space by continuously introducing clean air into the space while exhausting the
contaminated air out of the space. The goal is to achieve a steady-state concentration of the
contaminant that is below a certain threshold, which is typically set by regulatory agencies or industry
standards.
The formula Q = G/C can also be used to calculate the steady-state concentration of a contaminant in a
space, but it needs to be corrected for incomplete mixing by using the design distribution constant K. In
this case, we use the effective rate of ventilation Q' instead of Q, which is the airflow rate corrected for
incomplete mixing.
The formula for steady-state concentration is:
C = G/(Q' x K)
where:
G = rate of contaminant generation (cfm)
Q' = effective rate of ventilation corrected for incomplete mixing (cfm)
C = steady-state concentration of contaminant (ppm)
Here's an example of how to use this formula:
Example: A laboratory generates 100 cfm of a particular contaminant. The effective ventilation rate in the
laboratory is 200 cfm, but the design distribution constant is 5. What is the steady-state concentration of
the contaminant in the laboratory?
Solution: Given parameters: G = 100 cfm (rate of contaminant generation) Q' = 200 cfm (effective rate of
ventilation corrected for incomplete mixing) K = 5 (design distribution constant)
Using the formula: C = G/(Q' x K)
Substituting in the given values:
C = 100 cfm/(200 cfm x 5)
C = 0.1 ppm
Therefore, the steady-state concentration of the contaminant in the laboratory is 0.1 ppm. Note that this
concentration assumes that the contaminant is well mixed in the space and that there are no other
sources of the contaminant or sinks for the contaminant. If the space is not well mixed, or if there are
other sources or sinks of the contaminant, the actual concentration may be different.
Calculating Rate of Generation for Liquid Solvents
The formula to calculate the rate of generation of a liquid solvent is indeed:
q = (403 x 10^6 x SG x ER x K)/(MW x C)
where:
q = rate of generation of solvent (cfm)
SG = specific gravity of the volatile liquid
ER = evaporation rate of liquid (pints/minute)
MW = molecular weight of the liquid
C = desired concentration of gas or vapor at time t (ppm)
Example
Suppose we have a workspace where workers are exposed to a liquid solvent with a PEL (Permissible
Exposure Limit) of 50 ppm. The specific gravity of the solvent is 0.8, the evaporation rate is 0.05
pints/minute, the design distribution constant is 2, and the molecular weight of the solvent is 100 g/mol.
We want to determine the actual ventilation rate needed to maintain the PEL.
Using the formula q = (403 x 10^6 x SG x ER x K) / (MW x C), we can solve for q:
q = (403 x 10^6 x 0.8 x 0.05 x 2) / (100 x 50) = 6448 cfm
Therefore, the actual ventilation rate needed to maintain the PEL for this liquid solvent in the workspace
is 6448 cfm.
Calculating Vapor or Gaseous Concentrations
The formula to calculate the vapor or gaseous concentration of a substance in air is:
c = (pv x 10^6) / pb
Where:
c = concentration of the substance in air (ppm)
pv = partial pressure of the substance (mmHg)
pb = barometric pressure (mmHg)
Here's an example calculation:
Suppose you want to determine the concentration of benzene in the air at a certain location where the
partial pressure of benzene is 0.25 mmHg and the barometric pressure is 760 mmHg. Using the formula,
we can calculate the concentration of benzene as:
c = (pv x 10^6) / pb
c = (0.25 x 10^6) / 760
c = 328.9 ppm
Therefore, the concentration of benzene in the air at this location is 328.9 ppm.
Calculating Room Air Changes
Calculating room air changes involves determining the rate at which the air within a room is replaced by
fresh air from outside. This calculation is important in various industries such as laboratory work,
healthcare, and others, where it is necessary to maintain proper air quality and prevent the buildup of
potentially hazardous substances.
The formula for calculating room air changes is:
n_changes = 60 * Q / V_t
where:
n_changes = number of air changes per hour (ACH)
Q = flow rate of air (cfm)
V_t = volume of the room or space (ft^3)
Here's an example:
Suppose we have a room with a volume of 1,000 ft^3 and we want to achieve 6 air changes per hour.
What flow rate of air do we need?
We can rearrange the formula to solve for Q:
Q = n_changes * V_t / 60
Substituting the given values:
Q = 6 * 1000 / 60 = 100 cfm
Therefore, to achieve 6 air changes per hour in a room with a volume of 1,000 ft^3, we need a flow rate
of 100 cfm.
Calculating Concentration of a Contaminant with Dilution Ventilation
The formula for calculating concentration of a contaminant with dilution ventilation is:
C = G / Q(1 - e^(-nT/60)) x 10^6
where:
C = concentration at a given time (ppm)
G = rate of generation of contaminant (cfm)
Q = flow rate (cfm)
n = air changes per hour
T = time (in minutes)
Example:
Let's say we have a room with a rate of contaminant generation (G) of 100 cfm, a flow rate (Q) of 500
cfm, and an air changes per hour (n) of 4. We want to calculate the concentration (C) of the contaminant
in the room after 30 minutes.
Plugging in the values, we get:
C = 100 / 500(1 - e^(-4*30/60)) x 10^6
C = 100 / 500(1 - e^(-2)) x 10^6
C = 100 / 500(1 - 0.1353) x 10^6
C = 100 / 500(0.8647) x 10^6
C = 172.94 ppm
Therefore, the concentration of the contaminant in the room after 30 minutes is approximately 172.94
ppm.
Calculating Hood Entry Losses
Calculating hood entry losses is important in order to determine the effectiveness of a hood in controlling
and containing airborne contaminants, and to ensure that hoods are designed, placed, and operated in a
manner that minimizes hood entry losses.

The coefficient of entry loss is a dimensionless parameter that represents the fraction of the total kinetic
energy of the air stream that is lost due to the obstruction of the hood.
The formula for the coefficient of entry loss is:
Ce = √(VP / SPh)
where:
Ce = coefficient of entry loss
VP = velocity pressure of the duct (inches water gauge or "wg)
SPh = static pressure of the hood (inches water gauge or "wg)
To calculate the coefficient of entry loss, you need to know the values of VP and SPh. Once you have
these values, you can substitute them into the formula and solve for Ce.
Example:
Let's say you're designing a ventilation system for a commercial kitchen. You've determined that you
need to install a hood over the cooking range to capture the smoke and fumes. To properly size the
ductwork, you need to calculate the coefficient of entry loss, which takes into account the velocity
pressure of the duct and the static pressure of the hood.
Suppose the velocity pressure of the duct (VP) is 2 inches wg, and the static pressure of the hood (SPh)
is 4 inches wg. Then the formula for the coefficient of entry loss (Ce) would be:
Ce = √(VP / SPh)
Ce = √(2 / 4)
Ce = √0.5
Ce = 0.707
Therefore, the coefficient of entry loss is 0.707. This value can be used to calculate the total pressure
drop in the system and to select the appropriate size of ductwork.
Calculating Airflow Velocity
The formula for calculating airflow velocity using the coefficient of entry loss and static pressure of the
hood is:
v = 400 * Ce * sqrt(SPh)
where:
v = airflow velocity (ft/min)
Ce = coefficient of entry loss
SPh = static pressure of the hood (inches of water)
Note that this formula assumes that the air density is constant.
Example:

Let's say you have a fume hood in a laboratory that has a static pressure of 0.5 inches of water and a
coefficient of entry loss of 0.85. You can use the formula v = 400 * Ce * sqrt(SPh) to calculate the airflow
velocity in the hood.
v = 400 * 0.85 * sqrt(0.5)
v = 340 * sqrt(0.5)
v = 240.47 ft/min (approx.)
Therefore, the airflow velocity in the fume hood would be approximately 240.47 ft/min.
Calculating Capture Velocity for Plain Opening Hood
The formula to calculate capture velocity for a plain opening hood is:
v = q/10X^2+ A'
Where:
• v is the capture velocity in feet per minute (fpm)
• q is the volumetric flow rate in cubic feet per minute (cfm)
• X is the distance from the hood opening to the contaminant source in feet (ft)
• A' is the area of the hood opening in square feet (ft^2)
Note that this formula assumes that the hood is a well-designed, well-maintained, and properly installed
plain opening hood.
It's also important to keep in mind that the capture velocity alone is not enough to ensure effective
capture and containment of contaminants. Other factors such as hood design, placement, and airflow
patterns in the surrounding area also play a significant role.
Here is an example calculation:
Let's say you have a welding station where the volumetric flow rate of the fumes being produced is 500
cubic feet per minute (cfm). The distance from the hood opening to the contaminant source (the welding
arc) is 2 feet, and the area of the hood opening is 3 square feet (ft^2).
Using the formula provided, we can calculate the capture velocity required to effectively capture and
remove the fumes.
v = q/10X^2+ A'
v = 500 / (10 * 2^2 + 3)
v = 500 / 43
v ≈ 11.63 fpm
So the capture velocity required to effectively capture and remove the fumes from the welding station
would be approximately 11.63 feet per minute (fpm).
Calculating Static Pressure of the Fan (SPh)
The formula to calculate the static pressure of the fan (SPh) is:
SPh = Spout - Spin - Vpin

where:
• Spout: static pressure at the fan outlet (inches of water)
• Spin: static pressure at the fan inlet (inches of water)
• Vpin: velocity pressure at the fan inlet (inches of water)
Note that all pressures must be measured in inches of water.
Here's an example:
Suppose you have a fan with an outlet static pressure (Spout) of 3 inches of water, an inlet static
pressure (Spin) of 1 inch of water, and a velocity pressure at the inlet (Vpin) of 0.2 inches of water. Using
the formula above, we can calculate the static pressure of the fan as follows:
SPh = Spout - Spin - Vpin
SPh = 3 - 1 - 0.2
SPh = 1.8 inches of water
Therefore, the static pressure of the fan is 1.8 inches of water.
Guarding
Guarding is a type of engineering control used in industrial and laboratory settings to protect workers
from potential hazards. It involves physically separating workers from hazardous machinery or
processes, either by installing barriers, enclosures, or by positioning the worker a safe distance away
from the hazard.
For example, consider a woodworking machine that uses a rotating saw blade to cut wood. A guard
could be installed around the blade to physically prevent workers from coming into direct contact with it.
The guard should be made of a sturdy material that can withstand the force of a saw blade if it comes
into contact with it.
Another example of guarding is the use of a fume hood in a laboratory setting. A fume hood is an
enclosed workspace that is designed to protect workers from hazardous fumes, vapors, and particulates
generated during chemical reactions. The hood typically includes a sash, or window, that can be
adjusted to control the amount of air flow through the hood and to maintain a specific level of
containment. The hood also includes a blower or fan that draws air through the hood and vents the
release of hazardous fumes into the laboratory.
Guarding OSHA
OSHA, or the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, is a U.S. federal agency that is
responsible for setting and enforcing safety and health regulations in the workplace. OSHA has
established specific requirements for machine guarding to protect workers from hazards associated with
moving machine parts.
Some of the key OSHA regulations related to machine guarding include:
1. 29 CFR 1910.212: This regulation specifies the general requirements for machine guarding,
including the types of machines that require guarding, the types of guards that are acceptable,
and the requirements for anchoring and securing the guards.

2. 29 CFR 1910.215: This regulation sets specific requirements for abrasive wheel machinery,
including the type of guards that are acceptable and the requirements for proper adjustment and
maintenance of guards.
3. 29 CFR 1910.217: This regulation sets specific requirements for mechanical power presses,
including the types of guards that are acceptable and the requirements for proper adjustment and
maintenance of guards.
4. 29 CFR 1910.219: This regulation sets specific requirements for mechanical power-transmission
apparatus, including the types of guards that are acceptable and the requirements for proper
adjustment and maintenance of guards.
In general, OSHA requires that employers implement effective machine guarding measures to protect
workers from hazards such as moving parts, flying debris, electrical hazards, and other potential
dangers. Employers must comply with relevant OSHA regulations and standards to ensure that the
machine guarding is effective and provides adequate protection to workers.
Selecting Guards
Selecting the appropriate guards for a particular machine or equipment involves a systematic risk
assessment process that considers the specific hazards and operating conditions of the machine, as well
as relevant safety standards and regulations. The following steps can guide the selection process:
1. Identify the machine hazards: Identify the potential hazards associated with the machine or
equipment, such as moving parts, pinch points, hot surfaces, or electrical hazards.
2. Determine the level of risk: Evaluate the likelihood and severity of injury or harm to workers if
they were exposed to the identified hazards.
3. Choose the appropriate guard type: Based on the hazard assessment, select the appropriate
type of guard that will effectively protect workers from the identified hazards. Examples of guard
types include fixed guards, adjustable guards, interlocked guards, and self-adjusting guards.
4. Determine the guard specifications: Based on the selected guard type, determine the appropriate
guard specifications, such as size, strength, material, visibility, access, interlocking devices, and
warning signs.
5. Install and test the guard: Install the guard according to the manufacturer's instructions and
applicable safety standards, and test its effectiveness in protecting workers from the identified
hazards.
6. Inspect and maintain the guard: Regularly inspect and maintain the guard to ensure its continued
effectiveness in protecting workers from hazards.
The selection of guards should be a collaborative process involving machine operators, safety
professionals, and other relevant stakeholders. Compliance with relevant safety standards and
regulations is essential to ensure that guards are appropriately selected and installed to protect workers
from hazards.
Guardrails
Guardrails are physical barriers that are designed to prevent falls from elevated surfaces such as
platforms, walkways, stairs, or roofs. Guardrails typically consist of a top rail, mid-rail, and posts that are
securely anchored to the structure or surface they are installed on.

Guardrails are an important safety feature in workplaces where employees are exposed to elevated work
surfaces, such as construction sites, warehouses, or manufacturing facilities. OSHA has established
specific requirements for guardrails to ensure that they are effective in preventing falls and protecting
workers from injury.
Some of the key OSHA requirements for guardrails include:
1. Height: Guardrails must be at least 42 inches high from the upper surface of the top rail to the
surface of the platform or walkway.
2. Strength: Guardrails must be capable of withstanding a force of at least 200 pounds applied
within 2 inches of the top edge of the top rail.
3. Spacing: The spacing between the rails, mid-rails, and posts must be no more than 19 inches
apart.
4. Anchoring: Guardrails must be securely anchored to the structure or surface they are installed
on, and the anchoring must be capable of supporting a force of at least 200 pounds applied in
any direction at any point along the top rail.
5. Visibility: Guardrails must be designed to be easily visible to workers, with a contrasting color or
markings that distinguish them from the surrounding environment.
Employers must comply with relevant OSHA regulations and standards to ensure that guardrails are
effective in protecting workers from falls and other related injuries.
Isolation
Isolation controls are measures used to control or prevent exposure to hazardous energy sources during
maintenance, repair, or servicing of machines or equipment. The purpose of isolation controls is to
protect workers from injury or harm caused by the unexpected startup or release of hazardous energy.
Isolation controls can include a range of measures, such as lockout/tagout procedures, physical barriers,
and warning signs. Lockout/tagout procedures are a common form of isolation control and involve the
use of lockout devices, such as padlocks or circuit breakers, to prevent the accidental startup of
equipment. In addition to lockout devices, tagout devices may be used to indicate that the equipment is
not to be operated until the lockout devices are removed.
Physical barriers are another form of isolation control and can include fencing, screens, or other types of
barriers that physically separate workers from hazardous energy sources. Warning signs can also be
used to alert workers to the presence of hazardous energy and remind them of the need to take
appropriate precautions.
To determine the appropriate isolation controls for a particular machine or equipment, a risk assessment
should be conducted to identify the hazards associated with the machine and the level of risk to workers.
Based on the results of the risk assessment, appropriate isolation controls can be selected and
implemented to ensure the safety of workers.
It is important to note that OSHA has established specific requirements for energy control, including
lockout/tagout procedures, to ensure that workers are protected from hazardous energy sources during
maintenance, repair, or servicing of machines and equipment. Compliance with these requirements is
essential to ensure the effectiveness of isolation controls and protect workers from injury or harm.

OSHA
In the context of workplace safety, OSHA isolation generally refers to the practice of isolating hazardous
energy sources to prevent injuries during maintenance, repair, or servicing of machines and equipment.
OSHA has established specific requirements for energy control, also known as lockout/tagout, to ensure
that workers are protected from the unexpected release of stored energy during these activities.
The purpose of OSHA isolation is to prevent the accidental startup or release of hazardous energy that
could cause injury to workers. This can include electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, or
other forms of energy that could pose a hazard.
OSHA's lockout/tagout standard, which can be found in 29 CFR 1910.147, outlines specific requirements
for energy control procedures, including the following:
1. Developing and implementing written energy control procedures
2. Ensuring that only authorized employees are allowed to perform lockout/tagout procedures.
3. Conducting periodic inspections of energy control procedures to ensure their effectiveness.
4. Providing training to employees on energy control procedures and the proper use of
lockout/tagout devices
5. Establishing a system for verifying that energy control procedures are effective before starting
work.
By following OSHA's lockout/tagout requirements for energy control and isolation, employers can help
prevent injuries and fatalities caused by the accidental release of hazardous energy during maintenance,
repair, or servicing of machines and equipment.
Determining Isolation Controls
To determine appropriate isolation controls for a machine or equipment, a risk assessment should be
conducted to identify the hazards associated with the machine and the level of risk to workers. Based on
the results of the risk assessment, appropriate isolation controls can be selected and implemented to
ensure the safety of workers.
The following steps can be taken to determine isolation controls:
1. Identify the machine: Identify the specific machine or equipment that requires isolation controls
and the hazards associated with it.
2. Conduct a risk assessment: Conduct a thorough risk assessment to identify the hazards
associated with the machine and determine the level of risk to workers. This assessment may
consider factors such as the type and speed of moving parts, the location of the machine, and the
frequency and duration of worker exposure.
3. Determine isolation controls: Based on the results of the risk assessment, determine the
appropriate isolation controls that will effectively protect workers from the identified hazards.
Isolation controls can include lockout/tagout procedures, physical barriers, and warning signs,
among others.
4. Develop written procedures: Develop and implement written procedures for implementing the
isolation controls. The procedures should include clear instructions for how to use the isolation
controls, as well as requirements for training and periodic review.

5. Train employees: Train employees on the use of the isolation controls and ensure that they
understand the hazards associated with the machine and the importance of following the
established procedures.
6. Implement and test isolation controls: Implement the isolation controls according to the
established procedures and test their effectiveness in protecting workers from hazards.
It is important to note that OSHA has established specific requirements for energy control, including
lockout/tagout procedures, to ensure that workers are protected from hazardous energy sources during
maintenance, repair, or servicing of machines and equipment. Compliance with these requirements is
essential to ensure the effectiveness of isolation controls and protect workers from injury or harm.
Administrative controls (e.g., job rotation, training, procedures, and safety policies and practices)
Administrative controls are a type of control in occupational health and safety that aim to reduce the risk
of injury, illness, or exposure to hazardous substances or conditions through changes in work practices,
policies, and procedures. Unlike engineering controls, which are physical controls that alter the work
environment, administrative controls rely on the behavior and actions of workers to reduce risks.
Examples of administrative controls include:
1. Work procedures and instructions: Establishing standard operating procedures (SOPs) and
written instructions for performing tasks in a safe manner, reducing the risk of injury or exposure.
2. Training and education: Providing workers with training and education on the safe use of
equipment, proper handling of hazardous materials, and recognition of hazardous situations.
3. Scheduling and workload management: Managing the workload of workers to reduce the risk of
injury, fatigue, or exposure to hazardous substances or conditions.
4. Hazard communication: Implementing a program to communicate information about hazardous
substances and conditions to workers, including labeling, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS),
and training.
5. Personal protective equipment (PPE) program: Implementing a program to provide workers with
PPE and ensuring that workers are trained on the proper use and care of PPE.
6. Employee monitoring: Regularly monitoring the health of workers who are exposed to hazardous
substances or conditions to detect and prevent illness or injury.
Administrative controls are an important aspect of a comprehensive approach to managing occupational
health and safety. When used in conjunction with engineering controls, they can help to create a safer
and healthier work environment.
Job Rotation
Job rotation is a type of administrative control that involves regularly rotating employees through different
positions within a company. The purpose of job rotation is to reduce employee exposure to hazardous
working conditions, provide employees with a broader range of experiences and skills, and promote
cross-training.
Example:
1. A manufacturing company that produces hazardous chemicals may rotate employees who work
in production and handling of chemicals to different positions within the company such as
packaging or quality control.
2. An agriculture company may rotate employees who work in field operations to positions in the
office or laboratory to reduce their exposure to outdoor environmental hazards.
3. A construction company may rotate employees who work on site to different construction projects
to reduce the risk of repetitive strain injuries.
By rotating employees through different positions, job rotation provides employees with the opportunity
to learn new skills, reduce monotony, and reduce the risk of long-term exposure to hazardous working
conditions. Additionally, job rotation can help to promote teamwork, as employees are able to work with
and learn from colleagues in different areas of the company.
Training
Training is a key administrative control that can help reduce the risk of workplace hazards and improve
worker safety. This type of control involves educating employees on safe work practices, proper use of
equipment and materials, and the identification and reporting of potential hazards. Examples of training
topics include:
1. Health and safety policies and procedures
2. Hazard identification and reporting
3. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
4. Proper lifting techniques
5. Emergency response procedures
6. Chemical safety and handling
7. Fire safety and evacuation plans
Examples of training programs that might be used to implement this type of administrative control
include:
1. On-the-job training: This type of training involves supervised hands-on instruction and
demonstration of safe work practices.
2. Classroom training: This type of training typically takes place in a classroom or lecture hall setting
and involves a instructor leading a presentation and discussion on safety topics.
3. E-Learning: This type of training involves using computer-based learning tools and interactive
multimedia to deliver safety information to employees.
4. Safety meetings: This type of training involves regularly scheduled safety meetings, where
workers can discuss safety-related issues, receive updates on new hazards and policies, and
receive reminders about safe work practices.
It's important to note that training alone is not enough to fully control workplace hazards, but it is a crucial
component of an overall safety program and can help to create a safer, more knowledgeable and
prepared workforce.
Procedures
Procedures are a type of administrative control that involves establishing written guidelines for workers
to follow in order to perform their jobs safely and effectively. These guidelines may cover a wide range of
topics, including how to handle hazardous materials, how to use equipment and tools, and how to
respond in emergency situations. By establishing procedures, employers can help ensure that workers
have a clear understanding of their responsibilities and can provide a consistent approach to job tasks,
reducing the risk of errors or accidents.
Examples of procedures as an administrative control include:
1. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) - A written document that outlines the steps required to
perform a specific task or process. This can include safety precautions, quality control checks,
and any other critical information necessary to complete the task.
2. Safe Work Procedures - A detailed set of instructions for workers to follow when performing a
task that involves potential hazards, such as working with chemicals or operating heavy
machinery.
3. Emergency Response Procedures - A plan that outlines the steps to be taken in case of an
emergency, such as a fire or chemical spill. This plan should include evacuation procedures, how
to secure the area, and who to contact in an emergency.
4. Training Procedures - A set of guidelines for how to provide workers with the necessary training
they need to perform their jobs safely and effectively. This may include training on the use of
equipment, handling hazardous materials, and emergency response procedures.
By implementing procedures, employers can help create a safer workplace and reduce the risk of
accidents and injuries.
Safety Policies
Safety policies are a type of administrative control used to ensure the safety of employees in the
workplace. These policies outline the procedures and guidelines that must be followed to minimize the
risk of accidents and injuries, and they serve as a resource for employees to understand their
responsibilities in maintaining a safe work environment.
Examples of safety policies include:
1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Policy: outlines the types of PPE required for specific tasks
and the procedures for using, maintaining, and disposing of PPE.
2. Hazard Communication Policy: outlines the procedures for identifying, evaluating, and
communicating information about hazards in the workplace, including the use of Material Safety
Data Sheets (MSDS) and labeling systems.
3. Emergency Response Policy: outlines the procedures for responding to workplace emergencies,
such as fires, chemical spills, or other hazardous events.
4. Accident Investigation Policy: outlines the procedures for investigating accidents, determining the
cause, and making recommendations for preventing similar incidents from occurring in the future.
5. Substance Abuse Policy: outlines the procedures for addressing substance abuse issues in the
workplace, including drug and alcohol testing, employee assistance programs, and disciplinary
actions.
By implementing these policies and ensuring that employees are aware of and trained on them,
organizations can reduce the risk of accidents and injuries in the workplace and create a safer work
environment for all employees.

Personal protective equipment

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a federal agency responsible for setting
and enforcing safety standards in the workplace. OSHA provides guidelines for the use of personal
protective equipment (PPE) to help protect workers from hazards that can cause injury or death.
OSHA requires employers to provide PPE to their employees when hazards in the workplace cannot be
eliminated or controlled through engineering or administrative controls. The type of PPE required will
depend on the specific hazards present in the workplace, such as exposure to chemicals, sharp objects,
heat, electricity, or falls.
OSHA provides guidelines for the use of PPE, including requirements for the selection, maintenance,
and use of PPE. Employers are required to train employees on the proper use and care of PPE and to
ensure that PPE is properly fit, adjusted, and used.
Examples of PPE include:
• Hard hats for protection against head injury from falling objects or impact
• Safety glasses and face shields for protection against flying objects, dust, and chemical splashes
• Earplugs and earmuffs for protection against loud noises
• Respirators for protection against breathing in harmful substances or fumes
• Gloves for protection against cuts, punctures, and hazardous substances
• Steel-toed shoes for protection against falling objects or heavy weight impacts
• High visibility clothing for increased visibility in hazardous areas
It is important to note that PPE should be used in conjunction with other safety measures and should not
be relied upon as the sole means of protection against hazards in the workplace.
Head Protection Specification
Compliance
Hard hats must be worn by all employees who operate in an area in which there is a risk of head injuries
from falling, flying or thrown objects, and contact with energized equipment or objects.
Applicable Standards
Safety headgear worn in an area where there is a danger of head injury from falling, flying or thrown
objects, or other harmful contacts will meet the requirements of the applicable standard listed below, in
accordance with the WorkSafeBC OHSR section 8.11(2):
▪ CSA Standard CAN/CSA-Z94.1-92, Industrial Protective Headwear or
▪ ANSI Standard Z89.1-1986, American National Standard for Personnel Protection – Protective
Headgear for Industrial Employees Requirements
Selection of Head Protection
The workplace evaluation consisting of hazard identification and risk assessment assist in deciding
whether safety headgear is required. The following helps to determine the type of headgear required:
▪ If an employee is exposed to an electrical hazard, the safety headgear must have an appropriate
non-conductive rating.
▪ Mechanics may wear “bumpcaps” to protect their heads.
▪ If there is exposure to falling, flying or thrown objects, a safety hardhat is required.
▪ Only hard hats displaying retro-reflective tape will be worn for traffic control.
CSA and ANSI Classification System of Head Protection
Class C: (Conductive) – Headgear designated as Class C is designed to provide the employee with
protection against impact and penetration only. No protection against electric shock.
Class G: (General Usage) - This class of headgear is intended to provide the user with protection against
impact and penetration. Headgear designated as Class G has a dielectric test rating, when new, of 2,200
volts. Although this headgear is manufactured from non-conducting materials, it must never be
considered to be part of a protective system against electric shock.
Note: Previous edition of CSA and ANSI Standards designated Class G headgear as Class A.
Class E: (Electrical) - Headgear designated as Class E for a dielectric test rating, when new, of 20,000
volts. This class of headgear is intended to provide the user with protection against impact and
penetration. Although this class of protective headgear is manufactured from non-conducting materials, it
must never be used as a primary barrier in a protective system designed to prevent contact with line
electrical apparatus. It is intended to provide improved protection against electric shock following
accidental contact between the headgear and live electrical apparatus.
Note: Previous edition of CSA and ANSI Standards designated Class E headgear as Class B.
•Electricians working on “residential type” circuits, of 240 volts or less, may wear Class A, B, G or E rated
CSA or ANSI safety headgear.
Note: The protection degrades with use and is also dependent on the cleanliness of the headgear. Any
headgear that has had holes drilled in the shell to install accessories is considered to have lost its
dielectric rating.
•Power-line technicians, electricians and any other employees who work on circuits that have the
potential for voltages above 240 volts must wear Class E (Class B) rated CSA or ANSI headgear, or
equivalent.
Classifications under old and new standards:
Z89.1 - 1986 Z89.1 - 1997

Application Test Voltage
(Old Standard) (New Standard)
A G General 2,200 Volts
B E Electrical 20,000 Volts
C C Conductive Not Tested
Inspection of Head Protection

Hard hats are to be frequently inspected. Examine the components (shell, suspension, chin strap) for
signs of damage, wear and degradation. Safety hats failing visual inspection must be discarded and
replaced. Specifically:

• Inspect headgear prior to commencing work

• Replace headgear that is pitted, brittle or cracked
• Replace headgear that has been subjected to a blow regardless of whether damage is apparent
• Remove from service any headgear with missing, mismatched or modified components
Use of Head Protection
Use chin straps or another effective means of retention on safety headgear when working or climbing
from a height exceeding 3m (10ft) or exposed to high winds or other conditions that may cause loss of
the headgear (e.g. bicycle or similar conveyance operated at speeds not exceeding 20km/h (13mph)
within a specific location).
Do not use any liner that contains metal or conductive material.
Do not carry anything in the hard-hat while wearing it.
Maintenance, Cleaning and Storage of Head Protection
Proper storage and care of safety hard hats will extend service life. Store hard hats in a clean dry area
away from sunlight, contaminants and temperature extremes. Do not store safety hats in the rear window
of vehicles – the sun’s UV rays damage the shell. Hard hats are to be kept clean. Use mild soap and
warm water, and let air dry. Additionally:
• Replace headgear and components according to manufacturer’s instruction

• Clean headgear in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions (usually with warm soapy water
and no solvents)
• Ensure that headgear is stored according to manufacturer’s/supplier’s instructions (usually in a
dry warm place out of direct sunlight)
• Do not drill, remove peaks, alter the shell or suspension in any way
• Do not use solvents or paints on the shells
• Ensure that chin straps used with Class E headgear are not drawn over the brim or peak
because the strap, in case of contact with a live electrical conductor, may allow the current to flow
from the conductor to the employee
Replacement
Hard hats that sustain a forcible impact must be discarded and replaced.
Replace your hard hat when:
• Cracks appear in the shell.

• Shiny surface appears dull or chalky.
• Shell becomes brittle.
Replace your Suspension when:
• The suspensions become brittle

• One or more of the mounts break off
• The suspension will no longer hold securely to the head
• The cradling straps break or become worn
Inspect your hard hats before and after each use. Although there is no set service life for hard hats,
manufacturers recommend replacement after no more than 5 years. If the user environment is known to
include higher exposure to temperature extremes, sunlight, or chemicals, hard hats should be replaced

routinely after two years of use. Most hard hats have manufacture date codes molded on the underside
brim of the cap so you can easily determine the age of the cap.
Foot Protection Specification
Compliance
A employee’s footwear will be of a design, construction and material appropriate to the protection
required. To determine appropriate protection the following factors must be considered: slipping, uneven
terrain, abrasion, ankle protection and foot support, crushing potential, temperature extremes, corrosive
substances, puncture hazards, electrical shock and any other recognizable hazard. A workplace
evaluation consisting of hazard identification and risk assessment will determine what kind of foot
protection is required.
Safety footwear required for toe protection, metatarsal protection, puncture resistant soles, dielectric
protection or any combination of these, will meet the requirements of:
• CSA Standard CAN/CSA-Z195-M92, Protective Footwear or;

• ANSI Standard Z41-1991, American National Standard for Personal Protection – Protective Footwear
or;
• British Safety Institution Standard BS EN 345:1993 Specification for Safety Footwear for Professional
Use or;
• British Safety Institution Standard BS EN 346:1993 Specification for Protective Footwear for
Professional Use
Selection
Assess employee’s exposure to the hazard and identify features of protective footwear that are required.
This will ensure that the employee’s footwear, as far as is practicable, reduces the risk of injury to the
employee. When selecting footwear that is required to meet standard,
Safety boot remarks for electrical employees:

• Safety boots with electrically resistive soles display a CSA symbol = ‘white rectangle with Ω sign’,
or ASTM identification that specifies “EH”. These boots must be worn by electrical employees.
• Safety boots with electrically resistive soles are not permitted to be re-built or re-soled. When
worn out, they must be replaced.
When selecting footwear that is not required to meet any standards, the following guidelines will be used:
• Slipping Hazards: Choose footwear with soles and heels made of material that will not create a
danger of slipping
• Uneven terrain/ankle instability: Choose a high cut boot to provide ankle support. Any employee
exposed to an environment requiring rubber boots extending above the ankle for protection from
chemicals, water or other liquids, is not expected to have tight fitting leather uppers if walking on
uneven surfaces. This exception only applies when the employee is performing that particular job
function.
• Temperature Extremes: Choose footwear that affords protection from either cold or hot
temperatures
• Abrasion: Choose footwear that affords protection from abrasion injuries
Maintenance and Storage

• Proper storage and care will extend service life.
• Maintain the footwear in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions
• Clean footwear in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions
• Do not modify safety footwear
Inspection and Testing
• Inspect safety footwear prior to starting work
• Do not use footwear that has deteriorated to a point where it does not provide the required
protection
Replacement
• Units failing visual inspection must be discarded and replaced.
Eye and Face Protection Specification

Compliance
Eye and face PPE are required to protect the employee from such hazards as flying objects and
particles, molten metal, splashing liquids and ultraviolet, infrared and visible radiation (welding),
chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, potentially infected material
Properly fitting safety glasses, goggles, face shields or other approved eye protective equipment will be
worn by employees who:
• Are handling or are exposed to any material that is likely to injure or irritate the eyes.
• Are engaged in any work in which there is a hazard of eye injury.
Selection of Eye Protection and Face Shields

The workplace evaluation consisting of hazard identification and risk assessment will determine whether
eye protection is required along with MSDSs and chemical supplier/manufacturer labels (if applicable),
assists to determine the type of eyewear that is required.

Safety eyewear can be broken down into three types:

a) Glasses with side shields which are normally rated for impact protection only but may be rated for
radiation protection;
b) Glasses with side shields rated for radiation protection;
c) Goggles which are rated for impact protection, chemical splash protection, radiation protection; and
d) Face shields, which are rated for impact protection, chemical splash protection, and for use in
some welding and metal operations.
Only chemical protective goggles face shields, a combination of safety glasses and face shield, or a
combination of goggles and face shield shall be worn when working with chemicals.
Only protective goggles face shields and helmets approved for welding shall be worn when welding is
carried out.
• Suitable protectors shall be used when employees are exposed to hazards from flying particles,
molten metal, acids or caustic liquids, chemical liquids, gases, or vapors, bio aerosols, or
potentially injurious light radiation.
• Wearers of contact lenses must also wear appropriate eye and face protection devices in a
hazardous environment.
• Goggles and face shields shall be used when there is a hazard from chemical splash.
• Face shields shall only be worn over primary eye protection (safety glasses or goggles).
• Protectors shall be marked to identify the manufacturer.
• Equipment fitted with appropriate filter lenses shall be used to protect against light radiation. Tinted
and shaded lenses are not filter lenses unless they are marked or identified as such.
• Emergency eyewash stations and showers are to be maintained in accordance with 5.96 of WSBC
regulation.
Source Hazard Protection

Safety glasses with side
protection, for severe
Flying fragments, objects
Impact exposure use face shield
large chips, particles etc.
over safety glasses.

Chemicals – chemical protection, for severe
Splash and irritant mists
handling exposure goggles.

Dust – General dusty
Nuisance dust protection.
conditions

Welding helmets or
Light/Radiation
Welding shields
Welding – electric arc
Welding goggles or welding
Welding - gas
Optical radiation face shields
Welding spectacles or
Cutting, torch
welding face shield.
soldering/brazing
Electrical
• When working on or testing electrical equipment energized at a potential greater than 30 Volts,
polycarbonate lenses with > 99.9% ultra violet light absorption must be worn.
• Note: When employees are exposed to bright light conditions in addition to the working conditions
described above, it is recommended that employees wear CSA approved frames with lenses that
provide >90% blue and >80% infrared light absorption.
• The following lenses are recommended for work in bright outdoor conditions when working on or
testing electrical equipment at a potential greater than 30V.
• Uvex SCT grey lenses with CSA-approved frames e.g. Genesis, XC, Fit Logic, Millennia,
Astrospec 3000, Astro OTG (Over the glass) 3001.
• Arc block lenses with AERO frames e.g. Lexa.
• Employees wearing contact lenses should alert site supervisor and first-aid attendant.
Inspection
• Inspect eye and face protection prior to commencing work. Replace pitted, scratched, bent and
poorly fitting items of equipment
• Ensure eye and face protection fits properly and that it affords the required protective properties
Maintenance, Cleaning and Storage

• Clean eye and face protection daily, or more often if needed, in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions
• Store eye and face protection in a safe, clean, dry place when not in use
• Do not modify eye/face protection
Replacement
• Replace if eyewear is defective or in poor condition.
Hearing Protection Specification

Compliance
Any person exposed to noise over 85 dB will wear appropriate hearing protection.
Selection of Hearing Protection
The workplace evaluation consisting of hazard identification and risk will determine whether hearing
protection is required.
Table 3 lists the classes of hearing protection recommended
Table 3 – Classes of Hearing Protection

Noise Level Class
Less than 85dBA No protection required
Up to 89dBA Class C
Up to 95dBA Class B
Up to 105dBA Class A
Up to 110dBA Class A plug and Class A or B muff
>110dBA Class A plug and Class A or B muff. Limited exposure

permitted
Both earmuffs and earplugs are classed as Class A, B or C.

Use, Care and Maintenance of Earplugs
• Ear muffs must be maintained in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
• Maintain good personal hygiene and cleanliness of hearing protection.
• Refit earplugs several times during the day as head movements, talking and chewing can all
loosen the plugs
• Wash re-usable plugs with soap and water and keep them in a case when not in use
• Replace re-usable plugs when they become hard or cracked and at least annually
• Discard disposable plugs when they become dirty, either from use or from contact with some
chemical in the workplace
• Replace disposable plugs daily
• Replace custom molded plugs every 3 years
• Refrain from cutting up or tampering with the plug in any way to make it comfortable. If it feels
wrong, try a different size or type of plug.

• Visually inspect before use.
Replacement
• Units that are damaged or fail to provide adequate hearing protection must be discarded and
replaced.
General
Other Considerations on selection and use of Hearing Protection:
• Daily exposure
• Employee ability to hear
• Communication with other employee
• Use of other equipment and/or PPE
• Physical constraints of employee activity
• Temperature, climate & environment
• Comfort
Hand Protection Specification (General Purpose Work Gloves)

Compliance
Provide hand protection if a employee is exposed to a substance or condition that is likely to puncture,
abrade or otherwise adversely affect the skin, or be absorbed through it.
Hand protection will meet the specifications according to supplier/manufacturer’s specifications for the
substance being handled.
Selection
PPE for the hands come in many forms, each designed to protect against certain hazards. Choose hand
PPE that will protect against chemicals, scrapes, abrasions, heat and cold, punctures and electrical
shocks. The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or safety supplier may be able to assist in the selection
of hand PPE appropriate to the hazard.
General purpose work gloves made from leather material are well suited for PPE use because they
provide hand protection against cuts, abrasions, and punctures.
Determine the correct hand size prior to ordering the gloves. Gloves should fit well and be comfortable.
Use a tape measure to find the circumference of the hand around the palm. This measurement (in
inches) is closest to the actual glove size e.g. 8” is equal to a size 8 glove.
Overview of gloves:
Leather, canvas, or metal mesh gloves:
Sturdy gloves made from metal mesh, leather or canvas provide protection against cuts and burns.
Leather or canvass gloves also protect against sustained heat.
• Leather gloves protect against sparks, moderate heat, blows, chips and rough objects.
• Aluminized gloves provide reflective and insulating protection against heat and require an insert
made of synthetic materials to protect against heat and cold.
• Aramid fiber gloves protect against heat and cold, are cut- and abrasive-resistant and wear well.
• Synthetic gloves of various materials offer protection against heat and cold, are cut- and
abrasive-resistant and may withstand some diluted acids. These materials do not stand up
against alkalis and solvents.
Fabric and Coated Fabric Gloves

Fabric and coated fabric gloves are made of cotton or other fabric to provide varying degrees of
protection.

• Fabric gloves protect against dirt, slivers, chafing and abrasions. They do not provide sufficient
protection for use with rough, sharp or heavy materials. Adding a plastic coating will strengthen
some fabric gloves.
• Coated fabric gloves are normally made from cotton flannel with napping on one side. By coating
the unnapped side with plastic, fabric gloves are transformed into general-purpose hand
protection offering slip-resistant qualities. These gloves are used for tasks ranging from handling
bricks and wire to chemical laboratory containers. When selecting gloves to protect against
chemical exposure hazards, always check with the manufacturer or review the manufacturer’s
product literature to determine the gloves’ effectiveness against specific workplace chemicals and
conditions.
Chemical- and Liquid-Resistant Gloves

Chemical-resistant gloves are made with different kinds of rubber: natural, butyl, neoprene, nitrile and
fluorocarbon (viton); or various kinds of plastic: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinyl alcohol and
polyethylene. These materials can be blended or laminated for better performance. As a general rule,
the thicker the glove material, the greater the chemical resistance but thick gloves may impair grip and
dexterity, having a negative impact on safety. Some examples of chemical-resistant gloves include:
• Butyl gloves are made of a synthetic rubber and protect against a wide variety of chemicals, such
as peroxide, rocket fuels, highly corrosive acids (nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid and
red-fuming nitric acid), strong bases, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters and nitrocompounds.
Butyl gloves also resist oxidation, ozone corrosion and abrasion, and remain flexible at low
temperatures. Butyl rubber does not perform well with aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and
halogenated solvents.
• Natural (latex) rubber gloves are comfortable to wear, which makes them a popular general-
purpose glove. They feature outstanding tensile strength, elasticity and temperature resistance.
In addition to resisting abrasions caused by grinding and polishing, these gloves protect
employees’ hands from most water solutions of acids, alkalis, salts and ketones. Latex gloves
have caused allergic reactions in some individuals and may not be appropriate for all employees.
Hypoallergenic gloves, glove liners and powderless gloves are possible alternatives for
employees who are allergic to latex gloves.
• Neoprene gloves are made of synthetic rubber and offer good pliability, finger dexterity, high
density and tear resistance. They protect against hydraulic fluids, gasoline, alcohols, organic
acids and alkalis. They generally have chemical and wear resistance properties superior to those
made of natural rubber.
• Nitrile gloves are made of a copolymer and provide protection from chlorinated solvents such as
trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Although intended for jobs requiring dexterity and
sensitivity, nitrile gloves stand up to heavy use even after prolonged exposure to substances that
cause other gloves to deteriorate. They offer protection when working with oils, greases, acids,
caustics and alcohols but are generally not recommended for use with strong oxidizing agents,
aromatic solvents, ketones and acetates.
Maintenance and Storage

• Maintain according to manufacturer’s instructions
• Where possible, wash all chemicals and fluids off gloves before removing them. If contaminated
do not reuse.
• Cleaning procedures will be performed in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions. Where
appropriate, dispose of gloves on a regular basis, according to the hazards.


• Inspect the hand PPE for defects prior to commencing work.
• Do not use gloves or hand protection that is worn out or defective.
Replacement
• Gloves failing visual inspection must be discarded and replaced.

Application of Flame Resistant (FR) Clothing Specification

Task-specific requirements – when working on or around energized equipment, or welding activities a
base layer of FR clothing (i.e., shirt and pants with full coverage of arms, torso and legs) that provides an
arc thermal performance value (ATPV) of at least 12 cal/cm2 will be worn for the following:
Performing electrical switching
• Applying and removing employee protection grounds

• Working on DC systems involving battery banks
• Working on 750 VAC down to 50 VAC electrical equipment
• Specific distances defined in Safety Practice Regulation Table 501 – Limits of Approach Page 29
of the CMBC Safety Practice Regulations
• Working in and/or walking within energized Rectifier Stations (“Gate to gate”)
• Exception to the above Section FR clothing is not required when driving directly to and entering an
office or control building (or equivalent) within the yard, on defined safe access routes through the
Rectifier Station and within those buildings,
• Flammable undergarments (e.g., polyester) are prohibited. FR clothing performs best when it is the
layer closest to the skin. It may be worn over top of a first layer of clothes made of non-melting
natural fibre (e.g., cotton, silk, wool, rayon), including undergarments and socks.
• When switching energized low voltage or high voltage metalclad switchgear employees must wear
face shields and gloves with an ATPV of at least 12 cal/cm2 to protect their face and hands from
the potential arc flash hazard.
• Class 1 rubber gloves with leather protectors are considered to have an ATPV rating of at least 12
cal/cm2.
• When employees are required to wear FR clothing and fall protection equipment, the fall protection
equipment is highly recommended to also be arc flash rated.
When FR clothing is required

FR clothing performs best when it is the layer closest to the skin. It may be worn over top of a first layer
of clothes made of non-melting natural fibre (e.g., cotton, silk, wool, rayon), including undergarments and
socks. Flammable undergarments (e.g.polyester) are prohibited. In addition, if the FR clothing is to
provide the intended protection to the employee in an arc flash event, the clothing must be worn as
follows when working in proximity to an arc flash hazard:
• Collars of FR clothing must be buttoned closed, and with sleeves and cuffs worn down and
secured.
• Protective neck, head, hand and foot coverings must be worn if the occupational hazard warrants
their use. Requirement will be documented in work procedures.
• Non-flame resistant clothing must not be worn over flame-resistant garment.
Respiratory Protection
Respiratory protection is required for employees who are exposed to an oxygen deficient atmosphere or
toxic airborne contaminants, including gases, fumes, vapors, smoke, mist or particulates. Where the
workplace evaluation consisting of hazard identification and risk assessment identifies a need for using
respirators.

Leg Protection
Compliance
Employees using chain saws must wear faller’s pants or chaps.
PPE Selection Guidelines
This document is intended as a guideline to be utilized when conducting a Risk. Detailed information
should be obtained from the safety department.
PPE SELECTION GUIDELINES
Eye In selecting eye protectors the following should be considered:

Protection
• The nature of the risk to the eyes.
• The condition under which the operator is working.
• The visual requirements of the task.
• The personal preference of the wearer, i.e. comfort level.
• Lightness, ventilation and unrestricted vision are important considerations.
• The condition of the operator’s eyesight.
The main categories of eye protectors are:

• safety spectacles with and without side shields,
• eye-cup goggles,
• wide vision or coverall goggles with direct and indirect ventilation,
• face shield,
• welding helmet,
When necessary, suitable anti-fogging compounds should be made available for use
with eye protectors.
Persons requiring eye protection in addition to sight correction, must wear toughened
glass or plastic lens spectacles of a minimum thickness fitted in an appropriate safety
spectacle frame suitable for general-purpose low velocity impact; or prescription
spectacles with additional protection from coverall goggles.
Foot In selecting foot protection the following should be considered:

Protection
• Shoe design must be of a medium heel between 2 and 3 cm.
• The shoe must be able to be flexed on itself to a 45-degree angle without undue
effort, in the region of the forefoot.
• Shoe uppers must be made of leather with the shoe lining moulded well into the
shoe upper, not resulting in pinches or folds. The lining must be absorbent - open
weave material.
• The toecap must be reinforced and retain a consistent height from the forefoot to
the front end of the shoe (toe plateau).
• The heel cap must be supported by heel stiffeners, which incorporate the heel
seat area and are firmly attached. Leather lining is the preferred material.

• Shoe soling must be of a well-defined patterned non-slip type, made of

polyurethane composition that is oil resistant, a minimum of 1cm in thickness and
able to provide traction on a wet surface.
• The non-slip pattern of the sole must not be so thick as to de-stabilise the foot
should abnormal wear occur in any part of the sole. The pattern should withstand
wearing, during the life of the shoe. The tread elements should be smooth and
flat. The tread design should have a large number of leading edges facing in
many directions to effectively sweep away any water or lubricant.
• The shoe upper should be so designed as not to allow excessive filtration of water
or other fluids into the shoe in the course of normal wear.
• Shoes provided for employees required to stand or walk for long periods during
the working day should be provided with shock absorption within the shoe.
Inserting insoles into the shoe may provide this.
• All footwear must be worn with socks.
Hand In selecting an appropriate glove to be provided, attention is drawn to the following
Protection points:
1. Variations between materials the gloves are manufactured from (e.g. variations
between rubbers).
2. The extent of protection (e.g. length of glove, thickness of material, etc.).
3. The need to determine the precise characteristics of hazards and materials
encountered (e.g. particular chemicals, operations).
4. Advice, which is usually available from the manufacturers / suppliers of industrial
safety gloves.
As a general guide to glove selection, reference should be made to specific

standards.
Head Possible forms of head protection include:

Protection
• ‘bump’ hats (for employees working in an area likely to result in bumping of the
head on overhead structures, e.g. bus mechanic),
• hard hats (to be worn where there is a risk of falling objects), and
Factors to consider in the selection of hats are:

• task undertaken,
• degree of protection required, (face only or whole of head and neck),
• ability for sufficient adjustment
• appropriate design i.e. ventilation holes, colour, style, comfort, adjustability, etc.
• compatibility of accessories i.e. earmuffs, eye shields, sweatbands, etc.
Hearing Types of hearing protection available include:
Protection
• Earplugs - inserted in the ear canal so as to completely occlude the canal.
Earplugs may be pre-moulded (disposable or reusable) coming in a range of
sizes or with a series of plastic flanges; individually moulded - made by taking an
impression of the ear canal with a suitable material so that the earplug fits
perfectly into the ear canal; or adaptable - made by packing the ear canal with a
suitable material.
• Earmuffs - completely encloses the ear within a hollow cup. The cup is usually
partly filled with sound-absorbing foam and fitted with soft ring-shaped cushion to
provide a firm but comfortable seal around the ear. A spring headband or
neckband holds them in place over the ear.
Selection of hearing protection is based on the sound attenuation required, job

requirements, hygiene, comfort, communication requirements and safety.
Respiratory There are six types of airborne hazards – Dust, mist, fume, vapour, gas and oxygen
Protection deficiency / enrichment. Respiratory equipment is designed, manufactured, tested
and certified for use against a number of different hazards and should be selected for
a specific purpose.
Selection of respirators will be influenced by the following important factors:

• The adequacy of the warning given by the contaminant.
• The nature of the hazard, whether particulate, gas or vapour, deficiency of
oxygen, or a combination of these.
• The concentration of the contaminant.
• The acuteness of the hazard, if failure of the device for a short time can cause
serious harm.
• The probable length of time during which the wearer will be in the contaminated
atmosphere.
• The location of the contaminated atmosphere with respect to a source of air
suitable for breathing.
• The access to and the nature of the working environment in which the device is to
be used.
• The expected activity of the wearer.
• The mobility of the wearer.
• Whether the device is for regular use of for emergency or rescue purposes.
Disposable masks are designed to last for a maximum of an eight-hour shift, however
in hot, dusty, humid conditions, or where the wearer is removing or adjusting the
mask frequently, the effectiveness of the mask will be reduced. A mask should fit
snugly for the entire shift, if not, the mask should be replaced, and the old one
disposed of in an approved rubbish receptacle.
Chemical process safety management

Pressure relief systems
Pressure relief systems are a critical component of chemical process safety management. They are
designed to prevent overpressure conditions from developing in process equipment and containers,
which can pose a serious hazard to workers, equipment, and the surrounding environment.
Pressure relief systems typically consist of a pressure relief valve, a discharge pipe, and a collection
system. The pressure relief valve is the key component that prevents overpressure conditions by
automatically releasing excess pressure from the process equipment or container. The discharge pipe
provides a pathway for the released pressure to be safely directed to a collection system, where it can
be treated, stored, or safely discharged to the environment.
When designing a pressure relief system, it is important to consider several factors, such as the
maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of the process equipment or container, the type and
characteristics of the process fluid, the temperature and pressure of the fluid, the physical characteristics
of the discharge pipe, and the location of the collection system.
For example, if the process fluid is flammable or toxic, it is essential to use a collection system that is
designed to contain and safely manage the released fluid. If the fluid is corrosive, the discharge pipe and
collection system must be made of materials that are compatible with the fluid and its properties.
In addition to design considerations, it is also important to regularly test and maintain pressure relief
systems to ensure that they are functioning properly. This may include performing routine inspections,
cleaning, and repairing the pressure relief valves and discharge pipes, and conducting regular pressure
tests to verify that the system is functioning correctly.
Overall, pressure relief systems play a crucial role in protecting workers, equipment, and the
environment from overpressure conditions in chemical processes, and are an essential component of
chemical process safety management.
Chemical compatibility
Chemical compatibility refers to the ability of two or more chemicals to be safely stored, transported, or
used together without reacting and causing harm. This is a critical aspect of chemical process safety
management because chemicals can react with each other and cause harm to workers, the
environment, or equipment.
To ensure chemical compatibility, it is important to consider the physical and chemical properties of each
chemical, including its flash point, boiling point, specific gravity, solubility, and reactivity. These
properties can indicate how chemicals may react with each other and what kind of hazards may arise
from their use.
For example, some chemicals may be incompatible with certain materials of construction, such as
certain metals that can corrode or weaken when exposed to specific chemicals. Additionally, some
chemicals may generate toxic or flammable gases when they come into contact with other chemicals.
To prevent harmful chemical reactions, it is important to follow safe storage and handling procedures,
such as separating incompatible chemicals and avoiding mixing or heating chemicals. This can be done
through the use of proper labeling, segregation of storage areas, and the implementation of good
housekeeping practices.
It is also important to have emergency response procedures in place in case of accidental chemical
releases or spills. This may include evacuating workers, isolating the affected area, and using proper
personal protective equipment to prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals.
In conclusion, chemical compatibility is a crucial aspect of chemical process safety management, and
requires careful attention to the physical and chemical properties of chemicals, proper storage and
handling procedures, and effective emergency response planning.
Management of change
The management of change (MOC) in chemical process safety refers to the systematic process of
evaluating and implementing changes to a chemical process, with the goal of minimizing risk and
ensuring the safe operation of the process. This process is an essential component of an effective
chemical process safety management system, and is designed to identify, assess, and control the risks
associated with changes to the process.
The following steps are typically involved in the management of change in chemical process safety:
1. Identification of change: The first step in the MOC process is to identify the change that is being
proposed. This may involve changes to the process, equipment, facilities, or procedures.
2. Assessment of impact: The next step is to assess the impact of the change on the safety of the
process. This includes evaluating the potential for new or increased hazards, and the impact on
the existing safety measures in place.
3. Risk assessment: A risk assessment is performed to determine the level of risk associated with
the change. This involves considering the likelihood and consequences of potential accidents or
incidents that could occur as a result of the change.
4. Evaluation of alternatives: If the change being considered poses an unacceptable level of risk,
alternative solutions should be evaluated to determine if there is a safer way to achieve the
desired outcome.
5. Approval process: The change should be reviewed and approved by the appropriate individuals
and committees, including the process safety management team and any relevant regulatory
agencies.
6. Implementation: Once the change has been approved, it can be implemented. This may involve
modifying the process, equipment, facilities, or procedures, as well as updating relevant
documents and training personnel.
7. Monitoring and review: After the change has been implemented, it is important to monitor its
performance and review the effectiveness of the MOC process. This helps to ensure that the
change has not introduced any new risks or created unintended consequences, and that the
process continues to operate safely.
By following a structured MOC process, organizations can minimize the risks associated with changes to
their chemical processes, and ensure that they continue to operate safely.
Materials of construction
Materials of construction play a critical role in chemical process safety management. The selection of
appropriate materials for a chemical process is important for ensuring the safe operation of the process
and preventing accidents and incidents.
The following factors should be considered when selecting materials of construction in chemical process
safety management:
1. Chemical compatibility: The material must be compatible with the chemicals it will come into
contact with in the process, to prevent corrosion, erosion, or chemical reaction that could cause
failure or release of the chemicals.
2. Physical properties: The material must have appropriate physical properties, such as strength,
toughness, and temperature resistance, to withstand the operating conditions and loads of the
process.
3. Safety: The material must not pose any significant safety hazards, such as flammability or
toxicity, that could cause harm to personnel or the environment.
4. Cost: The cost of the material must be considered, as well as the long-term costs associated with
maintenance and replacement.
5. Regulatory compliance: The material must meet relevant regulatory requirements, such as those
related to hazardous materials or environmental protection.
6. Availability: The material must be readily available and in sufficient quantities to meet the needs
of the process.
7. Life cycle: The material must have an acceptable life cycle, with sufficient durability to last for the
expected duration of the process.
8. Recyclability: The material should be recyclable, to minimize waste and environmental impact.
In addition to these factors, it is important to consider the specific requirements of each process when
selecting materials of construction. This may involve conducting a hazard assessment to identify any
potential risks associated with the materials, and evaluating alternative materials to determine the best
option for each process.
By carefully considering the materials of construction in chemical process safety management,
organizations can ensure the safe and reliable operation of their processes and reduce the risk of
accidents and incidents.
Process flow diagrams
Process flow diagrams (PFDs) are an essential tool in chemical process safety management. They
provide a graphical representation of the flow of materials, energy, and information through a chemical
process, and are used to help identify potential hazards and evaluate the safety of the process.
The following steps are involved in using process flow diagrams for chemical process safety
management:
1. Process mapping: The first step in creating a PFD is to map out the process, including the
equipment, instruments, and control systems used, and the flow of materials, energy, and
information through the process.
2. Hazard identification: Once the PFD is created, the next step is to use it to identify potential
hazards associated with the process. This includes evaluating the risks associated with each step
in the process, as well as the potential for accidents or incidents involving releases of hazardous
materials.
3. Risk assessment: The risks identified through the hazard identification process are then
assessed, to determine their likelihood and potential consequences. This information is used to
prioritize the risks and develop strategies for mitigating them.
4. Control measures: Control measures are then put in place to reduce the risks associated with the
process. This may involve modifying the process, adding safety systems, or implementing
emergency response procedures.
5. Continuous improvement: The PFD is updated periodically to reflect changes to the process and
to reflect improvements in safety and efficiency. This helps to ensure that the process continues
to operate safely and effectively over time.
PFDs are an important tool for chemical process safety management because they provide a
comprehensive overview of the process, making it easier to identify potential hazards and assess the

safety of the process. They also help organizations to prioritize their efforts and resources, and to ensure
that they are focusing on the most critical risks.
Example: A chemical manufacturing plant produces a variety of chemicals used in the production of
consumer goods. The process flow diagram for one of the chemicals produced in the plant is shown
below:
1. Raw materials are received and stored in a raw materials storage area.
2. The raw materials are transferred to a reactor, where they are mixed and heated to initiate the
chemical reaction.
3. The reaction mixture is cooled and transferred to a distillation column, where the desired product
is separated from the by-products.
4. The product is then transferred to a storage tank, where it is stored until it is ready for shipment.
5. The by-products are transferred to a waste treatment unit, where they are processed to reduce
their environmental impact.
Using the process flow diagram, the plant can conduct a hazard assessment to identify potential risks
associated with the process. This might include evaluating the risks associated with handling the raw
materials, conducting the chemical reaction, and processing the by-products. The results of the hazard
assessment can then be used to develop strategies for reducing the risks, such as implementing safety
systems or modifying the process.
In this example, the process flow diagram is an important tool in chemical process safety management
because it provides a comprehensive overview of the process, making it easier to identify potential
hazards and assess the safety of the process. By using process flow diagrams in this way, organizations
can ensure the safe and reliable operation of their processes and reduce the risk of accidents and
incidents.
Redundancy systems
Redundancy systems are a critical aspect of safety management in chemical processes and other
hazardous industries. A redundancy system is a backup system or component that is used to ensure the
continuous operation of a process or system in the event of a failure or malfunction.
There are two types of redundancy systems: hardware redundancy and software redundancy. Hardware
redundancy involves duplicating critical equipment or components, so that if one fails, the other can take
over. For example, in a chemical process, a backup reactor may be installed in case the primary reactor
fails.
Software redundancy involves duplicating the control systems or algorithms used to control a process.
This ensures that if one control system fails, the backup system can take over and maintain the safe
operation of the process.
The main goal of redundancy systems is to reduce the risk of equipment failure and prevent accidents or
incidents in chemical processes and other hazardous industries. By providing a backup system or
component, redundancy systems help to ensure the continuous operation of the process and reduce the
likelihood of process interruption or shutdown.
There are several benefits to using redundancy systems in safety management, including:

1. Increased reliability: Redundancy systems help to increase the reliability of a process by reducing
the risk of equipment failure and ensuring that the process can continue to operate even in the
event of a failure or malfunction.
2. Improved safety: By providing a backup system or component, redundancy systems help to
improve the safety of a process, reducing the risk of accidents or incidents.
3. Cost savings: In many cases, using redundancy systems can result in cost savings, as it reduces
the need for frequent maintenance and repairs, and can also help to reduce the impact of
process interruptions or shutdowns.
4. Increased efficiency: Redundancy systems can also help to increase the efficiency of a process,
as they ensure that the process can continue to operate even in the event of a failure or
malfunction.
In conclusion, redundancy systems are a critical aspect of safety management in chemical processes
and other hazardous industries. They provide a backup system or component to ensure the continuous
operation of a process in the event of a failure or malfunction, reducing the risk of equipment failure and
improving the safety and efficiency of the process.
Energy isolation
Redundancy systems in energy isolation play a critical role in ensuring the safety of personnel and
equipment in hazardous industries such as chemical processing and energy production. Energy isolation
refers to the process of physically separating a piece of equipment or a system from its source of energy,
such as electrical power, steam, or compressed air.
In energy isolation, redundancy systems are used to provide a backup system or component that can be
used to isolate the energy in the event of a failure or malfunction. The purpose of redundancy systems in
energy isolation is to provide multiple layers of protection and ensure that the energy can be isolated
quickly and effectively in the event of an emergency.
Here's an example of redundancy systems in energy isolation:
Example: A chemical manufacturing plant uses steam as a source of energy for heating and processing
the raw materials. The plant has installed a steam isolation valve on the steam line that runs to the
reactor. The valve is equipped with two independent actuators, each of which can be used to close the
valve and isolate the steam.
In the event of a failure or malfunction, either of the two actuators can be used to close the valve and
isolate the steam. This provides a backup system that can be used to isolate the energy in the event of a
failure or malfunction, ensuring the safety of personnel and equipment.
In this example, the use of redundancy systems in energy isolation provides multiple layers of protection
and reduces the risk of accidents or incidents. By providing a backup system or component, redundancy
systems in energy isolation help to ensure the safety of personnel and equipment and reduce the risk of
energy-related accidents or incidents.
Ventilation
Redundancy systems in ventilation play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and well-being of personnel
and equipment in hazardous industries such as chemical processing and energy production. Ventilation
systems are used to control the air quality and flow in a work environment, providing fresh air and
removing hazardous or contaminated air.

In ventilation systems, redundancy systems are used to provide a backup system or component that can
be used to maintain the proper air flow and quality in the event of a failure or malfunction. The purpose of
redundancy systems in ventilation is to provide multiple layers of protection and ensure that the proper
air flow and quality can be maintained even in the event of an emergency.
Here's an example of redundancy systems in ventilation:
Example: A chemical manufacturing plant uses a ventilation system to control the air quality and flow in
the plant. The plant has installed a backup fan system that can be used to maintain the proper air flow in
the event of a failure or malfunction in the primary fan system.
In the event of a failure or malfunction, the backup fan system can be activated to maintain the proper air
flow and quality. This provides a backup system that can be used to maintain the proper air flow and
quality in the event of a failure or malfunction, ensuring the safety and well-being of personnel and
equipment.
In this example, the use of redundancy systems in ventilation provides multiple layers of protection and
reduces the risk of accidents or incidents related to air quality and flow. By providing a backup system or
component, redundancy systems in ventilation help to ensure the safety and well-being of personnel and
equipment and reduce the risk of air-related accidents or incidents.
Common workplace hazards (electrical, excavations, static electricity, scaffolds, fall protection and
prevention, cranes and derrick, welding, cutting, and brazing, hot work, hand and power tool safety, cold
and heat stress, combustibles, lasers, confined spaces, lock out and tag out, working around water,
caught in, and struck by, compressed air systems)
Electrical
Electricity is a form of energy that results from the movement of charged particles, such as electrons. It is
a fundamental force of nature and is essential for powering a wide range of devices, from light bulbs and
televisions to computers and vehicles.
There are two types of electricity: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Direct current is a flow
of electric charge that flows in a single, constant direction, while alternating current changes direction at
regular intervals.
Electricity is measured in units called volts (V), which describe the electrical potential difference between
two points. The flow of electricity is measured in amperes (A), also known as amps.
Voltage (also known as electrical potential difference) refers to the force that drives the flow of electric
charge through a conductor, such as a wire. It is measured in volts (V) and is determined by the
difference in electric potential between two points in a circuit. Higher voltage means that more electrical
energy is available to do work.
Current refers to the flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is measured in amperes (A) and
represents the amount of electric charge that flows past a point in a circuit per second. The flow of
current is proportional to the voltage applied to a circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance of
the circuit.
Resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of electric charge in a conductor. It is measured in ohms
(Ω) and is determined by the material and size of the conductor, as well as its temperature. In a circuit,
the total resistance determines the amount of current that will flow when a voltage is applied.
Series and parallel circuits are two basic configurations of electrical circuits.

In a series circuit, components are connected in a single path, so the same current flows through each
component. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of the individual
components.
In a parallel circuit, components are connected in such a way that the current can divide into multiple
paths. The total resistance in a parallel circuit is lower than the resistance of any one component, since
the current can take multiple paths.
Series circuits are commonly used for lighting, where multiple light bulbs can be connected in a single
path. Parallel circuits are commonly used for electrical outlets, where multiple devices can be connected
to a single source of power.
Calculating Values of Voltage, Current, and Resistance (Ohm’s Laws)
Ohm's Laws describe the relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in an electrical
circuit. Using these laws, you can calculate the values of voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit.
Ohm's Laws:
1. Voltage (V) is proportional to current (I) and resistance (R): V = IR
2. Current (I) is proportional to voltage (V) and inversely proportional to resistance (R): I = V/R
3. Resistance (R) is proportional to voltage (V) and inversely proportional to current (I): R = V/I
Example 1: Suppose we have a circuit with a voltage of 12V and a current of 2A. We can use Ohm's Law
(V = IR) to calculate the resistance in the circuit: R = V/I = 12V / 2A = 6 Ω
Example 2: Suppose we have a circuit with a resistance of 6 Ω and a current of 2A. We can use Ohm's
Law (V = IR) to calculate the voltage in the circuit: V = IR = 6 Ω x 2A = 12V
Example 3: Suppose we have a circuit with a voltage of 12V and a resistance of 6 Ω. We can use Ohm's
Law (I = V/R) to calculate the current in the circuit: I = V/R = 12V / 6 Ω = 2A
Calculating Voltage in DC Circuits
Calculating voltage in a direct current (DC) circuit is a simple matter of using Ohm's Law. The voltage
across a component in a DC circuit can be calculated using the equation: V = IR, where V is the voltage,
I is the current, and R is the resistance.
Example: Suppose we have a DC circuit with a current of 2 amps and a resistance of 6 ohms. The
voltage across the circuit can be calculated as follows: V = IR = 2A x 6Ω = 12V
In this example, the voltage across the circuit is 12V, which means that a potential difference of 12 volts
exists between the two points in the circuit. This voltage can be used to drive a motor, power a light bulb,
or perform any other task that requires a DC voltage source.
Calculating Voltage in AC Circuits
The formula V = sqrt(P*I/cosθ), is for calculating the voltage in an AC circuit.
where V = voltage
I = impedance (Ω)
ϕ = the phase angle in degrees by which current lags voltage in an inductive circuit or leads in a captive
circuit
P = true power (W)
To use this formula, you will need to know the true power P, the impedance, and the power factor cosθ
of the circuit. The power factor is a measure of how effectively the circuit is using the supplied power,
and it is equal to the cosine of the phase angle θ between the voltage and current waveforms.
Example:
Let's suppose we have an AC circuit with a true power of 1000 watts, a impedance of 5, and a power
factor of 0.8. To calculate the voltage in the circuit, we can use the formula as follows:
V = sqrt(PI/cosθ)
V = sqrt(1000*5/0.8)
V = 88.39
Therefore, the voltage in the circuit is 88.39 volts. Note that if the power factor were different, the voltage
would also be different, even if the true power and current were the same.
Calculating Power in DC Circuits
Power in a direct current (DC) circuit can be calculated using the equation: P = IV, where P is the power,
I is the current, and V is the voltage. The unit of power is watts (W).
Example: Suppose we have a DC circuit with a voltage of 12V and a current of 2A. The power in the
circuit can be calculated as follows: P = IV = 12V x 2A = 24W
In this example, the power in the DC circuit is 24W. This means that the circuit is capable of delivering
24 watts of power to any device connected to it. If a device is connected to the circuit that requires more
power than 24W, then the voltage and/or current in the circuit will increase, and vice versa.
Calculating Power in AC Circuits
Calculating power in AC circuts
P= V^2 x costheta/ R(impedance)
where P = power (W)
V = volts
R = resistance (more specifically when discussing ACs, it is referred to as impedance) (Ω)
ϕ = the phase angle in degrees by which current lags voltage in an inductive circuit or leads in a captive
circuit
Example:
Suppose we have an AC circuit with a voltage of 120 V, an impedance of 10 Ω, and a power factor of 0.9
(leading). To calculate the power using the formula P = V^2 x cos(ϕ) / R, we can follow these steps:
1. V = 120 V
2. I = 10 Ω
3. cos(ϕ) = 0.9
4. P = V^2 x cos(ϕ) / R = (120^2 x 0.9) / 10 = 1296 W
Therefore, the power in the AC circuit is approximately 1296 watts.

Calculating Resistance in DC Circuits

The resistance in a direct current (DC) circuit can be calculated using Ohm's law, which states that the
resistance of a conductor is equal to the voltage across it divided by the current flowing through it. The
formula for calculating resistance is: R = V / I
Example: Suppose we have a DC circuit with a voltage of 12V and a current of 2A. The resistance in the
circuit can be calculated as follows: R = V / I = 12V / 2A = 6Ω
In this example, the resistance in the DC circuit is 6Ω. This means that a voltage of 12V applied across
the circuit results in a current of 2A flowing through it, and the resistance in the circuit is 6Ω. The
resistance in a DC circuit is a fixed value and does not change over time. If the resistance in a DC circuit
changes, it means that the material of the conductor or the physical dimensions of the conductor have
changed, and this will affect the current flowing through the circuit.
Calculating Resistance in AC Circuits
Example:
Let's say we have an AC circuit with a voltage of 120 volts and a current of 5 amperes..
Using the formula I= V/A we can calculate the impedance of the circuit:
I= 120/5 = 24 ohms
The impedance of the circuit is measured to be 24 ohms
Resistors
Resistors are passive electrical components that resist the flow of electric current and are used to control
the flow of current and voltage in electrical circuits. They play a crucial role in many electrical and
electronic systems and are widely used to regulate the amount of current flowing in a circuit.
Resistors are typically made of a material that has a specific resistance value, such as carbon or metal,
and they come in various shapes and sizes. They can be packaged in a variety of ways, including as a
small cylindrical or rectangular component, or as a thin film deposited on a substrate.
Resistors can be characterized by their resistance value, which is typically measured in ohms (Ω). The
resistance value determines the amount of current that can flow through the resistor for a given voltage.
A resistor with a lower resistance value will allow more current to flow through it for the same voltage
than a resistor with a higher resistance value.
Resistors can also be characterized by their tolerance, which is the range within which the actual
resistance value is guaranteed to fall. For example, a resistor with a tolerance of ±5% will have a
resistance value that falls within 5% of the marked value.
Resistors can be used in various configurations in electrical circuits, including in series and in parallel.
When resistors are connected in series, their resistances are additive, meaning that the total resistance
of the circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of the individual resistors. When resistors are
connected in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit is lower than the resistance of any individual
resistor.
Calculating the Resistance in a Series Circuit
The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistors. Mathematically, this
can be expressed as:
Rseries = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn
Where Rseries is the total resistance, R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn are the individual resistors, and n is the number
of resistors in the series circuit.
Example: Consider a circuit consisting of three resistors, R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω, and R3 = 30Ω, in a series
configuration. The total resistance of the circuit can be calculated as follows:
Rseries = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10Ω + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω
So the total resistance of the circuit is 60Ω.
Calculating the Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, the total resistance can be calculated using the following formula:
1/Rparallel = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/Rn
Where Rparallel is the total resistance, R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn are the individual resistors, and n is the
number of resistors in the parallel circuit.
Example: Consider a circuit consisting of three resistors, R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω, and R3 = 30Ω, in a
parallel configuration. The total resistance of the circuit can be calculated as follows:
1/ Rparallel = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/10Ω + 1/20Ω + 1/30Ω = 11/60Ω
So, the total resistance of the circuit is 60Ω/11 = 5.45Ω.
Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field between two
conductive plates. It is used in a variety of electrical and electronic applications, such as filtering,
coupling, and energy storage.
Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store electrical energy and is measured in Farads (F). It is
determined by the physical characteristics of the capacitor, including the size and separation of the
conductive plates and the dielectric material between them.
In a DC circuit, a capacitor acts as an open circuit, allowing DC voltage to pass through but blocking the
flow of DC current. In an AC circuit, a capacitor acts as a frequency-dependent impedance, blocking
high-frequency signals but allowing low-frequency signals to pass through. This makes capacitors useful
for filtering, coupling, and decoupling applications.
A capacitor can be charged and discharged in a circuit. When a voltage is applied across the plates, the
electric field between the plates increases, storing energy. When the voltage is removed, the electric
field collapses, releasing energy back into the circuit.
Examples of applications of capacitors include:
• Filtering: Capacitors are used in power supplies to filter out unwanted AC ripple and noise.
• Coupling: Capacitors are used to couple one circuit stage to another, allowing AC signals to pass
while blocking DC components.
• Energy storage: Capacitors are used in backup power systems, power conditioners, and
flashlights, to store energy that can be quickly released when needed.
• Timing: Capacitors are used in time-delay circuits and oscillators to determine the time constant
of the circuit.

Calculating Capacitance in a Series Circuit

In a series circuit, the total capacitance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
capacitances of each capacitor. This can be represented mathematically as:
1/Cseries = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + ... + 1/Cn
For example, if three capacitors with capacitances of 10 microfarads, 20 microfarads, and 30
microfarads are connected in series, the total capacitance can be calculated as follows:
1/Cseries= 1/10 + 1/20 + 1/30 = 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.0333... = 0.1833...
Cseries = 1/0.1833... = 5.44 microfarads
Calculating Capacitance in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the capacitances of each capacitor. This
can be represented mathematically as:
Cparallel = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn
For example, if three capacitors with capacitances of 10 microfarads, 20 microfarads, and 30
microfarads are connected in parallel, the total capacitance can be calculated as follows:
Cparallel = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60 microfarads
Inductors
An inductor is a passive electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electrical
current flows through it. The amount of energy an inductor can store is related to its inductance, which is
a measure of the magnetic field produced per unit current flowing through the inductor. Inductors are
used in a variety of applications, such as transformers, filters, and energy storage devices.
Calculating Inductance in a Series Circuit
In a series circuit, the total inductance is equal to the sum of the inductances of each inductor. This can
be represented mathematically as:
Lseries = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + Ln
For example, if three inductors with inductances of 2 henrys, 3 henrys, and 4 henrys are connected in
series, the total inductance can be calculated as follows:
Lseries = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 henrys
Calculating Inductance in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, the total inductance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
inductances of each inductor. This can be represented mathematically as:
1/Lparallel = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 + ... + 1/Ln
For example, if three inductors with inductances of 2 henrys, 3 henrys, and 4 henrys are connected in
parallel, the total inductance can be calculated as follows:
1/Lparallel = 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 = 0.5 + 0.3333... + 0.25 = 1.0333...
Electrical Shock Hazard
Electrical shock occurs when electricity passes through a person's body, causing an electrical current to
flow through the nerves, muscles, and organs. It can cause injury or even death, depending on the
amount of current, the duration of the exposure, and the path of the current through the body. The
electrical current interferes with the normal functioning of the body's electrical systems, leading to muscle
contractions, burns, cardiac arrest, or other injuries.
There are several factors that contribute to the severity of an electrical shock, including the amount of
current, the duration of the exposure, and the path of the current through the body. For example, a high-
voltage shock is more likely to be lethal than a low-voltage shock, but even low-voltage shocks can
cause serious injury if the current flows through the heart.
To reduce the risk of electrical shock, it is important to follow proper electrical safety procedures, such as
avoiding contact with live electrical parts, using proper personal protective equipment, and following
proper lockout/tagout procedures when working on electrical equipment. In addition, electrical equipment
should be regularly inspected and maintained to ensure that it is functioning properly and that there are
no potential electrical hazards
Burns Caused by Electricity: Burns caused by electricity can occur in several ways including direct
electrical contact, arcing, and electromagnetic heating. Direct electrical contact is the most common
cause of electrical burns and occurs when a person comes into direct contact with a live electrical
source. Arcing occurs when an electrical discharge takes place through the air, producing intense heat
and light, which can cause serious burns. Electromagnetic heating occurs when an electrical current is
passed through a conductor, which can result in the conductor getting hot and cause burns.
Arc Blasts: An arc blast is a highly dangerous phenomenon that occurs when an electrical discharge
takes place between two conductors, creating an explosion-like event. The intense heat generated by
the arc blast can cause serious burns, ignite combustible materials, and cause structural damage to
equipment.
Electrical Fires: Electrical fires are fires that are caused by electrical malfunctions or equipment failures.
These fires can start in a variety of ways, including overheating of electrical equipment, arcing, and
short-circuits.
Controlling Electrical Hazards: Controlling electrical hazards is critical to prevent electrical fires and other
electrical safety incidents. There are several ways to control electrical hazards, including regular
maintenance and inspection of electrical equipment, proper installation and use of electrical equipment,
and the use of protective devices such as circuit breakers and ground fault circuit interrupters.
Exposed Electrical Parts: Exposed electrical parts are electrical components that are not enclosed or are
not adequately protected. These parts can pose a serious hazard to people if they come into contact with
them, as they can result in electrical shock or burns.
Overhead Power Lines: Overhead power lines are electrical cables that are suspended above the
ground and are used to transmit electrical power. Overhead power lines can pose a hazard to people if
they come into contact with them, as they can result in electrical shock or burns.
Inadequate Wiring: Inadequate wiring is a condition where electrical wiring is not installed or maintained
to meet the required safety standards. This can result in electrical hazards, such as electrical fires,
electrical shocks, and arcing.
Defective or Damaged Cords and Wires: Defective or damaged cords and wires can pose a serious
hazard to people if they are used. These cords and wires can result in electrical shocks, arcing, and
electrical fires.

Use of Flexible Cords: The use of flexible cords can pose a serious hazard to people if they are not used
properly. Flexible cords are not designed to be used as permanent wiring and can become damaged
easily, which can result in electrical shocks and arcing.
Improper Grounding: Improper grounding is a condition where electrical equipment is not properly
grounded, which can result in electrical hazards, such as electrical shocks, arcing, and electrical fires.
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters: Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) are devices that protect
people from electrical shocks by detecting and interrupting the flow of electrical current in the event of a
ground fault. GFCIs are an important tool in controlling electrical hazards.
Assured Equipment Grounding Conductor Program: The Assured Equipment Grounding Conductor
Program is a program that is designed to ensure that electrical equipment is properly grounded. The
program includes regular inspections, maintenance, and testing of electrical equipment to ensure that it
is in good working order and that it is properly grounded.
Overloaded Circuits: Overloaded circuits are electrical circuits that are carrying more electrical current
than they are designed to handle. Overloaded circuits can result in electrical hazards, such as electrical
fires, arcing, and electrical shocks.
Planning is an important aspect of electrical safety as it involves setting goals and objectives, identifying
the resources required, and determining the steps to be taken to achieve the desired outcome. Effective
planning helps to ensure that electrical work is performed safely and that electrical hazards are
controlled.
Training is also a crucial aspect of electrical safety. It is important for electrical workers to receive regular
training on electrical safety principles, safe work practices, and the proper use of electrical equipment.
Training can be delivered through classroom sessions, hands-on training, or a combination of both.
The following are some of the electrical principles that workers should be trained on:
1. Ohm's Law: This law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to the
resistance between them.
2. Kirchhoff's Laws: These laws describe the basic principles of electric circuits and can be used to
analyze complex circuits.
3. Electromagnetic Induction: This principle states that an electric current generates a magnetic field
and that a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a conductor.
4. Electric Power: Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred.
5. Capacitance: Capacitance is the ability of a device to store electrical charge.
6. Inductance: Inductance is the ability of a device to store energy in a magnetic field.
7. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC): This principle involves controlling the electromagnetic
interference (EMI) generated by electrical devices to ensure that they do not interfere with each
other.
In summary, planning and training are important aspects of electrical safety, and workers should be
familiar with the electrical principles and safe work practices that apply to their specific tasks.

Excavation
Excavation is the process of removing earth, rock, or other materials from a site to create a hole, cavity,
or trench. Excavation can be done manually using hand tools, or with heavy equipment such as
excavators, bulldozers, or backhoes.
Excavation is used for a variety of purposes, including:
1. Construction: Excavation is often used to create the foundation for a building or other structure.
2. Mining: Excavation is used in mining operations to remove ore and other valuable minerals from
the ground.
3. Archaeology: Excavation is used in archaeological research to uncover and study ancient
artifacts and structures.
4. Environmental remediation: Excavation can be used to remove contaminated soil or other
materials from a site to mitigate environmental hazards.
Excavation can be a complex process that requires careful planning and execution to ensure that it is
done safely and efficiently. Proper excavation techniques must be used to prevent collapse or cave-ins
of the excavation walls, and appropriate protective measures must be taken to prevent injuries to
workers and damage to surrounding structures or utilities.
In excavation work, a competent person is someone who is trained and experienced in identifying
potential hazards related to excavation work and who has the authority to take corrective action to
ensure the safety of workers. The competent person is responsible for overseeing all aspects of
excavation work, from planning and design to implementation and monitoring.
The competent person must have a thorough understanding of soil conditions, excavation techniques,
and the specific hazards associated with excavation work, such as cave-ins, falling objects, and
hazardous atmospheres. They must also have a good understanding of relevant regulations and industry
standards, such as OSHA standards in the United States.
Some of the specific responsibilities of the competent person in excavation work include:
• Conducting a thorough site evaluation to identify potential hazards and design appropriate
protective measures
• Developing a site-specific excavation plan and ensuring that all workers are trained in the plan's
requirements
• Ensuring that all excavation work is performed in accordance with the excavation plan and
relevant regulations
• Inspecting the excavation site on a regular basis to identify and correct any hazards or unsafe
conditions
• Stopping work if any unsafe conditions are identified and taking corrective action before work
resumes
• Ensuring that all workers are trained in excavation safety and the use of personal protective
equipment
• Communicating with all workers on the site to ensure that everyone is aware of the potential
hazards and the measures in place to protect them.

It is important that the competent person in excavation work is knowledgeable, experienced, and diligent
in their duties to ensure the safety of workers and prevent accidents or injuries on the job site.
Soil Classifications
Soil classification is the process of categorizing soil based on its physical and engineering properties.
Soil classification is important for a variety of applications, including construction, geotechnical
engineering, and excavation. There are several different systems used to classify soil, including the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system, and the World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (WRB) classification system.
The USCS is one of the most commonly used soil classification systems in the United States. It classifies
soils based on their texture, plasticity, and organic content. The USCS divides soils into three primary
categories based on their physical properties:
1. Coarse-grained soils: These are soils with particles larger than 0.075 millimeters, such as gravel
and sand. Coarse-grained soils are typically more stable and less likely to collapse during
excavation.
2. Fine-grained soils: These are soils with particles smaller than 0.075 millimeters, such as silt and
clay.
3. Organic soils: These are soils composed primarily of organic materials such as peat or muck.
Organic soils are generally unstable and can be difficult to excavate due to their high water
content and low bearing capacity.
Each of these categories is further divided into subcategories based on properties such as particle size,
plasticity, and compressibility. The subcategories provide more detailed information about the soil's
properties and help determine the appropriate excavation techniques and protective measures to use.
Other soil classification systems, such as the AASHTO and WRB systems, use different criteria and
classifications to categorize soil based on their properties. The AASHTO system is often used for
highway and transportation projects, while the WRB system is a global standard for soil classification.
Excavation Controls
Excavation controls are required whenever workers are working in or near an excavation. Excavation
work is a high-risk activity and can pose a number of hazards, including collapse, cave-ins, falls, and
exposure to hazardous substances.
OSHA requires employers to implement protective measures to ensure the safety of workers during
excavation work. These protective measures include implementing appropriate sloping, benching, or
shoring to prevent collapse or cave-ins, as well as providing appropriate access and egress from the
excavation site.
The need for excavation controls is determined by the type of excavation being performed and the
conditions of the site. For example, excavations that are deeper than five feet (or four feet in some
states) typically require some form of protective measures to prevent collapse or cave-ins. From 4 to 20
feet you need sloping, benching, shield or shoring systems. Over 20 feet deep protective system must
be designed by an RPE. Similarly, excavations that are located near other structures, utilities, or traffic
may require additional controls to ensure the safety of workers and the surrounding area.
It's important for employers and workers to be aware of the requirements for excavation controls and to
implement appropriate measures to prevent accidents and injuries. This may include performing a
thorough site assessment, implementing appropriate protective measures, and providing appropriate
training and supervision to workers.
Sloping
Sloping is a method used to control the risk of collapse or cave-ins during excavation work. It involves
cutting back the sides of the excavation to a safe angle or slope to prevent the soil from collapsing
inwards. The angle of the slope required for an excavation depends on the type of soil being excavated
and the depth of the excavation.
In general, the angle of the slope is steeper for stable soils, such as rock or clay, and shallower for less
stable soils, such as sand or gravel. The minimum angle of the slope required for a particular excavation
is determined by the soil type and the depth of the excavation. OSHA provides guidelines for the
minimum slope angle required for different soil types and excavation depths.
The slope angle can be calculated using a variety of methods, including the simple slope method, the
soil wedge method, or the logarithmic spiral method. In addition to the slope angle, the width of the
excavation and the height of the excavation wall also need to be considered when determining the
appropriate slope angle.
Sloping is a cost-effective method for protecting workers during excavation work, as it does not require
the use of additional equipment or materials. However, it does require a large amount of space, as the
excavation needs to be wider in order to accommodate the slope. In addition, the excavation needs to be
sloped continuously from the top to the bottom, which may be challenging in some situations.
Shoring
Shoring is a method used to support the sides of an excavation to prevent collapse or cave-ins during
excavation work. It involves installing supports, such as hydraulic jacks or vertical supports, to prevent
the soil from collapsing inward.
Shoring is typically used in situations where the soil is unstable and sloping or benching is not feasible or
effective. It can be used for excavations of any depth and is particularly useful for excavations in soft or
loose soils, where the risk of collapse is high.
There are several different types of shoring systems, including timber shoring, aluminum hydraulic
shoring, and steel hydraulic shoring. The type of shoring system used depends on the specific conditions
of the excavation, including the soil type, depth of the excavation, and the amount of space available on
the job site.
To install a shoring system, the soil is first excavated to the desired depth. Then, the shoring system is
installed along the sides of the excavation, providing support to the soil and preventing collapse. The
shoring system must be designed by a competent person and installed properly to ensure the safety of
workers.
In addition to providing support to the excavation walls, shoring can also be used to support nearby
structures or utilities that may be impacted by the excavation work. Shoring is a highly effective method
for protecting workers during excavation work, but it is typically more expensive and time-consuming
than sloping or benching.
Shields (Trench Boxes)
Shields, also known as trench boxes, are a type of protective system used to prevent cave-ins and
protect workers during excavation work. Shields consist of a series of metal panels that are assembled

to form a box-like structure that is placed in the excavation. The shields are designed to support the
weight of the soil and prevent it from collapsing inward.
Trench boxes come in a variety of sizes and shapes to accommodate different excavation dimensions
and soil conditions. They are typically made of steel or aluminum and can be assembled and
disassembled quickly and easily. In addition to providing protection for workers, trench boxes can also
help to maintain the shape and integrity of the excavation.
To install a trench box, the soil is first excavated to the desired depth. The trench box is then lowered
into the excavation and positioned against the sides of the excavation. The trench box is then secured in
place using braces or other supports.
Trench boxes are most commonly used in excavations where sloping or benching is not practical or
effective, such as in narrow excavations or in areas with unstable soil. They can also be used in
combination with other protective systems, such as shoring or soil stabilization techniques.
It is important to note that trench boxes must be designed by a competent person and installed properly
to ensure the safety of workers. In addition, workers should be properly trained on the use of trench
boxes and any associated equipment. Regular inspections and maintenance of the trench box should
also be conducted to ensure that it remains in good condition and continues to provide adequate
protection for workers.
RPE-Designed Protective Systems
Engineered designed excavation controls are protective systems that are designed by a professional
engineer or other qualified expert. These systems are typically used in situations where the excavation is
deeper than 20 feet or where the soil conditions are particularly challenging.
Some examples of engineered designed excavation controls include:
1. Soldier pile and lagging: This system involves installing vertical steel beams (soldier piles) into
the soil at regular intervals along the sides of the excavation. Horizontal wooden planks (lagging)
are then installed between the soldier piles to provide support for the soil.
2. Secant pile walls: This system involves drilling interlocking concrete piles into the soil along the
sides of the excavation to form a continuous barrier.
3. Slurry walls: This system involves excavating a trench and filling it with a slurry mixture of
bentonite clay and water. The mixture solidifies to form a barrier that prevents soil from collapsing
into the excavation.
4. Diaphragm walls: This system involves excavating a trench and installing a continuous wall of
reinforced concrete along the sides of the excavation.
Engineered designed excavation controls are typically more expensive and time-consuming to install
than other protective systems, such as sloping, benching, shoring, or shielding. However, they are often
necessary in situations where other systems are not practical or effective. It is important to ensure that
these systems are designed and installed by qualified professionals to ensure the safety of workers and
the integrity of the excavation.
Safe Entry and Exit
Safe entry and exit from an excavation is crucial to prevent accidents and injuries. It is important to
ensure that workers can enter and exit the excavation safely and easily, without risking falls or other
hazards. Some important considerations for safe entry and exit from an excavation include:

1. Proper access: The entry and exit points should be located in a safe location, away from
excavation equipment and other hazards. A sturdy ladder, ramp, or stairway should be provided
to access the excavation.
2. Secure footing: The ground around the entry and exit points should be level and stable to prevent
slips, trips, and falls. If necessary, the area should be filled with stable materials, such as gravel
or crushed stone.
3. Lighting: Sufficient lighting should be provided to ensure that workers can see where they are
going, especially if the excavation work is being performed at night or in low-light conditions.
4. Guardrails: Guardrails should be installed around the entry and exit points to prevent workers
from accidentally falling into the excavation.
5. Proper training: All workers should be trained on the proper methods for entering and exiting the
excavation safely. They should also be trained on the use of any equipment or protective gear
necessary for the job.
6. Communication: Clear communication should be established among workers to ensure that
everyone is aware of the entry and exit points, as well as any potential hazards in the area.
By following these guidelines, workers can safely enter and exit the excavation, reducing the risk of
accidents or injuries. It is important to regularly monitor the entry and exit points to ensure that they
remain safe and to take immediate action if any hazards are identified.
Static Electricity
Static electricity is a type of electrical charge that is created when two materials come into contact and
then separate. It occurs when electrons are transferred from one material to another, creating a buildup
of charge on the surface of the materials.
The buildup of charge can create a spark when the charged material comes into contact with a
conductor, such as a metal object or another material with a different electrical charge. This spark can be
visible or invisible, and may be accompanied by a popping sound.
Static electricity can be created by a variety of sources, including friction, contact with insulating
materials, or separation of materials. For example, walking on a carpeted surface can create static
electricity as a person's shoes rub against the carpet fibers. Similarly, rubbing a balloon against a wool
sweater can create a static charge on the surface of the balloon.
Static electricity can be dangerous in some situations, particularly in areas where flammable or explosive
materials are present. A spark from static electricity can ignite flammable vapors or gases, causing an
explosion or fire. In industrial settings, it is important to take precautions to prevent the buildup of static
electricity, such as grounding equipment or using conductive materials to dissipate the charge.
Static electricity can pose a variety of hazards in different contexts. Some of the hazards of static
electricity include:
1. Fire and explosion: The most serious hazard of static electricity is the risk of fire or explosion in
areas where flammable or combustible materials are present. A spark from static electricity can
ignite these materials, leading to a fire or explosion.
2. Electrical shock: Although the voltages associated with static electricity are typically low, a shock
from a static charge can still be painful and startling, and may cause injury in some cases.

3. Equipment damage: Static electricity can damage electronic components, such as computer
chips or other sensitive equipment, by discharging high voltages that exceed the component's
rated specifications.
4. Material damage: Static electricity can also cause damage to materials, such as plastic or paper,
by creating sparks that melt or burn the material.
5. Nuisance effects: Although not strictly hazards, static electricity can also cause nuisance effects,
such as causing clothes to cling to the body, or causing discomfort or irritation when a shock is
delivered.
There are typically four main conditions that must be present for static electricity to occur. These are:
1. Separation of electric charges: Static electricity is created when there is a separation of electric
charges between two materials. This can happen through a variety of mechanisms, such as
friction, contact, or induction.
2. Insulating material: For static electricity to build up, the materials involved must be insulators,
meaning that they do not conduct electricity well. Insulating materials, such as plastics, rubber,
and certain fabrics, are more likely to build up static charges than conductive materials like
metals.
3. Relative motion: Static electricity is generated when two materials come into contact and then
separate, or when they rub against each other. This relative motion is what causes electrons to
transfer between the materials and creates a buildup of electric charge.
4. Dry environment: The presence of moisture can help to dissipate static charges and prevent
static buildup. In contrast, dry environments are more conducive to the buildup of static electricity.
These conditions can contribute to the buildup of static charge in a variety of settings, from industrial
environments to everyday activities like walking on a carpeted floor or handling synthetic materials. It is
important to take precautions to prevent the buildup of static charge and minimize the risk of hazards,
such as fires or electrical shocks.
Bonding and Grounding
Bonding and grounding are two important concepts related to the prevention of static electricity hazards.
Both are used to ensure that any static charges that may build up are safely dissipated.
Bonding involves connecting two or more conductive objects together using a conductor, such as a wire,
to equalize the potential difference between them. This is done to prevent a static spark from occurring
between the two objects, which could cause a fire or explosion in hazardous environments. For example,
when transferring flammable liquids, bonding wires are used to connect the containers to prevent the
buildup of static electricity and minimize the risk of ignition.
Grounding, on the other hand, involves connecting an object to the earth or another large conductive
surface. This is done to ensure that any static charge on the object is safely discharged to the ground,
reducing the risk of sparks and electrostatic discharge. In some cases, grounding may be required by
law or regulation in order to prevent hazards in hazardous environments.
Together, bonding and grounding can be used to help manage the risks associated with static electricity,
and prevent hazards such as fires, explosions, and electrical shocks. It is important to follow proper
bonding and grounding procedures in any setting where static electricity hazards may be present.

Humidification
Humidity can affect the buildup of static electricity in a couple of ways. One is that higher levels of
humidity can help to reduce static charges by providing a path for electrons to move through the air,
which can prevent the buildup of charges on surfaces. This is because moisture in the air can help to
dissipate electric charges, which can help to minimize the risk of sparks and electrostatic discharge.
However, when the air is too dry, such as in low humidity environments, it can increase the buildup of
static electricity. This is because dry air is less conductive and therefore can make it easier for charges
to build up on surfaces, leading to a higher risk of electrostatic discharge. This can be a particular
concern in industrial environments where flammable or explosive materials are present.
To manage static electricity in low humidity environments, humidification may be used to increase the
moisture content of the air. This can help to reduce the risk of electrostatic discharge and minimize the
risk of hazards such as fires or explosions. However, it is important to maintain a balance between the
need to control static electricity and the need to prevent excess moisture, which can also be a problem in
some environments.
Static Controllers (Collectors)
Static controllers, also known as static collectors, are devices used to control the buildup of static
electricity in a variety of settings, including industrial and commercial environments. They work by
providing a path for electrons to flow, which helps to dissipate static charges and prevent the buildup of
electrostatic discharge.
There are several different types of static controllers, including passive and active devices. Passive
devices, such as conductive mats or grounding straps, work by providing a path to ground for static
charges. Active devices, on the other hand, use electrical circuitry to actively monitor and control the
buildup of static electricity. These can include ionizers, which produce charged particles that neutralize
static charges, or electronic devices that use feedback loops to control static charge levels.
Static controllers are important in many industrial settings, where the buildup of static electricity can pose
a significant risk to worker safety and product quality. They can help to prevent fires, explosions, and
equipment damage by ensuring that static charges are safely dissipated. It is important to choose the
right type of static controller for a given setting, and to ensure that the device is properly installed and
maintained in order to ensure its effectiveness.
Additives
Static electricity can also be a concern in the use of additives in various industries. For example, in the
production and handling of plastics, additives such as pigments and fillers can contribute to the buildup
of static charges. This is because many additives are insulators, which can make it easier for static
charges to accumulate on surfaces.
To control the buildup of static electricity in these settings, anti-static additives can be used. These are
materials that are specifically designed to reduce the buildup of static charges and prevent electrostatic
discharge. They work by either increasing the conductivity of the additive or by providing a pathway for
charges to flow through the material.
Anti-static additives can be added to a variety of materials, including plastics, coatings, and textiles. They
are an important tool for ensuring worker safety and product quality in many industries. It is important to
choose the right type of anti-static additive for a given application, and to ensure that it is properly
integrated into the production process to ensure its effectiveness.

Scaffolds
Scaffolding is a temporary structure that is used to support workers and materials during construction,
maintenance, or repair work. It typically consists of a framework of poles or tubes that are connected by
couplers or fittings, and it can be constructed to various heights and configurations to meet the needs of
a particular job site.
There are several different types of scaffolding, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Some
common types include:
1. Tube and coupler scaffolding: This type of scaffolding is the most commonly used and consists of
a framework of tubes and couplers that can be assembled in various configurations.
2. System scaffolding: This type of scaffolding uses prefabricated components and is often faster
and easier to erect than tube and coupler scaffolding.
3. Frame scaffolding: This type of scaffolding consists of a framework of steel or aluminum frames
that can be assembled in various configurations.
4. Suspended scaffolding: This type of scaffolding is suspended from the top of a building or
structure and is used for tasks such as window washing and exterior maintenance.
While scaffolding is an important tool for many construction and maintenance tasks, it can also pose
significant hazards if not used properly. Some common hazards associated with scaffolding include:
1. Falls: Falls from scaffolding can be deadly, so it is important to ensure that workers are properly
trained and that the scaffolding is constructed and maintained in accordance with applicable
regulations.
2. Collapse: Scaffolding that is not properly constructed or maintained can collapse, causing injury
or death to workers below.
3. Electrocution: Scaffolding that is erected near power lines or other electrical hazards can pose a
risk of electrocution to workers.
4. Struck-by hazards: Workers on scaffolding can be struck by falling objects, such as tools or
building materials.
To ensure the safety of workers using scaffolding, it is important to follow all applicable regulations and
guidelines for scaffolding construction and use. This includes regular inspections and maintenance of
scaffolding, as well as proper training and supervision of workers who use it.
Safe Scaffold Construction
When scaffolding is necessary, it is important to have a qualified and competent person design and
oversee the construction of the scaffold. This competent person must ensure that the scaffold is built
using appropriate construction methods and has proper access. Additionally, the competent person
should be able to identify and quickly correct any potential hazards. It is the responsibility of the
competent person to determine whether or not it is safe to work on a scaffold during storms or high
winds. They must also select qualified workers to perform tasks on the scaffold and provide them with
proper training to recognize hazards. It is crucial that the competent person inspect the scaffold for any
visible defects before each shift or after any alterations have been made. Defective parts must be
repaired immediately before the scaffold can be used.
The scaffold's platform must be fully planked or decked, with no more than a one-inch gap between the
planks. The platform should also be at least 18 inches wide and capable of supporting its weight as well
as four times the maximum load. The scaffold's height should not exceed four times its minimum base
dimension, unless guys, ties, or braces are utilized. The scaffold construction must adhere to additional
requirements such as having no large gaps in the front edge of the platform, each abutted end of the
plank resting on a separate support surface, and platforms overlapping at least 12 inches over supports
unless restrained to prevent movement. There should be no paint on wood platforms and the scaffold
should be fully planked between the front upright and guardrail support. All component pieces used must
match and be of the same type, and the scaffold should be erected on stable and level ground, with its
wheels and braces locked. Each end of a platform, unless cleated or otherwise restrained by hooks,
must extend six inches over its support.
Supported scaffold platforms must be restrained from tipping by guys, ties, or braces, and scaffold poles,
legs, posts, frames, and uprights must be on base plates and mud sill or other firm foundation. The
competent person must supervise the erection, movement, dismantling, or alteration of the scaffold and
select and direct trained workers to ensure the feasibility of a fall.
Suspension scaffolds are platforms suspended by ropes or wires, which must be capable of supporting
six times the load. Employees must receive training to recognize potential hazards, and the platform
must be secured to prevent swaying. The support devices must rest on surfaces capable of supporting
four times the load. The competent person must evaluate connections to ensure that the supporting
surfaces can support the loads and inspect ropes and wires for defects before each shift. Personal fall
arrest systems (PFASs) must have anchors that are independent of the scaffold support system.
Employees are not allowed on a moving scaffold unless the surface is level, the height to base ratio is
2:1, outriggers are installed on both sides of the scaffold, a competent person is present to supervise the
movement, and employees are only on the scaffold portion inside the wheels.
Safe scaffold construction involves several key elements to ensure the safety of workers who use the
scaffold. Here are some of the key elements of safe scaffold construction:
1. Planning: Before erecting a scaffold, it is important to conduct a thorough risk assessment and
plan the work accordingly. This should include identifying potential hazards, selecting the
appropriate type of scaffold, and designing the scaffold to meet the needs of the specific job.
2. Design and Construction: Scaffold design and construction must be done by a qualified person
and should be in accordance with the relevant codes and standards. The scaffold should be
designed to support the expected load and should be erected on a solid foundation.
3. Competent Workforce: Scaffolds should be erected, dismantled, and altered by trained and
competent workers. The workers should be aware of the hazards associated with scaffolding and
be able to identify and address any potential issues that arise.
4. Inspection: Scaffold inspection should be performed by a competent person prior to each work
shift to identify any potential hazards. Regular inspection and maintenance should be conducted
to ensure the safety of the scaffold.
5. Use: Workers should be trained in the proper use of the scaffold and should follow all safety rules
and regulations. Workers should wear appropriate personal protective equipment, and tools and
materials should be secured to prevent falling hazards.
6. Removal: Scaffolds should be dismantled in a safe and orderly manner, and workers should be
protected from falling hazards during the dismantling process.
7. Here are some of the key requirements for the construction of scaffolding:

8. Base Support: Scaffolding must be built on a stable and level base that can support the weight of
the scaffold, workers, and materials.
9. Weight Capacity: The scaffolding must be designed to support the maximum load of workers and
materials that will be present on the platform at any given time.
10. Height: The height of the scaffolding must not exceed four times its minimum base dimension,
unless additional support measures are taken.
11. Bracing and Ties: The scaffold must be properly braced and tied to ensure stability and prevent
collapse.
12. Platform Strength: The platform must be strong enough to support the weight of workers and
materials, with a minimum capacity of 75 pounds per square foot.
13. Guardrails and Toeboards: Guardrails must be installed along all open sides and ends of the
scaffolding platform, and toeboards must be installed to prevent tools and materials from falling
off the platform.
14. Access: Safe access to the scaffold must be provided, such as ladders, stairs, or ramps, and
these access points must be secured to prevent accidental displacement.
15. Inspection: Regular inspections must be carried out to ensure that the scaffolding remains in
good condition and that any defects or damage are promptly repaired.
Training
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has specific requirements for scaffolding safety
that employers and workers must follow to prevent accidents and injuries. OSHA also requires that
employers provide training to workers who use scaffolding on the job. Here are some key points that
may be covered in an OSHA scaffolding training program:
1. Overview of OSHA scaffold safety standards and regulations: This includes a review of OSHA
regulations related to scaffolding safety, such as OSHA 1926 Subpart L, which provides specific
requirements for scaffolds used in construction work.
2. Scaffold types and components: This includes an overview of the different types of scaffolds and
their components, such as frames, braces, planks, and guardrails.
3. Scaffold erection, use, and dismantling: This includes instruction on how to properly erect, use,
and dismantle scaffolds, including proper anchoring, securing, and stabilizing of scaffolds, and
use of personal protective equipment.
4. Hazard identification and control: This includes instruction on how to identify and control potential
hazards, such as falls, electrocution, and falling objects.
5. Inspection and maintenance: This includes instruction on how to inspect and maintain scaffolds
to ensure they are in safe working condition.
6. Recordkeeping and reporting: This includes instruction on recordkeeping requirements, such as
documenting scaffold inspections, and reporting requirements in the event of an accident or
injury.
OSHA scaffolding training is typically conducted by a qualified trainer and may include both classroom
instruction and hands-on training. The specific content and duration of the training program may vary
depending on the type of scaffold used and the specific job site requirements.
Fall Protection and Prevention in Construction

Fall hazards are any situations or conditions in which a person may be at risk of falling from a height or
into a lower level. Falls are a leading cause of work-related injuries and deaths, and can occur in a wide
variety of workplaces, including construction sites, industrial facilities, and offices.
Here are some common fall hazards in the workplace:
1. Elevated work surfaces: Elevated work surfaces such as roofs, scaffolds, ladders, and elevated
platforms pose a risk of falls.
2. Unprotected edges: Edges without guardrails, such as roof edges or balcony edges, can be fall
hazards.
3. Holes and openings: Holes or openings in floors, walls, or roofs can be fall hazards if not properly
guarded or covered.
4. Slippery surfaces: Slippery surfaces, such as wet or icy floors, can cause workers to lose their
footing and fall.
5. Unstable work surfaces: Work surfaces that are not stable, such as uneven ground or unstable
scaffolds, can cause workers to fall.
6. Unguarded machinery: Workers who operate machinery or equipment on elevated work surfaces
may be at risk of falling if the equipment is not properly guarded.
7. Poor lighting: Poor lighting can make it difficult for workers to see hazards and increases the risk
of falls.
It is important for employers to identify fall hazards in the workplace and take steps to eliminate or
control these hazards. This may include providing fall protection systems such as guardrails, safety nets,
or personal fall arrest systems, ensuring proper training and supervision of workers, and implementing
good housekeeping practices to reduce the risk of slips, trips, and falls.
Fall Prevention and Protection
Fall protection and prevention are critical components of workplace safety, and OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health Administration) has established specific requirements for fall protection and
prevention in various industries
Guardrails
Guardrails are one of the primary means of fall protection and prevention, and OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health Administration) has established specific requirements for guardrails in various
industries. Here are some key aspects of OSHA guardrail requirements:
1. Height Requirements: OSHA requires that guardrails be installed on all open-sided platforms,
walkways, and elevated work surfaces that are 4 feet or more above the lower level.
2. Strength Requirements: Guardrails must be capable of withstanding a force of at least 200
pounds applied in any direction at any point along the top rail.
3. Construction Requirements: Guardrails must be constructed of materials such as wood, pipe, or
structural steel. The top rail must be 42 inches (+/- 3 inches) above the walking/working surface,
and the midrail must be halfway between the top rail and the walking/working surface.

4. Opening Limitations: Guardrails must not have any openings that would allow passage of a 4-
inch diameter sphere, except at the entrance to a stairway, where the opening may not exceed
19 inches.
5. Toeboards: Toeboards must be installed at the base of the guardrail to prevent objects from
falling through the gap between the guardrail and the walking/working surface.
6. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that guardrails are inspected regularly and
maintained in good working condition.
Positioning Device System
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established specific requirements for
positioning device systems (PDS) in various industries. Here are some key aspects of OSHA PDS
requirements:
1. General Requirements: OSHA requires employers to provide fall protection systems for workers
who are working at heights of six feet or more above a lower level. PDS can be used as a form of
fall protection in certain situations.
2. Types of PDS: OSHA recognizes three types of positioning device systems: (1) a positioning belt
or body harness system rigged to allow an employee to be supported on an elevated vertical
surface, such as a wall, and work with both hands free while leaning; (2) a positioning belt or
body harness system rigged to allow an employee to be supported on a horizontal surface, such
as a roof, and work with both hands free while leaning; and (3) a horizontal lifeline system used in
conjunction with a positioning device system.
3. Construction Requirements: PDS components must be able to withstand the loads imposed on
them, and be of a sufficient strength to protect workers from falls.
4. Anchorage Points: PDS must be attached to anchorage points that are capable of supporting at
least 5,000 pounds per employee attached.
5. Training: Employers must provide training to workers on the proper use and inspection of PDS.
The training must be provided in a language that the workers understand.
6. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that PDS are inspected regularly and
maintained in good working condition.
It is important for employers to ensure compliance with OSHA PDS requirements to protect workers from
fall hazards. Failure to comply with OSHA PDS requirements can result in fines, penalties, and legal
action.
Warning Line Systems
Warning line systems are a type of fall protection system that is used to demarcate an area around an
elevated work surface, such as a roof, to warn workers that they are approaching the edge and to
provide a visual barrier that helps prevent them from falling. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) has established specific requirements for warning line systems in various industries.
Here are some key aspects of OSHA warning line system requirements:
1. Height Requirements: OSHA requires that a warning line system must be erected around all
unprotected sides and edges of a roof, when work is being performed on a roof that is 6 feet or
more above a lower level.

2. Warning Line Construction Requirements: Warning lines must be constructed of ropes, wires, or
chains, and must be flagged with high-visibility material such as orange or red, at intervals no
more than 6 feet apart.
3. Placement Requirements: Warning lines must be placed no less than 6 feet from the edge of the
roof or other unprotected side or edge. The warning line must be erected around all sides of the
work area.
4. Height Requirements for Warning Line: The top edge of the warning line must be placed at a
height of at least 34 inches but not more than 39 inches above the walking/working surface.
5. Distance from Work Area: When mechanical equipment is being used close to the warning line,
the line must be placed far enough away to prevent employees from coming within the 6-foot fall
hazard area.
6. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that warning lines are inspected regularly
and maintained in good working condition.
It is important for employers to ensure compliance with OSHA warning line system requirements to
protect workers from fall hazards. Failure to comply with OSHA warning line system requirements can
result in fines, penalties, and legal action.
Controlled Access Zone System
Controlled access zones (CAZs) are established by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) to help prevent falls from elevated work surfaces. They are designed to restrict access to
a work area and provide a safe zone for workers to perform tasks that require them to be near an
unprotected edge. Here are some key aspects of OSHA controlled access zone system requirements:
1. General Requirements: Controlled access zones must be established around all unprotected
sides and edges of a work surface that is 6 feet or more above a lower level. Access to the
controlled access zone must be restricted to authorized personnel only.
2. Barriers: Controlled access zones must be established using a barrier such as a guardrail, fence,
or similar barricade that meets OSHA requirements for strength and construction.
3. Warning Signs: Warning signs must be used to identify the controlled access zone, indicating that
access is restricted to authorized personnel only.
4. Height Requirements: The barrier must be installed at a height of at least 39 inches but not more
than 45 inches above the walking/working surface.
5. Access Points: Access points must be provided at the perimeter of the controlled access zone to
allow authorized personnel to enter and exit.
6. Training: Employers must provide training to authorized personnel on the proper use and
inspection of controlled access zones. The training must be provided in a language that the
workers understand.
7. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that controlled access zones are inspected
regularly and maintained in good working condition.
It is important for employers to ensure compliance with OSHA controlled access zone system
requirements to protect workers from fall hazards. Failure to comply with OSHA controlled access zone
system requirements can result in fines, penalties, and legal action.

Safety Monitoring System

A safety monitoring system is a fall protection system that involves assigning a competent person to
continuously monitor workers who are performing tasks near an unprotected edge. The safety monitor is
responsible for warning workers of any fall hazards and ensuring that they are using fall protection
equipment properly. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established specific
requirements for safety monitoring systems in various industries. Here are some key aspects of OSHA
safety monitoring system requirements:
1. General Requirements: Safety monitoring systems must be used when workers are performing
tasks that require them to be near an unprotected edge that is 6 feet or more above a lower level.
2. Competent Person: A competent person must be designated to act as the safety monitor. The
competent person must be trained and knowledgeable in fall protection systems and must be
able to recognize fall hazards.
3. Continuous Monitoring: The safety monitor must continuously monitor workers who are
performing tasks near the unprotected edge. The monitor must be close enough to provide a
timely warning to workers of any fall hazards.
4. Warning System: The safety monitor must use a warning system, such as a whistle, horn, or
other device, to alert workers of any fall hazards. The warning system must be heard by workers
who are in the vicinity of the hazard.
5. Training: Employers must provide training to the safety monitor and workers on the proper use
and inspection of safety monitoring systems. The training must be provided in a language that the
workers understand.
6. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that safety monitoring systems are
inspected regularly and maintained in good working condition.
Personal Fall Arrest System
A personal fall arrest system (PFAS) is a type of fall protection system that is designed to arrest a
worker's fall in the event of a fall from an elevated work surface. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) has established specific requirements for PFAS in various industries. Here are some key
aspects of OSHA personal fall arrest system requirements:
1. General Requirements: A personal fall arrest system must be used when workers are performing
tasks on a walking or working surface that is 6 feet or more above a lower level.
2. Anchorage: A secure anchorage point must be provided to which the personal fall arrest system
can be attached. The anchorage point must be able to support at least 5,000 pounds per person.
3. Body Harness: A full-body harness must be worn by the worker, and it must be attached to the
personal fall arrest system. The harness must be able to support the worker in the event of a fall.
4. Lifeline: A lifeline must be provided to the worker, and it must be able to support the worker's
weight in the event of a fall. The lifeline must be made of synthetic rope, wire rope, or chain and
must be able to support a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds.
5. Connecting Device: A connecting device, such as a shock-absorbing lanyard, must be used to
connect the lifeline to the worker's body harness. The connecting device must be able to limit the
maximum arresting force on the worker to 1,800 pounds.

6. Training: Employers must provide training to workers on the proper use and inspection of
personal fall arrest systems. The training must be provided in a language that the workers
understand.
7. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that personal fall arrest systems are
inspected regularly and maintained in good working condition.
Safety Net Systems
A safety net system is a fall protection system that is designed to catch workers who fall from an
elevated work surface. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established specific
requirements for safety net systems in various industries. Here are some key aspects of OSHA safety
net system requirements:
1. General Requirements: Safety net systems must be used when workers are performing tasks
that require them to be near an unprotected edge that is 25 feet or more above a lower level.
2. Netting: The netting used in the safety net system must be made of synthetic materials and must
be capable of absorbing the impact of a falling worker.
3. Mesh Size: The mesh size of the netting must be no larger than 6 inches by 6 inches.
4. Border Rope: The border rope of the netting must have a minimum breaking strength of 5,000
pounds.
5. Anchorage: The anchorage points for the safety net system must be able to support a minimum
breaking strength of 5,000 pounds per attached component.
6. Clearance: The safety net system must be installed with sufficient clearance below the work
surface to prevent a worker from coming into contact with the surface or structure below.
7. Training: Employers must provide training to workers on the proper use and inspection of safety
net systems. The training must be provided in a language that the workers understand.
8. Inspection and Maintenance: Employers must ensure that safety net systems are inspected
regularly and maintained in good working condition.
Cranes and Derrick Safety
Cranes and derricks are hazardous on construction sites, and this section provides general requirements
for safe use. The operator must comply with manufacturer's specifications and limitations, and all
equipment must have visible load capacities, speeds, and hazard warnings. A competent person must
inspect equipment before and during use and keep records of inspections. Wire rope must be taken out
of service under certain conditions. Moving parts must be guarded, and accessible areas in the crane's
swing radius must be barricaded. Fuel tank filler pipes must be protected, and fire extinguishers must be
available. Equipment can only be operated near power lines under specific conditions, and there are
minimum clearances for equipment in transit with no load and lowered boom.
Wire ropes are commonly used in cranes and derricks for lifting heavy loads. However, they are subject
to wear and tear over time, and if they are not properly maintained and inspected, they can pose a
significant hazard to workers.
According to the regulations, wire rope should be taken out of service if any of the following conditions
exist:

• Six randomly distributed broken wires in one lay, or three broken wires in one strand in one lay, in
running ropes
• Wear of one-third the original diameter of outside individual wires
• Kinking, crushing, birdcaging, or any other damage resulting in distortion of the rope structure
• Evidence of any heat damage from any cause
• Reductions from nominal diameter of more than 1/64 in. for diameters up to and including 5/16
in., 1/32 in. for diameters 3/8 in. to and including 1/2 in., 3/64 in. for diameters 9/16 in. to and
including 3/4 in., 1/16 in. for diameters 7/8 in. to 1 1/8 in. inclusive, and 3/32 in. for diameters 1
1/4 to 1 1/2 in. inclusive, in running ropes
• More than two broken wires in one lay in sections beyond end connections, or more than one
broken wire at an end connection, in standing ropes.
It's important to note that wire ropes should be inspected before each use by a designated competent
person, who should check for any signs of damage or wear. Any deficiencies should be repaired or
defective parts replaced before continued use. Additionally, a thorough annual inspection of the hoisting
machinery should be conducted by a competent person or by a government or private agency
recognized by the US Department of Labor, and the employer should maintain a record of the dates and
results of inspections for each hoisting machine and piece of equipment.
Cranes and derricks pose significant risks on construction sites, so it's important to follow safety
guidelines. Operators must comply with the manufacturer's specifications and limitations, and all
equipment should have posted load capacities, operating speeds, and hazard warnings that are visible
to the operator. Operators should use hand signals that follow the appropriate ANSI standard for the type
of crane in use.
Employers must designate a competent person to inspect machinery and equipment before each use
and during use to ensure that it is in safe operating condition. If any deficiencies are found, they should
be repaired or replaced before continued use. Hoisting machinery must also undergo an annual
inspection by a competent person or a recognized government or private agency. Employers must
maintain a record of inspection dates and results for each hoisting machine and piece of equipment.
Wire ropes must be taken out of service if they meet certain conditions, including six randomly
distributed broken wires in one lay or three broken wires in one strand in one lay for running ropes. In
standing ropes, more than two broken wires in one lay in sections beyond end connections or more than
one broken wire at an end connection is cause for replacement. Other conditions that require wire rope
replacement include wear of one-third the original diameter of outside individual wires, kinking, crushing,
bird caging, or any other damage resulting in distortion of the rope structure, and reductions from
nominal diameter of more than 1/64 in.
Belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, flywheels, chains, and other moving parts or
equipment should be guarded if they could come into contact with employees or create hazards. Areas
within the swing radius of the rear of the rotating superstructure of a crane should be barricaded to
prevent employees from being struck or crushed. All exhaust pipes should be guarded or insulated in
areas where contact by employees is possible.
Fuel tank filler pipes should be located in a position or protected in a manner that does not allow spill or
overflow to run onto the engine, exhaust, or electrical equipment of any machine being fueled. An
accessible fire extinguisher of 5BC rating or higher should be available at all operator stations or cabs of
equipment.
Equipment should only be operated near power lines if they have been de-energized and visibly
grounded at the point of work or if insulating barriers have been erected to prevent physical contact with
the lines. The minimum equipment clearance should be 4 ft for voltages less than 50 kV, 10 ft for
voltages over 50 kV up to and including 345 kV, and 16 ft for voltages up to and including 750 kV when
in transit with no load and boom lowered.
Canes and derricks are heavy equipment used to lift and move heavy loads in various industries. OSHA
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established specific requirements for the operation
of cranes and derricks to ensure worker safety. Here are some key aspects of OSHA's crane and derrick
safety requirements:
1. Operator Certification: Crane and derrick operators must be certified by an accredited testing
organization or by an employer's own qualified evaluator. The certification must be based on
written and practical examinations.
2. Load Capacity: The load capacity of the crane or derrick must be clearly marked on the
equipment and must not be exceeded.
3. Inspections: Pre-operation and post-operation inspections must be conducted daily by the
operator and documented.
4. Training: Employers must provide training to workers on the safe operation of cranes and
derricks, including proper use of rigging equipment, hazard recognition, and communication
procedures.
5. Signal Person: A signal person must be designated and trained to give hand signals to the crane
or derrick operator.
6. Power Lines: The crane or derrick must be kept at least 10 feet away from power lines, and if the
voltage of the power lines is over 50 kV, a designated person must be present to ensure safe
operation.
7. PPE: Personal protective equipment (PPE), such as hard hats and gloves, must be worn by
workers who are working in the vicinity of the crane or derrick.
8. Maintenance: Cranes and derricks must be maintained in good working condition, and any
deficiencies must be corrected before use.
It is important for employers to ensure compliance with OSHA crane and derrick safety requirements to
protect workers from injury and fatalities. Failure to comply with OSHA crane and derrick safety
requirements can result in fines, penalties, and legal action.
Welding, Cutting, and Brazing
Welding, cutting, and brazing are common activities in various industries, but they can be hazardous if
proper safety measures are not taken. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has
established specific requirements for the safe use of welding, cutting, and brazing equipment. Here are
some key aspects of OSHA's welding, cutting, and brazing safety requirements:
1. Hazard Assessment: Before starting any welding, cutting, or brazing operation, a hazard
assessment must be conducted to identify potential hazards and determine appropriate controls.
2. Ventilation: Adequate ventilation must be provided to prevent exposure to fumes and gases
produced during welding, cutting, and brazing.

3. PPE: Workers must wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including eye
protection, face shields, and clothing that will protect them from heat and sparks.
4. Fire Prevention: Fire extinguishers must be readily available, and all flammable materials must be
removed or protected.
5. Training: Employers must provide training to workers on the safe use of welding, cutting, and
brazing equipment, as well as hazard recognition and emergency procedures.
6. Hot Work Permits: Hot work permits must be obtained before starting any welding, cutting, or
brazing operation in areas where fire hazards may exist.
7. Gas Cylinders: Gas cylinders must be secured and kept away from heat sources.
8. Welding Areas: Welding, cutting, and brazing areas must be designated and marked to prevent
accidental exposure of workers and others to hazards.
It is important for employers to ensure compliance with OSHA welding, cutting, and brazing safety
requirements to protect workers from injury and illness. Failure to comply with OSHA welding, cutting,
and brazing safety requirements can result in fines, penalties, and legal action.
Oxygen-Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting are processes used to join or cut metals by heating them to a
temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal, which cools into a common metal or is blown
away. Safety guidelines must be followed when transporting, moving, and storing compressed gas
cylinders, with a focus on safe use of acetylene. The cylinders must be secured, moved carefully, and
kept upright at all times except when hoisted or carried. Oxygen cylinders must be kept separate from
fuel-gas cylinders or combustible materials by at least 20 ft or a noncombustible barrier of at least 5 ft
high with a fire-resistance rating of at least 1/2 h. To ensure safe use of fuel gas, employees must be
instructed in proper handling and use, including opening the valve slightly to clear it of dust or dirt,
opening the valve slowly to prevent damage to the regulator, and using a suitable regulator to reduce
pressure before using fuel gas from a cylinder. If a leak is detected, the cylinder must be removed from
the work area.
The use of oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting equipment can be hazardous if proper safety measures
are not taken. Here are some key safety considerations for oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting:
1. Ventilation: Adequate ventilation must be provided to prevent exposure to fumes and gases
produced during welding and cutting. This can be achieved through natural or mechanical
ventilation, such as exhaust fans or local exhaust ventilation.
2. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Workers must wear appropriate PPE, including eye
protection, face shields, and clothing that will protect them from heat and sparks.
3. Fire Prevention: Fire extinguishers must be readily available, and all flammable materials must be
removed or protected.
4. Gas Cylinders: Gas cylinders must be secured and kept away from heat sources. Oxygen and
fuel gas cylinders must be stored and handled according to OSHA regulations.
5. Training: Employers must provide training to workers on the safe use of oxygen-fuel gas welding
and cutting equipment, as well as hazard recognition and emergency procedures.
6. Hot Work Permits: Hot work permits must be obtained before starting any welding or cutting
operation in areas where fire hazards may exist.
7. Equipment Maintenance: Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting equipment must be maintained in
good working condition, and any deficiencies must be corrected before use.
By following these safety considerations and OSHA regulations, employers can help prevent injuries and
illnesses associated with oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting.
Fuel Gas and Oxygen Manifolds
Fuel gas and oxygen manifolds are used to distribute gas to welding and cutting equipment. OSHA
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established safety requirements for the installation,
maintenance, and use of fuel gas and oxygen manifolds to prevent accidents and injuries. Here are
some key safety considerations for fuel gas and oxygen manifolds:
1. Installation: Fuel gas and oxygen manifolds must be installed in a well-ventilated area, away from
ignition sources and combustible materials. The manifold must be securely mounted and
grounded.
2. Labels and Identification: Manifolds must be clearly labeled with the gas type and the maximum
pressure allowed for each outlet. Labels and identification must be visible and durable.
3. Maintenance: Manifolds must be maintained in good working condition, with regular inspections
to check for leaks, cracks, or other damage.
4. Regulators: Regulators must be installed on each cylinder, and pressure gauges must be used to
monitor the gas pressure. Regulators must be inspected and tested regularly.
5. Pressure Relief Devices: Pressure relief devices must be installed on each manifold, and they
must be set to activate at a pressure that is no higher than the maximum pressure allowed for the
manifold.
6. Piping and Hoses: Piping and hoses must be in good condition and must be rated for the gas
type and the maximum pressure allowed. Hoses must be secured and protected from damage
and must be inspected regularly.
7. Training: Workers must be trained on the safe use of fuel gas and oxygen manifolds, including
proper installation, maintenance, and use of equipment, as well as hazard recognition and
emergency procedures.
To ensure safety in construction, fuel gas and oxygen manifolds should be labeled with the substance
they contain in at least 1-inch high letters, either painted on the manifold or on a sign attached to it.
These manifolds should also be placed in well-ventilated and accessible locations, away from enclosed
spaces. Hose connections leading to the manifold should not be interchangeable between fuel gas and
oxygen manifolds or supply header connections, and adapters should not be used for interchangeability.
Additionally, hose connections should be kept free of grease and oil, and capped when not in use.
Hoses and Torches
When using hoses in welding operations, there are additional safety considerations that must be taken
into account to prevent accidents and injuries. Here are some specific safety considerations for welding
hoses according to OSHA:
1. Hose Selection: Hoses used in welding operations must be specifically designed for this purpose
and be rated for the type of gas or substance being transferred. For example, oxygen hoses
should be green and acetylene hoses should be red.

2. Hose Maintenance: Hoses must be inspected regularly for damage, such as cracks, cuts, or
bulges, and must be repaired or replaced as necessary. Hoses must also be cleaned and stored
properly when not in use.
3. Hose Protection: Hoses must be protected from damage and excessive heat, which can cause
the hose to deteriorate or burst. Hoses must be kept away from sharp objects and heavy
machinery, and must be routed to avoid kinks or bends.
4. Hose Connections: Hose connections must be secure and leak-free. Hoses must be properly
clamped or fastened to prevent the hose from coming loose during use.
5. Torch Selection: Torches must be selected based on the type of work being performed and the
type of gas or fuel being used. The torch must be rated for the maximum pressure of the gas
being used.
6. Torch Maintenance: The torch must be inspected regularly for damage, such as worn tips or
damaged threads. The torch must be cleaned and stored properly when not in use.
Regulators and Gauges
Regulators and gauges are important components of welding equipment that must be maintained and
used safely to prevent accidents and injuries. Here are some specific safety considerations for regulators
and gauges according to OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration):
1. Regulator Selection: Regulators must be selected based on the type of work being performed
and the type of gas being used. The regulator must be rated for the maximum pressure of the
gas being used.
2. Regulator Maintenance: Regulators must be inspected regularly for damage, such as cracks or
worn parts, and must be repaired or replaced as necessary. Regulators must also be cleaned
and stored properly when not in use.
3. Gauge Maintenance: Gauges must be inspected regularly for damage, such as cracks or broken
glass, and must be repaired or replaced as necessary. Gauges must also be cleaned and stored
properly when not in use.
Oil and Grease Hazards
Here are some specific safety considerations for welding near oil and grease according to OSHA
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration):
1. Surface Preparation: Prior to welding, all surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned and degreased to
remove any oil, grease, or other contaminants. Cleaning should be done using a degreasing
solution or by mechanical means.
2. Fire Prevention: Welding and cutting in areas with oil and grease can increase the risk of fire.
Employers must provide fire-resistant shielding or barriers to prevent sparks and slag from
reaching combustible materials. Fire extinguishers must also be readily available.
Arc Welding and Cutting
Arc welding and cutting are fusion processes that use an electric arc to melt and join metals. The
coalescence of metals is achieved through the heat generated by an electrode and formed between an
element. To understand this type of welding, three key terms must be familiar: application, installation,
and operation, and maintenance. The application of arc welding includes various processes that use an
electric arc as a heat source to melt and join metals. Proper installation of equipment is necessary for arc
welding, and one crucial safety component of this process is ensuring proper grounding is completed.
For the operation and maintenance of arc welding equipment, it is necessary to check all connections to
the machine to ensure they are correctly made.
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established specific regulations and
guidelines for the safe use of arc welding and cutting equipment. Here are some of the key OSHA
requirements for arc welding and cutting:
1. Electrical Safety: OSHA requires that all electrical equipment used for arc welding and cutting be
grounded or double-insulated. Wiring and cables must be properly maintained and insulated to
prevent electrical shock or fires.
2. Eye and Face Protection: OSHA requires that workers use appropriate eye and face protection
when working with arc welding and cutting equipment. Welding helmets, goggles, and face
shields must have the correct shade number lens for the job.
3. Fire Prevention: OSHA requires that fire-resistant shielding or barriers be used to prevent sparks
and slag from reaching combustible materials. Employers must also have fire extinguishers
readily available.
4. Ventilation: OSHA requires that adequate ventilation be provided to prevent exposure to fumes
and gases produced during welding and cutting.
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): OSHA requires that workers wear appropriate PPE,
including eye protection, face shields, gloves, and clothing that will protect them from heat,
sparks, and potential exposure to fumes and gases.
6. Training: OSHA requires that employers provide training to workers on the safe use of arc
welding and cutting equipment, as well as hazard recognition and emergency procedures.
By following these OSHA requirements, employers can help prevent injuries and illnesses associated
with arc welding and cutting operations.
Components of Arc Welding
Manual electrode holders, welding cables and connectors, and ground returns are all important
components of arc welding equipment. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has
established specific regulations and guidelines for the safe use of these components. Here are some of
the key OSHA requirements for manual electrode holders, welding cables and connectors, and ground
returns:
1. Manual Electrode Holders: OSHA requires that manual electrode holders be designed and
constructed to prevent accidental contact with the holder, electrode, or workpiece. They must be
insulated against heat, electricity, and other hazards, and be free from defects that could impair
their safe use.
2. Welding Cables and Connectors: OSHA requires that welding cables and connectors be
designed and constructed to handle the maximum electrical load of the welding equipment. They
must be properly maintained and free from defects, such as cuts, cracks, or abrasions, that could
cause them to fail.
3. Ground Returns: OSHA requires that ground returns be used to complete the electrical circuit
and prevent electrical shock hazards. Ground returns must be properly connected to the
workpiece, have a low-resistance path, and be free from defects that could impair their safe use.

4. Machine Grounding: OSHA requires that the welding machine be grounded to prevent electrical
shock hazards. The grounding connection must have a low-resistance path and be free from
defects that could impair its safe use.
5. Training: OSHA requires that employers provide training to workers on the safe use of arc
welding equipment and components, including manual electrode holders, welding cables and
connectors, and ground returns.
Resistance Welding
Resistance welding is a method of joining two pieces of metal together by applying heat and pressure.
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established specific regulations and
guidelines for the safe use of resistance welding equipment. Here are some of the key OSHA
requirements for resistance welding:
1. Electrical Safety: OSHA requires that all electrical equipment used for resistance welding be
grounded and double-insulated. Wiring and cables must be properly maintained and insulated to
prevent electrical shock or fires.
2. Eye and Face Protection: OSHA requires that workers use appropriate eye and face protection
when working with resistance welding equipment. Welding helmets, goggles, and face shields
must have the correct shade number lens for the job.
3. Fire Prevention: OSHA requires that fire-resistant shielding or barriers be used to prevent sparks
and slag from reaching combustible materials. Employers must also have fire extinguishers
readily available.
4. Ventilation: OSHA requires that adequate ventilation be provided to prevent exposure to fumes
and gases produced during resistance welding.
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): OSHA requires that workers wear appropriate PPE,
including eye protection, face shields, gloves, and clothing that will protect them from heat,
sparks, and potential exposure to fumes and gases.
6. Training: OSHA requires that employers provide training to workers on the safe use of resistance
welding equipment, as well as hazard recognition and emergency procedures.
Welding Fire Prevention and Ventilation
The regulations for fire prevention during welding, cutting, and heating require that movable fire hazards
be moved to a safe location or otherwise protected. If the object being worked on cannot be moved and
there are immovable fire hazards, positive measures must be taken to confine heat, sparks, and slag to
protect the immovable hazards. Flammable paints or other compounds and heavy dust concentrations
must be avoided in the work area, and fire extinguishing equipment must be readily available. A fire
watch is required during the operation, including 30 minutes after all “hot work” operations have been
concluded.
Ventilation is crucial during welding, cutting, and heating operations to prevent adverse health effects for
welders due to the metals being welded. Certain metals, such as fluorine compounds, zinc, lead,
beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and stainless steel, require special control measures. General ventilation
and local exhaust ventilation must be of sufficient capacity to remove welding fumes and smoke at the
source and keep the concentration within safe limits. Contaminated air must be discharged into the open
air or clear of the source of intake air.

Hot Work
"Hot work" refers to any work that involves burning, welding, or the use of open flames or sparks. Hot
work activities can create significant hazards, including fires and explosions, and OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health Administration) has established specific requirements for the safe performance of hot
work.
Here are some of the key OSHA requirements for hot work:
1. Hot Work Permits: OSHA requires that employers develop and implement a written hot work
program that includes a permit system to control hot work operations. Hot work permits must be
issued by a designated, trained individual, and they must include information about the location,
nature, and duration of the hot work, as well as the fire prevention and protection measures to be
used.
2. Fire Prevention: OSHA requires that fire prevention measures be taken prior to and during hot
work activities. This includes removal or covering of combustible materials, provision of fire
extinguishers, and the use of fire-resistant shields and barriers.
3. Ventilation: OSHA requires that adequate ventilation be provided to prevent the accumulation of
flammable or toxic gases in the work area.
protection, face shields, gloves, and clothing that will protect them from heat, sparks, and
potential exposure to fumes and gases.
5. Training: OSHA requires that employers provide training to workers on the safe performance of
hot work activities, as well as hazard recognition and emergency procedures.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has established a Hot Work Process that provides
guidelines for the safe performance of hot work activities. The process involves the following steps:
1. Permitting: Before any hot work can be performed, a Hot Work Permit must be obtained. The
permit must be authorized by a responsible individual who is knowledgeable about the hot work
process, and it must include information about the location, type of work, and duration of the
work.
2. Hazard Assessment: A hazard assessment must be conducted to identify potential hazards
associated with the hot work process. This assessment should consider the type of hot work
being performed, the location of the work, and the materials being worked on or nearby.
3. Fire Prevention: Measures must be taken to prevent fires, such as removing combustible
materials, providing fire extinguishers, and ensuring that all equipment and materials are in good
condition.
4. Fire Protection: Fire protection measures, such as fire watch, fire suppression systems, and
smoke detection systems, should be in place to ensure the safety of workers and the facility.
protection, face shields, gloves, and clothing that will protect them from heat, sparks, and
potential exposure to fumes and gases.
6. Training: Workers must be trained on the safe performance of hot work activities, including
hazard recognition and emergency procedures.

Hand and Power Tool Safety

Hand and power tool safety is an important aspect of workplace safety, as it can help prevent injuries
and accidents. Here are some general safety tips for using hand and power tools:
1. Wear appropriate PPE: Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) when
using hand and power tools, such as safety glasses, ear protection, and gloves.
2. Inspect tools before use: Inspect hand and power tools before use to ensure that they are in good
condition and working properly. Damaged tools should be taken out of service and repaired or
replaced.
3. Use the right tool for the job: Use the right tool for the job and ensure that it is the correct size
and type for the task at hand. Using the wrong tool can result in damage to the tool, the
workpiece, or even injury to the worker.
4. Follow manufacturer instructions: Follow the manufacturer's instructions for using and
maintaining hand and power tools, and be sure to use tools only for their intended purpose.
5. Keep tools clean and well-maintained: Keep hand and power tools clean and well-maintained,
and store them in a safe and secure location when not in use.
6. Use appropriate guards and safety features: Use the appropriate guards and safety features
when using power tools, such as blade guards on saws or safety switches on drills.
7. Use caution when using hand tools: Use caution when using hand tools, such as chisels and
screwdrivers, to avoid injuries from slips and punctures.
Abrasive Grinders
Abrasive grinders are commonly used in the workplace for grinding, cutting, and polishing materials.
However, if not used properly, they can pose serious safety risks to workers. OSHA has established
specific safety requirements for the use of abrasive grinders to protect workers from hazards such as
flying debris, electrical shock, and amputation. Here are some of the key OSHA requirements for
abrasive grinders:
1. Guarding: Abrasive grinders must be equipped with safety guards to protect the operator from
flying debris and to prevent accidental contact with the wheel.
2. Inspections: Abrasive grinders must be inspected before each use to ensure that the wheel is not
cracked, damaged, or misaligned.
3. Wheel selection: The abrasive grinding wheel must be suitable for the task and the machine. It
must be rated for the maximum speed of the grinder and marked with the appropriate
specifications.
4. Proper mounting: The abrasive grinding wheel must be properly mounted to the machine to
prevent slippage or excessive vibration.
5. Maintenance: Abrasive grinders must be properly maintained and cleaned to prevent damage to
the machine or the wheel.
6. Electrical safety: Electrical wiring and components on abrasive grinders must be in good
condition and properly grounded to prevent electrical shock.
7. Personal protective equipment: Workers must wear appropriate personal protective equipment,
such as safety glasses, face shields, and gloves, when using abrasive grinders.
Grinding wheels, both portable and fixed, operate at high speeds and can cause serious injury or
property damage if the fragments shatter. Employees who use grinding wheels need to know the
potential hazards associated with them and the precautions necessary to prevent accidents. Some of the
hazards include breathing in dusts, irritation from contact with lubricating oils and metallic dusts,
ergonomic-related injuries caused by vibration, physical injuries from shattered wheels, cuts, mangles or
amputations from contact with a wheel in motion, and ignition of flammable materials from sparks
produced during grinding.
The presence of cracks in a grinding wheel is of particular importance and can be checked using either
the ring test or the vibration test.
The ring test evaluates the sound coming from the wheel when lightly tapped with a nonmetallic material
while the vibration test evaluates how dry sand moves on the side of a vibrating wheel. However, both
tests are not 100% accurate, and it is necessary for all persons to stand clear of any grinding operations
when grinding.
Portable Circular Saws
Portable circular saws are the most common used power tool in construction, woodworking, and other
industries. However, if not used properly, they can pose serious safety risks to workers. OSHA has
established specific safety requirements for the use of portable circular saws to protect workers from
hazards such as amputation, lacerations, and electrical shock. Here are some of the key OSHA
requirements for portable circular saws:
1. Guarding: Portable circular saws must be equipped with safety guards to protect the operator
from the blade and to prevent accidental contact with the blade.
2. Blade selection: The circular saw blade must be suitable for the task and the machine. It must be
rated for the maximum speed of the saw and marked with the appropriate specifications.
3. Proper mounting: The circular saw blade must be properly mounted to the machine to prevent
slippage or excessive vibration.
4. Inspections: Portable circular saws must be inspected before each use to ensure that the blade is
not cracked, damaged, or misaligned.
5. Maintenance: Portable circular saws must be properly maintained and cleaned to prevent
damage to the machine or the blade.
6. Electrical safety: Electrical wiring and components on portable circular saws must be in good
condition and properly grounded to prevent electrical shock.
7. Personal protective equipment: Workers must wear appropriate personal protective equipment,
such as safety glasses, face shields, and gloves, when using portable circular saws.
When using a portable circular saw in construction, safety must be a top priority. Some key safety
practices to follow include wearing appropriate personal protective equipment, such as safety glasses or
goggles, and avoiding loose clothing, jewelry, and long hair that can get caught in rotating parts. It's
important to use a saw that's not too heavy to control, check the switch before using, and use sharp
blades that are appropriate for the task. Inspect the saw before use to ensure all safety features,
including the blade guard, are in place, and operate the saw with both hands for maximum control.
Always ensure the surface being cut is stable and avoid cutting small pieces that can't be secured
properly.

Cold and Heat Stress

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has guidelines for preventing and addressing
cold and heat stress in the workplace. The guidelines are intended to protect workers from exposure to
extreme temperatures that can lead to injury, illness, or death. Here are some of the key requirements
for cold and heat stress under OSHA:
1. Employers must identify and evaluate the potential hazards of cold and heat stress in the
workplace, including factors such as temperature, humidity, air movement, and work demands.
2. Employers must develop and implement a plan to prevent and control cold and heat stress,
including engineering controls (such as heating and cooling systems), administrative controls
(such as work/rest schedules), and personal protective equipment (such as insulated clothing
and sun hats).
3. Employers must provide training to employees on how to prevent and recognize symptoms of
cold and heat stress, as well as emergency procedures for responding to heat exhaustion, heat
stroke, hypothermia, and frostbite.
4. Employers must monitor the temperature and humidity levels in the workplace and adjust work
schedules and duties as necessary to reduce the risk of cold and heat stress.
5. Employers must provide access to cool or warm fluids, such as water or sports drinks, to help
employees stay hydrated and maintain a safe body temperature.
6. Employers must establish a system for reporting and addressing concerns about cold and heat
stress, and employees must be encouraged to report symptoms of cold or heat stress.
These are some of the key requirements for cold and heat stress under OSHA. Employers must comply
with these requirements to ensure the safety and health of workers who are exposed to extreme
temperatures in the workplace.
Heat Stress
Hot environments, heavy physical work and warm clothing will increase the body temperature and the
heart rate. To compensate for increased internal body temperature, the body produces sweat which
escapes through the sweat pores and onto the surface of the skin. Evaporation of sweat from the skin
serves to cool the body and maintain equilibrium. However, there are instances where the sweating
response is inadequate to cool the body temperature and the internal heat build up can cause a variety
of heat related disorders.
Heat Symptoms
Disorders
Heat Rash Itching skin, skin eruptions, reduced sweating; generally caused by prolonged
sweating and inadequate skin cleaning or changing of sweat soaked clothing
Heat Cramps Painful abdominal muscles cramps or cramps in tired muscles causing
incapacitating muscle pain; generally originates from prolonged sweating without
replenishing the fluid or salt loss
Heat Brief blackouts or near fainting behaviour; often caused by pooling of blood in the
Syncope and legs or skin from standing or sitting in one position for too long in a warm
Dehydration environment.
Heat Often demonstrated with severe weakness, fatigue, dizziness and headache. There
Exhaustion may be a high pulse rate coupled with perfuse sweating, pale face although the
body temperature is normal or slightly increased.
Heat Stroke The most serious heat-related disorder and a risk of death. Heat stroke is
evidenced by chills irritability, restlessness, a red face, disorientation, erratic
behaviour, shivering, convulsions, unconsciousness and a body temperature that
may reach 40ºC (104º F).
Assessment of Environmental Temperature
Perhaps the most well-known index of environmental heat is called The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature
(WBGT) and is used widely to evaluate industrial heat stress. In an indoor environment, the equation is
as follows:
WBGTin = 0.7 Tnwb + 0.3 Tg
Where: Tnwb is the natural wet bulb temperature. The natural wet bulb temperature is a
measurement of temperature that takes into account the impact of both humidity and air
movement.
Tg is the globe temperature. The globe temperature is a measurement of radiant heat

from surrounding processes and equipment and convective heat exchange with the
ambient air.
Outdoors when there is no cloud and clear sunlight, the equation is as follows:
WBGTout = 0.7 Tnwb + 0.2 Tg + 0.1Tdb
Where: Tdb is the direct measure of the air temperature.
There are several electronic direct readout devices that can be used to measure WBGT. However, it
must be noted that WBGT is only an index of the heat in the environment. The demands of the work
(light, moderate or heavy), the acclimatization of the worker and the clothing worn must all be taken into
consideration to determine if a worker may become heat stressed.
ACGIH in the TLV booklet describes a series of charts and decision trees that help the occupational
hygienist determine the risk of heat stress in specific work situations.
Heat Risk Control Methods

Heat control methods refer to the various techniques used to manage and mitigate the effects of high
temperatures in the workplace. There are three main categories of heat control methods: engineering
controls, administrative and work practice controls, and the prevention of heat stress injuries.
1. Engineering controls involve the use of physical or mechanical systems to reduce exposure to
heat. Examples of engineering controls include air conditioning, ventilation systems, and fans.
2. Administrative and work practice controls involve changes to work practices and procedures to
reduce exposure to heat. Examples of administrative and work practice controls include providing

regular rest breaks, rotating workers to less physically demanding tasks, and adjusting work
schedules to avoid working during the hottest parts of the day.
3. The prevention of heat stress injuries involves a combination of education and training,
monitoring of workers' health and symptoms, and prompt medical treatment of heat-related
illnesses. Workers should be trained to recognize the symptoms of heat stress and to take
appropriate measures to prevent it, such as drinking enough fluids and taking regular rest breaks.
Employers should also provide adequate supplies of drinking water and shade, and monitor the
physical condition of workers to ensure they are not suffering from heat stress.
In conclusion, the best approach to heat control is a combination of engineering controls, administrative
and work practice controls, and the prevention of heat stress injuries. By using these methods together,
employers can create a safer and more comfortable working environment for their employees during hot
weather conditions.
Cold Stress
The body’s reaction to cold is quite different to its reaction to heat. Sweating and acclimatization to heat
are crucial during heat stress exposures but cold stress motivates the body to conserve heat by
reducing blood circulation through the skin. This measure reduces the amount of heat loss from the
blood through the skin surface.
A second response of the body is shivering which increases the rate at which the body utilizes its food to
generate heat. Excessive cold stress and cold related disorders:
Cold Symptoms
Disorders
Raynaud’s Raynaud’s syndrome is caused by exposure to cold and vibration. Classically, the
Disorder fingers will blanch and become stiff. Intermittent with the blanching there may be
tingling and reddening.
Chilblain Chilblains are often found on the feet and they are usually caused by inadequate
protection against cold and dampness. Areas of the feet and toes may swell, suffer
spasms and have local itching with painful inflammation.
Trenchfoot Trenchfoot is a similar condition to frostbite and is caused by exposure to cold
(above freezing) and damp. Trenchfoot results in swollen areas, severe pain,
blisters, tingling and itching.
Frostbite Frostbite is generally caused by exposure to cold below freezing. The skin may
appear white-grey or yellow to blue and black. Blisters may appear along with a
burning sensation, numbness and tingling.
Hypothermia Hypothermia can be caused by excessive exposure to cold. There may be signs of
slurred speech, shivering, a slow weak pulse, unconsciousness, chills, fatigue or
drowsiness and a body temperature of 35ºC (95ºF).
There are two principle factors that determine loss of heat from the person to the environment, namely
the air temperature and the air speed. A wind chill index describes the combined cooling effect of air
temperature and wind velocity. Generally speaking, sophisticated monitoring equipment is not needed to
determine a risk of cold stress. A simple dry bulb temperature measurement, an estimate of the air
speed combined with the subjective responses of workers, are sufficient for recognition of cold stress in
the workplace. More details of control measures recommended to prevent cold stress can be found in
the ACGIH TLV booklet.
Cold Stress Risk Control Methods

Cold control methods refer to the various techniques used to manage and mitigate the effects of low
temperatures in the workplace. There are three main categories of cold control methods: engineering
controls, administrative and work practice controls, and the prevention of cold stress injuries.
1. Engineering controls involve the use of physical or mechanical systems to increase exposure to
heat. Examples of engineering controls include heating systems, insulation, and weather
stripping.
2. Administrative and work practice controls involve changes to work practices and procedures to
reduce exposure to cold temperatures. Examples of administrative and work practice controls
include providing warm clothing and equipment, rotating workers to less physically demanding
tasks, and adjusting work schedules to avoid working during the coldest parts of the day.
3. The prevention of cold stress injuries involves a combination of education and training,
monitoring of workers' health and symptoms, and prompt medical treatment of cold-related
illnesses. Workers should be trained to recognize the symptoms of cold stress and to take
appropriate measures to prevent it, such as wearing appropriate clothing and taking regular rest
breaks. Employers should also provide adequate heating, provide warm shelters or break areas,
and monitor the physical condition of workers to ensure they are not suffering from cold stress.
In conclusion, the best approach to cold control is a combination of engineering controls, administrative
and work practice controls, and the prevention of cold stress injuries. By using these methods together,
employers can create a safer and more comfortable working environment for their employees during cold
weather conditions.
Combustibles
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has several regulations related to
combustible materials in the workplace. The following are some of the requirements:
1. Storage: Combustible materials must be stored in a safe manner that prevents the risk of fire.
The storage area must be well-ventilated, free from ignition sources and away from incompatible
materials.
2. Handling: Combustible materials must be handled with care to prevent the risk of ignition.
Employees must use the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and be trained in safe
handling practices.
3. Labeling: All combustible materials must be properly labeled to indicate their potential hazards
and to ensure they are stored and handled correctly.
4. Housekeeping: Work areas must be kept clean and free of excess combustible materials, dust
and debris.
5. Fire Prevention: Employers must provide fire extinguishers, fire alarms and sprinkler systems as
necessary to prevent or contain fires.
6. Hazard Communication: Employers must provide training to employees on the hazards of
combustible materials in the workplace, as well as proper handling and storage procedures.
7. Electrical Equipment: Electrical equipment used in areas where combustible materials are
present must be approved for use in hazardous locations.
8. Hot Work: Any hot work, such as welding or cutting, must be properly planned and conducted in
a manner that prevents the risk of fire.
It is important for employers to conduct regular hazard assessments and implement appropriate control
measures to prevent the risk of fire from combustible materials in the workplace.
Lasers
The term laser stands for ‘light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.’ Laser radiation is
unique in that it is composed only of one or a few wave lengths of radiation. It can be focused to deposit
all its energy on a small area. Laser beams, much like UV light, can produce biological damage in the
form of thermal burns and photochemical injuries. The eyes and the skin are the primary targets.
Concern about lasers is often related to their ability to produce retinal damage. Lasers can be visible or
they can be in the infrared-A range with wave lengths from 400 to 1400 nm. There are a number of
consumer and equipment standard setting organizations (ANSI and CSA) that address product safety
features. Occupational exposure limits are established by ACGIH and details can be found in the TLV
booklet.
Control Measures
Control measures for lasers depend on the class of laser. They can be divided into four classes ranging
from I, which is essentially harmless, to IV, which can be very hazardous. Precautions and procedures
for use become more stringent as the hazard class increases. Most lasers have a label affixed to them
by the manufacturer which describes their hazard class.
The ACGIH notes that normally it is not necessary to determine laser irradiances or radiant exposures
for comparison with the TLVs. The potential for hazard exposures can be minimized by the application of
control measures which are appropriate for the class of laser. Control measures are applicable to all
classes of lasers except Class I. Such measures, and other laser safety information, can be found in the
ACGIH publication, A Guide for Control of Laser Hazards and the ANSI Z136 Series published by the
Laser Institute of America.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has regulations related to the use of lasers
in the workplace to protect employees from the hazards associated with laser use. The following are
some of the requirements:
1. Hazard Assessment: Employers must conduct a hazard assessment to determine the potential
risks associated with the use of lasers in the workplace. This includes assessing the power and
frequency of the laser, the type of laser, and the potential for eye and skin exposure.
2. Control Measures: Employers must implement appropriate control measures to prevent
employee exposure to laser hazards. This includes using laser safety barriers, implementing
laser safety protocols, providing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), and controlling
access to the area where lasers are used.
3. Training: Employers must provide training to employees who work with or near lasers on the
hazards associated with laser use, control measures to prevent exposure, and emergency
response procedures.

4. Medical Surveillance: Employers must provide medical surveillance for employees who work with
high-powered lasers and may be at risk of eye and skin exposure.
5. Warning Signs: Employers must post warning signs in areas where lasers are used to alert
employees and others to the potential hazards.
6. Recordkeeping: Employers must maintain records of employee exposure to lasers and the
control measures implemented to prevent exposure.
It is important for employers to ensure that lasers are used safely in the workplace and to comply with
OSHA's regulations related to laser use. Employers should also follow manufacturer's instructions for the
safe use of lasers and establish procedures for the safe use of lasers in the workplace.
Confined Spaces
Confined spaces are defined by OSHA as spaces that are large enough for a worker to enter, are not
designed for continuous occupancy, and have limited means of entry or exit. Examples of confined
spaces include tanks, silos, pipelines, and storage bins.
Confined spaces can be hazardous to workers for several reasons. These hazards may include:
1. Lack of oxygen: Confined spaces may contain hazardous atmospheres that can displace oxygen,
making it difficult for workers to breathe.
2. Toxic gases and vapors: Confined spaces may contain hazardous chemicals or gases, which can
pose a serious risk to workers if they are not properly protected.
3. Fire and explosion hazards: Confined spaces may contain flammable or combustible materials,
which can create a risk of fire or explosion.
4. Engulfment hazards: Workers may be at risk of being engulfed by loose materials or liquids in the
confined space.
OSHA has specific requirements for employers regarding entry into and work in confined spaces to
protect workers from serious harm, injury, or death. Here are the general requirements for confined
spaces:
1. Identification and Evaluation: Employers must identify and evaluate all confined spaces in the
workplace. Confined spaces are defined as spaces that are large enough for a worker to enter
and perform work, have limited means of entry and exit, and are not designed for continuous
occupancy.
2. Written Program: Employers must develop a written program for working in confined spaces,
which includes information about the hazards associated with each space, procedures for entry
and exit, and emergency response protocols.
3. Training: All employees who work in or around confined spaces must receive proper training on
the hazards associated with these spaces, proper entry and exit procedures, and emergency
response protocols.
4. Entry Permit: Before any employee enters a confined space, the employer must issue a permit.
The permit must include information about the hazards associated with the space, the reason for
entry, and the expected duration of the entry.

5. Testing and Monitoring: Employers must test the atmosphere of a confined space for hazardous
gases, vapors, or fumes, and monitor the conditions throughout the work to ensure they remain
safe for workers.
6. Ventilation: Employers must provide adequate ventilation to ensure that the atmosphere inside
the confined space remains safe for workers.
7. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Employers must provide appropriate PPE for workers
entering confined spaces, including respiratory protection, body harnesses, lifelines, and lighting.
8. Emergency Response: Employers must have an emergency response plan in place for any
confined space entry. This plan must include procedures for evacuating workers in case of an
emergency, as well as protocols for summoning emergency services.
9. Rescue and Retrieval: Employers must have a plan in place for rescuing and retrieving workers
in the event of an emergency. The rescue plan must include procedures for removing workers
from the space and providing medical attention if necessary.
10. Recordkeeping: Employers must keep records of all confined space entries, including the results
of atmospheric testing, entry permits, and emergency response protocols.
It is essential to note that these are general requirements, and more specific regulations apply to
different types of confined spaces. Employers should always consult the OSHA regulations and
standards applicable to their specific workplace to ensure compliance.
Lockout and Tag out
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established lockout/tagout (LOTO)
standards to ensure that hazardous energy sources are properly controlled and kept from causing harm
to employees. Here are the main requirements for lockout/tagout under OSHA:
1. Written LOTO program: Employers must develop, implement, and maintain a written LOTO
program that outlines the procedures, practices, and training necessary to control hazardous
energy.
2. Equipment assessment: Employers must conduct an assessment of the workplace to identify
equipment that needs to be locked or tagged out to control hazardous energy.
3. Training: All employees who work in areas where LOTO is implemented must be trained in the
purpose and function of the energy control program, recognition of hazardous energy sources,
and the methods for energy isolation and control.
4. Procedures: Specific procedures must be established and followed for shutting down, isolating,
and controlling equipment.
5. Lockout/Tagout devices: Lockout and tagout devices must be standardized and used for all
energy control procedures.
6. Periodic inspections: Energy control procedures must be inspected at least annually to ensure
that they remain effective and are being properly followed.
7. Employee involvement: Employees who will be affected by LOTO procedures must be involved in
the development of the program and procedures.
8. Communication: The employer must communicate the energy control program and procedures to
affected employees.
9. Recordkeeping: The employer must keep records of LOTO training, equipment assessments,
and periodic inspections.
These are the main requirements for lockout/tagout under OSHA. Employers must also ensure that their
LOTO program is updated when changes in the workplace or equipment occur, and that employees are
retrained on the updated program.
Working around water
Working around water can present a variety of hazards, such as drowning, hypothermia, and electrical
shock. Employers must take appropriate measures to protect workers from these hazards in accordance
with OSHA standards. Some key requirements include:
1. Personal Flotation Devices (PFDs): If workers are working around water that is deeper than two
feet, they must be provided with a properly fitting US Coast Guard-approved PFD. Employers
must ensure that workers wear PFDs at all times while working around water.
2. Water Rescue Equipment: Employers must provide readily accessible rescue equipment, such as
life rings, rope, and ladders, in case a worker falls into the water.
3. Training: Workers must receive training on the hazards of working around water, the use of PFDs
and rescue equipment, and the proper techniques for rescuing a person from the water.
4. Monitoring: Employers must monitor workers who are working around water to ensure that they
do not become fatigued or disoriented, which can increase the risk of drowning.
5. Electrical Safety: Workers must be protected from electrical hazards when working around water,
such as the risk of electrical shock from power lines or electrical equipment.
Caught in and struck by
"C caught in" and "struck by" are two of the OSHA Focus Four hazards, which are the most common
causes of fatalities in the construction industry.
The "caught in" hazard refers to situations where workers are caught, crushed, or compressed by
equipment, machinery, or materials. Examples include being caught in between two pieces of equipment
or machinery, being caught in a trench collapse, or being caught in a conveyor belt or other moving
machinery.
The "struck by" hazard refers to situations where workers are struck by flying, falling, swinging, or rolling
objects. Examples include being struck by falling tools, materials, or debris, being struck by vehicles or
heavy equipment, or being struck by swinging or rolling equipment.
To prevent "caught in" and "struck by" hazards, employers should implement measures such as
providing appropriate protective equipment, ensuring that workers are properly trained, conducting
regular inspections of equipment and machinery, and ensuring that workers follow safe work practices,
including maintaining a safe distance from moving equipment and machinery.
Compressed Air Systems
Compressed air is commonly used in many industrial and construction applications, such as powering
pneumatic tools, cleaning and drying equipment, and ventilating confined spaces. However, the use of
compressed air also poses some safety hazards that employers and workers should be aware of.
OSHA has established safety standards for compressed air systems to protect workers from the hazards
associated with their use. Here are some of the requirements that employers must meet to ensure the
safe operation of compressed air systems:
1. Equipment must be properly maintained: Compressed air systems, including air compressors, air
receivers, and related equipment, must be properly maintained and inspected to ensure they are
in good working condition.
2. Use appropriate design and construction: Compressed air systems must be designed and
constructed in accordance with recognized engineering standards and OSHA requirements.
3. Follow pressure limitations: Compressed air systems must be designed and operated within their
rated pressure limits.
4. Compressed air receivers must be equipped with safety valves: Receivers used to store
compressed air must be equipped with a safety valve that is set to release pressure at a
maximum allowable working pressure.
5. Use appropriate protective equipment: Workers who operate or work around compressed air
systems should wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including eye and ear
protection.
6. Conduct training: Employers must provide training to workers on the safe operation of
compressed air systems, including proper use of equipment, potential hazards, and emergency
procedures.
7. Use only clean and dry air: Compressed air used for cleaning or other operations should be free
from oil, water, and other contaminants that could create a hazard for workers or damage
equipment.
Don’t use compressed air to clean or areas except when reduced to less tan 30 PSI or tape down the
triggers. Never bypass safety features and follow the instructions.
Efficient compressor systems are necessary to power pneumatic tools effectively. To maintain such a
system, certain guidelines should be followed. Firstly, it is essential to turn off the air supply before
making or breaking any air connection, and avoid kinking the hose as a shortcut. Secondly, protect the
air hose from damage, and use the appropriate size air hose and fittings to maintain maximum air
pressure throughout the line. Thirdly, clear any dirt off the nipple before connecting the air hose to the
tool. Fourthly, check the hose and all connections for leaks or damage before using the tool. Finally, a
clean, dry, and regulated source of air should be maintained to enable air tools to operate at their peak
performance.
Facility life safety features
Public space safety
Facility life safety standards for public spaces refer to the set of requirements and guidelines that ensure
the safety and protection of people who use public spaces in the event of an emergency or disaster.
These standards are established by various regulatory bodies such as the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA), International Building Code (IBC), and local fire departments.
Some of the key facility life safety standards for public spaces include:
1. Fire safety: Public spaces must comply with fire safety codes and standards that cover the
design, construction, and maintenance of fire protection systems such as sprinklers, alarms, and
extinguishers. Emergency exit routes and signs must also be clearly marked and easily
accessible.
2. Emergency communication: Public spaces must have a communication system in place that
allows for quick and effective communication during emergencies. This includes fire alarms,
intercom systems, and other communication devices that can be used to alert people of an
emergency and provide instructions.
3. Evacuation planning: Public spaces must have an evacuation plan that outlines the procedures to
be followed in the event of an emergency. The plan must be well-documented, regularly
reviewed, and communicated to all occupants of the public space.
4. Emergency power: Public spaces must have an emergency power supply that can provide
backup power to critical systems such as lighting and communication systems in the event of a
power outage.
5. Accessibility: Public spaces must be designed to accommodate people with disabilities, including
accessible entrances, exits, and evacuation routes.
Overall, facility life safety standards for public spaces aim to ensure that people are protected from harm
and have a clear and effective plan to follow in the event of an emergency or disaster.
Floor loading
Floor loading life safety refers to the maximum weight or load capacity that a floor can safely support
without collapsing or causing damage to the building structure. Buildings and facilities are designed to
support specific loads, and exceeding these limits can cause serious safety hazards for the occupants
and the building's integrity. It is crucial to ensure that the maximum allowable load limits are not
exceeded to prevent accidents and ensure the safety of people working or residing in the building.
The floor loading capacity is typically determined during the design and construction phases and is
based on factors such as the type of building, the intended use of the space, and the types of loads that
are expected. Load limits are typically measured in pounds per square foot (PSF) and are indicated on
the building's plans and specifications.
To maintain safe floor loading in a facility, it is important to regularly inspect and monitor the floors and
their load-bearing capacity. Floors should be free from any damage or deterioration that can reduce their
load capacity, and any changes in building occupancy, use, or equipment must be evaluated to ensure
they do not exceed the floor load capacity.
Additionally, it is essential to make sure that heavy loads are distributed evenly across the floor and not
concentrated in one area. This can be achieved by using load distribution equipment such as spreader
bars and rigging devices. Materials and equipment should also be stored in designated areas, with
weight limits indicated to prevent overloading.
Regular inspections and maintenance of the floors and proper use and storage of materials and
equipment can help ensure safe floor loading and prevent accidents or damage to the building structure.
Occupancy loads.
Occupancy load is the maximum number of people permitted in a building or a particular space. The
occupancy load varies based on the use of the building or space, as well as the size and configuration of
the area.
In terms of life safety, it is essential to ensure that the occupancy load does not exceed the capacity of
the building or space to safely accommodate the maximum number of occupants. This includes ensuring
that there are sufficient exits, escape routes, and fire protection systems in place to safely evacuate all
occupants in the event of an emergency.

The International Building Code (IBC) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) provide
guidance on determining the occupancy load for different types of spaces, based on the square footage,
use, and configuration of the space.
It is important for building owners, managers, and occupants to be aware of the occupancy load for their
buildings or spaces and to ensure that the number of people in the area does not exceed the maximum
allowable limit. This is essential for ensuring the safety and well-being of everyone in the building.
Fleet safety principles
Driver and equipment safety
Fleet driver safety is an important aspect of ensuring safe operations in a transportation company. Fleet
drivers are responsible for operating vehicles safely while delivering goods or transporting passengers to
their destination. A fleet driver safety program typically includes policies and procedures to ensure that
drivers are properly trained, that vehicles are regularly inspected and maintained, and that safe driving
practices are encouraged and reinforced.
Here are some key elements of a fleet driver safety program:
1. Driver training: Fleet drivers should receive comprehensive training on safe driving practices,
including defensive driving techniques, vehicle maintenance, and emergency procedures. This
training should be ongoing and refreshed periodically.
2. Vehicle maintenance: Vehicles should be regularly inspected and maintained to ensure that they
are in good working condition. This includes checking brakes, tires, lights, and other important
safety features.
3. Monitoring driver behavior: Fleet managers should use technology such as telematics or cameras
to monitor driver behavior and identify areas where drivers may need additional training or
coaching.
4. Driver feedback: Fleet managers should provide regular feedback to drivers on their
performance, including safe driving practices, fuel efficiency, and other important metrics.
5. Safety culture: Creating a safety culture within the organization is important to encourage safe
driving practices and ensure that everyone in the organization is committed to fleet driver safety.
Fleet equipment safety is an important aspect of ensuring safe operations in a transportation company. It
involves ensuring that all vehicles and equipment used in the transportation operations are safe, reliable,
and in compliance with applicable regulations and standards. A fleet equipment safety program typically
includes policies and procedures to ensure that all equipment is designed and manufactured to meet
safety standards, is regularly inspected and maintained, and is used in accordance with appropriate
guidelines and procedures.
Here are some key elements of a fleet equipment safety program:
1. Equipment design and manufacturing: Fleet managers should ensure that all equipment used in
the transportation operations is designed and manufactured to meet applicable safety standards
and regulations. This includes verifying that all safety features are properly installed and
functioning.
2. Equipment maintenance: All equipment should be regularly inspected and maintained to ensure
that it is in good working condition. This includes checking all safety features and conducting
repairs as needed.

3. Training and education: All employees who operate equipment should receive proper training and
education on how to operate the equipment safely and in accordance with applicable regulations.
4. Monitoring equipment usage: Fleet managers should use technology such as telematics to
monitor equipment usage and identify areas where equipment may need additional maintenance
or repair.
5. Equipment replacement: Fleet managers should regularly assess the age and condition of
equipment to determine when it is time to replace equipment to ensure the continued safety of
operations.
By implementing a comprehensive fleet safety program, transportation companies can reduce the risk of
accidents and injuries, protect their assets, and ensure compliance with legal and regulatory
requirements.
Maintenance
Fleet safety maintenance is an important aspect of ensuring safe operations in a transportation
company. It involves regular inspection, maintenance, and repair of vehicles and equipment to ensure
that they are in good working condition and that all safety features are properly installed and functioning.
Here are some key elements of a fleet safety maintenance program:
1. Regular inspections: Vehicles and equipment should be inspected on a regular basis to identify
any issues that could compromise safety. This includes checking tires, brakes, lights, and other
critical safety features.
2. Preventive maintenance: Preventive maintenance procedures should be in place to keep vehicles
and equipment running smoothly and to prevent breakdowns that could compromise safety. This
includes regular oil changes, filter replacements, and other routine maintenance tasks.
3. Repairs: Any issues identified during inspections or preventive maintenance should be promptly
repaired to prevent safety issues from becoming worse.
4. Tracking maintenance and repairs: Fleet managers should keep detailed records of all
maintenance and repairs performed on vehicles and equipment to ensure that everything is up-
to-date and in compliance with legal and regulatory requirements.
5. Employee education: All employees who operate vehicles or equipment should be educated on
the importance of safety maintenance and how to identify potential safety issues.
Surveillance equipment
Fleet surveillance equipment is technology used to monitor and track vehicles in a fleet. This equipment
provides valuable data that can be used to improve safety, efficiency, and compliance with regulatory
requirements. There are several types of fleet surveillance equipment that can be used in a
transportation company.
1. GPS Tracking: GPS tracking equipment is used to monitor the location and movement of vehicles
in a fleet. This information can be used to optimize routes, improve fuel efficiency, and track
vehicle maintenance.
2. Telematics: Telematics equipment collects data on vehicle performance, including speed,
braking, acceleration, and fuel efficiency. This information can be used to improve driver
behavior, identify maintenance issues, and optimize vehicle utilization.

3. Dash Cameras: Dash cameras can be installed in vehicles to record footage of the driver's
actions and the road ahead. This footage can be used to investigate accidents, monitor driver
behavior, and provide evidence in legal proceedings.
4. Blind Spot Detection: Blind spot detection equipment uses sensors to alert drivers when other
vehicles or objects are in their blind spots. This technology can help prevent accidents and
improve driver safety.
5. Tire Pressure Monitoring: Tire pressure monitoring equipment alerts drivers when tire pressure is
low. This can help prevent blowouts and other tire-related accidents.
GPS monitoring
Fleet GPS monitoring is a type of fleet surveillance equipment that uses GPS technology to track and
monitor the location of vehicles in a fleet. It provides real-time location data that can be used to improve
fleet management, optimize routes, and increase efficiency.
GPS tracking equipment can be installed in each vehicle in the fleet, and the data can be transmitted to
a central database where it can be analyzed. This information can be used to:
1. Optimize routes: By analyzing GPS data, fleet managers can identify the most efficient routes for
each vehicle, taking into account traffic patterns, road conditions, and other factors.
2. Monitor driver behavior: GPS data can be used to monitor driver behavior, such as speeding,
harsh braking, and idling. This information can be used to provide feedback to drivers and
improve their behavior, which can lead to increased safety and fuel efficiency.
3. Improve customer service: By tracking the location of vehicles in real-time, fleet managers can
provide accurate estimated arrival times to customers, improving customer satisfaction.
4. Increase efficiency: By analyzing GPS data, fleet managers can identify areas where vehicles are
being underutilized or where there is excess capacity. This information can be used to optimize
the fleet and reduce costs.
However, it's important to balance the benefits of GPS monitoring with privacy concerns. Companies
should have clear policies in place regarding the use of GPS tracking and should communicate these
policies to all employees. It's also important to ensure that the data collected is used in compliance with
applicable laws and regulations.
Telematics
Fleet telematics is a technology that collects and analyzes data from vehicles in a fleet. Telematics
systems use sensors and communication technology to collect data on vehicle performance, driver
behavior, and other factors that affect the operation of a fleet.
Telematics data can be used to improve fleet management in several ways, including:
1. Fleet optimization: Telematics data can be used to optimize vehicle routes, reduce idle time, and
improve fuel efficiency. By analyzing data on speed, acceleration, and other driving behaviors,
fleet managers can identify opportunities to reduce fuel consumption and optimize vehicle
utilization.
2. Driver behavior monitoring: Telematics systems can monitor driver behavior and provide
feedback to drivers on their performance. This can help improve driver safety and reduce the risk
of accidents.

3. Maintenance management: Telematics data can be used to identify maintenance issues before
they become serious problems. By tracking data on engine performance, tire wear, and other
factors, fleet managers can schedule maintenance tasks more effectively and reduce the risk of
breakdowns.
4. Compliance management: Telematics data can be used to ensure compliance with legal and
regulatory requirements, such as hours-of-service regulations for commercial drivers. By tracking
data on driving time, rest periods, and other factors, fleet managers can ensure that drivers are in
compliance with applicable regulations.
5. Asset tracking: Telematics data can be used to track the location of vehicles and other assets in
a fleet. This can be particularly useful for transportation companies that operate in remote or
hazardous locations.
By using telematics systems, transportation companies can improve safety, reduce costs, and increase
efficiency. However, it's important to balance the benefits of this technology with the privacy concerns of
employees and customers. Companies should have clear policies in place regarding the use of
telematics systems and should communicate these policies to all employees.
Hybrid vehicles
Hybrid vehicles can provide several safety benefits for fleets, including:
1. Improved fuel efficiency: Hybrid vehicles use a combination of gasoline and electric power to
operate, which can result in better fuel efficiency and lower emissions. This can help
transportation companies reduce their carbon footprint and save on fuel costs.
2. Reduced noise pollution: Electric motors used in hybrid vehicles are typically quieter than
traditional gasoline engines, which can help reduce noise pollution and improve the safety of
drivers and passengers.
3. Advanced safety features: Many hybrid vehicles come equipped with advanced safety features,
such as collision warning systems, automatic emergency braking, and lane departure warning
systems. These features can help prevent accidents and improve driver safety.
4. Enhanced visibility: Hybrid vehicles typically have better visibility than traditional gasoline
vehicles. This is because hybrid vehicles tend to have larger windows and fewer blind spots,
which can help drivers better see their surroundings and avoid accidents.
5. Improved handling: Hybrid vehicles tend to have a lower center of gravity than traditional gasoline
vehicles, which can result in better handling and improved stability on the road.
While hybrid vehicles can provide several safety benefits, it's important to ensure that they are
maintained properly to ensure that they are safe and reliable. Regular maintenance, including battery
inspections and tire rotations, is essential to keeping hybrid vehicles running smoothly and safely.
Additionally, it's important to provide training to drivers on how to operate hybrid vehicles safely and
efficiently, as they may require different driving techniques than traditional gasoline vehicles.
Fuel systems
Fuel systems are an important component of fleet management, as they are responsible for storing,
delivering, and monitoring fuel consumption for each vehicle in a fleet. There are several factors to
consider when managing fuel systems for a fleet, including:

1. Fuel storage: It's important to store fuel properly to ensure that it is not contaminated or lost due
to evaporation. This may involve storing fuel in tanks that are designed for the purpose and
ensuring that tanks are properly sealed to prevent leaks.
2. Fuel delivery: Fuel must be delivered to each vehicle in the fleet in a timely and efficient manner.
This may involve using fueling stations or having fuel delivered to a central location for
distribution to each vehicle.
3. Fuel consumption monitoring: It's important to monitor fuel consumption for each vehicle in the
fleet to identify opportunities to reduce fuel usage and increase efficiency. This may involve
installing fuel monitoring systems that track fuel usage and provide alerts when usage is outside
of expected parameters.
4. Fuel efficiency: It's important to ensure that each vehicle in the fleet is running at peak efficiency
to reduce fuel consumption and costs. This may involve providing regular maintenance and
tuning to vehicles, using fuel-efficient technologies such as hybrid engines, and training drivers to
operate vehicles in a fuel-efficient manner.
5. Fuel safety: Fuel systems must be designed and maintained with safety in mind. This may
involve ensuring that fuel tanks are properly vented to prevent the buildup of explosive fumes,
using appropriate safety equipment when handling fuel, and training drivers and maintenance
staff on proper fuel handling and safety procedures.
By managing fuel systems effectively, transportation companies can reduce costs, increase efficiency,
and improve safety for their fleets. It's important to establish clear policies and procedures for fuel
management and to ensure that these policies are communicated to all employees who handle fuel.
Driving under the influence
Driving under the influence (DUI) is a serious safety concern for fleet management. Impaired driving can
increase the risk of accidents, injuries, and fatalities. There are several strategies that transportation
companies can use to prevent DUI incidents and promote safe driving practices among their employees:
1. Pre-employment screening: Conduct pre-employment background checks and drug and alcohol
testing to identify potential DUI offenders during the hiring process.
2. Employee training: Provide regular training to employees on the dangers of impaired driving and
the company's policies regarding drug and alcohol use.
3. Zero-tolerance policy: Establish a clear zero-tolerance policy for drug and alcohol use while
operating a company vehicle or on company time.
4. Employee assistance programs: Offer employee assistance programs that provide resources and
support for employees who struggle with substance abuse or addiction.
5. Regular drug and alcohol testing: Conduct regular drug and alcohol testing of employees to deter
impaired driving and identify potential offenders.
6. Technology solutions: Install alcohol ignition interlock devices (AIID) on company vehicles that
require drivers to pass a breathalyzer test before starting the vehicle.
7. Consequences for violations: Establish clear consequences for employees who violate the
company's drug and alcohol policies, such as suspension or termination of employment.
By implementing these strategies, transportation companies can help prevent DUI incidents, reduce the
risk of accidents, and promote safe driving practices among their employees. It's important to establish a
culture of safety and responsibility around drug and alcohol use, and to communicate the importance of
safe driving practices to all employees.
Fatigue
Driver fatigue is a major safety concern for fleet management, as it can lead to decreased reaction times,
impaired decision-making, and a higher risk of accidents. There are several strategies that transportation
companies can use to prevent driver fatigue and promote safe driving practices among their employees:
1. Establish clear hours of service policies: Establish clear policies and procedures for maximum
allowable driving hours and required rest breaks. Ensure that drivers understand and comply with
these policies.
2. Monitor driver hours: Monitor driver hours to ensure that they are complying with hours of service
policies. Consider implementing electronic logging devices to help automate this process.
3. Promote rest and recovery: Encourage drivers to take regular breaks and to get adequate rest
and recovery time between shifts.
4. Provide education and training: Provide education and training on the risks of driver fatigue and
how to recognize the signs of fatigue.
5. Schedule shifts to reduce fatigue: Schedule shifts to reduce the risk of driver fatigue, such as
limiting the number of consecutive night shifts and avoiding scheduling drivers for excessively
long shifts.
6. Use technology to monitor driver behavior: Use telematics or other technology to monitor driver
behavior, such as sudden braking or swerving, which may indicate fatigue.
7. Encourage healthy habits: Encourage drivers to maintain healthy habits, such as exercise and
healthy eating, which can help reduce the risk of driver fatigue.
By implementing these strategies, transportation companies can help prevent driver fatigue, reduce the
risk of accidents, and promote safe driving practices among their employees. It's important to establish a
culture of safety around driver fatigue, and to communicate the importance of safe driving practices to all
employees.
Transportation safety principles
Air
Air transportation safety principles involve a wide range of safety measures and guidelines that are
designed to ensure the safety of passengers and crew in all aspects of air transportation, from design
and construction of aircraft to airport operations and air traffic control. Some of the key safety principles
in air transportation include:
1. Regulatory compliance: All air transportation activities must comply with federal regulations and
safety standards established by regulatory authorities, such as the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) in the United States.
2. Risk management: Air transportation safety requires a comprehensive risk management
approach, which involves identifying potential safety risks, assessing the likelihood and severity
of those risks, and implementing measures to mitigate those risks.
3. Safety culture: A strong safety culture is essential for promoting safety in air transportation. This
involves establishing a culture of safety within the organization, where safety is a top priority and
all employees are encouraged to report safety concerns and hazards.
4. Training and education: Comprehensive training and education programs for pilots, air traffic
controllers, and other personnel involved in air transportation are essential for promoting safety.
5. Aircraft design and maintenance: Safe air transportation requires aircraft that are designed and
maintained to the highest safety standards. This involves ensuring that aircraft meet all safety
requirements and that they are properly maintained and inspected.
6. Air traffic control: Safe air transportation also requires effective air traffic control systems, which
ensure that aircraft are properly spaced and that pilots are provided with up-to-date information
on weather conditions, air traffic, and other potential safety hazards.
7. Emergency preparedness: Air transportation safety requires effective emergency preparedness,
which involves developing and practicing emergency response plans, including procedures for
handling emergencies both in the air and on the ground.
Rail
Rail transportation safety principles involve a range of safety measures and guidelines that are designed
to ensure the safety of passengers, employees, and the public in all aspects of rail transportation. Some
of the key safety principles in rail transportation include:
1. Regulatory compliance: All rail transportation activities must comply with federal regulations and
safety standards established by regulatory authorities, such as the Federal Railroad
Administration (FRA) in the United States.
2. Risk management: Rail transportation safety requires a comprehensive risk management
approach, which involves identifying potential safety risks, assessing the likelihood and severity
of those risks, and implementing measures to mitigate those risks.
3. Safety culture: A strong safety culture is essential for promoting safety in rail transportation. This
involves establishing a culture of safety within the organization, where safety is a top priority and
all employees are encouraged to report safety concerns and hazards.
4. Training and education: Comprehensive training and education programs for train crews,
dispatchers, maintenance personnel, and other personnel involved in rail transportation are
essential for promoting safety.
5. Rail equipment design and maintenance: Safe rail transportation requires equipment that is
designed and maintained to the highest safety standards. This involves ensuring that rail
equipment meets all safety requirements and that it is properly maintained and inspected.
6. Track and infrastructure safety: Safe rail transportation also requires effective track and
infrastructure safety measures, which ensure that tracks and other infrastructure are properly
maintained and inspected to prevent accidents.
7. Emergency preparedness: Rail transportation safety requires effective emergency preparedness,
which involves developing and practicing emergency response plans, including procedures for
handling emergencies both on the train and at railroad crossings.
Marine
Marine transportation safety is the practice of protecting life, property, and the environment while
transporting people and goods on waterways. Safety managers in the marine transportation industry are
responsible for implementing and enforcing safety measures to ensure the safety of passengers, crew,
and the environment. Some key principles of marine transportation safety include:

1. Compliance with regulations: The safety manager must ensure that the organization complies
with all relevant regulations and safety standards set by regulatory authorities, such as the U.S.
Coast Guard, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and other national and international
bodies.
2. Risk management: The safety manager must identify potential hazards and implement measures
to mitigate risks. This includes conducting regular risk assessments and implementing effective
safety policies and procedures.
3. Safety culture: A strong safety culture is essential in marine transportation. All personnel should
understand the importance of safety and be encouraged to report any safety concerns or
hazards.
4. Training and education: The safety manager must ensure that all personnel receive
comprehensive training and education on safety procedures and best practices. This includes
regular safety drills and ongoing education and support.
5. Vessel design and maintenance: Safe marine transportation requires vessels that are designed
and maintained to the highest safety standards. The safety manager must ensure that all vessels
meet all safety requirements and are properly maintained and inspected.
6. Navigation safety: Safe marine transportation also requires effective navigation safety measures,
which include ensuring that vessels are equipped with the appropriate navigation equipment and
that all personnel are trained in its use.
7. Emergency preparedness: The safety manager must ensure that the organization has effective
emergency response plans in place, including procedures for handling emergencies on board
vessels and in port. This includes regular emergency response drills and coordinating with other
organizations to ensure effective response in the event of an emergency.
Materials handling
Forklifts
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has specific safety requirements for the
operation of forklifts in the workplace. The use of forklifts can be hazardous, and it is important to follow
these guidelines to ensure the safety of operators and other employees. Here are some of the key
OSHA requirements for forklifts:
1. Operator Training: OSHA requires that all forklift operators be trained and certified before
operating a forklift. The training should include both classroom and practical training on the safe
operation of forklifts.
2. Daily Inspections: OSHA requires that all forklifts be inspected daily to identify any issues that
could pose a safety risk. This includes checking the brakes, steering, tires, controls, and other
components.
3. Load Capacity: Forklifts must be marked with their load capacity, and operators must never
exceed this limit. The load must be properly balanced and secured to prevent it from falling off
the forklift.
4. Operating Conditions: Forklifts must only be operated in safe conditions. This includes ensuring
that the floor is level, that there is sufficient visibility, and that there are no obstructions in the
area.

5. Pedestrian Safety: Forklift operators must always be aware of their surroundings and watch for
pedestrians in the area. OSHA requires that a forklift must be equipped with a horn or other
warning device to alert pedestrians of its presence.
6. Maintenance and Repair: OSHA requires that all forklifts be properly maintained and repaired to
ensure their safe operation. This includes regular inspections, repairs as needed, and keeping
the forklift clean and free of debris.
By following these guidelines, organizations can help to ensure the safe operation of forklifts and
minimize the risk of harm to workers and others in the vicinity.
Foreign material exclusion (FME) and foreign object damage (FOD)
Foreign Material Exclusion (FME) and Foreign Object Damage (FOD) are important concepts in the
aviation, aerospace, and manufacturing industries, as well as in other industries where safety and
reliability are critical factors.
Foreign Material Exclusion (FME) refers to the measures that organizations put in place to prevent
foreign materials, such as tools, debris, or loose parts, from entering critical areas of their operations,
such as aircraft engines or manufacturing processes. The purpose of FME is to minimize the risk of
damage to equipment or harm to personnel that may result from the presence of foreign materials.
Foreign Object Damage (FOD) refers to the physical damage that can occur when foreign materials are
present in critical areas. This can include damage to equipment, such as aircraft engines, or harm to
personnel, such as cuts or bruises.
FME and FOD are interrelated and must be managed together in order to minimize the risk of harm to
equipment and personnel. Here are some steps that organizations can take to manage FME and FOD
effectively:
1. Awareness and Training: Employees must be made aware of the importance of FME and FOD
and must be trained on the procedures for identifying and removing foreign materials.
2. Housekeeping: Organizations must maintain good housekeeping practices, such as regularly
cleaning critical areas and removing debris and foreign materials.
3. Inspection: Regular inspections must be conducted to identify and remove foreign materials. This
may include the use of visual inspections, metal detectors, or other inspection tools.
4. Procedures: Organizations must have procedures in place for identifying and removing foreign
materials, as well as for reporting incidents of FOD. These procedures should be documented
and communicated to all employees.
5. Continuous Improvement: Organizations must continuously monitor their FME and FOD
processes and make improvements as needed to ensure the ongoing safety and reliability of their
operations.
By implementing effective FME and FOD management practices, organizations can help to ensure the
safety and reliability of their operations, minimize the risk of harm to equipment and personnel, and
maintain the integrity of their products and services.
Hazardous materials management
Hazardous Materials Management (HMM) is the process of handling, storing, transporting, and disposing
of hazardous substances in a safe and compliant manner. The goal of HMM is to prevent harm to human
health and the environment by controlling the potential risks associated with hazardous materials.

Here are some key elements of hazardous materials management:

1. Identification: The first step in HMM is to identify the hazardous materials present in the
workplace, including chemicals, biological materials, radioactive materials, and others.
2. Classification: Once the hazardous materials have been identified, they must be classified based
on their physical, health, and environmental hazards. The Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) provides a standardized system for classifying
and labeling chemicals.
3. Labeling: Hazardous materials must be labeled with the appropriate GHS pictograms, signal
words, hazard statements, and precautionary statements to communicate the hazards and safe
handling requirements.
4. Storage: Hazardous materials must be stored in designated areas that are suitable for the type of
material and its hazards, and in accordance with local, state, and federal regulations. Proper
storage helps to prevent accidental releases and potential harm to human health and the
environment.
5. Transportation: Hazardous materials must be transported in accordance with local, state, and
federal regulations. This includes using properly labeled containers, using approved shipping
papers, and ensuring that the materials are transported by trained and qualified personnel.
6. Disposal: Hazardous materials must be disposed of in a safe and compliant manner, in
accordance with local, state, and federal regulations. This includes properly disposing of waste,
contaminated materials, and products that have reached the end of their useful life.
7. Emergency Response: It is important to have a plan in place for responding to hazardous
material incidents, including spills, releases, and other emergencies. This plan should include
procedures for evacuating the affected area, providing medical attention to those who may have
been exposed, and reporting the incident to the appropriate authorities.
By following these key elements of HMM, organizations can help to prevent harm to human health and
the environment and ensure compliance with local, state, and federal regulations.
GHS labels
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) provides a
standardized system for classifying and labeling hazardous materials. The GHS is used in many
countries to ensure that hazardous materials are handled, stored, transported, and disposed of in a safe
and compliant manner.
Here are some key expert-level information on GHS labels in hazardous material management:
1. Purpose: The primary purpose of GHS labels is to provide information about the hazards
associated with a particular substance and to communicate the safe handling requirements. This
information is conveyed through the use of pictograms, signal words, hazard statements, and
precautionary statements.
2. Pictograms: GHS pictograms are graphical symbols that depict the specific hazards associated
with a substance. There are nine standard GHS pictograms, each of which represents a different
type of hazard, such as flammability, toxicity, corrosivity, and others.
3. Signal Words: GHS labels use signal words to indicate the level of hazard associated with a
substance. The two signal words used in GHS labeling are "Danger" and "Warning". "Danger" is
used for substances that pose a high hazard, while "Warning" is used for substances that pose a
lower hazard.
4. Hazard Statements: GHS labels include hazard statements that describe the specific hazards
associated with a substance. Hazard statements are written in plain language and provide
information about the potential health effects and environmental impacts of a substance.
5. Precautionary Statements: GHS labels also include precautionary statements, which provide
information about the measures that should be taken to prevent or minimize harm from exposure
to a substance. These statements may include information about protective clothing, first aid
measures, and proper disposal procedures.
6. Compliance: The use of GHS labels is mandatory in many countries, and organizations must
ensure that their hazardous materials are properly labeled in accordance with the GHS
requirements. Failure to comply with GHS labeling requirements can result in significant fines and
other penalties.
7. Updating: The GHS is periodically updated to reflect new information about the hazards of
chemicals and to improve the clarity and consistency of the labeling requirements. Organizations
must stay informed about the latest developments in GHS labeling and ensure that their
hazardous materials are properly labeled in accordance with the most recent version of the GHS.
By understanding these key aspects of GHS labels in hazardous material management, organizations
can ensure that their hazardous materials are handled, stored, transported, and disposed of in a safe
and compliant manner.
Storage and handling
Storage and handling of hazardous materials is an important aspect of Hazardous Material Management
(HMM). Proper storage and handling can help to prevent harm to human health and the environment by
controlling the potential risks associated with hazardous materials.
Here are some key elements of hazardous material management for storage and handling:
1. Storage: Hazardous materials must be stored in designated areas that are suitable for the type of
material and its hazards. This includes selecting the appropriate storage containers and ensuring
that the containers are properly labeled with the GHS pictograms, signal words, hazard
statements, and precautionary statements.
2. Segregation: Hazardous materials must be stored in a manner that prevents the mixing of
incompatible materials. This helps to reduce the risk of chemical reactions and accidental
releases.
3. Ventilation: Adequate ventilation must be provided in storage areas to prevent the buildup of
hazardous fumes and vapors. This can be achieved through the use of exhaust fans, natural
ventilation, or other methods.
4. Fire Protection: Hazardous material storage areas must be equipped with fire protection systems,
such as sprinkler systems or fire extinguishers, to minimize the risk of fire and to provide a means
for fighting fires in the event that one does occur.
5. Access Control: Access to hazardous material storage areas must be restricted to authorized
personnel only. This helps to prevent unauthorized access, which could result in harm to human
health and the environment.

6. Spill Prevention: Spill prevention and response plans must be in place to minimize the risk of
spills and to ensure that spills are cleaned up promptly and safely. This includes the use of spill
containment materials, such as absorbent pads, and the provision of personal protective
equipment for spill response personnel.
7. Handling: Hazardous materials must be handled in a manner that minimizes the risk of exposure
and harm to human health and the environment. This includes wearing appropriate personal
protective equipment, following safe handling procedures, and using appropriate handling
equipment, such as material handling carts.
By following these key elements of hazardous material management for storage and handling,
organizations can help to prevent harm to human health and the environment and ensure compliance
with local, state, and federal regulations.
Policy
A Hazardous Materials Management (HMM) policy is a set of guidelines and procedures that
organizations use to manage hazardous materials in a safe and compliant manner. The purpose of an
HMM policy is to ensure that hazardous materials are handled, stored, transported, and disposed of in a
manner that minimizes the risk of harm to human health and the environment.
Here is an explanation of the key elements of an HMM policy and an example of a policy statement:
1. Identification and Classification: The HMM policy should specify the procedures for identifying
and classifying hazardous materials, including the use of the Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS). This will ensure that hazardous materials are
properly labeled and stored in accordance with their hazards.
2. Storage: The HMM policy should describe the procedures for storing hazardous materials,
including the requirement for designated storage areas, segregation of incompatible materials,
and fire protection measures.
3. Handling and Transportation: The HMM policy should describe the procedures for handling and
transporting hazardous materials, including the use of personal protective equipment, safe
handling procedures, and proper packaging and labeling requirements.
4. Disposal: The HMM policy should describe the procedures for disposing of hazardous materials,
including the requirement to use approved waste disposal facilities and to comply with local,
state, and federal regulations.
5. Emergency Response: The HMM policy should describe the procedures for responding to
emergencies involving hazardous materials, including the requirement to have a spill prevention
and response plan in place.
6. Training: The HMM policy should specify the training requirements for employees who handle or
work with hazardous materials, including initial and ongoing training on safe handling and
emergency response procedures.
7. Record Keeping: The HMM policy should specify the record keeping requirements for hazardous
materials, including inventory records, training records, and emergency response records.
Here is an example of an HMM policy statement:
"Our organization is committed to managing hazardous materials in a safe and compliant manner. All
employees who handle or work with hazardous materials are required to complete initial and ongoing
training on safe handling and emergency response procedures. Hazardous materials must be properly
stored, handled, transported, and disposed of in accordance with local, state, and federal regulations.
Our organization has a spill prevention and response plan in place to minimize the risk of harm to human
health and the environment in the event of a spill. We will maintain accurate records of our hazardous
materials inventory, training, and emergency response activities to ensure compliance with all relevant
regulations."
By having a clear and comprehensive HMM policy in place, organizations can ensure that they are
managing hazardous materials in a manner that minimizes the risk of harm to human health and the
environment and ensures compliance with local, state, and federal regulations.
Security
Hazardous Materials Management (HMM) security refers to the measures that organizations put in place
to secure hazardous materials from theft, tampering, or unauthorized access. The purpose of HMM
security is to minimize the risk of harm to human health and the environment and to ensure that
hazardous materials are only accessed by authorized personnel.
Here is an explanation of the key elements of HMM security and examples:
1. Access Control: Access to hazardous material storage areas and transportation vehicles must be
restricted to authorized personnel only. This can be achieved through the use of physical security
measures, such as locks, security cameras, and security personnel, or through the use of
electronic access control systems, such as key cards or biometric authentication.
2. Physical Security: Physical security measures, such as fences, gates, and barriers, must be in
place to prevent unauthorized access to hazardous material storage areas and transportation
vehicles. In addition, security lighting should be provided to improve visibility and deter potential
intruders.
3. Transportation Security: Hazardous materials must be transported in a secure manner to prevent
theft, tampering, or unauthorized access. This includes using secure vehicles, such as closed
trucks or vans, and ensuring that the vehicles are locked and secured when not in use.
4. Record Keeping: Organizations must maintain accurate records of their hazardous materials
inventory and their movements. This helps to ensure that hazardous materials are accounted for
at all times and that any discrepancies can be quickly identified and addressed.
5. Employee Screening: Organizations must screen employees who handle or work with hazardous
materials to ensure that they do not pose a security risk. This can include background checks,
drug tests, and security clearances, as appropriate.
Here are some examples of HMM security measures in practice:
1. A chemical company implements an electronic access control system for their hazardous
material storage areas, requiring all employees to use key cards to enter.
2. A transportation company screens all of their hazardous materials drivers and requires them to
undergo background checks and drug tests.
3. A manufacturer installs security cameras and fencing around their hazardous material storage
area to prevent unauthorized access.

By implementing effective HMM security measures, organizations can help to prevent harm to human
health and the environment and ensure the safe and secure storage and transportation of hazardous
materials.
Multi-employee worksite issues
Multi-employer worksite issues refer to the safety challenges and concerns that arise when multiple
employers and employees are working at a common worksite, such as a construction site, manufacturing
plant, or office building.
Contractors are individuals or companies hired by a business or organization to perform a specific task
or project. They are not employees of the company and often work on a project-by-project basis.
In a multi-employee worksite, contractors can pose a unique set of challenges when it comes to
managing safety. These challenges include:
1. Training: Contractors may not receive the same level of safety training as permanent employees,
which could lead to increased risk of injury.
2. Compliance: Contractors may not be familiar with the company's safety policies and procedures,
leading to non-compliance and increased risk of injury.
3. Responsibility: It can be difficult to determine who is responsible for ensuring the safety of
contractors on a worksite. This can lead to confusion and a lack of accountability.
4. Communication: Communication between contractors and the company can be difficult, leading
to misunderstandings and a lack of coordination.
5. Supervision: Contractors may not have a direct supervisor on site, making it difficult to enforce
safety rules and monitor their actions.
To address these challenges, companies can take the following steps:
1. Provide comprehensive safety training for contractors and make sure they understand the
company's safety policies and procedures.
2. Establish clear lines of communication between contractors and the company to ensure everyone
is on the same page when it comes to safety.
3. Assign a specific person or team to be responsible for the safety of contractors on site.
4. Regularly monitor and assess the performance of contractors to ensure they are following safety
procedures.
5. Ensure that all contractors have the proper safety equipment and that it is in good working
condition.
6. Regularly review and update safety policies and procedures to address any emerging risks or
concerns related to contractors.
By taking these steps, companies can help ensure that contractors are working safely on their worksite
and minimize the risk of injury or harm.

Sources of information on hazards and risk management options

Subject matter experts
Subject matter experts are individuals who have in-depth knowledge and expertise in a particular field or
topic. They can be a valuable source of information when it comes to identifying and assessing hazards
and risk management options. Some common examples of subject matter experts include:
1. Health and Safety Specialists: These professionals have specialized knowledge in occupational
health and safety and can provide guidance on how to identify and mitigate workplace hazards.
2. Engineers: Engineers with expertise in a specific field, such as electrical, mechanical or chemical
engineering, can provide information on the potential hazards associated with certain types of
machinery, equipment or processes.
3. Industry associations and trade groups: These organizations can provide information and
resources related to best practices and industry standards for hazard identification and risk
management.
4. Government agencies: Agencies such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provide
information and guidelines on hazard identification and risk management.
5. Literature and reports: Peer-reviewed journal articles, industry reports and white papers can
provide valuable information on hazard identification and risk management in a particular industry
or field.
6. Online resources and databases: Websites and databases such as the Hazard Identification and
Risk Assessment (HIRA) database or the OSHA Hazard Identification Tool (OSHA HIT) can
provide information and guidance on hazard identification and risk management.
Relevant best practices
There are various sources of information on hazards and risk management options in relevant best
practices. Some of these sources include:
1. Industry associations: Industry associations such as the National Safety Council, National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), and the American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) are great
sources of information on best practices in hazard and risk management.
2. Government agencies: Government agencies such as the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provide information and guidelines on hazard
identification, risk assessment, and risk management.
3. Trade publications: Trade publications such as Safety & Health, EHS Today, and Professional
Safety provide articles, case studies, and expert opinions on current best practices in hazard and
risk management.
4. Online resources: There are numerous online resources such as websites, blogs, and forums
dedicated to safety and health, providing a wealth of information on hazard and risk management
options.
5. Consultants: Safety and health consultants can also provide valuable information and advice on
best practices in hazard and risk management, based on their experience and expertise in the
field.

An example of a relevant best practice in hazard and risk management would be the Hierarchy of
Controls. This approach outlines a systematic process for evaluating and controlling hazards in the
workplace. The hierarchy of controls starts with elimination or substitution of the hazard, followed by
engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment. By following this
hierarchy, employers can ensure that they are effectively controlling hazards and minimizing risk in their
workplace.
Published literature.
Examples of published literature on hazards and risk management options include:
1. Scientific journals: Many scientific journals, such as the Journal of Occupational Health and
Safety, publish articles and research studies on various hazards and risk management options in
the workplace.
2. Books: Books on occupational health and safety and risk management, such as "Handbook of
Occupational Safety and Health" by Anderson and Pattle, provide detailed information on various
hazards and risk management options.
3. Government agencies: Government agencies such as OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration), NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health), and NIST
(National Institute of Standards and Technology) publish guidelines and recommendations on
various hazards and risk management options.
4. Industry associations: Industry associations such as the National Safety Council, the American
Industrial Hygiene Association, and the National Fire Protection Association also provide
information and guidance on hazards and risk management options.
5. Online databases: There are many online databases, such as EBSCO, JSTOR, and ProQuest,
which provide access to a wealth of information on hazards and risk management options,
including articles, research studies, and guidelines from various sources.
SDS
An SDS (Safety Data Sheet) is a document that provides information on the properties and potential
hazards of chemicals and other hazardous substances used in the workplace. It is one of the sources of
information on hazards and risk management options. An SDS provides information on the product's
physical and chemical characteristics, potential health effects, fire and explosion hazards, spill and leak
procedures, storage requirements, disposal methods, and protective measures. For example, an SDS
for a hazardous chemical used in a manufacturing plant would include information on the protective
equipment and procedures required to handle the chemical safely, as well as first aid measures in case
of exposure.
The safety design criteria for workplace facilities, machines, and practices
UL
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is a safety science organization that provides safety testing and
certification services for a variety of products and equipment. UL's safety design criteria for workplace
facilities, machines, and practices are established to help ensure that products are designed and
manufactured in a manner that is safe for their intended use.
For example, UL has established safety criteria for electrical equipment, such as power supplies and
control panels, to help prevent electrical shock and fire hazards. The criteria includes requirements for
materials, insulation, and electrical grounding, as well as guidelines for the safe handling and use of
electrical equipment.
UL also has safety criteria for machinery and equipment, such as conveyors and cranes, to help prevent
mechanical hazards, such as crushing and entanglement, that could result in injury or death. The criteria
includes requirements for machine guarding, emergency stops, and safety interlocks, as well as
guidelines for the maintenance and inspection of machinery.
UL's safety criteria are used by manufacturers, engineers, and designers to help ensure that the
products they design and manufacture are safe for their intended use. UL also provides certification
services to help ensure that products meet the established safety criteria.
NFPA
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is a global organization that provides fire and life safety
standards for the protection of people and property. One of their key roles is to develop and maintain
codes and standards related to electrical safety in the workplace.
The NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC) is one of the key standards that provides safety design
criteria for electrical installations. The NEC provides minimum safety requirements for electrical
installations, including design criteria for electrical systems, electrical equipment, and electrical
components.
For example, the NEC provides design criteria for electrical grounding and bonding, electrical equipment,
and electrical wiring methods. The NEC also provides design criteria for electrical safety-related work
practices, including requirements for arc flash protection, electrical lockout/tagout, and personal
protective equipment.
The NEC is updated on a regular basis to incorporate new technologies, equipment, and electrical safety
practices. The NEC is widely adopted as a model code by state and local governments in the United
States, and is considered the benchmark for electrical safety in the workplace.
NIOSH
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is a federal agency under the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services that conducts research and makes recommendations for the
prevention of workplace injuries, illnesses, and deaths. The NIOSH safety design criteria focus on the
engineering and design of facilities, machines, and practices to promote worker safety and health.
Here are a few examples of NIOSH safety design criteria:
1. Machine design: NIOSH recommends machine designs that eliminate or minimize worker
exposure to hazardous moving parts, energy sources, and hazardous substances. For example,
the design of machines should eliminate pinch points, shear points, and crushing zones.
2. Ergonomics: NIOSH recommends that workplace facilities, machines, and practices be designed
to reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) associated with repetitive motions,
awkward postures, and excessive force.
3. Fire safety: NIOSH recommends that workplace facilities, machines, and practices be designed
to minimize the risk of fire, reduce the spread of fire, and provide for the safe evacuation of
workers in the event of a fire.
4. Hazardous substances: NIOSH recommends that workplace facilities, machines, and practices
be designed to minimize worker exposure to hazardous substances, including hazardous
chemicals, biological agents, and physical hazards such as radiation.

These are just a few examples of the safety design criteria recommended by NIOSH. The goal is to
create workplace facilities, machines, and practices that promote worker safety and health and minimize
the risk of injury, illness, and death.
FM
FM Global is a multinational insurance company that provides property and casualty insurance solutions
for industrial and commercial properties. In terms of safety design, FM Global provides guidelines and
criteria for facilities, machines, and practices to reduce the risk of losses due to fire, natural disasters,
and other causes.
Some of the key safety design criteria provided by FM Global include:
1. Fire suppression and alarm systems: FM Global recommends the installation of fire suppression
and alarm systems in facilities to ensure that a fire is detected and extinguished as soon as
possible.
2. Fireproofing: FM Global recommends fireproofing materials and construction techniques that are
designed to prevent the spread of fire from one part of a facility to another.
3. Ventilation: FM Global provides guidelines for the design and installation of ventilation systems in
facilities to prevent the buildup of hazardous gases and to provide fresh air for employees.
4. Electrical systems: FM Global provides guidelines for the design and installation of electrical
systems in facilities to ensure that electrical components are properly protected from damage and
that electrical fires are prevented.
5. Machine guarding: FM Global provides guidelines for the design and installation of machine
guards to protect employees from hazardous machine parts.
6. Emergency planning: FM Global provides guidelines for the development of emergency plans
and procedures to ensure that employees know how to respond to emergencies and to minimize
the impact of emergencies on the facility and employees.
7. Maintenance: FM Global provides guidelines for the maintenance of facilities, machines, and
practices to ensure that they continue to operate safely and effectively.
ISO
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) provides safety design criteria for various
industries, including workplace facilities, machines, and practices. The goal of these criteria is to provide
a consistent and comprehensive set of requirements to help ensure that products and systems are
designed and manufactured with safety in mind. Some of the key ISO standards that relate to safety
design include:
1. ISO 13849-1: Safety of machinery – Safety-related parts of control systems – Part 1: General
principles for design. This standard provides guidelines for the design and development of control
systems and related components to ensure the safety of machinery.
2. ISO 12100: Safety of machinery – General principles for design – Risk assessment and risk
reduction. This standard provides guidance on risk assessment and risk reduction to ensure that
machinery is designed and manufactured in a safe manner.
3. ISO 14121-1: Safety of machinery – Risk assessment – Part 1: Principles. This standard provides
a framework for conducting risk assessments and evaluating the safety of machinery.

4. ISO 14121-2: Safety of machinery – Risk assessment – Part 2: Practical guidance. This standard
provides practical guidance for conducting risk assessments and evaluating the safety of
machinery.
5. ISO 14122-3: Safety of machinery – Permanent means of access to machinery – Part 3:
Stairways, stepladders, and guardrails. This standard provides requirements for the design and
construction of permanent means of access to machinery, such as stairways, stepladders, and
guardrails.
These are just a few examples of the many ISO standards that relate to safety design in the workplace.
By following these standards, organizations can help ensure that their facilities, machines, and practices
are designed and manufactured with the safety of workers in mind.
Tools, machines, practices, and equipment safety
Hand tools
Hand tools are non-powered tools that can be anything from a hammer to a wrench. The biggest
hazards associated with hand tools result from improper use and maintenance. Dull chisels, for example,
can lead to many accidents that could have been avoided. Other hazards from improper use and
maintenance include using a screwdriver as a chisel, resulting in the tip breaking and causing an eye
injury or puncture wound. Additionally, wooden handles on hammers or axes may become loose and fly
off, potentially injuring a bystander. When using hand tools around flammable substances, there is a risk
of creating sparks and serving as an ignition source. In these situations, non-sparking tools made from
materials such as brass, bronze, or copper aluminum alloys should be used. However, these tools may
have less tensile strength and require frequent inspections for proper maintenance.
To prevent all hazards associated with power tools, it is essential to follow the five basic safety rules,
which include regular maintenance, using the right tool for the job, inspecting tools for damage before
use, following the manufacturer's instructions, and using proper personal protective equipment. Some of
the most common power tools that require extra attention include abrasive grinders, portable circular
saws, and compressed air systems.
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has specific safety regulations for the use of
hand and power tools in the workplace. Here are some of the key OSHA regulations related to hand and
power tool safety:
1. Selection and maintenance: Employers must ensure that hand and power tools are selected,
used, and maintained in a manner that prevents hazards, such as broken or loose handles, dull
blades, and worn cutting edges.
2. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers must wear appropriate PPE, such as eye
protection, gloves, and hearing protection, when working with hand and power tools.
3. Ergonomics: Employers must consider ergonomics when selecting hand and power tools to
minimize the risk of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) associated with repetitive motions.
4. Training: Workers must be trained in the proper use of hand and power tools, including safe work
practices, handling techniques, and maintenance procedures.
5. Improper use: Workers must not use hand and power tools in a manner that exceeds their
intended use or design limitations, such as using a screwdriver as a chisel.
6. Guarding: Power tools must be properly guarded to prevent accidental contact with moving parts,
such as circular saw blades or drill bits.
7. Hazard communication: Employers must properly label hand and power tools and communicate
hazards associated with their use, such as warnings of sharp edges or pinch points.
Ladders
Ladders are commonly used in many workplaces, including construction, maintenance, and warehouse
settings. Proper ladder safety is essential to prevent injuries and promote workplace safety. Here are
some workplace safety tips for using ladders:
1. Choosing the right ladder for the job: Employers must ensure that workers use the appropriate
ladder for the task at hand, taking into account factors such as height, weight capacity, and
conditions such as exposure to electrical hazards.
2. Maintaining ladders in good condition: Ladders must be inspected before each use to ensure
they are free from defects or damage that could affect their safety.
3. Proper ladder setup: Ladders must be placed on a stable and level surface and properly secured
or tied off to prevent slipping or falling.
4. Safe climbing practices: Workers should use three points of contact (two feet and one hand or
two hands and one foot) while climbing a ladder, and must not stand on the top rung or step of
the ladder.
5. Proper use of accessories: Ladder accessories such as ladder stabilizers, levelers, and safety
feet can improve ladder stability and safety, and should be used where appropriate.
6. Training: Employers must provide ladder safety training to workers who use ladders in the
workplace, including instruction on ladder selection, setup, climbing, and use of accessories.
7. Hazard assessment: Employers must conduct a hazard assessment to identify and control
potential ladder-related hazards in the workplace.
Grinders
Grinders are commonly used in many workplaces, including manufacturing, construction, and
metalworking.Here are some of the key OSHA regulations related to grinder safety:
1. Guarding: All grinders must have appropriate guards to protect workers from the moving parts of
the grinder. The guard must cover the spindle end, nut, and flange projections, and must be
securely attached to the grinder.
2. Grinding wheels: Grinding wheels must be rated for the maximum speed of the grinder, and must
be designed and used for the type of material being ground. The wheel must be free from cracks,
gouges, or other defects that could cause it to fail.
3. Training: Employers must provide grinder safety training to workers who use grinders in the
workplace, including instruction on safe work practices, guarding requirements, and use of
personal protective equipment.
4. Personal protective equipment: Workers must wear appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) when using grinders, including eye protection, hearing protection, and respiratory
protection as necessary.
5. Maintenance: Grinders must be maintained in good working condition, with damaged or worn
parts replaced as necessary.

6. Power supply: Grinders must be supplied with electricity through a grounded and protected
circuit.
potential grinder-related hazards in the workplace.
Hydraulics
Hydraulic systems are commonly used in many workplaces, including manufacturing, construction, and
transportation. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has specific safety regulations for
the use of hydraulic systems in the workplace. Here are some of the key OSHA regulations related to
hydraulic system safety:
1. Safe work practices: Workers must be trained in safe work practices when working with hydraulic
systems, including lockout/tagout procedures to prevent accidental startup or release of stored
energy.
2. Equipment design: Hydraulic systems and components must be designed, constructed, and
maintained in a manner that prevents hazards such as leaks, ruptures, and explosions.
3. Fluid selection: Hydraulic fluids must be selected and used in accordance with manufacturer
specifications to prevent equipment damage and minimize potential hazards such as fire and
toxicity.
4. Protective equipment: Workers must wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE)
when working with hydraulic systems, including gloves, eye protection, and hearing protection as
necessary.
5. Maintenance: Hydraulic systems must be properly maintained and inspected to ensure safe and
reliable operation, with damaged or worn parts replaced as necessary.
potential hydraulic system-related hazards in the workplace.
Robotics
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has specific safety regulations for the use of
robotics in the workplace. Here are some of the key OSHA regulations related to robotics safety:
1. Risk assessment: Employers must conduct a risk assessment to identify and control potential
hazards associated with the use of robotics in the workplace.
2. Training: Workers who operate, program, or maintain robotics must receive appropriate training,
including instruction on safe work practices, emergency stop procedures, and lockout/tagout
procedures.
3. Control measures: Employers must implement appropriate control measures to prevent injuries
associated with robotics, such as safeguarding and interlocking mechanisms to prevent workers
from entering hazardous areas during operation.
4. Emergency stop: An emergency stop button or other device must be provided to allow workers to
quickly stop robotic equipment in the event of an emergency.
5. Maintenance: Robotics must be properly maintained and inspected to ensure safe and reliable
operation, with damaged or worn parts replaced as necessary.

6. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers must wear appropriate PPE, such as eye
protection and hearing protection, when working with robotics.
7. Recordkeeping: Employers must maintain accurate records related to the operation and
maintenance of robotics, including injury and illness logs, training records, and maintenance and
repair logs.
By following these OSHA regulations and best practices for robotics safety, employers and workers can
help prevent robotics-related injuries in the workplace.
Workplace hazards (nanoparticles, combustible dust, heat systems, high pressure, radiation, silica dust,
powder, and spray applications, blasting, molten metals, human performance)
Nanoparticles
Combustible dust hazards can be present in various workplaces, including manufacturing, agriculture,
and food processing industries. Combustible dust is made up of fine particles of combustible materials
that can ignite and explode if they are suspended in the air and come into contact with an ignition
source. Here are some workplace hazards associated with combustible dust:
1. Explosions: Combustible dust can ignite and explode, causing severe injuries or fatalities.
2. Fires: Combustible dust can ignite and cause fires, damaging property and injuring workers.
3. Inhalation hazards: Workers who inhale combustible dust can develop respiratory problems, such
as asthma or lung disease.
4. Visibility hazards: Combustible dust can reduce visibility, making it difficult for workers to see
hazards and work safely.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with combustible dust, employers should
implement the following safety measures:
1. Housekeeping: Employers should implement a regular housekeeping schedule to remove dust
accumulations and prevent the buildup of combustible dust.
2. Explosion protection: Employers should install explosion protection systems, such as explosion
vents and suppression systems, to help prevent dust explosions.
3. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as respirators
and eye protection, to protect against inhalation hazards.
4. Hazard communication: Employers should communicate the hazards of combustible dust to
workers and provide training on how to recognize and respond to combustible dust hazards.
By implementing these safety measures, employers can help minimize the risk of workplace hazards
associated with combustible dust and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Combustible dust
Combustible dust hazards can be present in various workplaces, including manufacturing, agriculture,
and food processing industries. Combustible dust is made up of fine particles of combustible materials
that can ignite and explode if they are suspended in the air and come into contact with an ignition
source. Here are some workplace hazards associated with combustible dust:
1. Explosions: Combustible dust can ignite and explode, causing severe injuries or fatalities.
2. Fires: Combustible dust can ignite and cause fires, damaging property and injuring workers.
3. Inhalation hazards: Workers who inhale combustible dust can develop respiratory problems, such
as asthma or lung disease.
4. Visibility hazards: Combustible dust can reduce visibility, making it difficult for workers to see
hazards and work safely.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with combustible dust, employers should
implement the following safety measures:
1. Housekeeping: Employers should implement a regular housekeeping schedule to remove dust
accumulations and prevent the buildup of combustible dust.
2. Explosion protection: Employers should install explosion protection systems, such as explosion
vents and suppression systems, to help prevent dust explosions.
3. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as respirators
and eye protection, to protect against inhalation hazards.
4. Hazard communication: Employers should communicate the hazards of combustible dust to
workers and provide training on how to recognize and respond to combustible dust hazards.
associated with combustible dust and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Heat systems
Heat-related hazards can be present in various workplaces, including manufacturing, construction, and
outdoor work environments. Exposure to heat can be hazardous to workers' health, causing physical
discomfort, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and other injuries. Here are some workplace hazards
associated with heat systems:
1. Burns: Workers can be exposed to hot surfaces or materials, resulting in burns.
2. Dehydration: Exposure to heat can cause workers to become dehydrated, leading to fatigue,
headaches, and other symptoms.
3. Heat stroke: Workers can develop heat stroke, a potentially life-threatening condition, if they are
exposed to high temperatures for prolonged periods.
4. Heat exhaustion: Workers can develop heat exhaustion, a less severe form of heat illness, which
can cause fatigue, dizziness, and nausea.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with heat, employers should implement the
following safety measures:
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as heat-
resistant gloves, clothing, and footwear, to protect against heat-related hazards.
2. Engineering controls: Employers should install engineering controls, such as ventilation systems
and cooling fans, to help reduce heat exposure.
3. Administrative controls: Employers should implement administrative controls, such as scheduling
work during cooler times of the day and providing regular breaks for workers.
4. Hazard communication: Employers should communicate the hazards of heat to workers and
provide training on how to recognize and respond to heat-related illnesses.

associated with heat and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
High pressure
High-pressure hazards can be present in various workplaces, including manufacturing, construction, and
oil and gas industries. Exposure to high-pressure hazards can be hazardous to workers' health, causing
physical trauma, burns, and other injuries. Here are some workplace hazards associated with high
pressure:
1. Explosions: High-pressure systems, such as boilers and pipelines, can explode, causing severe
injuries or fatalities.
2. Chemical exposure: High-pressure systems that transport hazardous materials can leak or
rupture, exposing workers to dangerous chemicals.
3. Projectile hazards: High-pressure fluids, such as steam or water, can cause projectiles that can
injure workers.
4. Burns: High-pressure fluids can cause severe burns to workers who come into contact with them.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with high pressure, employers should implement
the following safety measures:
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as gloves,
eye protection, and protective clothing, to protect against high-pressure hazards.
2. Engineering controls: Employers should install engineering controls, such as pressure relief
valves and safety devices, to help prevent high-pressure hazards.
3. Administrative controls: Employers should implement administrative controls, such as regular
inspections and maintenance of high-pressure systems, to minimize the risk of workplace
hazards.
4. Hazard communication: Employers should communicate the hazards of high pressure to workers
and provide training on how to safely handle and work with high-pressure systems.
associated with high pressure and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Radiation
Radiation can be present in many workplaces, including medical, nuclear, and industrial settings.
Exposure to radiation can be hazardous to workers' health, causing a range of health problems,
including cancer, radiation sickness, and genetic mutations. Here are some workplace hazards
associated with radiation:
1. Radiation exposure: Exposure to high levels of radiation can cause acute radiation sickness,
which can be fatal. Chronic exposure to lower levels of radiation can increase the risk of cancer,
genetic mutations, and other health problems.
2. Fire and explosion: Radiation sources can be flammable, and any damage or mishandling of
equipment can lead to a fire or explosion.
3. Contamination: Radioactive materials can contaminate the environment and increase the risk of
exposure for workers.

4. Electrical hazards: Radiation equipment uses electricity, which can create a risk of electrical
shock if not used properly.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with radiation, employers should implement the
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as radiation
shields, gloves, eye protection, and protective clothing, to protect against exposure to radiation.
2. Engineering controls: Employers should install engineering controls, such as radiation shielding
and ventilation systems, to help prevent exposure to radiation.
3. Administrative controls: Employers should implement administrative controls, such as limiting the
amount of time workers spend in areas with radiation, and providing training to workers on how to
minimize exposure to radiation.
4. Hazard communication: Employers should communicate the hazards of radiation to workers and
provide training on how to safely handle and work with radiation.
associated with radiation and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Silica dust
Silica is a common mineral found in many types of rocks and soils, and is used in various industries,
including construction, mining, and manufacturing. Exposure to silica can be hazardous to workers'
health, causing lung cancer, silicosis, and other respiratory diseases. Here are some workplace hazards
associated with silica:
1. Inhalation: Inhalation of silica dust can lead to respiratory problems, including silicosis, lung
cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
2. Eye irritation: Silica dust can cause eye irritation and other eye problems.
3. Skin irritation: Exposure to silica can cause skin irritation and other skin conditions.
4. Hearing damage: Silica exposure can lead to hearing damage and other hearing-related issues.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with silica, employers should implement the
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as
respirators, gloves, eye protection, and protective clothing, to protect against inhalation and skin
exposure.
2. Engineering controls: Employers should install engineering controls, such as local exhaust
ventilation systems, to help prevent exposure to silica dust.
3. Administrative controls: Employers should implement administrative controls, such as limiting the
amount of time workers spend in areas with silica dust and providing training to workers on how
to minimize exposure to silica.
4. Hazard communication: Employers should communicate the hazards of silica to workers and
provide training on how to safely handle and work with silica.
associated with silica and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Powder and spray applications

Powder and spray applications are common in a variety of industries, including manufacturing,
automotive, and painting. These applications can involve the use of hazardous chemicals and present a
significant workplace hazard. Here are some workplace hazards associated with powder and spray
applications:
1. Inhalation of fumes and vapors: Powder and spray applications can release hazardous fumes
and vapors that can be harmful if inhaled. These can cause respiratory problems, eye irritation,
and other health issues.
2. Skin and eye irritation: Exposure to chemicals used in powder and spray applications can cause
skin and eye irritation, including rashes, burns, and other skin conditions.
3. Fire and explosion: The use of flammable materials and chemicals in powder and spray
applications can create a fire and explosion risk.
4. Electrical hazards: Powder and spray applications involve the use of electrical equipment, which
can create a risk of electrical shock if not used properly.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with powder and spray applications, employers
should implement the following safety measures:
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as
respirators, gloves, eye protection, and protective clothing, to protect against inhalation and skin
exposure.
2. Ventilation: Adequate ventilation can help reduce the risk of inhalation of fumes and prevent the
buildup of explosive gases.
3. Engineering controls: Employers should install engineering controls, such as local exhaust
ventilation systems and other equipment, to help prevent exposure to hazardous materials and
minimize the risk of fire and explosion.
4. Training: Workers should be trained on the proper handling and use of chemicals used in powder
and spray applications, as well as the associated hazards and safety measures.
associated with powder and spray applications and promote a safe and healthy work environment for
employees.
Blasting
Blasting is a common method used in construction, mining, and demolition to remove rock, concrete, or
other materials. However, blasting also presents a significant workplace hazard that can cause serious
injury or even death if proper safety measures are not taken. Here are some workplace hazards
associated with blasting:
1. Flying debris: During the blasting process, debris can be thrown into the air, causing a risk of
injury to workers and others in the area. This includes rocks, concrete, and other materials.
2. Noise exposure: Blasting produces high levels of noise, which can cause hearing damage and
other health problems over time. Workers who are regularly exposed to loud noise should wear
hearing protection.

3. Vibration exposure: Blasting can also produce vibrations that can cause damage to structures,
equipment, and nearby buildings. Workers who are exposed to these vibrations should be trained
on how to minimize the risk of injury.
4. Dust exposure: Blasting can produce dust that can cause respiratory problems, eye irritation, and
other health issues. Workers should wear appropriate respiratory protection and eye protection to
prevent dust exposure.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with blasting, employers should implement the
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as hard hats,
eye protection, hearing protection, and respiratory protection, to protect against flying debris,
noise, and dust exposure.
2. Safe distance: Workers should be kept at a safe distance from the blasting area to minimize the
risk of injury from flying debris, vibrations, and other hazards.
3. Warning signs: Employers should post warning signs to indicate the blasting area and warn
workers and others in the area of the potential hazards.
4. Training: Workers should be trained on the proper handling and use of explosives, as well as the
associated hazards and safety measures.
associated with blasting and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Molten metals
Molten metals present a significant workplace hazard in industries such as foundries, steel mills, and
metalworking. When metals are in a liquid state, they can cause severe burns and injuries if they come
into contact with workers' skin or clothing. Here are some workplace hazards associated with molten
metals:
1. Burns: Molten metal can cause severe burns if it comes into contact with skin or clothing. Even
small splashes or drips of molten metal can cause serious burns.
2. Fire and explosion: Molten metal can ignite flammable materials, such as wood or paper, and
cause a fire. Additionally, if water or other liquids come into contact with molten metal, they can
cause an explosion.
3. Inhalation of fumes: When metals are melted, they can release fumes, which can be harmful if
inhaled. These fumes can cause respiratory problems, eye irritation, and other health issues.
4. Heat stress: Working near molten metals can increase the risk of heat stress and heat-related
illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
To minimize the risk of workplace hazards associated with molten metals, employers should implement
the following safety measures:
1. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Workers should wear appropriate PPE, such as heat-
resistant gloves, protective clothing, and safety glasses or face shields, to protect against burns
and other injuries.
2. Engineering controls: Employers should install engineering controls, such as barriers and shields,
to help prevent workers from coming into contact with molten metal.
3. Ventilation: Adequate ventilation can help reduce the risk of inhalation of fumes and prevent the
buildup of explosive gases.
4. Training: Workers should be trained on the proper handling and use of molten metals, as well as
the associated hazards and safety measures.
associated with molten metals and promote a safe and healthy work environment for employees.
Human performance
Human performance plays a critical role in ensuring safety in construction and any other industry. Safety
in the workplace is directly related to the behavior and actions of employees. Every worker has a
responsibility to maintain a safe working environment, and this requires the ability to perform tasks
safely, efficiently, and effectively.
Human factors such as fatigue, stress, distractions, and other environmental factors can negatively
impact worker performance and increase the risk of accidents and injuries. Therefore, it is important to
consider human performance when designing work processes and procedures, as well as when
implementing safety programs and training.
Employers can improve human performance in relation to safety by implementing the following
strategies:
1. Training and education: Providing workers with the necessary training and education on safe
work practices, procedures, and the use of equipment can improve their knowledge and skills
and reduce the risk of accidents and injuries.
2. Ergonomic design: Ergonomic design of workstations, tools, and equipment can reduce physical
stress on workers and improve their overall comfort and performance.
3. Fatigue management: Implementing policies and procedures that address fatigue and promote
adequate rest and recovery can help improve worker performance and reduce the risk of
accidents and injuries.
4. Stress management: Providing support and resources for managing stress and promoting overall
wellness can help improve worker performance and reduce the risk of accidents and injuries.
5. Communication: Encouraging open communication between workers, supervisors, and
management can help identify and address potential safety hazards and improve overall safety
performance.
By implementing these strategies and continuously monitoring and evaluating human performance,
employers can create a safe and healthy work environment that supports workers and improves overall
safety outcomes.
Health and Wellness
Injury, Illness, and Disease Prevention Programs
Health protection (disease prevention) programs such as occupational health and safety programs,
hearing conservation programs, medical monitoring, and respiratory protection programs tend to be
introduced into the workplace by virtue of compliance with the various pieces of legislation. Others, like
pre-placement health screening programs, ergonomic assessments, vision screening, immunization, and
return-to-work fitness assessments, and international travel programs, exist because they make sound
business sense.

From a business perspective, “a strong link between highly effective health and productivity strategies
and strong human capital and financial results”. For example, market premiums that are 18 percentage
points higher, 40% higher average revenues per employee, lower annual health care costs, fewer lost
workdays due to absenteeism and disability, reduced staff turnover, and fewer employee health risks.
Effective marketing is critical to communicating the value of health promotion and health protecting
programs throughout an organization. Marketing is defined as a social and managerial process through
which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want by creating and exchanging products or
services and value with others.1 Effective marketing can be equated to effective marketing management.
Marketing management involves managing customer demand which, in turn, involves managing
customer relationships. OHS professionals can promote their health promotion or health-protecting
(prevention) programs by nurturing strong relationships with program champions and those workers who
support the services offered. Union leaders, line managers, and human resources personnel can be
valuable allies. They are well positioned to help market the program and its services.
To operationalize the concept of health protection, the following terms are defined:
Occupational Health and Safety Program - a complete system that ensures high safety standards
throughout the company’s operations and:
• reflects a strong commitment from management towards workplace health and safety;
• encourages worker commitment towards workplace health and safety;
• helps workers understand their responsibility for preventing workplace incidents;
• implements a work environment that provides the elements required to work safely, namely know
how to work safely, able to work safely, equipped to work safely and motivated to work safely;
• provides workers with safe work tools/equipment, and personal protective equipment;
• promotes strong worker personal hygiene practices, such as hand washing, avoidance of
eating/drinking in work areas, and removal of contaminated clothing at the end of a shift
• enables program evaluation and continuous improvement.
It is a defined action plan designed to prevent incidents and occupational diseases.
Hearing Conservation Programs – are designed to prevent noise induced hearing loss, that is, hearing
loss due to noise exposure greater than 85dB2. A hearing conservation program is comprised of:
• identification, assessment and control of noise hazards;
• management and worker education on noise, the potential ill effects, and effective control
measures;
• provision of hearing protection;
• medical monitoring through regular hearing tests; and
• regular program evaluation and continuous improvement of noise abatement
• measures to prevent hearing loss.
Ergonomic Programs – are aimed at preventing work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs).

Management commitment, worker involvement, program management, worksite analysis, ergonomic
prevention and control measures, stakeholder education and training, and medical management of
injuries are the key components.

Health Surveillance – the systematic collection and evaluation of worker data to identify instances of
illness or health trends suggesting adverse workplace exposures coupled with actions to reduce
hazardous workplace exposures. It includes job-specific immunizations such as tetanus, polio, hepatitis,
typhoid, etc. immunizations.
Medical Monitoring – monitoring is the evaluation of a disease/condition over time. It can be performed
by continuously measuring certain parameters (for example, respiratory capabilities, lung changes, etc.),
and/or by repeatedly performing medical tests (such as blood or urine tests for certain markers like the
presence of mercury, lead, or other chemicals).
Respiratory Protection Program – establishes acceptable practices for respirator selection and use;
for individual fit testing; for the care of respirators in accordance with the regulatory requirements; and
for the maintenance of respiratory equipment. In addition to having such a program, the employer must
also be able to demonstrate that the program is enforced and updated as necessary.
International Travel Program – addresses the preparation of international workers for work in foreign
environments, either on a temporary assignment, or on a long-term basis. Employee fitness to travel
assessment; preparation for regular healthcare; provisions for emergency treatment and evacuation;
orientation to social and cultural norms; and security briefings are all part of an International Travel
Program.
When adopting and/or maintaining a workplace health promotion program, OHS professionals need to
develop measurable program performance objectives which are endorsed and supported by senior
management.
Employee Assistance Programs
Employee assistance programs (EAPs) exist in the workplace to provide confidential, short-term,
professional counselling assistance to employees and their families to help them overcome personal and
family problems that undermine work performance. Historically, they were designed to address alcohol
and drug abuse in the workplace; however over time, EAPs have expanded their counselling services to
encompass:
• crisis management;
• financial counselling;
• legal counselling;
• career/vocational counselling;
• stress management counselling/seminars;
• time management counselling/seminars;
• change management counselling/seminars;
• divorce counselling;
• childcare and eldercare support;
• alternative therapies (behaviour modification, nutrition counselling, eating disorder
counselling,etc.);
• wellness programs; disability management, especially when psychological barriers to a
successful return to work exist; and
• advice to managers/supervisors on how to deal with difficult people situations at work.

Key to a successful EAP is respecting and upholding the confidentiality aspect of the service. The
provision of confidential counselling services is the cornerstone of any EAP. If jeopardized, employees
and family members will not use the EAP.
Employee assistance programs can be linked to disability management as employee assistance
counselors may be involved in providing services before disability occurs, during the disability period, in
the return-to-work process and as part of the follow-up process. It is important for the OHS professional
to be knowledgeable about the scope and function of EAPs, as well as the importance of protecting the
confidentiality of EAP services.
Understanding of Wellness Programs

Workplace Wellness Programs are operationalized as programs designed to manage both the
psychological and physical issues in response to environmental stressors, including one’s work
environment. They include programs like:
Stress Management
Stress is defined as the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on it. Another way of
defining stress is that it is “the result produced when a structure, system, or organism is acted upon by
forces that disrupt equilibrium or produce strain”. In our dynamic and busy industrial world, stress which
tends to be cumulative in nature, is something that everyone faces.
Stress is necessary to life: The body’s stress response is a key psycho-physiological adaptive
mechanism. Hans Selye breaks the stress response down into eustress and distress. Eustress or
positive stress is an agreeable and healthy experience which is associated with positive health,
increased performance, human growth, and learning. Distress or negative stress is a disagreeable and
pathogenic state in which health and performance deteriorates. It is associated with almost every
common illness from flu to heart disease.
Stress has been a major concern for businesses because the effects of stress impact all aspects of the
workplace and the organization. In the workplace, stress can originate from excessive workloads, lack of
work/life balance, inadequate staffing, the nature of the job, the pace and design of the work, the work
environment, and the structure and the style of the employee-employer relationship. Generally a
worker’s stress level rises when the individual faces multiple demands but perceives few avenues to
take control over those demands. When stress occurs in amounts that an individual cannot handle, both
psychological and physical changes can occur.
High levels of work stress have been found to be associated with lack of mental alertness, forgetfulness,
substandard work performance, workplace accidents, reduced productivity, frequent health problems,
workplace violence, and increased workplace losses.
Workplace stress is defined as “the harmful physical and emotional responses that can happen when
there is a conflict between job demands on the employee and the amount of control an employee has
over meeting those demands. In general, the combination of high job demands and a low degree of
control over the work situation can lead to distress and disease
Many organizations have implemented stress management programs. The assumption being that if
workers can be assisted to better manage their stress levels, savings can be realized through the
costavoidance associated with fewer accidents, lowered medical and absenteeism costs, and increased
productivity. Stress management programs have a basic premise: The worker does not have to be the
victim of stress. The belief is that there are many ways in which the worker can make a difference in

his/her health and well-being. In essence, personal/organizational stress can be managed and effectively
controlled.
Using this approach, stress management programs tend to be one of five types:
1. Education/awareness building;
2. Assessment-focused;
3. Skill-building;
4. Therapeutic/counselling; or
5. Organizational/environmental change.
The first three types of stress management programs tend to identify people with particular performance
issues and to teach them how to better cope with stressful situations. These approaches are
preventative in nature. The therapeutic or counselling stress management programs are aimed at
individuals who demonstrate particular symptoms and who need help to self-manage the distress they
are experiencing. Organizational or environmental change is the least frequently implemented stress
management program; yet, it can have the greatest impact on reducing workplace stress levels.
Based on the Towers Watson report, 2011-2012, organizations are having limited success at addressing
the high levels of workplace stress. It appears as if there is a discrepancy between what workers report
as the sources of workplace stress (namely inadequate staffing, unclear or conflicting job expectations
and organizational culture), and what organizations view as the sources of work stress (namely
excessive workload/long work hours and lack of work/life balance). This finding indicates that if
organizations want to effectively manage work stress, they need to recognize and assess the stressors
within their own work environment. 3
Stress management programs can be delivered as workshops, self-learning tools or through personal
coaching. Key to implementing a stress management program is to involve workers in the design of the
program; set agreed-upon performance objectives for the program; and evaluate the program outcomes
against those objectives. The ultimate goal is to create working environments that allow people to work
together in ways that optimize their health and well-being.
The OHS professional will have an understanding of workplace stress, how it can negatively impact the
workplace in terms of worker illness, accidents, and related costs, and how stress management
programs can be effectively implemented.
Physical Fitness Programs
Employee participation in worksite physical fitness programs can enhance employee health-related
fitness, reduce cardiac risk factors, decrease illness/injury rates, reduce the rate of employee
absenteeism, and lessen risk-taking behaviours.
Pender defines physical activity as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in
expenditure of energy and includes a broad range of occupational, leisure-time, and routine daily
activities. Exercise is leisure-time physical activity conducted with the intention of developing physical
fitness. Physical fitness is a measure of a person’s ability to perform physical activities that require
endurance, strength, or flexibility, and is determined by a combination of physical activity and genetically
inherited physical characteristics.

OHS professionals should encourage the development and implementation of workplace physical fitness
programs for large and small companies and then, promote employee participation.
Smoking
Tobacco use is a leading cause of death in both Canada and the United States. The health problems
caused by smoking include:
• Cancer of the lung, bladder, mouth, voice box, throat, kidney, cervix and bowel;
• Heart attack, circulatory problems, and stroke;
• Lung disease including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, emphysema, chronic bronchitis;
and
• Flu, pneumonia, colds, peptic ulcer, Crohn's disease, tooth loss, gum disease, osteoporosis,
sleep problems, cataracts, thyroid disease, and menstrual problems.
Smoking is also related to infertility, sudden infant death syndrome, and infant health problems. OHS
professionals should encourage the development and implementation of smoking cessation programs for
large and small companies, and then, promote employee participation.
Weight Management Programs

Eating patterns have a significant impact on an individual’s health and quality of life. Obesity is a
medical condition characterized by an excess of body fat and usually, but not always, as an excess of
body weight. Clinically, it is defined as having a body mass index rating of 30 and above. The Body
Mass Index (BMI) is defined as weight in kilograms divided by the square of the individual’s height in
meters and is highly correlated with the total body fat.
Since a significant number of workers are obese or overweight, the workplace is an ideal venue for
offering weight management programs. Such programs offer benefits for both the worker and the
organization.
OHS professionals should encourage the development and implementation of workplace weight
management programs and then, promote employee participation.
Disability Management Programs

Disability management, in its entirety, can be defined as the process of preventing and managing
absence from work. Operationally, it is an active process directed towards promoting and supporting
regular workplace attendance and minimizing the impact of impairment on the ill or injured employee’s
ability to compete in the workplace.
A disability management program is a management tool aimed at managing the real and potential
losses associated with employee illness and injury. An integrated disability management program
manages both occupational and non-occupational disabilities on a short- and long-term basis and
contains the following elements:
• Joint union-labour-management endorsement, commitment and involvement;

• Supportive policies, procedures and systems;
• A system that ensures accountability by all parties;
• Absenteeism and disability data collection for analysis and evaluation;
• Claims management and adjudication;
• Case management and coordination;

• Multi-disciplinary interventions — occupational health and safety, human resource, EAP, medical,
vocational or occupational rehabilitation professionals;
• Early intervention and a graduated return-to-work program; and
• Attendance support and disability prevention strategies.
The advantage of integration is that this approach provides a comprehensive approach to disability
management and according to Watson Wyatt Worldwide, employers who have integrated disability
management programs experience an average reduction of 19-25% in their total disability costs.
A disability management program is part of the business system functioning within a company. It
operates with, and is affected by, other system components such as employee pension and
compensation, employee benefits, workers’ compensation claims management, human resources
support, labour union/association support, business operations, employee assistance program,
employee physical fitness facilities, occupational health and safety programs, corporate counsel support,
etc. The disability management program needs to be aligned with these business systems and operate
according to the general system rules in place within the organization.
Implementation of a graduated return-to-work program can be an effective method of systematically

returning employees to health and work as well as contributing to cost-containment. Graduated returnto-
work programs through the use of modified work, support the importance of early intervention in
returning the recovering employee to the workplace in a safe and timely manner. The recommended
components of a graduated return-to-work program include:
• Employee and supervisor submission of all the necessary claim forms;

• Active involvement by the employee and supervisor;
• Early intervention;
• Communication with the employee and attending physician regarding the availability of
modified/alternate work;
• Regular follow-up with the employee and physician regarding employee fitness to work;
• Availability of modified/alternate work for the recovering employee;
• Documented return-to-work plans;
• Placement of the employee into suitable modified/alternate work;
• Monitoring of the employee’s progress and fitness to work;
• A gradual return to full-time duties;
• Evaluation of the claim management practices and outcomes;
• Evaluation of the case management practices and outcomes; and
• Data collection and management.
They involve interim measures which are offered to recovering employees and may include:
1. Changing their existing “own” occupation conditions such as hours of work, duties and
responsibilities
2. Accommodating workplace restrictions like lifting, transitional work, providing different
duties within another occupation or worksite; 3. Providing training opportunities; or
3. A combination of those listed.
From a mitigation perspective, OHS professionals have the expertise and can be given the responsibility
to provide a planned approach that minimizes barriers, so that employees can safely return to work. In
terms of prevention, the OHS professional has an important role to play in the prevention and
management of occupational and non-occupational illnesses/injuries.

Addiction Control
Tobacco is an addictive substance because it contains the chemical nicotine, a stimulant. Like heroin or
cocaine, nicotine alters brain functions, causing nicotine cravings. This addiction to nicotine is what
makes it so difficult for individuals to quit smoking or to stop using some smokeless tobacco products.
Workplace smoking cessation programs have proven effective at supporting employees to stop smoking.
But to be effective, these programs require the following elements:
o
• a workplace non-smoking policy;
• an ecological approach to smoking cessation;
• a needs assessment of each level of the ecological levels;
• program planning;
• implementation of the program; and
• evaluation of the program.
The abuse of alcohol and other drugs leads to impairment which in turn, causes accidents and injuries,
and negatively impacts workplace health and safety. The adverse effects of substance abuse on work
attendance, production, reliability, costs, and employee morale, directly concern employers.
Substance abuse/excessive gambling occurs when an individual continues to drink alcohol, use
drugs, or gamble heavily even when this behaviour causes trouble in their work and personal lives.
Workplace substance abuse as the use of a potentially impairing substance to the point that it
adversely affects performance or safety at work, either directly through intoxication or hangover, or
indirectly through social or health problems. Generally speaking, substance abuse is considered to occur
when a drug is taken without medical reasons, or if a substance impairs or jeopardizes the health or
safety of oneself or others. Abuse can occur by using a substance too much, too often, for the wrong
reasons, at the wrong time, or at the wrong place.
Factors that Impact Health and Wellness
Health and wellness are much more than the absence of disease and illness. Health, an essential life
ingredient, is influenced daily by the cultural, social, economic, and physical environments in which an
individual exists. When looking at health, it is important to consider non-medical factors - the social
determinants of health - that affect well-being. The determinants intersect and interact with each other,
so that the health of any individual is a complex summation of factors. There is considerable evidence
that these socioeconomic circumstances of individuals and groups are equally, or more, important to
health status than medical care and personal health behaviours.
The following are examples of the Social Determinants of Health (SDOHs):
• Environmental conditions;
• Income and social status;
• Social support networks;
• Lifestyle;
• Education;
• Employment and working conditions;
• Social environments
• Geography;
• Physical environments;
• Healthy child development;
• Health services;
• Gender; and
• Culture.
Environmental Conditions
The environmental factors include the work, home, community and environmental conditions to which
people are exposed. They include work and work conditions, home and home conditions, weather, air
quality, water quality, soil quality, etc.
Income and Social Status
Health status improves at each step up the income and social hierarchy. High income promotes living
conditions such as safe housing and ability to buy sufficient good food. The healthiest populations are
those in societies which are prosperous and have an equitable distribution of wealth.
Social Support Networks
Support from families, friends, and communities is associated with better health. Effective responses to
stress and the support of family and friends seem to act as a buffer against health problems.
Lifestyle
Choices in eating, sleeping, exercising, alcohol consumption, drug use, weight control and risk taking are
all lifestyle factors. They can either work towards or against healthy living.
Education
Health status improves with each level of education attained. Education increases opportunities for
income and job security, and gives people a sense of control over life circumstances - key factors that
influence health.
Employment and Working Condition
Unemployment is associated with poorer health. People who have more control over their work
circumstances and fewer stressful job demands are healthier and often live longer than those who are
involved in more stressful or riskier work and other activities.
Social Environments Social stability and strong communities can help reduce health risks. Studies
have shown a link between low availability of emotional support, low social participation, and mortality
(whatever the cause).
Geography
Whether workers live in remote, rural communities, or urban centres, the services available can have an
impact on their health. In addition to having a direct impact on the health of individuals and population,
SDOHs interact with each other. They are the best predictors of individual and population health and
tend to impact personal lifestyle choices.4
Fatigue in Workplace
Fatigue is the state of extreme weariness or exhaustion from work, overexertion, or stress. It can be
physical or psychological in nature, and result in reduced alertness, capabilities, and performance.
Fatigue is a very common complaint and it is important to remember that it is a symptom and not a
disease. Many illnesses can result in the complaint of fatigue and they can be physical, psychological, or
a combination of the two.

Shiftwork is any work conducted outside of normal daytime work hours (7 a.m.-6 p.m.), and which is
done on a regular or rotating-shift basis. Unfortunately, up to about 20% of workers are unable to tolerate
shiftwork. As well, a larger percentage of shift workers are at increased risk for negative health effects.
As such, the OHS professional must be cognizant of the impact of shift work on workers, and what can
be done through scheduling and other approaches to mitigate the effects of shift work on productivity,
morale, safety, and health.
Circadian rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle,
responding primarily to light and darkness in an organism’s environment. They are found in most living
things, including animals, plants, and many tiny microbes. Shiftwork can be opposed to the worker’s
biological rhythms and disruptive to the circadian system.
As such, the following negative health effects have been noted:
• disrupted sleep patterns

• reduced health and general wellness;
• gastrointestinal disorders and disease
• exacerbation of existing chronic health conditions like epilepsy, diabetes, asthma
• female reproductive problems (lowered fertility, spontaneous abortions)
• greater alcohol and substance abuse
• depression, mood disturbances, and personality changes
• reduced performance quality
• increased incident rates and injuries
• increased medical absences from work
Shiftwork Scheduling The scheduling of shift work impacts human health to differing degrees:
• Fixed shifts – always working the same shift – low birth weights
• Rotating shifts – moving regularly between day, evening, and night shifts
• Oscillating shifts – alternating between two shifts on a weekly basis – undetermined
effects
• Split shifts – a shift that is broken up by a period of off work time
• Alternate shifts – a 4-day workweek comprised of 10-hour days, nights, or evening and
weekends off or an 8-day workweek of 4 10-hour shifts followed by 4 days off.
Research has shown that work schedules that slowly rotate clockwise, that is, day to evening to night,
are the least problematic.
OHS professionals should assist employers to understand the hazards of shiftwork, and how to mitigate
and/or prevent the potential ill effects of shiftwork.
Influence of the Psychosocial Work Environment Influence On Worker Health and Wellness
Physical and social environments have major influences on a person’s health, both at home and at work.
In the physical environment, noise levels, toxic substances, air quality, and workplace design can directly
affect people. The social environment through such factors as work schedules, coordinating home and
work responsibilities, deadlines, work organization and available training and support impact worker
wellness. Interpersonal relationships including supervisor communication, feedback from co-workers,
and family relationships are affected by the social environment.
Some of the recognized organizational stressors that can negatively impact workers include:
• Inadequate staffing;
• Lack of clear or conflicting job expectations;

• No/limited line of sight;
• Lack of development;
• Lack of coaching;
• Lack of autonomy, discretion;
• Little opportunity for participation;
• Poor working conditions;
• Ineffective policies, processes or procedures;
• Poor communications;
• Ambiguity or conflict in roles;
• Lack of performance information;
• Unclear performance measures;
• Lack of meaningful work;
• Lack of effective feedback;
• Lack of recognition or reinforcement;
• Workplace harassment.
By implementing a supportive and people-oriented work culture, and transformational leadership at every
level of management, organizations can counter the influence of a negative psychosocial work
environment. A Supportive and Sustainable Work Culture is a system of shared beliefs and values
developed by management that produces a work environment in which workers know how to perform
their jobs, are able to perform their jobs, are equipped to perform their jobs, and are motivated to perform
their jobs competently. It defines management expectations, workplace civility, worker respect, and the
anticipated level of trust. In essence, it is the way management wants things to be done.
Transformational leadership is inspired leadership that influences the beliefs, values and goals of
workers so that they can perform in an extraordinary manner.
Influence of Work/life Balance on Worker Health and Wellness
Work/Life balance is a broad and dynamic concept that encompasses the prioritizing and balancing of
"work" (job, career, and ambition) on the one hand, with "life" (personal health, well-being, pleasure,
leisure, family time/responsibilities, social responsibilities, intellectual growth, and spiritual development)
on the other.
Related, though broader, other terms for work/life balance include "lifestyle balance" and "life balance".
To achieve work/life balance, individuals are encouraged to:
• separate work time, and family or leisure time;

• develop a “top priority” list for both work and home;
• schedule work and non-work activities in the same day planner or calendar;
• delegate some tasks to others;
• take on only what can be accomplished within the respective work or family time; and
• listen to one’s body - take time to exercise, eat well, relax, and sleep.
Employers are encouraged to promote work/life balance. The rationale is that organizations can benefit
by having:
• employees who attend work regularly, thereby reducing work absenteeism;

• increased work productivity;
• improved employee morale and working relationships;
• decreased presenteeism and related costs;
• decreased worker stress; and

• better employee attraction and retention.
Organizations that offer employees support and assistance when needed, net greater worker loyalty.
Through a workplace Attendance Support and Assistance Program, the organization is able to help
employees deal with their personal, home, and/or workplace issues in a responsible and constructive
manner.
Hydrostatics and Hydraulics
Hydrostatics and hydraulics are two branches of fluid mechanics that deal with the behavior of fluids in
static and dynamic situations, respectively. Here's a brief overview of each:
1. Hydrostatics: Hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest and the forces and pressures they exert on
surfaces. This branch of fluid mechanics deals with the calculation of the pressure in a fluid, the
forces exerted by a fluid on objects immersed in it, and the principles of buoyancy. Some
practical applications of hydrostatics include the design of dams, hydraulic presses, and hydraulic
lifts.
2. Hydraulics: Hydraulics is the study of fluids in motion, specifically the study of the transmission of
force through a fluid. This branch of fluid mechanics deals with the design and operation of
hydraulic systems, which use pressurized fluids to power machines and equipment. Hydraulics is
used in a wide range of applications, from heavy machinery and construction equipment to
automotive and aerospace systems.
Both hydrostatics and hydraulics are important fields of study in engineering and physics, and they are
essential for understanding how fluids behave in a variety of applications.
Pressure due to a fluid at rest (hydrostatic pressure)
Hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to the weight of the fluid above
it. This pressure is caused by the force of gravity acting on the fluid, which creates a force perpendicular
to any surface in contact with the fluid.
Hydrostatic pressure plays an important role in many applications, particularly in hydraulic systems and
structures such as dams and water tanks. Understanding and controlling hydrostatic pressure is crucial
for ensuring the safety and stability of such systems, as well as optimizing their performance.
The formula P = F/A is the formula for calculating pressure due to a fluid at rest, known as hydrostatic
pressure. Here's what each variable in the formula represents:
P: Pressure, usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi).
F: Force or weight, which is the weight of the fluid above the surface being measured. For water, this
weight is about 62.4 pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft^3).
A: Area, which is the surface area of the object or surface being measured, usually in square inches
(in^2).
To use this formula, you would first calculate the force or weight of the fluid above the surface you are
measuring, based on the density of the fluid (62.4 lb/ft^3 for water) and the height of the fluid above the
surface. Then, you would divide that force by the surface area of the object or surface being measured to
get the pressure at that point.
Example:

Let's say you have a rectangular container that is 2 feet long and 1 foot wide. The container is filled with
water to a depth of 3 feet. You want to calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container.
First, you need to calculate the weight of the water above the bottom of the container. The weight of
water is about 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. The volume of water above the bottom of the container is:
Volume = length x width x height
Volume = 2 ft x 1 ft x 3 ft
Volume = 6 cubic feet
So the weight of the water above the bottom of the container is:
Weight = Volume x Density
Weight = 6 ft^3 x 62.4 lb/ft^3
Weight = 374.4 pounds
Now that you have the weight, you can calculate the pressure at the bottom of the container. The area of
the bottom of the container is:
Area = length x width
Area = 2 ft x 1 ft
Area = 2 square feet
So the pressure at the bottom of the container is:
Pressure = Weight / Area
Pressure = 374.4 lb / 2 sq ft
Pressure = 187.2 psi
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container is 187.2 pounds per square inch.
Torricelli Law
Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, is a principle in fluid mechanics named after the
Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli. The law states that the speed of a fluid flowing out of an opening
in a container is proportional to the square root of the height of the fluid above the opening.
The formula for Torricelli's law is:
v = sqrt(2gh)
Where:
• v is the velocity of the fluid flowing out of the opening
• g is the acceleration due to gravity (usually taken to be 9.81 m/s^2)
• h is the height of the fluid above the opening
This formula applies to a fluid that is flowing out of an opening in a container due to the force of gravity. It
assumes that the fluid is incompressible and that there is no friction or other losses in the flow. In
practice, the actual velocity of the fluid may be lower due to these factors.
Torricelli's law is commonly used in fluid mechanics to calculate the velocity of water flowing out of a tank
or reservoir through a small opening, such as a spout or pipe. It can also be used to calculate the
velocity of fluids in other situations, such as the flow of air through a vent or the flow of oil through a
pipeline.
Example:
Suppose you have a tank of water that is 2 meters deep, and there is a small hole at the bottom of the
tank with a diameter of 0.5 cm. You want to know the velocity of the water flowing out of the hole.
First, you need to calculate the height of the water above the hole. Since the tank is 2 meters deep and
the hole is at the bottom, the height of the water above the hole is 2 meters.
Next, you can use Torricelli's law to calculate the velocity of the water flowing out of the hole. The
formula is:
v = sqrt(2gh)
where:
• g is the acceleration due to gravity, which is approximately 9.81 m/s^2
• h is the height of the water above the hole, which is 2 meters
So, the velocity of the water flowing out of the hole is:
v = sqrt(2 x 9.81 m/s^2 x 2 m)
v = sqrt(39.24)
v = 6.27 m/s
Therefore, the velocity of the water flowing out of the hole is approximately 6.27 meters per second.
The formula P = 0.433 × h is commonly used in fluid mechanics to calculate the pressure of a liquid at a
certain depth. Here's what each variable in the formula represents:
• P: Pressure of the liquid, usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or pascals (Pa).
• h: Depth of the liquid, measured from the surface of the liquid to the point where pressure is
being measured. The depth is usually measured in feet or meters.
The constant 0.433 is the unit conversion factor that converts the height of the liquid from feet to psi,
assuming that the density of the liquid is 62.4 lb/ft^3 (the density of water). If the density of the liquid is
different from water, then a different conversion factor would be needed.
To use this formula, you would simply measure the depth of the liquid from the surface to the point
where you want to calculate the pressure, and then plug that value into the formula to calculate the
pressure at that point.
For example, if you have a tank of water that is 10 feet deep, and you want to know the pressure at the
bottom of the tank, you can use the formula as follows:
P = 0.433 × h
P = 0.433 × 10
P = 4.33 psi
Therefore, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is 4.33 pounds per square inch.
Static head or hydrostatic head
Head pressure, also known as static head or hydrostatic head, is a term used in fluid mechanics to
describe the pressure exerted by a column of fluid due to gravity. It is typically measured in units of
length, such as feet or meters, and is equivalent to the height of the fluid column that would produce that
pressure.
The h = p/w, can be used to calculate the head pressure in feet (hp) based on the gauge pressure (p)
and weight of water (w) at a specific point.
Here's how you can use the formula:
1. Determine the gauge pressure (p) at the specific point you're interested in. Gauge pressure is the
pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
2. Determine the weight of water (w) at the specific point you're interested in. The weight of water
depends on the density of water and the volume of water.
3. Substitute the values of p and w into the formula:
h = p/w
where h is the head pressure in feet.
4. Calculate the result using a calculator or by hand.
Note that the units of p and w must be consistent in order for the formula to work. For example, if p is
given in psi (pounds per square inch), then w must be given in pounds per cubic foot. If p is given in kPa
(kilopascals), then w must be given in newtons per cubic meter.
Example:
Suppose you have a water tank with a gauge pressure of 20 psi (p) at the bottom of the tank. You want
to know the head pressure (hp) at the bottom of the tank.
The weight of water (w) depends on the density of water and the volume of water. Let's assume that the
tank is cylindrical with a diameter of 3 feet and a height of 6 feet, and that it's completely filled with water.
In this case, the volume of water is:
V = πr^2h = π(1.5 ft)^2(6 ft) = 42.4 ft^3
The weight of water can be calculated using the density of water, which is 62.4 lb/ft^3:
w = V * density = 42.4 ft^3 * 62.4 lb/ft^3 = 2,646.24 lb
Now we can use the formula h = p/w to calculate the head pressure:
h = p/w = 20 psi / (2,646.24 lb / 1 ft) ≈ 0.008 ft (or about 0.1 inch)
So the head pressure at the bottom of the tank is very small in this example, due to the low density of
water and the relatively low gauge pressure.
Velocity Head
The velocity head is defined as the height to which a fluid would rise due to the velocity of the fluid. It is
expressed in terms of the velocity of the fluid using the formula:
h_v = (v^2)/(2g)
where:
• h_v is the velocity head, expressed in feet (ft) or meters (m)
• v is the velocity of the fluid, expressed in feet per second (ft/s) or meters per second (m/s)
• g is the acceleration due to gravity, which is approximately 32.2 ft/s^2 or 9.8 m/s^2
Using this formula, we can calculate the velocity head for a given fluid velocity.
For example, if the fluid velocity is 10 ft/s, we can calculate the velocity head as follows:
h_v = (10^2)/(2*32.2) = 1.55 ft
Therefore, the velocity head for a fluid velocity of 10 ft/s is 1.55 feet.
Velocity Pressure at Constant Laminar Velocity
Velocity pressure is a concept used in fluid mechanics to describe the pressure exerted by a fluid as it
moves through a pipe or duct. This pressure is caused by the kinetic energy of the fluid as it flows, and it
can be calculated using the formula:
pv = q^2/ 891d^4
where pv is the velocity pressure, q is the flow rate of the fluid, and d is the diameter of the pipe or duct.
The formula shows that velocity pressure increases with the square of the flow rate and decreases with
the fourth power of the diameter. This means that small changes in diameter can have a large effect on
the velocity pressure, while changes in flow rate have a smaller effect.
Velocity pressure is important in many fluid systems, particularly in HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) systems. In these systems, the velocity pressure is used to determine the air flow rate and
the pressure drop across components such as ducts, filters, and dampers. By measuring the velocity
pressure, engineers can optimize the performance of the system and ensure that it meets the desired
specifications for air flow and pressure.
An example of how velocity pressure can be used is in the design of an HVAC system for a large
commercial building. The system must deliver a certain amount of air flow to each room, and it must do
so while minimizing energy consumption and maintaining a comfortable indoor environment.
To achieve this, the engineers must calculate the required air flow rate for each room based on factors
such as the room size, occupancy, and equipment. They then design a duct system that can deliver the
required air flow to each room.
As part of this design process, the engineers must calculate the velocity pressure in each section of the
duct system. This is done using the formula pv = q^2/ 891d^4, where q is the air flow rate and d is the
diameter of the duct. By measuring the velocity pressure, the engineers can ensure that the system is
operating within the desired range of air flow and pressure drop.
Example:
Let's say we have a circular duct with a diameter of 10 inches (0.254 meters) and a flow rate of 100
cubic feet per minute (cfm), or 0.0472 cubic meters per second (m^3/s). We can use the formula pv =
q^2 / 891d^4 to find the velocity pressure in the duct.
Now we can plug in the values for q and d:
pv = (0.0472 m^3/s)^2 / (891 * 0.254 m)^4 = 0.0006 Pa

Therefore, the velocity pressure in the duct is approximately 0.0006 Pa.
Flow Rates and Pressure Drops
Flow rates and pressure drops are important parameters in fluid systems, particularly in pipelines, ducts,
and other fluid-carrying components. The flow rate is the amount of fluid that passes through a given
point in the system per unit of time, while the pressure drop is the difference in pressure between two
points in the system.
In general, as the flow rate increases, the pressure drop also increases, due to frictional losses and other
factors. This relationship is described by various equations and laws in fluid mechanics, such as the
Darcy-Weisbach equation and the Bernoulli's principle.
One important consideration in fluid systems is the tradeoff between flow rate and pressure drop. In
some cases, it may be desirable to increase the flow rate in order to deliver more fluid or increase the
system's capacity. However, doing so may also increase the pressure drop, which can lead to higher
energy consumption, reduced efficiency, and other issues.
To optimize the system, engineers must carefully balance the flow rate and pressure drop, taking into
account factors such as the fluid properties, pipe or duct geometry, and system requirements. This may
involve using various tools and techniques, such as flow meters, pressure sensors, and computer
simulations.
For example, in an HVAC system, the engineers may need to determine the optimal air flow rate and
pressure drop for each component, such as the ductwork, filters, and fans. They can use equations such
as the Darcy-Weisbach equation to calculate the pressure drop for each section of the ductwork, and
use this information to optimize the system for energy efficiency and comfort. Similarly, in a pipeline
system, the engineers may need to balance the flow rate and pressure drop to ensure that the fluid is
delivered efficiently and safely to its destination.
The equation Q2 = Q1 * (S - R2^2)^0.54 / (S - R1)^0.54 can be used to calculate the final flow rate (Q2)
after increasing the flow rate of system 1. The equation takes into account the highest pressure in the
system (S), the pressure drop at the original conditions (R1), and the pressure drop at the new
conditions (R2).
Here's how to use the equation:
1. Determine the flow rate under the original conditions (Q1).
2. Measure the highest pressure in the system (S).
3. Run the system under specific conditions and measure the pressure drop (R1).
4. Increase the flow rate of system 1 and measure the pressure drop at the new conditions (R2).
5. Plug in the values into the equation:
Q2 = Q1 * (S - R2^2)^0.54 / (S - R1)^0.54
For example, let's say the original flow rate (Q1) is 50 gpm, the highest pressure in the system (S) is 80
psi, the pressure drop at the original conditions (R1) is 10 psi, and the pressure drop at the new
conditions (R2) is 8 psi. Then the final flow rate (Q2) after increasing the flow rate of system 1 can be
calculated as:

Q2 = 50 * (80 - 8^2)^0.54 / (80 - 10)^0.54 = 22.5 gpm

Therefore, the final flow rate after increasing the flow rate of system 1 is 22.5 gpm.
Orifice Flow Equation
The equation known as the orifice flow equation, which is used to calculate the amount of pressure drop
that occurs when a fluid flows through an orifice plate or other types of flow metering devices.
The equation is:
P = (K * Q^2) / 2
where: P = pressure drop across the orifice (psi) Q = volumetric flow rate (gpm) K = discharge coefficient
(dimensionless)
The discharge coefficient is a measure of how efficiently the fluid is able to pass through the orifice. It is
influenced by various factors such as the shape of the orifice plate, the size of the orifice, and the
viscosity of the fluid. The value of K typically ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a perfect orifice and 0
being a completely blocked orifice.
Here's an example of how to use the orifice flow equation:
Suppose a fluid is flowing through an orifice plate with a discharge coefficient of 0.6, and the volumetric
flow rate is measured to be 10 gpm. What is the pressure drop across the orifice?
Using the orifice flow equation, we have:
P = (K * Q^2) / 2
P = (0.6 * 10^2) / 2
P = 30 psi
Therefore, the pressure drop across the orifice is 30 psi.
Flow Rate- Pressure Relationship
The equation, q1/q2= sqroot(p1)/sqroot(p2), is known as the flow rate-pressure relationship in a piping
system that is subject to Bernoulli's equation. This equation states that the flow rate (Q) and pressure (P)
in a piping system are related to each other through the following equation:
q1/q2 = sqrt(p1/p2)
where q1 and q2 are the flow rates at two different points in the system, and p1 and p2 are the pressures
at those points. The square root function in this equation is necessary because the relationship between
pressure and flow rate is not linear.
This equation can be used to determine the flow rate at any point in the system if the pressure is known
at that point and at another point in the system. Conversely, it can also be used to determine the
pressure at any point in the system if the flow rate is known at that point and at another point in the
system.
For example, if the flow rate is known at point 1 (q1) and the pressure is known at point 2 (p2), the flow
rate at point 2 (q2) can be determined using the following rearranged equation:
q2 = q1 * sqrt(p2/p1)

Similarly, if the pressure is known at point 1 (p1) and the flow rate is known at point 2 (q2), the pressure
at point 2 (p2) can be determined using the following rearranged equation:
p2 = p1 * (q2/q1)^2
It's important to note that this equation assumes a steady-state, incompressible fluid flow, and that it
does not account for losses due to friction, fittings, and other obstructions in the piping system.
Therefore, the actual flow rates and pressures in a real-world system may differ from the values
calculated using this equation.
Example:
Let's say we have a piping system with two points, point 1 and point 2. The flow rate at point 1 (q1) is 10
gallons per minute (gpm), and the pressure at point 1 (p1) is 50 pounds per square inch (psi). We want
to determine the flow rate at point 2 (q2), given that the pressure at point 2 (p2) is 30 psi.
Using the flow rate-pressure relationship equation:
q1/q2 = sqrt(p1/p2)
We can rearrange it to solve for q2:
q2 = q1 * sqrt(p2/p1)
Substituting the known values:
q2 = 10 gpm * sqrt(30 psi / 50 psi)
q2 = 7.75 gpm
So, the flow rate at point 2 is approximately 7.75 gpm.
It's important to note that this is a simplified example that assumes ideal conditions, and that in real-
world scenarios, other factors such as friction losses, pipe diameter, and fluid viscosity can also impact
flow rates and pressures in a piping system.
Darcy-Weisbach equation- Friction
The equation, pd = 4.52Q^1.85/c^1.86d^4.87, is known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which is
commonly used to calculate the pressure loss due to friction in a fluid flowing through a pipe.
The equation states that the pressure loss due to friction (Pd) is proportional to the flow rate (Q), the
coefficient of roughness of the pipe (C), and the inside diameter of the pipe (d). The exponent values of
1.85, 1.86, and 4.87 are empirically derived constants that depend on the characteristics of the fluid and
the pipe.
To use this equation, you need to know the flow rate, coefficient of roughness, and inside diameter of the
pipe. Once you have these values, you can calculate the pressure loss due to friction.
Example:
Suppose we have a pipe with an inside diameter of 0.2 meters and a coefficient of roughness of 0.01.
Water is flowing through the pipe at a rate of 0.1 cubic meters per second. Using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, what is the pressure loss due to friction?
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is:
pd = 4.52Q^1.85/c^1.86d^4.87
Plugging in the values given, we get:

pd = 4.52(0.1)^1.85/(0.01)^1.86(0.2)^4.87
Simplifying the equation, we get:
pd = 0.132 Pa
Therefore, the pressure loss due to friction in the pipe is 0.132 Pa.
Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli's principle is a fundamental principle of fluid dynamics that relates the pressure, velocity, and
elevation of a fluid in a horizontal flow. It states that as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure
within the fluid decreases, and vice versa.
The principle is named after the Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli, who published his
work on fluid dynamics in his book "Hydrodynamica" in 1738. Bernoulli's principle is derived from the
principle of conservation of energy, which states that the total energy in a closed system is constant.
According to Bernoulli's principle, the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy of
a fluid must remain constant along a streamline. This means that if the velocity of the fluid increases, the
pressure must decrease, and if the velocity decreases, the pressure must increase. This relationship can
be expressed mathematically as:
P + 0.5rhov^2 + rhogh = constant
where P is the pressure, rho is the density of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, g is the acceleration
due to gravity, and h is the elevation above a reference point.
Bernoulli's principle has many practical applications, such as in the design of airplane wings, where the
shape of the wing is designed to increase the velocity of the airflow over the top of the wing, thereby
reducing the pressure and creating lift. It is also used in the design of carburetors, where the pressure
difference created by the Venturi effect is used to mix air and fuel in the correct proportions for
combustion in an internal combustion engine.
Bernoulli's equation is a fundamental principle in fluid mechanics that relates the pressure, velocity, and
elevation of a fluid in a steady flow. The equation is expressed as:
vA^2/ 2g + pA/w + zA = vB^2/2g + pB/w + zB + hAB
where:
• vA and vB are the velocities of the fluid at points A and B, respectively (in units of feet per second
or meters per second).
• g is the acceleration due to gravity (in units of 9.8 m/s^2 or 32.2 ft/s^2).
• pA and pB are the pressures of the fluid at points A and B, respectively (in units of pounds per
square inch or pascals).
• zA and zB are the elevations of the fluid at points A and B, respectively (in units of feet or
meters).
• w is the weight of the fluid per unit volume, which is equal to the product of the fluid density (ρ)
and the acceleration due to gravity (g).

• hAB is the piezometric head, which is the sum of the elevation difference between points A and B
(zB - zA) and the pressure head difference between points A and B (pB - pA)/w.
This equation is useful for analyzing many types of fluid flow problems, including pipe flow, open channel
flow, and flow around objects. By using Bernoulli's equation, engineers and scientists can make
predictions about the behavior of fluids and design more efficient fluid systems.

Domain 5- Emergency Preparedness, Fire Prevention, and Security

Emergency/crisis/disaster response planning/business continuity
There are many possible events that will result in negative consequences to a community. These
include natural events such as hurricanes and windstorms, excessive precipitation, floods, tidal waves,
earthquakes, prolonged heat or cold, infectious diseases and associated epidemics and many others.
The list of human-made events has extended to include fires, hazardous spills and releases, criminal
acts or terrorist attacks, transportation and engineering failures and many others.
Prevention is the best way to reduce the probability of any event occurring. Risk reduction should be a
key component of any management plan.
The intent is to minimize the possibility of any risk event and their consequences before they may occur.
However, if an event does occur, the consequences of the emergency can be minimized by
implementing an appropriate response. Emergency response is an effective and strategic way to counter
the effects and severity of the event. This has become even clearer after the analysis of many historical
high-risk events.
Reviews of nuclear accidents, wildfires, terrorist attacks, and other major events have shown that an
improved emergency response strategy and organization would have saved lives and reduced losses
after the event.
Why is EP&RP needed?

An Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan (EPRP) is needed to minimize the impacts and
outcomes of a significant event. These include the minimization of the effect on:
• The health and livelihood of the public,

• employees of the facilities,
• the natural environment,
• facilities, equipment and the built environment, and
• the operations and business of the economy.
Who has responsibility to do this?

There are several public service organizations including the police, the fire department, the coast guard,
and in some cases the military, that have responsibility to protect the public. However, private
organizations and businesses have a responsibility to provide emergency response resources that will
protect their own employees, facilities, and sites and the public and natural environment that may be
impacted by an event. The event may be initiated at the business site. However, it is apparent that
many off-site events may cause on-site secondary emergencies. For example, regional flooding may
cause engineering failures on the site of the business, and this may in turn affect the public.
Governments have legislation in place that set out responsibilities associated with public and private
event emergencies.
A business may not have the same entitlement to all resources and after event securities as the public.
In addition, the business may require specialized emergency response expertise, methods, and
equipment that are not available from public responders. Insurance requirements on businesses usually
require a level risk minimization and a capability to respond to risk events to maintain coverage.

Planning For Emergencies

Perhaps the first question is “what type of emergency do we need to prepare for?” As the chief safety
officer of a business or a facility, you are aware of the internal risk events that may occur. This should
have been generated from your HAZOP analysis or Risk Assessment. This may include a range of
possible events arising from personal workplace injuries to fires, chemical releases, and material
explosions.
Workplace emergency planning usually includes several disaster events that may be internal or external
in origin, such as:
• flooding
• weather events
• wildland fires
• tsunamis
• earthquakes
• backcountry accidents
• wildlife encounters
• disease outbreaks
• landslides
• avalanches
• HAZMAT releases and spills
• drought
• engineering failures
• transportation emergencies
• utility power, water and waste disposal failures
• terrorist events
By the nature of emergencies, they may not be foreseeable and may strike at random times. This
makes preparing for them exceedingly difficult. However, preparations for emergency events can be
made and prioritized according to the likelihood of occurrence and the consequences they present to
the community and workplace.
Preparations should try to prioritize events to optimize your:
• planning
• training requirements
• resource and equipment needs
• first aid requirements
• communication systems
• financial resources
An understanding of the type of events that are most important will also impact your communication and
reliance on other emergency responders (e.g. Police and Fire Departments, Coast Guard, HAZMAT
teams, local Militia, medical and hospital staff).
Industrial Fire Brigades

Industrial fire brigade is an essential part of every plant emergency plan. The size, nature, and
expectations of the industrial fire brigade will vary depending on the size, location and value of the plant.
Management must decide what type and size of fire brigade is required and must support the brigade
through the provision of resources, equipment and training. NFPA 600, Industrial Fire Brigades, provides
guidelines for organizing an industrial fire brigade. There are five basic responsibilities that should be
fulfilled by an industrial fire brigade:
1. supervise evacuation drills
2. operate firefighting equipment (extinguishers and hoses)
3. provide emergency scene first aid and CPR if needed
4. conduct inspections.
5. implement emergency shutdown procedures.
Site Evacuation and Shelter-In-Place

An Emergency Response Plan must ensure the safety of employees and the public that are impacted by
an emergency. Depending on the nature of the emergency, this will likely involve a means to evacuate
the area to safer locations. To that end, the Emergency Response Plan should:
1. state the types of emergency that require evacuation, for example fires, chemical spills and
gaseous releases, and dangerous site conditions,
2. a designation of primary and secondary evacuation routes complete with signage, appropriate
emergency-ready lighting,
3. maintenance of pathways, corridors, and stairwells in a clear and accessible manner,
4. designation of wardens that will manage the evacuation, attend to those that need assistance,
and assist in accounting of employees.
Communications
The Plan should also set out command and communication systems to enable a safe evacuation when it
is needed. The communication system should be defined for operations within the workplace. Of equal
importance, is the communication system to ancillary responders such as fire and police departments,
and medical support that will be required in the event of some emergencies. This plan should state
specific communication technologies (e.g. two-way radios, cellphones, etc) that will be in operation in the
event of the emergency, and the command structure for communicating with employees and responder
groups.
Procedures, Maps, and Directions

The plan should specify documentation for evacuation processes and have it posted in visible locations
within the workplace. The intent is to inform the employees and visitors prior to an emergency event.
Emergency Drills
Drills are used to train and reinforce the evacuation plan before an emergency occurs. It is also a way
to test the efficiency and overall practicality of the evacuation and response effort.
Drills should be conducted at least once a year or as new employees are integrated into the workplace.
Records of the drills need to be retained.
Employee Accounting and Personal Information
The Plan should include some method of accounting for employees that are present and evacuated
during the emergency. Fundamental information about the identity of the employees, their medical
considerations, contact, and next-of-kin is important in the event of an emergency. It also must be
administered with strict confidentiality to ensure the privacy of the personal information.

Assembly Areas
Safe locations for evacuees need to be identified within the plan. The location is important not only for
the fact that it is safe from the hazard, but also because it allows employees to be accounted for, and
health and injuries to be attended to, if necessary. A suitable first aid kit should be located in each
assembly area.
Shelter-in-Place
In some emergencies, evacuation may not be the safest option. If this is the case, the employees or
public should maintain shelter where they are if it is safer than moving to an evacuation assembly area.
For example, safe shelters may be rooms or buildings that are secure from an external toxic gas leak,
extreme outdoor weather conditions, acts of violence, or a terrorist threat.
The concept of shelter-in-place has been identified as the best safety option for certain events that are
becoming more frequent, in particular certain acts of violence and terrorism. Reviews of several alarming
shooting events in schools, workplaces, and public spaces have found that shelter-in-place combined
with secure lockdown of entrances and passageways may be the best immediate response to this type
of threat. Evacuation is a secondary safety strategy but after the initial threat has been reduced.
This threat is significant enough that the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
has published an Evacuation Planning Matrix that can be used for workplaces to plan for a response to
these types of incidents. This planning tool identifies certain workplaces as being more likely targets of
an event on the basis of three semi-quantitative measures, they are:
1. “vulnerability”, an estimate of value of the site as a target for a terror event. For example, sites
that contain hazardous materials, provide essential services to the public, high-rise buildings that
have limited means of egress, and transportation carriers such as ships and airplanes.
2. “threat”, an estimate of the presence of an adversarial person or group with the intent to harm,
3. “Significant impact” and estimate of the “perceived success” of an attack, in terms of casualties,
media attention, civil disruption, and terror.
The OSHA recommendation is for Yellow and particularly the Red Zone workplaces and facilities to have
evacuation and/or shelter-in-place management plans in place. This style of risk assessment is different
from traditional engineering forms of RA on the basis that the likelihood of an event is not based on
accidents or engineering failures. Instead, the risk measure is partially based on the willfulness of an
individual or group to do harm.

By extension of the target classification, the location is identified as:

1. Green (low vulnerability, low threat, low impact) and unlikely targets
2. Yellow (significant in one of the three categories, but not in the other two) and
moderate targets,
3. Red (significant in two of vulnerability, threat, and impact), and of high target value.
Education and Training

Education and training is a necessary component of the ERP. There are several levels of specialization
that are possible. The level of specialization and the overall sophistication of the responding team(s) is
dependent on the emergency. This is discussed further in the section on Incident Command Systems
(ICS).
Emergency Response Directors
Directors responsible for emergency command structures require a specific knowledge of systems
associated with command and authority, communications, finance, and communicating with the media.
During large operations these responsibilities are often delineated to other individuals and teams, but the
Directors must have a basic understanding of their roles and capabilities.
Technical Specialists
Technical specialists must have specific training in equipment and in working in response teams. This
may be in specific ER equipment (such as self contained breathing apparatus, fire extinguishers and
strategies, etc.), or in other equipment specializations (e.g. heavy machinery operations).
Employee Responders
In most workplaces, employees are trained to support the emergency response plan. Specific duties
and designations such as:
1. evacuation wardens,
2. first aid support,
3. technical support for operational shutdown, and
4. fire wardens
are often assigned to capable employees.

Associated with these duties and designations is a responsibility and a need for proper training in these
tasks. Some specific instruction is required to understand the emergency response plan and the
command/communication structure of the response. In addition, the employees should be informed
about:
• their roles and responsibilities during the emergency,
• what types of emergencies may occur and what types of threats, hazards and protective actions
should be taken,
• protocols associated notification and emergency announcements,
• evacuation plans, routes, and safe areas, and the shelter-in-place strategy,
• accountability procedures to be used during and after the event and how to contact family
members,
• the modes of communication and the specific technology required to communicate during the
event,
• the equipment that will be used in an emergency.
The duties associated with these responsibilities are usually associated with the employee’s role in the
organization as a technical specialist or area leader.
Other non-responders
This group includes other employees, site guests, customers, students, and members of the public that
do not have an official role in the emergency response plan. To improve the effectiveness of the ERP,
these groups need to have visible and audible access to posted evacuation route maps, safety areas,
and announcements.
It is notable that many courses are available to emergency responders, and many courses and
programs of study include designations and certifications indicative of a maturing educational field.
Equipment Requirements
The risk management plan should have identified key risk events that are possible and this can be used
by the Emergency Response Planner to identify resources that are necessary to mitigate the effects of
the event if it should occur. This can be done in several stages by identifying:
1. Equipment that is required on a local basis at facility. This may include fire protection and fire
fighting equipment, Hazmats suits and kits, warning and alarm systems, signage and
communication equipment needed in preparation and during an emergency, and other
specialized equipment to deal with site specific technologies (e.g. toxic gas leaks) and
transportation requirements.
2. Equipment and resources that may be needed on a local basis using public response units (fire,
police, medical and other emergency depts.).
3. Other resources that are available to be employed from regional response organizations (e.g.
aerial support such as water bombers, helicopters, coast guard support, and others).
4. Equipment and resources that may be required from private emergency organizations such as
CANUTEC.
A clear listing of the resources and equipment, and their locations and contact information is needed in
the event of an emergency.

First Aid
First aid response operates at many levels. For small local emergencies a trained attendant and an
appropriate first aid kit may be enough to respond effectively. In contrast, large-scale disaster events
may require several levels of aid reaching up to the regional health authority. Large-scale responses
require medical support coordination and planning.
It is useful to determine the level of first aid equipment and training that is needed by each location and
site. Emergency responders are often required to contact first aid and should be trained and equipped to
do so. At some locations a first aid site will be needed to respond to potential casualties. If the
emergency is large and has many casualties, local medical and ambulance staff will require service
areas.
Finance
Emergency response is not performed in the continuity of normal work and resource requirements.
Emergencies are expensive, require extended specialist support, and the immediate implementation of
equipment and resources. The financial support and documentation of emergency response activities is
important and require a unique set of guidelines to ensure funds are spent appropriately.
Emergency response costs are associated with activities required to save lives, reduce suffering, protect
property and measures to reduce the immediate impact of the emergency. Typically, they do not include
regular payroll, training, and preparation costs. During recovery operations the costs of returning public
services to preemergency conditions are included in the finance responsibility.
Organizations will normally set out an approval criterion so that expenses in the emergency can be
approved by an officer or director of sufficient financial authority.
Public Communication
Sites and industries that have hazardous materials and processes will initiate programs to inform local
public members of emergency planning actions. Most industrial zones are separated from commercial
and residential lands and this reduces the risk to the public in the event of a large industrial accident.
However in some towns and agricultural areas this has not occurred for historical planning reasons and
residences or farms may be very close to industrial facilities. Actions to reduce the risk to these
properties may be implemented through the emergency planning strategy. This may include consultation
in the emergency plan preparation so that residents understand the risks and the actions that are to be
implemented if an event were ever to occur.
Incident Command Systems

The Incident Command System (ICS) is a systematic methodology designed to apply to any emergency
response event. In particular, it lays out a system that includes a command structure and a set of policies
that allow responders to work together effectively in their response process no matter how large and
complex the incident becomes. By extension of the organizational plan, the ICS includes personnel,
funds, resources, facilities, and equipment management within the command structure. The ICS should
be scalable and be able to respond to the incident as a unified centrally organized team. By the nature of
emergency incidents this often requires several organizations or different units to function within the
same structure and communicate using a common terminology.

Events that require an Incident Command System

Emergency events have been classified as natural disasters (floods, earthquakes, forest fires, etc), and
man-made events such as transportation accidents and failures, chemical and oil spills, and power
system failures.
More recently, terrorist attacks have been recognized as events that require several multi-agency
responders to coordinate their response. Significant events may cause several secondary risk events.
However, oftentimes there are faint boundaries between events. For example, an earthquake is a
seismic event initially, but may result in a tsunami and emergency flooding, that in turn results in power
failures and in the case of the Fukushima disaster, a leak of radioactive material from a power facility.
The events mean that structures are insecure, residents and workers need to be moved to safe locations
and rescued from perilous conditions. Medical assistance and response crews and equipment need to
be relocated. The immediate initial response to the event is only part of the obligation. As the event
evolves other needs are met by other responders and services involved with recovery.
Command Structures
A fundamental principle of ICS states that every individual participating in an operation report to only one
individual. This is designed to minimize conflicting supervisory directions, and to improve the unity of
command. ICS employs a single set of terms for emergency response events. This is designed to
minimize confusion and errors associated with different sets of meanings used by the various responding
agencies. A set glossary of terms must be understood and used by all respondents to the emergency.
The command structure is designed to be “scalable”. A small emergency should only need a small
command structure, but if the emergency changes and becomes more significant in its potential
consequences, the command structure should change as well. Normally, the first-on-the-scene assumes
command until the event becomes larger and more resources are required for an appropriate response.
At that time the command will be passed to a more senior officer and the response roles may be re-
delegated. Under ICS, the number of supervisory responsibilities managed by one individual should be
between three and seven team members, with five being the optimum number.
Action Plans
The response to an event should be set out in an incident action plan. The plan may be related verbally
or in written form. If the event is of duration longer than a few hours the plan should be written. Incident
action plans for responses to hazardous material incidents must be in written form. The action plan
needs to set out the objectives, the strategy for accomplishing the objectives, and specific tactics and
resources that may be required in the plan. It should state the individual responsibilities, the mode and
timeliness of communications, and the course of action if someone is injured.
Coordination
There are five components to the ICS organization and they are sectioned according to their functions.
They are:
1. Command: Setting response objectives and coordinating
2. Operations: Provision of tactical response actions
3. Planning: Developing and assessing the technical basis of the action plans
4. Logistics: The provision of equipment and services supporting the plan actions,
5. Finance: Responsible for the management of financial resources and response administration

Team Composition
All the members of the response team should understand its modular structure and how it can change to
meet the demands of the emergency. All members have specific duties and objectives within the team.
Some of the team members and the associated terms for the organization are listed:
1. Incident Commander: This individual is the commander and final authority for decision making
for the team. Initially, this will be the first responder on the scene, but will be re-designated as the
complexity of the structure increases, if that is necessary. It may be necessary for more than one
person to have duties associated with the Incident Commander. This may occur when there are
two or more jurisdictions, or departments involved. This is termed Unified Command and the
commanders are expected to act as one entity. In large operations the Incident Commander may
be assisted by substitute command staff. Command staff may include a Safety Officer, a Public
Information Officer, and a Liaison Officer. These staff have specialized expertise and functions
that are needed to assist with the response effort.
2. Operations Sections Chief: This individual directs all operations that are employed in the
emergency. Other section Chiefs may be assigned for the functions of Planning, Finance, and
Logistics in support of the operations.
3. Directors: Directors manage Branch staff. The Branch staff may be members of a pre-existing
fire department, rescue team or other organization.
4. Supervisors: Within the Operations Section there may be further Divisions along geographic or
jurisdictional partitions, or Groups that have specific operational functions. These Divisions are
led by Supervisors.
5. Leaders: The separation of responders and resources into units of three to seven individuals is
the smallest grouping within the response organization. Unit Leaders provide direction and
communication lines at this level. It is notable that the structure is hierarchal for the purpose of
creating a command structure that is unified under a single coordinated response planning
directive. This is considered to be very important to having a response that is directed towards a
single set of outcomes, and that does not compromise safety.
Facilities and Equipment

In most emergency response actions the local fire department should have the necessary equipment
and facilities to attend to the emergency. However, some emergencies, particularly ones that cross any
jurisdictional or departmental boundaries will need access to special and alternative technologies and
facilities to successfully respond to the event(s). Consequently, the ICS needs to be modular in design,
such that specialized units (e.g. a groundwater remediation unit, hydro-electric tower repair unit, or bomb
disposal unit, for example) and specialized technologies (e.g. heavy machinery including mobile cranes,
front-end loaders, or firefighting vehicles and aerial units) can be added to the ICS. As noted above, this
usually requires the unit to be represented within ICS with a Director or Supervisor and a communication
line that does not subdivide the unit but allows it to contribute to the response wherever and however it is
required.

Command Transfer
Generally, the first officer at the incident takes on command until a more appropriately skilled or qualified
commander is present. At that point, a communication will relate the history, current status, and issues
associated with the emergency from the current to the incoming commander. It is common for the
complexity of issues to increase as the emergency evolves and consequently a more qualified
commander or one that has multi-jurisdictional authority may be needed to take on command. As an
emergency is resolved and countered, the command may also change to free up time and resources the
initial emergency commitment.
Business Continuity Planning
The Role of Prevention

An unexpected emergency may cause significant damage to a business. The business site, resources,
employees, systems, and reputation may all be impacted by the damage an emergency can achieve. A
business continuity plan can help minimize the damages and allow the business to re-start with a
minimum of downtime and lost revenue. The aim of the planning is to evaluate the most likely and/or
most damaging risks, determine ways to minimize their impacts, and achieve capabilities within the
business to allow it to continue operations after an event occurs.
Business Impact Analysis

To better understand the vulnerable operations of a business it is important to conduct an impact
assessment. This assessment attempts to identify the operations and systems that may be impaired or
lost during an event. The BIA will attempt to identify and estimate the consequences of an emergency
event. What systems and operations may fail, and how critical are they to the continuation of the
business? How rapidly can the operational capability be regained? These questions should be asked
and explored prior to an event. It is useful to include others in the organization such that an
organizational intelligence can be developed to improve the resilience of the business in the event of a
possible emergency event.
1. A useful starting point is the Risk Assessment (RA) study that has been done for your site. This
should provide an examination of the type of hazards that exist and what portions of the facility
site are at risk. If the scope of the RA is not broad enough (e.g. perhaps the RA evaluates
chemical hazards but does not include natural disasters and/or vandalism risks), it should be
expanded. The intention is to set out all the possible emergencies that pose a risk. Each hazard
should have some estimate of its probability of occurrence, and the consequences of it
happening at the site.
2. Develop this information for a questionnaire that can be used to inquire with other parts of the
organization about the operational and system weaknesses and strengths of the facility. If
possible, use interviews and follow-up meetings to discuss the information provided.
3. Organize the results, document, and prioritize the vulnerabilities of the business during and after
an event.
Developing Recovery Strategies

On the basis of the BIA information, identify strategies to minimize the vulnerability of the systems and
operations within the organization and facility. Conduct a gap analysis to assess the difference between
what will be available before and after an emergency event, and what is needed to continue doing
business. Where there are significant gaps there are potential obstacles to continuing business. This
may require looking for more robust systems or having back-up resources to use in the case of an
incident. Select appropriate strategies that have the support of management and work to have these in
place.
Business Continuity Plan Development

The information and organizational resources that are developed in the first two stages are then put into
a formalized plan of action. The plan may include a summary of the intent of the BCP and how it will be
achieved. This may include:
• Procedures for emergency shut-down and start-up of operations
• Preservation of electronic information and software systems
• Fallback communication systems
• Public interface strategies,
• Descriptions of medical and health support systems
• Security systems
The plan needs to have input and agreement from all facets of the organization. Consequently, the
report document needs to be validated, approved, and communicated. As part of the roll-out of the plan,
there needs to be training and assignment of responsibilities to ensure the plan is effected. Training
modules may also be needed for consultants to the facility and the public that are impacted by facility
operations.
Follow-up Testing and Review

The Business Continuity Plan should be tested through practice and emergency drills designed to
simulate emergency events. Not only does this improve the organizational intelligence and ability to
respond to real-life events, but it also helps identify weaknesses in the plan so that they can be
modified. It is advisable to have the plan evaluated and brought up to current standards periodically.
This may done on a regular basis just as emergency response plans are periodically reviewed. It is
good management practice to assign responsibility for this and pre-set meetings and information
update events to maintain currency in the plan.
Workplace violence and harassment prevention programs.

Workplace violence is defined as any act in which a person is abused, threatened, intimidated, or
assaulted in his or her employment. Workplace violence includes:
1. Threatening behaviour - such as shaking fists, destroying property, or throwing objects.
2. Verbal or written threats - any expression of intent to inflict harm.
3. Harassment - any behaviour that demeans, embarrasses, humiliates, annoys, alarms, or
verbally abuses a person and that is known or would be expected to be unwelcome. This
includes words, gestures, intimidation, bullying, or other inappropriate activities.
4. Verbal abuse - swearing, insults, or condescending language.
5. Physical attacks - hitting, shoving, pushing, or kicking.
Rumours, swearing, verbal abuse, pranks, arguments, property damage, vandalism, sabotage, pushing,
theft, physical assaults, psychological trauma, anger-related incidents, rape, arson, and murder are all
examples of workplace violence.

Violence can happen in any workplace. However, people whose jobs involve any of the following factors
are at increased risk for workplace violence:
• Contact with the public.

• Exchange of money.
• Delivery of passengers, goods, or services.
• Having a mobile workplace (such as a vehicle).
• Working with unstable or volatile people.
• Working alone or in small numbers.
• Working late at night or during early morning hours.
• Guarding valuable property or possessions.
• Working in community-based settings (for example, Home Care).
OHS professionals should encourage the development and implementation of workplace violence
prevention programs. Key components of a workplace violence prevention program include:
1. a workplace violence prevention policy;
2. violence risk assessment;
3. violence risk control;
4. worker education and training; and
5. response to incidents.
Conducting a Violence Prevention Risk Assessment

A review of the risk elements in the workplace can assist in developing an appropriate violence
prevention plan. A risk assessment may list and evaluate several parameters, including:
What is the nature of employee interactions?
• Is money transferred?
• Is the selling of drugs or alcohol involved?
• Are healthcare or social services delivered?
• Is there a security or regulatory enforcement service being delivered?
What are the attributes of workers?

• What is the training and experience of the employee?
• What age and gender are the employees?
• What is the appearance, health, personality features, and attitude of the employee?
What is the nature of the work environment?

• What is the work location (is it isolated or busy?)
• How many workers are present at any one time?
• What is the workplace layout?
• Is the workplace space restricted (are people in waiting lines for extended amounts of time?)
• Is there adequate lighting and security provisions?
• What are the hours of operation?

Identify past incidents of violence in the workplace.

• What is the number and frequency of incidents?
• What was the severity of the incidents?
• When did they occur and under what conditions?
• Who was involved and what attributes did the individuals possess?
• What was the nature of the interaction?
These are some of the questions that may used to develop your risk assessment. The intention of the
assessment is to further understand the potential for violence to occur in the future and how to reduce
the probability and/or severity of the events.
Preparing a Prevention Plan
The prevention plan should be created to suit the workplace environment with respect to the physical
surroundings, the employee group, the nature of the work and set of transactions that occur, and the
availability of resources to minimize workplace violence.
A violence prevention plan should state and clearly communicate the organizational policy and approach
to preventing workplace violence. This should include the:
• The direction and support of senior management,
• Clearly outline the responsibilities and expectations on management, supervisors, employees,
• Identify the nature of the risks of violence in the workplace, and
• Include a glossary of terms, definitions, and other information to ensure employees understand
the nature of workplace violence.
There should be regular risk assessments conducted to identify changes in environment and workplace
features that may contribute to workplace violence incidents. The prevention plan may include specific
changes to the:
• Physical environment to reduce the risk of violence. For example, an appropriately designed
service waiting space can alleviate many tensions and stress in service areas. A spacious
room, with seating, adequate lighting and clear service directions such as “position in line
numbering” may serve to limit tension associated with long line-ups in public service locations.
Protective glass may be used at service desks as a protective transparent barrier.
• Administrative Design such as the hours of operation schedule may be optimized to provide
lower risk work times. Security attendants may shift the frequency of their patrol to minimize
risks.
• Point of Interactions may be modified to reduce violence risks. If there are points of interaction
that are tension related, or are more likely to result in an incident, can they be modified in
structure to minimize and reduce the likelihood or consequences of an event.
• Specific personnel changes may be made if there has been a history of violent or threatening
behavior from an individual or group of employees.
• Employee and supervisor training should include appropriate response procedures in the
event of an incident, and ensure the plan is understood and effected. In the event of an incident,
there is a requirement for accurate records to be created and maintained to document the
incident(s). In addition, the organization has to respond appropriately in the time after an event
occurs, including investigations and corrective actions to minimize repeat events. The employee
also has a responsibility to provide medical care and counseling to victims in a hostile event.

• A review of the Prevention Plan Review is needed on a periodic basis.
A few areas where and when violence may occur are listed below:
• Travelling to and from work, whether driving, parking, walking to and from your place of work.
• When working alone,
• When dealing with irate customers,
• During the act of crime such as robberies,
• When securing the transfer money,
• During labor disputes, and
• During personnel corrective actions and dismissal
Fire prevention, protection, and suppression systems
Roles and Functions of Standard-setting bodies
Consensus Standards
Fire prevention and protection are primary concerns for any OHS professional. When considering
issues of fire safety in the workplace there are many organizations that can be called upon for guidance
and assistance. There are several organizations that are standards setting bodies that establish
standards and guides to practice. These standards and guidelines outline accepted standards and
practices. They can be utilized by OHS professionals as reference materials to inform practice and
legitimate action. Standards are typically developed on the basis of broad-based consultations with a
variety of stakeholders and interest groups.
The term consensus standard refers to a democratic committee-based process where representatives
of diverse set of interest groups including designers, manufacturers, installers, regulators, and
consumers meet and confer and attempt to reach consensus regarding acceptable standards that will
serve the safety and best interests of all those involved.
NFPA
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is an international association that is based in the
United States in Quincy Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston. The NFPA’s mission is to prevent the loss
of life and property from fire. The NFPA is a technical and educational organization. Its primary
technical activity is the production of consensus standards. These standards cover a variety of topics
relating to fire prevention and protection. The standards are written in such a way that they can be
adopted into laws or regulations or incorporated by reference. For example, the National Building Code
(NBC) prescribes that fire sprinkler systems must be installed in compliance with NFPA Standard 13,
Standard for the Design and Installation of Fire Sprinkler Systems
UL
Underwriters Laboratories Inc (UL) is an independent organization that provides testing for the public. It
operates laboratories for testing devices, systems and materials and determines whether they meet
safety standards affecting life and property. The UL sticker or label is similar to the CSA label and
signifies that the product has been tested and meets established safety standards. While UL tests and
approves a wide variety of products and devices, the primary areas of concern for the OHS professional
are burglary protection, casualty, building construction, electrical, fire protection, and marine.
FM
Factory Mutual (FM) is an organization comprised of four insurance companies with shared interest in
industrial fire safety. FM conducts research, develops standards, and issues approval on materials and
fire protection equipment. FM also offers an annual Approval Guide that lists protective equipment,
building materials, safeguards for combustion, and other items that have been tested by the
organization.
Life safety (e.g., building design, construction, location, materials, etc.).
Life Safety
Assuring the life safety of workers is both a legal and a moral obligation of employers. Life safety is a
major concern of the OHS professional and there are many resources that can be utilized to identify
standards, codes of conduct and guides to practice. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, contains fundamental
life safety requirements. It is a comprehensive document that classifies occupancies, details the
requirements of means of egress, outlines the requirements for fire protection and building services,
and provides guidelines for specific types of occupancies.
21 accepted life safety terms
While each different building and facility may have unique design requirements and physical features,
there are number of basic life safety concepts that apply to every facility and can be used by the OHS
professional and other managers to identify and abate many life safety hazards. Life safety hazards can
be identified by conducting regular inspections that are guided by a concern for basic life safety
considerations.
Basic terms outlined by the NFPA that the candidate should be familiar with include:
1. "Means of egress" refers to the path that occupants take to evacuate a building in case of an
emergency.
2. "Exit access" is the portion of the means of egress leading to the exit discharge.
3. "Exit discharge" is the part of the means of egress that leads outside the building.
4. "Number of means of egress" refers to the minimum number of exits required for a building,
based on its occupancy and size.
5. "Egress width" refers to the minimum width required for a means of egress, which is determined
by the number of occupants and the building's occupancy classification.
6. "Door width" refers to the minimum width required for doors in the means of egress.
7. "Impediments" are objects that block or obstruct the means of egress.
8. "Locked doors" refers to doors that can prevent occupants from using the means of egress in an
emergency.
9. "Occupant load" refers to the maximum number of people that are allowed in a building at any
one time.
10. "Exit capacity" refers to the maximum number of people that can safely evacuate a building
through a means of egress.
11. "Travel distance" refers to the maximum distance that occupants must travel to reach a means of
egress.
12. "Lighting" refers to the provision of enough light to safely evacuate a building in an emergency.
13. "Emergency lighting" refers to lighting that is designed to function when the normal lighting fails.
14. "Marking the means of egress" refers to the marking of the means of egress to indicate the path
of escape.
15. "Stairs" refers to the stairs in a building that can be used as a means of egress.
16. "Hazard contents" refers to the hazardous materials stored in a building.
17. "Occupancy" refers to the use of a building or portion thereof for the shelter of people, goods, or
equipment.
18. "Fire alarm system" refers to the system that alerts occupants of a building in case of a fire.

19. "Compartmentation" refers to the division of a building into smaller, fire-resistance rated areas.
20. "Interior finish" refers to the materials used to finish the interior surfaces of a building.
21. "Headroom" refers to the minimum height required above floor levels in a building to
accommodate the movements of occupants.
Building Construction
Consideration of life safety issues should begin at the design stage before building construction begins.
Building design and selection of construction materials should be informed by a consideration of the
potential risks and hazards that will exist when the building is completed and occupied.
When choosing construction materials, the combustibility and the fire resistive properties should be
considered.
Combustibility has three aspects to it:
1. flame spread.
2. fuel contributed.
3. smoke development.
Fire Resistance
The fire resistive characteristics of building materials are an important consideration when choosing
building materials and products. The flame spread rating of a product provides an indication of it fire
resistive capability. No construction material in existence can totally resist impairment from fire.
For effective fire protection, the building components must be able to support normal structural loads,
contain the spread of smoke and fire gases, and prevent excessive heat flow for a reasonable period of
time.
Fire load
The concept of fire load is an important consideration in building design. Fire load is a measure of the
maximum heat that would be produced if all the combustibles in a given area burned. Fire load includes
combustible contents (furniture, decorations, books, paper, stored goods, and so forth) as well as
combustible components of the building.
A calculation of the fire load in a particular building or section of a building is necessary in order to
determine the level of fire protection that is required. This will include the rate of flow for automatic
suppression devices such as fire sprinkler systems, as well as the amount of water or other
extinguishment agents that must be available for fire fighters.
Fire compartments
A method of controlling and containing a fire is known as compartmentalization. This is a key concept in
building design that prevents the spread of fire from one area of a building to another.
Fire compartments are created through the use of firewalls and fire resistive windows and doors.
Firewalls and fire doors are rated by agencies such as UL based on the period of time that they can
withstand exposure to fire. UL publishes a directory known as “fire resistance code C", covers hourly fire
ratings for beams, columns, floors, roofs, walls and partitions. Volumes 2A and 2B include fire rated
systems; such as construction joints, through penetration fire stops, perimeter (curtain walls) fire
containment systems, electrical circuit protective systems, and fire resistive duct assemblies. Volume 3
includes dampers, fire doors, hardware and frames, glass blocks and glazing materials, and leakage
rated door assemblies.

Fire chemistry and behaviour

Fire is a chemical reaction that may be defined as: “selfsustained oxidation of a fuel that emits heat and
light”.
Fire Triangle
Three variables are required to initiate a fire:
1. fuel
2. oxygen
3. heat.
These three variables form the fire triangle.
Fire Prevention
Fire prevention involves taking steps to prevent these three variables from combining.
Fire prevention strategies include:
1. controlling fuels
2. controlling oxygen sources
3. controlling heat sources
Fire Tetrahedron
Once a fire begins, there are four variables required to sustain it:
1. fuel
2. oxygen
3. heat
4. chemical chain reactions.
These four variables represent the fire tetrahedron.
Chemical chain reactions are ongoing within the flame. These reactions involve the oxidation of fuel
molecules and the reduction of oxygen molecules. Chemical chain reactions produce smoke which
contains byproducts of combustion such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbon and other
molecules.
Extinguishing Fires
Fire can be extinguished by:
1. removing heat
2. oxygen
3. fuel
4. by inhibiting chemical chain reactions.
The concept of fire protection assumes fire will occur and focuses on eliminating or controlling the
variables in the fire tetrahedron.
Fire prevention on the other hand, attempts to control the variable in the fire triangle before fire occurs.
Classes of Fires
Fires are classified into four general classes based upon the type of fuel that is consumed and the
agents used in extinguishment:
1. Class A fires involve ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber and some
plastics. Class A fires are usually extinguished with water because it can penetrate the fuel and
absorb heat.
2. Class B fires involve flammable and combustible liquids and gases such as gasoline, alcohol
and propane. Common extinguishing agents for Class B fires are foam, carbon dioxide and dry
chemicals that serve to smother the fire or reduce the oxygen concentration available in the
burning zone.
3. Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment. Class C fires can be extinguished by
nonconductive extinguishing agents such as dry chemicals and inert gases.
4. Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, sodium, titanium, powdered
aluminium, potassium, and zirconium. Class D fires can be extinguished by special agents
produced for the specific metal.
Heat Transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation)
There are two ways that heat sources ignite fire: (1) they provide a flame that directly ignites a fuel; or (2)
they heat the fuel to its autoignition temperature. In both cases heat must be transferred to the fuel.
Heat transfer can occur through conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction
Is the transfer of heat through a material without any movement of the material itself.
Heat transfer by conduction occurs through a solid material when there is a temperature difference
between two points in the material. The rate of heat transfer by conduction is given by the equation Q =
kA(T1-T2)/L, where Q is the rate of heat transfer, k is the thermal conductivity constant of the material, A
is the surface area of the material, T1 is the temperature at one side of the material, T2 is the
temperature at the opposite side of the material, and L is the thickness of the material.
The thermal conductivity constant, k, is a property of the material that describes how easily it conducts
heat. It is measured in units of W/(m K), and it varies depending on the type of material. Materials with
high thermal conductivity, such as metals, conduct heat more easily than materials with low thermal
conductivity, such as plastics or insulators.
The surface area, A, represents the area of the material that is in contact with the medium through which
heat is being transferred. The larger the surface area, the more heat can be transferred between the two
points.
The temperatures, T1 and T2, are the temperatures at the two points between which heat is being
transferred. The temperature difference (T1-T2) is the driving force for heat transfer by conduction. The
greater the temperature difference, the greater the rate of heat transfer.
The thickness of the material, L, is the distance between the two points between which heat is being
transferred. The thicker the material, the slower the rate of heat transfer.
This equation is commonly used in engineering applications to analyze and design thermal insulation,
heat exchangers, and other heat transfer devices.
Example:

Suppose we have a steel plate with a thickness of 5 cm and a surface area of 0.5 m^2. The plate has a
temperature of 200°C on one side and 100°C on the other side. The thermal conductivity of steel is 50
W/(m K).
Using the heat transfer by conduction equation, we can calculate the rate of heat transfer as follows:
Q = kA(T1-T2)/L = (50 W/(m K))(0.5 m^2)(200°C - 100°C)/(0.05 m)

Q = 5000 W
This means that heat is being transferred through the steel plate from the hot side to the cold side at a
rate of 5000 watts.
If we know the time for which the heat transfer occurs, we can calculate the total amount of heat
transferred.
For example, if the heat transfer occurs for 1 hour, the total amount of heat transferred would be:
Q_total = Q x time = (5000 W)(3600 s)

Q_total = 18,000,000 J
Therefore, the steel plate would transfer 18,000,000 joules of heat from the hot side to the cold side in 1
hour, assuming a thermal conductivity of 50 W/(m K).
Convection
Involves the transfer of heat through the movement of a fluid or gas.
The equation Q = hA(ts-tb) represents the rate of convective heat transfer between a solid surface and a
fluid, where the heat is transferred by the movement of the fluid.
In this equation, Q represents the rate of heat transfer in watts (W), which is the amount of energy
transferred per unit time. The rate of heat transfer depends on several factors, including the heat transfer
coefficient, surface area, and temperature difference.
The heat transfer coefficient, h, represents the ability of the fluid to transfer heat, and is typically
measured in units of W/(m^2 K). It depends on various factors, including the properties of the fluid, the
flow velocity, and the geometry of the system. The higher the heat transfer coefficient, the more effective
the fluid is at transferring heat.
A is the surface area of the solid surface in contact with the fluid. The larger the surface area, the more
heat can be transferred between the solid surface and the fluid.
ts is the surface temperature of the solid surface, which is the temperature at the interface between the
solid and the fluid. This temperature is affected by the rate of heat transfer and can change over time.
tb is the temperature of the fluid at bulk temperature, which is the temperature of the fluid far away from
the solid surface. This temperature can be affected by the flow velocity of the fluid, the temperature of
the surroundings, and other factors.

The difference between ts and tb is the driving force for convective heat transfer. The greater the
temperature difference, the greater the rate of heat transfer.
Therefore, the equation Q = hA(ts-tb) represents the convective heat transfer rate, where Q is the
amount of heat transferred per unit time, h is the heat transfer coefficient, A is the surface area of the
solid surface, and (ts-tb) is the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid. This
equation is commonly used in engineering applications to analyze and design heat exchangers, cooling
systems, and other heat transfer devices.
Example:
Suppose we have a hot water pipe with a surface area of 0.5 m^2 and a temperature of 80°C (353 K)
that is in contact with air at a bulk temperature of 20°C (293 K). We want to calculate the rate of heat
transfer from the pipe to the surrounding air, assuming a convective heat transfer coefficient of 10
W/(m^2K).
Using the convective heat transfer equation, we can calculate the rate of heat transfer as follows:
Q = hA(ts-tb) = (10 W/(m^2K))(0.5 m^2)(353 K - 293 K)

Q = 250 W
This means that the hot water pipe is transferring heat to the surrounding air at a rate of 250 watts. If we
know the time for which the heat transfer occurs, we can calculate the total amount of heat transferred.
For example, if the heat transfer occurs for 1 hour, the total amount of heat transferred would be:
Q_total = Q x time = (250 W)(3600 s)

Q_total = 900,000 J
Therefore, the hot water pipe would transfer 900,000 joules of heat to the surrounding air in 1 hour,
assuming a convective heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/(m^2K).
Radiation
Refers to the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, without any material or fluid being present
to transfer the heat. This can occur through a vacuum.
To calculate radiation heat transfer we use the following formula:

The equation Q/A = εσT^4 is a form of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, which describes the amount of energy
transferred by radiation between two objects at different temperatures. This law is based on the fact that
all objects emit electromagnetic radiation, including heat, which can be characterized by its wavelength
and intensity.

In this equation, Q/A represents the heat flux or rate of heat transfer per unit area. This is the amount of
energy that is emitted by a radiating object per unit time and unit area. The units of Q/A are energy/time
area, such as watts per square meter.
A is the area of the heat transfer, which is the surface area of the object that is radiating energy. The
larger the surface area, the more energy can be transferred by radiation.
ε is the emissivity of the radiating body, which is a measure of how well the object can emit radiation.
Emissivity ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 means the object is a perfect reflector and 1 means the object is
a perfect emitter. Objects with higher emissivity will radiate more energy than objects with lower
emissivity.
σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, which has a value of 5.67 x 10^-8 W/(m^2 K^4). This constant is a
fundamental constant of nature and relates the temperature of an object to the amount of energy it emits
per unit area.
T is the absolute temperature of the object, which is measured in Kelvin. The temperature of the object
affects the amount of energy it emits, as described by the fourth power of the temperature term in the
equation. As the temperature of the object increases, the amount of energy emitted per unit area
increases rapidly, due to the T^4 term.
Example:
Suppose we have a hot metal plate with a temperature of 500 Kelvin and an emissivity of 0.8. We want
to calculate the rate of heat transfer by radiation from the plate's surface to the surrounding environment,
which has a temperature of 300 Kelvin.
Using the equation, we can calculate the heat flux or rate of heat transfer per unit area, as follows:
Q/A = εσT^4 = (0.8)(5.67 x 10^-8 W/(m^2 K^4))(500 K)^4 - (300 K)^4
Q/A = 832.6 W/m^2
This means that for every square meter of the metal plate's surface area, 832.6 watts of energy are
being radiated away from the plate to the surrounding environment. If we know the surface area of the
plate, we can multiply this value by the area to calculate the total heat transfer rate.
For example, if the surface area of the plate is 1 square meter, the total heat transfer rate would be:
Q = (832.6 W/m^2)(1 m^2) = 832.6 W
Therefore, the plate would be radiating away 832.6 watts of energy to the surrounding environment per
unit time.
In a fire, conduction plays a role as heat is transferred through solid materials, such as the walls of a
building or a piece of equipment.
Convection occurs as hot gases rise and displace cooler air, causing it to circulate and spread the heat
throughout the area.
Radiation is the primary means by which heat is transferred from a fire to its surroundings. Radiant heat
from a fire can travel long distances and penetrate through openings, such as windows and doorways, to
ignite nearby materials.

Stages of Fire
The incipient stage is the first or beginning stage of a fire. This is the stage where the fire has just
begun and there is ample fuel and oxygen available.
Following the incipient stage a fire evolves to the free-burning stage. During the free-burning stage the
self-sustained chemical reactions intensify, greater amounts of heat are produced, and the fuel and
oxygen are consumed rapidly. Flashover often occurs during the free-burning stage of a structure fire.
Flashover occurs when the contents of a room simultaneously reach their ignition temperature and
become involved in flames. When flashover occurs, temperatures can exceed 2000 0 F, making human
survival nearly impossible.
The third stage in the evolution of a fire is called the smoldering stage. This stage occurs because of
the carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide produced in the free burning stage. When the oxygen
concentration is reduced less than 15% by volume the chemical reaction associated with fire will not
have sufficient oxygen to support free-burning combustion. When a fresh supply of oxygen is introduced
to a fire at the smoldering stage sudden flaming combustion can re-occur, creating a condition known
as a backdraft. In some cases, a backdraft can be so violent that an explosion will occur making human
survival nearly impossible.
Fire safety programs.
Fire Safety Concepts
NFPA Standard 550, Fire Safety Concepts Tree can be applied to the development of a fire safety
system for all building structures. The candidate should use the Fire Safety Concepts Tree (FSCT) as a
guide for developing and implementing a workplace fire safety management program.
There are three major components to the FSCT.
1. The first component is Fire Safety Objectives. Three primary objectives are life safety, property
conservation, and business continuity.
2. The second component is Prevent Fire Ignition. Strategies to control fire ignition include
controlling ignition sources, controlling heat transfer, and controlling fuels. T
3. The third component of the FSCT is Manage Fire Impact. Strategies associated with this area
include controlling fuel; controlling the environment; automatically or manually suppressing fire;
and controlling fire with construction.
Objectives of a Fire Safety Program
A fire safety management program is divided into eight elements that can be expressed as
performance-based objectives. The eight areas are:
1. Inspections
2. Education and Training
3. Fire Suppression
4. Emergency Services
5. Evaluation of Fire Possibility
6. Fire Prevention
7. Reports and Record Keeping
8. Communications
Fire Brigade
An industrial fire brigade is an essential part of every plant emergency plan.

The size, nature, and expectations of the industrial fire brigade will vary depending on the size, location
and value of the plant. Management must decide what type and size of fire brigade is required and must
support the brigade through the provision of resources, equipment and training. NFPA 600, Industrial
Fire Brigades, provides guidelines for organizing an industrial fire brigade.
There are five basic responsibilities that should be fulfilled by an industrial fire brigade:
1. supervise evacuation drills.
2. operate firefighting equipment (extinguishers and hoses)
3. provide emergency scene first aid and CPR if needed.
4. conduct inspections
5. implement emergency shutdown procedures.
Emergency Planning
Emergency planning is essential in order to avoid losses and injuries to people, damage to property, and
disruptions to the continuity of business. There are three essential steps in the emergency planning
process:
1. The first step is to recognize and identify hazards and assess potential vulnerabilities. Types of
emergencies and vulnerabilities should be ranked to allow for the prioritization of resources later
in the planning process.
2. The second step is to contemplate the most likely and severe emergencies and develop plans for
dealing with them. The plans should include consideration of aspects such as escape routes and
assembly locations for evacuees, access routes for fire fighters, water supply, detection and
alarm systems, communication methods, automatic fire suppression, and protection of adjacent
compartments and structures.
3. The third step is to ensure that the organization can implement the emergency plan. This
involves regular drills, rehearsals, and simulations. Emergency plans must be tested through
practice in order to ensure that all personnel are aware of their duties and responsibilities and to
uncover weaknesses in the plan and unanticipated challenges.
Fire prevention.
Emergency Planning
Fire prevention is an essential component of emergency planning. Fire prevention is a proactive
approach intended identify potential hazards and avoid incidents of fire. The goals of emergency
planning are to provide for life safety, conserve property and assure business continuity.
Plant Self Inspection
A plant self-inspection program is an important factor in obtaining insurance coverage. A self-inspection
program should focus on issues such as good housekeeping, fire prevention practices, proper
maintenance of fire protection systems and equipment safe handling of hazardous materials and other
fire safety controls.
The four types of self-inspection:
1. Periodic
2. Intermittent
3. Continuous
4. Special

Insurance companies, the NFPA, fire protection consultants, and potentially even the local fire
department may have standardized forms to use a guide for completing a self-inspection.
Sources of Ignition
Some sources are: open flames from torches and pilot lights; sparks from electrical equipment; hot
surfaces such as electrical motors, wires, and pipes; radiant heat from boilers and portable heaters;
lightning; static discharges; arcing from wires or electrical equipment; heat from mechanical friction or
hydraulic oil under pressure; chemical reactions that produce heat; heat from slow oxidation or
fermentation. While all of the potential sources of heat and ignition included in this general list are
worthy of attention, there are two specific hazards that require special attention in the workplace. These
are cutting and welding, and smoking.
NFPA 51B, Fire Prevention in Use of Cutting and Welding Processes, provides an outline of
precautions to be observed as well as sample forms that can be used to ensure workplace safety.
Smoking in the work place is also a major cause of fire loss and should be an area of concern for
management. Smoking should be prohibited in areas where there is a presence of flammable liquids or
gases, combustible dusts, combustible fibers, storage or processing of combustible materials.
As a result of indoor smoking bans, many businesses designate outdoor smoking areas for employees.
Outdoor smoking areas should be located away from windows, doors and air intakes, however specific
laws vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
Fire detection systems and devices
Purpose
The overall purpose of fire detection systems is to detect the presence of fire quickly and provide an
alarm or warning to building occupants in order that quick and appropriate responses may be initiated.
There are many different types of fire detection systems and devices available, and each has its
advantages and disadvantages.
Types of Systems
There are two basic components to a fire detector system. The first is a device that detects the
presence of fire, and the second is an audible-visual alarm that serves to warn occupants and/or the
local fire department of the fire condition.
Heat Detectors, Flam Detectors and Smoke Detectors
NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code, identifies three basic types of fire detectors. The three types relate
to the method by which detection occurs. These are heat detectors that sense thermal energy, flame
detectors that sense radiant energy, and smoke detectors that sense airborne particles. The
effectiveness of fire detection systems is dependent upon the proper selection of the appropriate type of
detection system, as well as the proper placement and installation of the detectors.
Flame Detectors
Flame detectors activate in response to radiant energy generated by the flame or combustion. Two
types of flame detectors commonly used are ultraviolet (UV) detectors and infrared (IR) detectors.
Ultraviolet and infrared flame detectors are sensitive devices that can be set off accidentally by a variety
of causes such as arc welding, matches, lighters, and even direct sun light. The selection and
placement of flame detectors should be based on an engineering survey of anticipated conditions as
well as a thorough understanding of their principles of operation.

Heat Detectors
Heat detectors are designed to detect the thermal output or heat from a fire. There are two basic types of
heat detectors that the candidate should be familiar with. The first is fixed temperature detectors, which
include spot detectors intended for use in small areas, as well as line detectors that are electrically
operated and activated by temperature. The second type of heat detector is the rate-of-rise detector that
is designed to a threshold rate of heat rise. Rate-of-rise detectors are best suited to situations where a
relatively fast developing fire is expected.
Smoke Detectors
Smoke detectors respond to the visible and invisible products of combustion. There are two basic types
of smoke detectors. The first type described uses a photoelectric sensor to detect the presence of
smoke particles.
Photoelectric detectors are relatively sensitive to smoke from smoldering fires but react slowly to
flaming fires. There is a limitation to where photoelectric detectors can be placed because they need a
relatively powerful supply of electricity to operate and can not be operated by batteries. The second
type is the ionization smoke detectors that detect combustion products such as carbon and carbon rich
particles. Ionization detectors can operate on a high voltage electrical supply or on low voltage
batteries. They are designed for both spot detection and air duct detection. Ionization detectors respond
well to flames but are relatively insensitive to smoldering fires.
Air Sampling
A more sophisticated method of fire detection is the air sampling detector. Air sampling detectors are
suitable for use in computer rooms, telecommunication facilities, offices and residences. A stream of air
is continuously drawn into and expelled from the detector, and xenon lamps are used to analyze the
particles in the air. Xenon-based air sampling detectors are considered the most reliable and valid
measures of fire intensity.
Fire control systems and devices
Sprinkler Systems
Fire control systems are designed to detect fire and react to it automatically in order to signal building
occupants and confine the fire to the area of origin. The most basic and versatile fire control system is
the automatic fire sprinkler system. Automatic fire sprinkler systems use water as an extinguishing
agent and are designed to apply water to the area of origin when a fire is in the incipient stage.
Sprinkler systems consist of a water supply, a control valve, a system of pipes that distribute the water,
and sprinkler heads with heat sensitive fusible links or bulbs. Fire sprinkler systems should be designed
by certified designers and installed by certified installers.
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems provides the performance criteria and
design specifications for all types of automatic sprinkler systems. The NBC provides guidelines
regarding the sizes and types of buildings that require automatic sprinkler systems.
Types of Sprinkler Systems
There are four basic types of automatic sprinkler systems. The wet pipe system is the simplest type of
system. It also is the quickest reacting system since there is water in the pipes at all times. If a sprinkler
head is activated the water sprays out immediately. Wet pipe systems can only be used in areas where
the temperature is always above freezing levels.
The dry pipe system can be used to protect property in areas that are susceptible to freezing
temperatures. Dry systems are filled with pressurized air or nitrogen that must be released from the
system before the water will flow. When a sprinkler head is activated the release of pressure in the
system activates the water flow. The water must reach the sprinkler head within sixty seconds of
activation.
The deluge system is different from the previous two types in that the sprinkler heads are not plugged
by fusible links or bulbs. In the deluge configuration all sprinkler heads are open and a fire detection
system is connected to a sprinkler valve. If fire is detected the valve is opened and water is supplied to
all of the sprinkler heads.
The pre-action system is a combination of a dry system and an alarm system. A fire detection system is
connected to the sprinkler valve and if it is activated that it expels the pressurized air or nitrogen from
the system and supplies the system with water. Water does not actually flow however unless a sprinkler
head is activated. The pre-action detectors typically activate at a temperature lower than the activation
temperature of the sprinkler heads.
The preaction phase signals an alarm and allows time for human intervention before the water flow is
initiated. This type of system is often used in computer rooms and other locations that are sensitive to
water damage.
CO2 Systems
While automatic fire sprinkler systems are the most common and widely used fire control systems, there
are also a variety of other systems available that use different extinguishment agents and methods.
Carbon dioxide systems are specifically engineered for specific hazards. Carbon dioxide systems are
designed to displace the oxygen supply in the burning zone and extinguish the fire. The use of carbon
dioxide systems is limited to Class B and Class C fires.
Foam
Foam is another alternative extinguishing agent that serves to displace oxygen and smother a fire.
Foam can be generated chemically or mechanically. There are various types of foams available and
various systems for applying them. If they are used correctly for their intended purpose foams can be a
valuable tool for controlling, extinguishing, and confining fires in the workplace.
Halon
Halon is an extinguishing agent that works by interrupting the chemical chain reactions that occur
during combustion. The halon family includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Between 1960 and
1980 halons were used extensively in libraries and computer rooms. Halon systems were designed to
automatically flood a total room with halon gas in order to extinguish a fire. Further research has
discovered however, that halons decompose when exposed to high heat and they remain in the
atmosphere for long periods of time and deplete the ozone layer.
Since that time there has been ongoing research intended to identify suitable substitute products. NFPA
2001, Standard on Clean-Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems, outlines the requirements for design
installation, testing, and maintenance of fire suppression systems utilizing clean agents.
Water Spray Systems

Water Spray Systems are a recent adaptation of fire sprinkler systems that use high pressure to create
water mist. Spray systems are designed to extinguish fires by cooling, smoothing and dilution. NFPA 15,
Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection, outlines the requirements for the design,
installation, testing and maintenance of water spray systems.

Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems

Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems are effective on Class A, B, and C fires. They are typically
designed for use on flammable liquids and grease fires. Dry Chemical extinguishing agents provide a
small smothering effect, and inhibit chemical chain reactions in fires. Dry Chemical agents are
commonly used in portable extinguishers, and engineered systems. NFPA 17, Standard for Dry
Chemical Extinguishing Systems, outlines the requirements for design, installation, testing, and
maintenance of dry chemical extinguishing systems.
Portable Fire Extinguishers

Portable fire extinguishers are required to be located in highly visible and accessible locations in the
workplace. The authority having jurisdiction will establish minimum requirements for locating portable
extinguishers. They are often the first line of defense against fire and are intended to be used by trained
personnel when a fire is in its incipient stage.
Portable extinguishers are classified by recognized testing laboratories such as UL on the basis of the
Class of fire they may be used on, and the extinguishing capacity of the extinguisher. Five basic factors
that contribute to the effective use of portable fire extinguishers are:
1) People must be trained in the use and handling of extinguishers.
2) Extinguishers must be placed in suitable locations.
3) Extinguishers must be in sound working order.
4) Suitable types of extinguishers must be provided for the type of hazards likely to be encountered.
5) Early warning of the fire is required for the extinguisher to be effective.
Guidelines for the various types of portable fire extinguishers may be found in NFPA 10, Standard for
Portable Fire Extinguishers.
Care, Maintenance, and Inspection

An additional component of an effective fire safety management program is the development of a
systematic approach to ensure that fire protection systems will perform as expected if and when an
emergency incident occurs. A systematic approach includes inspection, testing, and maintenance
following guidelines established by manufacturers and by the NFPA. Owners and managers are
responsible to ensure that fire protection systems are in working and reliable condition. A preventive
maintenance program should be developed to identify what systems, assemblies, and components will
be inspected, tested and maintained, as well as the actions that will be taken.
Sprinkler Systems
The inspection and maintenance of fire sprinkler systems requires that all components of the system
from the water supply to the sprinkler heads be closely examined. NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection,
Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems, outlines the maintenance
frequencies and good practices for caring for sprinkler systems. The inspection of sprinkler heads should
focus on the accumulation of foreign materials such as dirt, dust, paint, and others. The accumulation of
foreign materials on sprinkler heads is commonly called loading. Loading can delay or prevent the
activation of a sprinkler head. Sprinkler systems are also susceptible to corrosion, and inspection and
maintenance programs should be designed to identify potential risks and provide for the necessary
remedial actions.

Inspection of Portable Fire Extinguishers

The inspection of portable fire extinguishers should confirm that the fire extinguisher is:
1. located at a designated place
2. conspicuously located
3. easily accessible
4. fully charged
5. untampered and not vandalized
6. protected from the environment and incidental damage It is recommended that an inspection of
this type be conducted at the beginning of each month by the fire brigade or other persons
designated by the manager.
Maintenance of Fire Extinguishers
Maintenance of fire extinguishers involves checking the moving parts and assemblies. It is
recommended that maintenance be conducted at least once per year, after use, or when a monthly
inspection identifies a problem such as damage or leaking. Accurate records of inspection and
maintenance must be maintained and are the responsibility of management.
Inspections
Self-inspection is an essential part of a systematic approach to fire safety. Self inspection involves the
development of inspection systems designed to identify any potential problems or deficiencies that may
develop through the course of normal operations.
Self-inspections can be scheduled around specific events such as changes in the seasons and
scheduled plant shutdowns. Self-inspections protect the interests of managers and owners by
systematically identifying and remedying problems or potential problems and deficiencies. In addition to
self-inspections, other agencies such as insurance companies and fire departments may request
inspections. It is always in the best interests of mangers and owners to cooperate with these types of
inspections in order to ensure functionality of systems and compliance with policies and regulations. For
complex inspections and testing of sprinkler systems and fire pumps, specialized contractors may be
hired. Most contractors will follow a format that is acceptable to insurance carriers.
Sprinkler Shut Down

Often the maintenance or testing of a sprinkler system requires the system to be shut down and a
temporary interruption of the fire protection occurs. When sprinkler protection is interrupted, every effort
must be made to minimize the duration of the interruption. A cardinal rule is to notify the fire department
whenever a sprinkler system has been temporarily disabled. Work that requires shutting off the sprinkler
system should be scheduled for times when the least hazard exists. It is advisable to conduct sprinkler
testing and maintenance during evenings, weekends, or some other time that the plant is idle.
Emergency plans should be in place to provide alternative water supplies and firefighting tactics in the
event that an emergency occurs while the system is shut down.
Handling and storage of flammable liquids and gases.

These are various physical and chemical properties related to the handling and storage of flammable
liquids and gases.
1. Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapor to ignite when a
flame is brought to its surface.

2. Vapor Pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its non-vapor form. This
can be an important factor in determining the volatility of a liquid and its potential to cause fires
or explosions.
3. Fire Point: The temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapor to ignite and continue
burning for at least five seconds.
4. Flammable and Explosive Limit Ranges: The concentration range of a flammable or explosive
vapor-air mixture. Lower and upper limits define the concentration range in which a vapor will
ignite and continue to burn.
5. Autoignition Temperature: The minimum temperature at which a substance will ignite without a
spark or flame being present.
6. Specific Gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at a given
temperature.
7. Vapor Density: The density of a vapor compared to air. This property is important in determining
the behavior of a vapor in the atmosphere and its potential to settle or travel to other areas.
8. Evaporation Rate: The rate at which a liquid vaporizes compared to the rate of vaporization of a
reference substance.
9. Water Solubility: The ability of a substance to dissolve in water.
10. Boiling Point: The temperature at which a liquid changes to a vapor.
11. Storage Requirements: Proper storage of flammable liquids and gases is critical to minimize the
risk of fire or explosion. This typically involves storing them in approved containers, in well-
ventilated areas, away from sources of ignition, and at specified temperature ranges.
12. Inside Storage Rooms: Special rooms designed for the storage of flammable liquids and gases
should meet specific design and construction standards to minimize the risk of fire or explosion.
These rooms should also be equipped with fire suppression systems, ventilation systems, and
other safety features.
Transportation and security of hazardous material
Transportation and security of hazardous materials involves the safe and secure movement of
dangerous goods, including flammable liquids, toxic chemicals, radioactive materials, and other
hazardous substances, from one location to another. There are several important considerations for the
transportation and security of these materials, including:
1. Regulatory Compliance: Hazardous materials are regulated by various federal and state
agencies, including the Department of Transportation (DOT), the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Transportation of these
materials must comply with the regulations and guidelines set forth by these agencies.
2. Packaging and Labeling: Hazardous materials must be packaged and labeled in accordance
with DOT regulations to ensure that the contents are protected during transport and that
emergency responders are able to quickly identify the type and quantity of material in the event
of an accident.
3. Transportation Methods: The method of transportation must be appropriate for the type of
hazardous material being transported, taking into account factors such as the physical and

chemical properties of the substance, the volume being transported, and the distance being
traveled. The most common methods of transportation include truck, rail, air, and sea.
4. Route Planning: The transportation route must be planned to minimize the risk of accident and to
ensure that the hazardous material is transported through areas that are safe and secure. This
may involve avoiding populated areas, major highways, and critical infrastructure.
5. Security Planning: Security planning is critical to minimize the risk of theft, tampering, or other
malicious acts during transportation. This may involve the use of security personnel, security
cameras, tracking devices, and other security measures to ensure the safe and secure
movement of the hazardous material.
6. Training and Education: The drivers, handlers, and other personnel involved in the transportation
of hazardous materials must be trained and educated on the proper handling and transportation
procedures, including emergency response and containment procedures in the event of an
accident.
In conclusion, the transportation and security of hazardous materials is a complex and regulated
process that requires careful planning, attention to detail, and compliance with numerous regulations
and guidelines. By taking the necessary precautions and following best practices, it is possible to
minimize the risk of accidents and ensure the safe and secure movement of these materials.

Domain 6- Occupational Health and Ergonomics

Advanced toxicology principles
Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of the harmful effects of chemicals and other toxic substances on living
organisms.
Routes of Entry
Understanding the different routes of entry by which these substances can enter the body is critical for
assessing the potential health hazards and for determining the appropriate protective measures that
should be taken.
1. Inhalation: Inhalation is one of the most common routes of entry for toxic substances. This occurs
when we breathe in contaminated air, which can contain toxic dusts, fumes, vapors, or gases.
For example, if a worker is exposed to asbestos fibers in the air, the fibers can be inhaled and
can lead to serious health problems, such as lung cancer or mesothelioma.
2. Ingestion: Ingestion occurs when a toxic substance is ingested, either by swallowing or by eating.
This can occur, for example, if a worker consumes contaminated food or drinks, or if a chemical
is accidentally swallowed. For example, if a worker eats food that has been contaminated with a
toxic chemical, the chemical can enter the body through the digestive system and can cause a
range of health problems, such as poisoning or even death.
3. Absorption: Absorption occurs when a toxic substance is absorbed through the skin or mucous
membranes. This can occur, for example, if a worker comes into direct contact with a toxic
chemical, or if a chemical is applied to the skin in a cosmetic product. For example, if a worker
handles a toxic chemical without proper protective equipment, the chemical can be absorbed
through the skin and can cause serious health problems, such as skin irritation or systemic
toxicity.
4. Percutaneous and Intravenous Injections: Percutaneous injections occur when a toxic substance
is injected directly into the skin or muscle, while intravenous injections occur when a toxic
substance is injected directly into a vein. This can occur, for example, if a worker is accidentally
injected with a toxic substance, or if a toxic substance is used in a medical procedure. For
example, if a worker is accidentally injected with a toxic chemical, the chemical can enter the
bloodstream and can cause serious health problems, such as organ damage or death.
Important Terms
The following are important terms to understand in relation to toxicology:
1. Symptoms of Exposure: Exposure to toxic substances can cause a wide range of symptoms
depending on the substance, the route of exposure, and the dose. For example, exposure to high
levels of lead can cause headaches, abdominal pain, joint and muscle pain, and irritability.
2. LD50: The LD50 (Lethal Dose 50) is a measure of the toxicity of a substance, expressed as the
dose that is lethal to 50% of the exposed population. The LD50 provides a quantitative estimate
of the potential toxicity of a substance and can be used to compare the toxicity of different
substances.
3. Mutagens: Mutagens are substances that can cause mutations (changes) in the genetic material
(DNA) of an organism. These changes can lead to health problems, such as cancer.

4. Teratogens: Teratogens are substances that can cause birth defects in a developing fetus.
Examples of teratogens include alcohol, certain medications, and some chemicals.
5. Ototoxins: Ototoxins are substances that can cause damage to the auditory system, including the
inner ear and auditory nerve. Examples of ototoxins include certain medications and certain
chemicals.
It is important to note that the toxic effects of a substance depend on the dose, duration, and route of
exposure, as well as the age, sex, genetics, and overall health of the exposed individual. Understanding
advanced toxicology principles is critical for the development and implementation of effective health and
safety programs.
Dose-Response Relationship
The dose-response relationship is a fundamental concept in toxicology that refers to the relationship
between the amount of a substance (dose) and the magnitude of its biological effect (response). In other
words, it describes how changes in the dose of a substance will affect its toxicity. The dose-response
relationship is important because it helps to determine the safe exposure levels for workers and to
predict the potential health effects of exposure to a toxic substance.
There are several types of dose-response relationships that can be described, including linear,
threshold, and non-linear relationships.
1. Linear Dose-Response Relationship: In a linear dose-response relationship, a small increase in
the dose of a substance will result in a proportional increase in its biological effect. For example,
if a worker is exposed to increasing amounts of a toxic chemical, the severity of the health effects
will increase in a linear manner as the dose increases.
2. Threshold Dose-Response Relationship: In a threshold dose-response relationship, a substance
will only produce a biological effect if the dose exceeds a certain threshold level. For example, a
toxic chemical may only cause health effects if the worker is exposed to a dose above a certain
level. Below this threshold, the substance is considered safe.
3. Non-Linear Dose-Response Relationship: In a non-linear dose-response relationship, the
relationship between the dose and the biological effect is not proportional. For example, a small
increase in the dose of a substance may result in a large increase in its biological effect, or vice
versa. Non-linear dose-response relationships are often seen with toxic substances that have a
threshold effect, where the severity of the health effects increases rapidly once the threshold is
exceeded.
In conclusion, the dose-response relationship is a critical concept in toxicology that helps to predict the
potential health effects of exposure to toxic substances. By understanding the different types of dose-
response relationships and the factors that can influence toxicity, workers can take appropriate
protective measures to minimize the risk of exposure and to ensure their safety and health.
Exposures to chemical mixtures
Exposure to chemical combinations, or mixtures, is a common occurrence in many occupational settings.
Workers may be exposed to mixtures of chemicals through inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, or other
routes of exposure. Understanding the effects of exposure to chemical combinations is important
because the toxicity of a mixture may be different than the toxicity of each chemical alone.
There are several ways that chemical combinations can interact to produce a toxic effect, including:

1. Additive Effect: In an additive effect, the toxicity of a mixture is equal to the sum of the toxicities of
each chemical in the mixture. In other words, the combined effect of the chemicals is equal to the
sum of their individual effects.
2. Synergistic Effect: In a synergistic effect, the toxicity of a mixture is greater than the sum of the
toxicities of each chemical in the mixture. This means that the combined effect of the chemicals is
greater than their individual effects.
3. Antagonistic Effect: In an antagonistic effect, the toxicity of a mixture is less than the sum of the
toxicities of each chemical in the mixture. This means that the combined effect of the chemicals is
less than their individual effects.
It can be difficult to predict the toxic effects of exposure to chemical combinations because the
interactions between chemicals can be complex and may depend on the specific combination of
chemicals, the route of exposure, and the dose.
In conclusion, exposure to chemical combinations is a common occurrence in many occupational
settings, and it is important to understand the potential toxic effects of these mixtures. Workers should be
aware of the potential interactions between chemicals and take appropriate protective measures to
minimize the risk of exposure. Additionally, employers should implement measures to minimize the risk
of exposure to chemical combinations and provide training to workers on the dangers of exposure and
the measures that can be taken to minimize risk.
Studies in Toxicology
Studies in toxicology are used to determine the potential harmful effects of exposure to chemicals and
other toxic substances. There are several different types of studies that are commonly used in toxicology
research, including:
1. Cohort Study: A cohort study is a type of observational study that follows a group of individuals
over time. In a toxicology cohort study, researchers follow a group of individuals who have been
exposed to a particular chemical or toxic substance and compare their health outcomes to a
group of individuals who have not been exposed. This type of study is useful for understanding
the long-term effects of exposure to toxic substances and can provide important information on
the relationship between exposure and disease.
2. Case-Control Study: A case-control study is a type of observational study that compares
individuals who have a particular disease or condition (cases) to individuals who do not have the
disease or condition (controls). In a toxicology case-control study, researchers compare the
exposure history of individuals with a particular health outcome (such as cancer) to individuals
without that outcome. This type of study is useful for understanding the association between
exposure to a toxic substance and the risk of developing a particular disease or health outcome.
3. Cross-Sectional Study: A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study that measures the
prevalence of a particular disease or condition in a population at a specific point in time. In a
toxicology cross-sectional study, researchers measure the exposure to a particular toxic
substance and the prevalence of a specific health outcome in a population. This type of study is
useful for understanding the distribution of a particular disease or health outcome in a population
and can provide important information on the relationship between exposure and disease.
These studies provide important information that is used to inform public health and environmental
policy, guide clinical practice, and develop strategies for preventing exposure to toxic substances. By
understanding the potential harmful effects of exposure to toxic substances, researchers can work to
prevent or minimize the risk of exposure and reduce the impact of toxic exposures on human health.
Occupational Diseases
Asbestosis and Asbestos-Related Illnesses:
Asbestosis is a chronic lung disease caused by inhaling asbestos fibers, which can cause scarring of
lung tissue. It can lead to shortness of breath, persistent coughing, chest tightness, and decreased lung
function. Asbestosis is a progressive disease that typically takes years or even decades to develop after
exposure to asbestos.
Asbestos-related illnesses include lung cancer, mesothelioma (a cancer of the pleural lining), and pleural
plaques (thickening of the pleural lining). All of these conditions can be caused by inhaling asbestos
fibers.
To prevent asbestos-related illnesses, it is important to avoid exposure to asbestos. This can be done by
identifying and removing asbestos in buildings and homes, using proper protective equipment when
handling asbestos, and avoiding the disturbance of asbestos-containing materials.
It is important for safety professionals to be aware of the potential for exposure to asbestos in the
workplace, and to take steps to protect workers from exposure. This includes providing proper personal
protective equipment, implementing safe work practices, and educating workers about the dangers of
asbestos exposure.
Byssinosis:
Byssinosis, also known as brown lung disease, is a type of occupational lung disease caused by inhaling
fibers of cotton, flax, or hemp. It affects workers who are employed in the textile industry, particularly
those involved in spinning, weaving, and processing of these fibers.
Symptoms: The symptoms of byssinosis typically occur within a few hours after starting work and
subside after leaving work. These symptoms may include wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of
breath, and coughing. In severe cases, byssinosis may lead to permanent lung damage and reduced
lung function.
Causes: Byssinosis is caused by inhaling fine fibers and particles of cotton, flax, or hemp. These fibers
can become lodged in the lungs and irritate the airways, leading to inflammation and a buildup of mucus.
Prevention: To prevent byssinosis, it is important for workers in the textile industry to use personal
protective equipment, such as masks and respirators, to minimize exposure to fiber dust. Employers
should also implement engineering controls, such as ventilation systems and enclosures, to reduce fiber
dust levels in the workplace.
Treatment: There is no cure for byssinosis, but treatment can help manage symptoms and prevent the
disease from getting worse. Treatment may include medications to reduce inflammation and relieve
symptoms, such as bronchodilators and corticosteroids. In some cases, supplemental oxygen may be
necessary.
Benzene-Related Illnesses:
Benzene-related illnesses occur as a result of exposure to benzene, which is a colorless, flammable
liquid that is widely used as a solvent and a starting material in the synthesis of chemicals such as
plastics, resins, rubbers, dyes, detergents, drugs, and pesticides.
Routes of Exposure: Benzene can enter the body through inhalation, skin contact, and ingestion.
Inhalation is the most common route of exposure in the occupational setting, particularly among workers
in industries such as petrochemical production, rubber manufacturing, printing, and gasoline dispensing.

Symptoms: The symptoms of benzene exposure can vary depending on the level and duration of
exposure. Short-term exposure to high levels of benzene can cause drowsiness, dizziness, headache,
rapid heartbeat, and unconsciousness. Prolonged exposure to lower levels can lead to aplastic anemia,
leukemia, and other blood disorders.
Controls: To prevent benzene-related illnesses, it is important for employers to follow established
occupational health and safety regulations, including using engineering and administrative controls to
reduce benzene exposure levels. These may include using local exhaust ventilation, enclosing
processes to prevent the release of benzene into the air, and providing workers with personal protective
equipment. Additionally, workers should be trained on the proper handling and disposal of benzene, and
regular monitoring and medical surveillance programs should be in place to detect and prevent
overexposure.
Arsenic-Related Illnesses:
Arsenic is a toxic chemical that is commonly found in the environment, and exposure to it can cause
serious health effects. Arsenic-related illnesses are caused by inhaling or ingesting arsenic, and can
range from mild to severe depending on the amount and duration of exposure.
The most common routes of exposure to arsenic are through contaminated drinking water, food, and air.
Arsenic is used in various industrial processes and can also be present in wood preservatives,
pesticides, and other chemicals.
Symptoms of arsenic-related illnesses can include:
• Skin lesions
• Nausea and vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Abdominal pain
• Fatigue
• Muscle weakness
• Tingling or numbness in the extremities
• Cognitive impairment
• Reproductive and developmental effects
To prevent arsenic-related illnesses, it is important to control exposure by using proper personal
protective equipment, ensuring adequate ventilation in the workplace, and monitoring levels of arsenic in
drinking water and other potential sources of exposure. Additionally, it is important to properly dispose of
arsenic-containing materials and to limit the use of arsenic in products and processes.
In case of suspected arsenic exposure, it is important to seek medical attention promptly and to provide
a detailed history of exposure to healthcare providers. Early diagnosis and treatment can greatly improve
the outcome for individuals with arsenic-related illnesses.
Cadmium-Related Illnesses:
Cadmium-related illnesses are health conditions caused by exposure to cadmium, a toxic metal.
Cadmium is commonly used in various industries, including metal production, battery manufacturing, and
electroplating.
Route of exposure: Cadmium can enter the body through inhalation of cadmium-containing dust, fumes,
or vapors. It can also enter the body through skin contact with cadmium compounds or through ingestion
of cadmium-contaminated food or water.
Symptoms: The symptoms of cadmium toxicity vary depending on the level and duration of exposure. In
acute exposure, symptoms can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. Chronic exposure to low
levels of cadmium can lead to kidney damage, anemia, and osteoporosis. High levels of exposure can
cause respiratory distress, pneumonia, and death.
Prevention: To prevent cadmium-related illnesses, it is important to implement effective control
measures in the workplace, such as using appropriate personal protective equipment, improving
ventilation systems, and using alternative materials that do not contain cadmium. In addition, it is
important to regularly monitor workers for cadmium exposure and to provide them with proper training on
the dangers of cadmium and how to protect themselves.
Berylliosis and Beryllium-Related Illnesses:
Berylliosis is a type of lung disease caused by exposure to beryllium, a metal used in various industrial
processes such as in the aerospace, defense, nuclear, and electronics industries. Chronic beryllium
disease (CBD) is a lung condition caused by inhaling beryllium particles, which can lead to lung
inflammation, scarring, and difficulty breathing.
Routes of exposure: Inhalation of beryllium dust, fumes, or mist.
Symptoms: The symptoms of berylliosis can develop over time and may include shortness of breath,
fatigue, cough, weight loss, chest pain, and fever. In severe cases, the disease can progress to lung
failure.
Prevention: To prevent berylliosis and beryllium-related illnesses, it is important to take appropriate
measures to control exposure to beryllium in the workplace. This may include using protective
equipment, such as respirators, implementing good housekeeping practices, and using engineering
controls to reduce the amount of beryllium in the air. Additionally, it is important for workers to undergo
regular medical monitoring to detect the disease early and receive appropriate treatment.
Cobalt-Related Illnesses:
Cobalt-related illnesses are health problems that can occur as a result of overexposure to cobalt and
cobalt-containing substances. Here is an overview of important information about cobalt-related
illnesses:
Routes of exposure: Cobalt can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. Inhalation
is the most common route of exposure in the workplace, where workers may be exposed to cobalt dust
or fumes. Ingestion can occur through the consumption of contaminated food or water. Skin contact can
occur when workers handle cobalt-containing substances without wearing protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of cobalt-related illnesses can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include skin rashes, stomach pain, vomiting, tremors, vision
changes, pain, swelling, and heart muscle damage.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of cobalt-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling cobalt and cobalt-containing substances. Workers should wear
appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves, respiratory protection, and eye protection.
Adequate ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to cobalt. Regular workplace
monitoring and medical surveillance programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to
cobalt.
General information: Cobalt is a naturally occurring element that is used in a variety of industrial and
medical applications. Long-term exposure to cobalt has been linked to a range of health problems,
including cobalt poisoning, cobalt allergy, cobalt hip replacement toxicity, and cardiomyopathy. If you
experience symptoms of cobalt toxicity or allergy, it is important to seek medical attention. If you have a
cobalt-containing hip replacement, it is important to monitor for symptoms and to speak with your
healthcare provider if you have concerns.
Copper-Related Illnesses:
Copper is an essential mineral that is widely used in various industrial and household products. While
copper is necessary for good health, exposure to excessive amounts of copper can lead to copper-
related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: Copper can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. Ingestion
can occur through the consumption of contaminated food or water, or by accidentally swallowing copper
objects. Inhalation can occur when workers are exposed to copper dust or fumes in the workplace. Skin
contact can occur when workers handle copper products without wearing protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of copper toxicity can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache,
fatigue, and joint pain. In severe cases, copper toxicity can lead to liver damage and anemia.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of copper-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling copper and copper-containing substances. Workers should wear
appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves, respiratory protection, and eye protection.
Adequate ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to copper dust or fumes. Regular
workplace monitoring and medical surveillance programs can help ensure that workers are not
overexposed to copper.
General information: Copper is an essential mineral that plays a role in various physiological processes,
including the formation of red blood cells and the metabolism of iron. Copper is commonly found in
various products, including electrical wiring, pipes, coins, and household cookware. While copper is
necessary for good health, exposure to excessive amounts of copper can lead to copper toxicity. If you
experience symptoms of copper toxicity, it is important to seek medical attention.
Chromium-Related Illnesses:
Chromium is a metal that is widely used in various industrial processes and products. While chromium is
necessary for good health, exposure to certain forms of chromium can lead to chromium-related
illnesses.
Routes of exposure: Chromium can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact.
Inhalation is the most common route of exposure in the workplace, where workers may be exposed to
chromium dust or fumes. Ingestion can occur through the consumption of contaminated food or water.
Skin contact can occur when workers handle chromium-containing substances without wearing
protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of chromium toxicity can vary depending on the type and amount of
chromium exposure. Some common symptoms include skin rashes, itching, and in severe cases,
ulceration of the skin. Inhalation exposure to hexavalent chromium can cause respiratory irritation,
coughing, and wheezing. Long-term exposure to hexavalent chromium has been linked to lung cancer.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of chromium-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling chromium and chromium-containing substances. Workers should
wear appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves, respiratory protection, and eye
protection. Adequate ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to chromium dust or
fumes. Regular workplace monitoring and medical surveillance programs can help ensure that workers
are not overexposed to chromium.
General information: Chromium is a metal that is widely used in various industrial processes and
products, including stainless steel, chrome plating, and pigments. There are two main forms of
chromium: trivalent chromium, which is essential for good health, and hexavalent chromium, which is
toxic. Exposure to hexavalent chromium can lead to a range of health problems, including skin irritation,
respiratory problems, and lung cancer. If you experience symptoms of chromium toxicity, it is important
to seek medical attention.
Coal Dust-Related Illnesses:
Coal dust is a byproduct of coal mining and other industrial processes that involve coal. Exposure to coal
dust can lead to a range of health problems, including coal dust-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: Coal dust can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact.
coal dust from mining, processing, or transportation of coal. Ingestion can occur through the
consumption of contaminated food or water. Skin contact can occur when workers handle coal without
wearing protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of coal dust exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and wheezing.
Prolonged exposure to coal dust can lead to a condition known as black lung disease, which causes
progressive lung damage and can result in disability or death.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of coal dust-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling coal and coal dust. Workers should wear appropriate personal
protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing. Adequate ventilation is important in
preventing inhalation exposure to coal dust. Regular workplace monitoring and medical surveillance
programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to coal dust.
General information: Coal dust is a byproduct of coal mining and other industrial processes that involve
coal. Exposure to coal dust can lead to a range of health problems, including black lung disease and
other respiratory problems. If you experience symptoms of coal dust exposure, it is important to seek
medical attention. Employers and workers should take steps to minimize exposure to coal dust, including
wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate ventilation.
Formaldehyde-Related Illnesses:
Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a strong, pungent odor that is widely used in various industrial
processes and products. Exposure to formaldehyde can lead to a range of health problems, including
formaldehyde-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: Formaldehyde can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact.
formaldehyde fumes from products such as resins, glues, and textiles. Ingestion can occur through the
consumption of contaminated food or water. Skin contact can occur when workers handle formaldehyde-
containing substances without wearing protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of formaldehyde exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include eye, nose, and throat irritation, coughing, wheezing, and
headaches. Prolonged exposure to high levels of formaldehyde has been linked to cancer, particularly
leukemia.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of formaldehyde-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling formaldehyde and formaldehyde-containing substances. Workers
should wear appropriate personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing.
Adequate ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to formaldehyde fumes. Regular
overexposed to formaldehyde.
General information: Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a strong, pungent odor that is widely used in
various industrial processes and products, including resins, glues, and textiles. Exposure to
formaldehyde can lead to a range of health problems, including eye, nose, and throat irritation,
respiratory problems, and cancer. If you experience symptoms of formaldehyde exposure, it is important
to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should take steps to minimize exposure to
formaldehyde, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate ventilation.
Lead-Related Illnesses:
Lead is a heavy metal that is toxic to the human body. Exposure to lead can lead to a range of health
problems, including lead-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: Lead can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. Inhalation
is the most common route of exposure in the workplace, where workers may be exposed to lead fumes
from products such as paint, batteries, and plumbing materials. Ingestion can occur through the
consumption of contaminated food or water. Skin contact can occur when workers handle lead-
containing substances without wearing protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of lead exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include abdominal pain, headache, joint and muscle pain, and
fatigue. Prolonged exposure to high levels of lead can lead to serious health problems, including anemia,
neurological damage, and reproductive problems. Children are particularly vulnerable to lead exposure,
as it can cause developmental and behavioral problems.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of lead-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling lead and lead-containing substances. Workers should wear
appropriate personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing. Adequate
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to lead fumes. Regular workplace monitoring
and medical surveillance programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to lead.
General information: Lead is a heavy metal that is toxic to the human body. Exposure to lead can lead to
a range of health problems, including abdominal pain, headache, joint and muscle pain, and fatigue.
Prolonged exposure to high levels of lead can lead to serious health problems, including anemia,
neurological damage, and reproductive problems. Children are particularly vulnerable to lead exposure,
as it can cause developmental and behavioral problems. If you experience symptoms of lead exposure,
it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should take steps to minimize exposure
to lead, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate ventilation.

Pneumoconiosis:
Pneumoconiosis is a type of lung disease that is caused by inhaling dust and other particles over an
extended period of time. There are several different types of pneumoconiosis, including coal workers'
pneumoconiosis (CWP) and silicosis.
Routes of exposure: Pneumoconiosis is caused by inhaling dust and other particles into the lungs. The
most common sources of dust exposure are in the workplace, such as coal mines, stone quarries, and
construction sites.
Symptoms: The symptoms of pneumoconiosis can develop gradually over time and may not appear until
years after exposure. Some common symptoms include shortness of breath, persistent cough, chest
pain, and fatigue. In severe cases, pneumoconiosis can lead to lung scarring and impaired lung function.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of pneumoconiosis, it is important to follow proper safety procedures
and guidelines for controlling dust exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear appropriate personal
protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing. Adequate ventilation is important in
preventing inhalation exposure to dust. Regular workplace monitoring and medical surveillance
programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to dust.
General information: Pneumoconiosis is a type of lung disease that is caused by inhaling dust and other
particles over an extended period of time. There are several different types of pneumoconiosis, including
coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP) and silicosis. Pneumoconiosis can cause a range of health
problems, including shortness of breath, persistent cough, chest pain, and fatigue. If you experience
symptoms of pneumoconiosis, it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should
take steps to minimize exposure to dust, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate
ventilation.
Mercury-Related Illnesses:
Mercury is a heavy metal that is toxic to the human body. Exposure to mercury can lead to a range of
health problems, including mercury-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: Mercury can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact.
mercury fumes from products such as batteries, thermometers, and fluorescent lights. Ingestion can
occur through the consumption of contaminated food or water. Skin contact can occur when workers
handle mercury-containing substances without wearing protective gloves.
Symptoms: The symptoms of mercury exposure can vary depending on the form of mercury and the
amount and duration of exposure. Some common symptoms include tremors, mood swings, memory
loss, and numbness or tingling in the hands, feet, or around the mouth. Prolonged exposure to high
levels of mercury can lead to serious health problems, including kidney damage, respiratory failure, and
death.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of mercury-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for handling mercury and mercury-containing substances. Workers should
wear appropriate personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing. Adequate
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to mercury fumes. Regular workplace
mercury.
General information: Mercury is a heavy metal that is toxic to the human body. Exposure to mercury can
lead to a range of health problems, including tremors, mood swings, memory loss, and numbness or
tingling in the hands, feet, or around the mouth. Prolonged exposure to high levels of mercury can lead
to serious health problems, including kidney damage, respiratory failure, and death. If you experience
symptoms of mercury exposure, it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should
take steps to minimize exposure to mercury, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring
adequate ventilation.
Silica-Related Illnesses:
Silica is a naturally occurring mineral that is commonly found in many types of rock, soil, and sand.
Inhaling silica dust can lead to silicosis, a type of lung disease.
Routes of exposure: Silica can enter the body through inhalation of silica dust, which can occur in the
workplace, such as in mines, quarries, and construction sites where silica-containing materials are cut,
drilled, or ground.
Symptoms: The symptoms of silicosis can develop gradually over time and may not appear until years
after exposure. Some common symptoms include shortness of breath, persistent cough, chest pain, and
fatigue. In severe cases, silicosis can lead to lung scarring and impaired lung function.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of silicosis, it is important to follow proper safety procedures and
guidelines for controlling silica dust exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear appropriate
personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing. Adequate ventilation is
important in preventing inhalation exposure to silica dust. Regular workplace monitoring and medical
surveillance programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to silica.
General information: Silica is a naturally occurring mineral that is commonly found in many types of rock,
soil, and sand. Inhaling silica dust can lead to silicosis, a type of lung disease that can cause shortness
of breath, persistent cough, chest pain, and fatigue. If you experience symptoms of silicosis, it is
important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should take steps to minimize exposure to
silica dust, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate ventilation.
Manganese-Related Illnesses:
Manganese is a naturally occurring element that is widely used in various industries, including steel
production and battery manufacturing. Prolonged exposure to manganese dust or fumes can lead to
manganese-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: The primary route of exposure to manganese is through inhalation of manganese
dust or fumes in the workplace. Workers in industries such as steel production, welding, and battery
manufacturing are at an increased risk of exposure to manganese.
Symptoms: The symptoms of manganese exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include tremors, muscle weakness, and problems with movement
and coordination. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of manganese can lead to a condition known
as manganism, which is similar to Parkinson's disease and is characterized by tremors, stiffness, and
difficulty with movement.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of manganese-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling manganese exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to manganese dust or fumes. Regular
overexposed to manganese.

General information: Manganese is a naturally occurring element that is widely used in various
industries, including steel production and battery manufacturing. Prolonged exposure to manganese dust
or fumes can lead to manganese-related illnesses, including tremors, muscle weakness, and problems
with movement and coordination. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of manganese can lead to a
condition known as manganism, which is similar to Parkinson's disease. If you experience symptoms of
manganese exposure, it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should take
steps to minimize exposure to manganese, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring
adequate ventilation.
Zinc-Related Illnesses:
Zinc is a naturally occurring element that is widely used in various industries, including galvanizing and
zinc plating. Prolonged exposure to zinc dust or fumes can lead to zinc-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: The primary route of exposure to zinc is through inhalation of zinc dust or fumes in
the workplace. Workers in industries such as galvanizing and zinc plating are at an increased risk of
exposure to zinc.
Symptoms: The symptoms of zinc exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Some common symptoms include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, coughing, wheezing,
and chest tightness. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of zinc can lead to metal fume fever, which
is characterized by flu-like symptoms such as fever, chills, headache, and muscle aches.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of zinc-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling zinc exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to zinc dust or fumes. Regular workplace
monitoring and medical surveillance programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to zinc.
General information: Zinc is a naturally occurring element that is widely used in various industries,
including galvanizing and zinc plating. Prolonged exposure to zinc dust or fumes can lead to zinc-related
illnesses, including irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, coughing, wheezing, and chest tightness. In
severe cases, exposure to high levels of zinc can lead to metal fume fever, which is characterized by flu-
like symptoms such as fever, chills, headache, and muscle aches. If you experience symptoms of zinc
exposure, it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers should take steps to minimize
exposure to zinc, including wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate ventilation.
Antimony-Related Illnesses:
Antimony is a naturally occurring metal that is used in various industries, including the production of
antimony alloys, flame-retardant materials, and batteries. Prolonged exposure to antimony can lead to
antimony-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: The primary route of exposure to antimony is through inhalation of antimony dust or
fumes in the workplace. Workers in industries such as antimony production and the production of
antimony-containing materials are at an increased risk of exposure to antimony.
Symptoms: The symptoms of antimony exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
and chest tightness. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of antimony can lead to antimony toxicity,
which can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of antimony-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling antimony exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to antimony dust or fumes. Regular workplace
antimony.
General information: Antimony is a naturally occurring metal that is used in various industries, including
the production of antimony alloys, flame-retardant materials, and batteries. Prolonged exposure to
antimony can lead to antimony-related illnesses, including irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat,
coughing, wheezing, and chest tightness. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of antimony can lead
to antimony toxicity, which can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. If you
experience symptoms of antimony exposure, it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and
workers should take steps to minimize exposure to antimony, including wearing protective equipment
and ensuring adequate ventilation.
Aluminum-Related Illnesses:
Aluminum is a naturally occurring metal that is widely used in various industries, including construction,
transportation, and packaging. Prolonged exposure to aluminum can lead to aluminum-related illnesses.
Routes of exposure: The primary route of exposure to aluminum is through inhalation of aluminum dust
or fumes in the workplace. Workers in industries such as aluminum production, welding, and
metalworking are at an increased risk of exposure to aluminum. In addition, people may be exposed to
aluminum through drinking water and food, although this is generally considered to be a low level of
exposure.
Symptoms: The symptoms of aluminum exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
and chest tightness. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of aluminum can lead to aluminum toxicity,
which can cause symptoms such as confusion, muscle weakness, and memory loss.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of aluminum-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling aluminum exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to aluminum dust or fumes. Regular workplace
aluminum.
General information: Aluminum is a naturally occurring metal that is widely used in various industries,
including construction, transportation, and packaging. Prolonged exposure to aluminum can lead to
aluminum-related illnesses, including irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, coughing, wheezing, and
chest tightness. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of aluminum can lead to aluminum toxicity,
which can cause symptoms such as confusion, muscle weakness, and memory loss. If you experience
symptoms of aluminum exposure, it is important to seek medical attention. Employers and workers
should take steps to minimize exposure to aluminum, including wearing protective equipment and
ensuring adequate ventilation.
Dust-Related Illnesses
Dust-related illnesses can refer to a variety of health conditions that are caused by exposure to different
types of dust, such as silica dust, coal dust, and wood dust.
Routes of exposure: The primary route of exposure to dusts is through inhalation, although some dusts
can also be absorbed through the skin. Workers in industries such as construction, mining, agriculture,

and woodworking are at an increased risk of exposure to dusts. In addition, people can be exposed to
dusts in their homes, through activities such as cleaning or renovation.
Symptoms: The symptoms of dust-related illnesses can vary depending on the type of dust and the
amount and duration of exposure. Some common symptoms include irritation of the eyes, nose, and
throat, coughing, wheezing, and chest tightness. In severe cases, exposure to certain dusts can lead to
more serious health conditions, such as pneumoconiosis, lung cancer, and silicosis.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of dust-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling dust exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
ventilation is important in preventing inhalation exposure to dusts. Regular workplace monitoring and
medical surveillance programs can help ensure that workers are not overexposed to dusts.
General information: Dust-related illnesses refer to a variety of health conditions that are caused by
exposure to different types of dust, such as silica dust, coal dust, and wood dust. The primary route of
exposure to dusts is through inhalation, although some dusts can also be absorbed through the skin.
Workers in industries such as construction, mining, agriculture, and woodworking are at an increased
risk of exposure to dusts. The symptoms of dust-related illnesses can vary depending on the type of dust
and the amount and duration of exposure. To minimize the risk of dust-related illnesses, it is important to
follow proper safety procedures and guidelines for controlling dust exposure in the workplace, including
wearing protective equipment and ensuring adequate ventilation. If you experience symptoms of dust-
related illnesses, it is important to seek medical attention.
Pesticide-Related Illnesses:
Pesticide-related illnesses refer to a variety of health conditions that are caused by exposure to
pesticides, which are chemicals used to control pests and insects.
Routes of exposure: Pesticides can enter the body through several routes, including inhalation,
ingestion, and skin contact. People who work in agriculture, pest control, and other related industries are
at a higher risk of exposure to pesticides. In addition, people can be exposed to pesticides in their
homes, through the use of pest control products or by consuming contaminated food.
Symptoms: The symptoms of pesticide-related illnesses can vary depending on the type of pesticide and
the amount and duration of exposure. Some common symptoms include headaches, dizziness, fatigue,
nausea, and skin irritation. In severe cases, exposure to certain pesticides can lead to more serious
health conditions, such as respiratory problems, neurological damage, and cancer.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of pesticide-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling pesticide exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
appropriate personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing. In addition, it is
important to follow label instructions carefully when using pesticides in the home or garden.
General information: Pesticide-related illnesses refer to a variety of health conditions that are caused by
exposure to pesticides, which are chemicals used to control pests and insects. Pesticides can enter the
body through several routes, including inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. People who work in
agriculture, pest control, and other related industries are at a higher risk of exposure to pesticides. The
symptoms of pesticide-related illnesses can vary depending on the type of pesticide and the amount and
duration of exposure. To minimize the risk of pesticide-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper
safety procedures and guidelines for controlling pesticide exposure in the workplace, including wearing
protective equipment and following label instructions carefully when using pesticides in the home or

garden. If you experience symptoms of pesticide-related illnesses, it is important to seek medical

attention.
Thallium-Related Illnesses:
Thallium is a toxic metal that can cause serious health effects if it is ingested, inhaled, or comes into
contact with the skin.
Routes of exposure: Thallium can enter the body through several routes, including inhalation, ingestion,
and skin contact. Workers who are involved in the mining, refining, and production of thallium-containing
products are at a higher risk of exposure. In addition, exposure to thallium can occur through the
consumption of contaminated food or water, or through the use of certain consumer products that
contain thallium.
Symptoms: The symptoms of thallium exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of
exposure. Early symptoms of thallium exposure may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal
pain. Over time, exposure to high levels of thallium can cause more serious health effects, such as
neurological damage, cardiovascular problems, and kidney failure.
Prevention: To minimize the risk of thallium-related illnesses, it is important to follow proper safety
procedures and guidelines for controlling thallium exposure in the workplace. Workers should wear
appropriate personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing, to reduce the risk
of inhaling or coming into contact with thallium. In addition, it is important to monitor the levels of thallium
in food and water to prevent contamination.
General information: Thallium is a toxic metal that can cause serious health effects if it is ingested,
inhaled, or comes into contact with the skin. Workers who are involved in the mining, refining, and
production of thallium-containing products are at a higher risk of exposure. The symptoms of thallium
exposure can vary depending on the amount and duration of exposure, and may include nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. To minimize the risk of thallium-related illnesses, it is important
to follow proper safety procedures and guidelines for controlling thallium exposure in the workplace, and
to monitor the levels of thallium in food and water to prevent contamination. If you experience symptoms
of thallium exposure, it is important to seek medical attention.
Brucellosis
Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. It is a zoonotic disease,
meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans.
Routes of exposure: Brucellosis can be contracted through several routes, including:
• Inhalation of airborne droplets from infected animals or contaminated materials
• Ingestion of raw or undercooked meat from infected animals
• Direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids
• Direct contact with contaminated materials or surfaces
Symptoms: The symptoms of brucellosis can vary depending on the individual and the route of
exposure, but may include:
• Fever
• Sweats
• Fatigue
• Muscle and joint aches

• Loss of appetite
• Nausea and vomiting
• Abdominal pain
Prevention: To prevent brucellosis, it is important to take precautions when handling or consuming meat
from infected animals. This may include properly cooking meat, avoiding contact with animal bodily
fluids, and wearing protective gear when working with infected animals or contaminated materials.
General information: Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. It is a
zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans. The symptoms of brucellosis
can vary depending on the individual and the route of exposure, but may include fever, sweats, fatigue,
muscle and joint aches, and loss of appetite. To prevent brucellosis, it is important to take precautions
when handling or consuming meat from infected animals, and to follow proper safety procedures when
working with infected animals or contaminated materials. If you believe you have been exposed to
brucellosis, it is important to seek medical attention.
Occupational Hygiene
What is occupational Hygiene?
Occupational hygiene is the science and practice of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling
workplace hazards in order to protect workers from harm. It involves the systematic assessment of
workplace hazards and the implementation of control measures to reduce or eliminate workers'
exposure to harmful substances, processes, or physical agents.
Occupational hygienists use a variety of tools and techniques to identify and measure workplace
hazards, including air and noise monitoring, surface wipe sampling, and biological monitoring. Based on
the results of these assessments, they work with employers and workers to implement control measures
to reduce exposure to harmful substances and agents, such as ventilation systems, personal protective
equipment, and process changes.
The goal of occupational hygiene is to prevent or minimize the risk of occupational diseases, injuries,
and other health problems that can arise from exposure to workplace hazards. This includes protecting
workers from the effects of exposure to toxic substances, physical agents, and other hazardous
materials, as well as from the physical demands of their jobs. By promoting safe and healthy working
conditions, occupational hygiene helps to ensure the well-being and productivity of workers, and
contributes to the overall success of the organization.
The science of occupational hygiene detects, monitors and measures the amount of workplace exposure
to chemical, physical and biological agents and recommends engineering or other methods to control,
reduce or eliminate these hazards.
Detection, monitoring and measurement of hazardous airborne agents are performed with specialized
equipment. Broadly speaking, there are two types of equipment for this work:
1. Equipment that collects a sample, and
2. Equipment that gives direct readings.
If the equipment collects samples, the samples are analyzed in a laboratory to determine the
concentration in workplace air. By determining the amount of chemical collected, and the volume of air
used to obtain the sample, the concentration can be calculated. Usually the concentration is expressed
as milligrams of chemical per cubic metre of air (mg/m3) or parts of chemical per million parts of air
(ppm). For fibrous materials fibres/cc are used.
Direct reading instruments allow immediate readings in the workplace without the necessity for
laboratory analysis. This type of equipment is available for measuring physical energies such as noise
but it is also increasingly common to obtain direct reading instruments for vapours and gases.
The incorporation of occupational hygiene into a safety management program is a major factor in
reducing workplace health related problems, such as hearing loss, disease from long-term chemical and
biological exposures, skin disorders, allergies, poisoning, chemical burns and many other work-related
conditions. The occupational hygienist benefits by working as a team with other health and safety
professionals. For example, the role of the safety professional and the occupational hygienist are
complimentary. After the hygienist has conducted an assessment of a workplace hazard he or she
assesses the risk to worker health. If necessary the hygienist makes recommendations for practical
control measures. Then, it often becomes the safety professional’s responsibility to apply their skill in
implementing and managing effective controls.
The principal goal of occupational hygiene is the protection of worker health and safety. It is a goal
shared by all occupational health and safety professionals and is one best achieved by working together.
Occupational Hygiene Standards

What are Occupational Exposure Limits?
For any occupational hygiene measurement to be meaningful there must be a standard against which it
can be compared. One of the most difficult questions to answer in occupational hygiene is “how much
exposure is too much?” While it is relatively easy to measure the amount of certain physical, biological or
chemical agents present in the workplace, it is often much harder to determine the health significance or
health risk of the numbers we obtain. To make the risk determination useful, occupational hygienists
have developed a series of standards of “acceptable exposures” for chemical and physical agents.
These standards are given the general name Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs).
OELs have caveats. They are based on our current knowledge and the application of our best
professional judgment. Nonetheless comparison of measured levels with established OELs are the way
occupational hygienists’ judge risks and the need for controls.
The information used for establishing occupational exposure limits comes mostly from the following three
areas:
1. Animal studies
2. Human experience
3. Workplace experience
These three areas enable correlations between health effects (the response) and specific airborne
concentrations (the dose).
There may be several reasons for the selection of a particular limit. The OEL could be based solely on
the fact that most people find the chemical very irritating to the eyes, nose and throat. Alternatively, an
OEL may be given because a material is known to cause allergic reactions or cancer. Some OELs (such
as non-toxic dust) have limits because at certain concentrations in air they are simply a nuisance. The
type and quantity of information available for establishing an OEL will vary substantially from substance

to substance and physical agent. As new research is carried out and more workplace experience is
gained, OELs are subject to continuous review, updating and revision.
Undoubtedly the most well known OELs are those established and published by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). Despite its name ACGIH is not a US
Government organization, rather it is a professional not-for-profit association made up of toxicologists,
physicians, occupational hygienists, safety specialists and many others with who are practitioners of
health and safety. Members of ACGIH come from all backgrounds including industry, government, and
labour organizations and all have an interest in advancing worker health and safety. ACGIH points out
that it is NOT a standard setting body rather it is a scientific organization that has established a number
of committees to review the existing published, peer-reviewed literature. However, ACGIH publishes
guidelines for use by occupational hygienists in making decisions regarding safe levels of exposure to
various chemical and physical agents found in the workplace.
The ACGIH guidelines have become the principal occupational exposure standards in the world and its
guidelines have been adopted as standards by some national, state and local governments. ACGIH has
copyrighted the term “Threshold Limit Value (TLV)” as the name for its OELs. The ACGIH describes
TLVs as follows:
“TLVs refer to airborne concentrations of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed
that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse health effects.”
TLVs are not consensus standards that address issues of technical or economic feasibility. Rather they
represent a scientific opinion based on existing peer-reviewed scientific literature evaluated by
committees of experts in public health and related sciences. Note that ACGIH states that TLVs are not
fine lines between safe and dangerous exposures. It does not claim that TLVs will protect all workers.
Rather, they acknowledge that individual susceptibility and pre-existing illnesses are factors that are not
considered in setting most limits and that a small percentage of workers may experience discomfort at or
below the TLV. Not all chemical and physical agents have TLVs, but those that do are listed in a guide
published annually by ACGIH. Its full title is TLVs and BEIs – Threshold Limit Values for Chemical
Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices, but it is commonly known by those in
occupational hygiene just as the “TLV booklet.”
The scientific basis and judgmental aspects of setting each individual TLV are found in the
Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, again published by
ACGIH.
There are three types of TLV: a time-weighted average (TWA); a short-term exposure limit (STEL) and a
ceiling limit (C):
Time weighted average (TLV-TWA)

In establishing exposure limits, it was recognized that it is often difficult to exactly control the quantity of
airborne chemicals. Production volume at certain times of the day or on certain days of the week may be
higher, so that workers will be exposed to more airborne contaminants during these periods. At times of
low or no production there will be minimal or no exposure. The TWA allows for this “up and down”
fluctuation of airborne contaminants. TWAs permit excursions above the TLV provided they are
compensated by an equivalent excursion below the TLV-TWA during the workday or workweek.
The TLV-TWA is defined as:
“The time weighted average concentration for a conventional eight hour work day and a 40 hour work
week to which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day, for a
working lifetime, without adverse affect.”
How far above the TLV can you go? Clearly a time weighted average is not intended for short periods of
massive exposure with longer periods of no exposure (so that the average meets the TWA guideline).
There are limits (known as excursion limits) defining how high concentrations may go above the TWA.
The recommendations for excursion limits can be found in the TLV guide and are as follows:
“Excursions in worker exposure levels may exceed 3 times the TLV-TWA for no more than a total of 30
minutes during a work day and under no circumstances should they exceed 5 times the TLV-TWA,
provided that the TLV-TWA was not exceeded.”
Short-Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL).
There are some chemicals for which excursions of three or five times the TLV-TWA will not provide
protection. The materials are too poisonous or too irritating to be allowed to go above the average value
by three or five times. For these materials, there is the TLV-STEL. It is defined in the ACGIH TLV book
as follows:
“The concentration to which it is believed that workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of
time without suffering from: (1) irritation, (2) chronic or irreversible tissue damage, (3) dose-rate-
dependent toxic effects or 4) narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury,
impair self rescue or materially reduce work efficiency. The TLV-STEL will not necessarily protect
against these effects if the daily TLV-TWA is exceeded.
The TLV-STEL is not a separate independent exposure limit, rather it supplements the TLV-TWA where
there are recognized acute effects from a substance whose primary effects are of a chronic nature.
Exposures above the TLV-TWA up to the TLV-STEL should be less than 15 minutes, should occur not
more than 4 times a day, and there should be at least 60 minutes between successive exposures in this
range.
Ceiling (TLV-C)
There are some extremely irritating gases and some chemicals sufficiently dangerous that their threshold
limit value must be an absolute maximum rather than an eight hour TWA. These chemicals have “Ceiling
Values.” A ceiling value is the concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working
exposure.
What is a Skin Notation?
Nearly a quarter of all the substances in the TLV list will have the word “skin” written in the notations
column of the TLV guide. This notation indicates the chemical can be absorbed through the skin and that
appropriate precautions must be taken to prevent this.
Is Odour an indication of Toxicity?
While some TLVs may be set on the basis of chemical toxicity, others are established because of strong
irritation effects or even a bad odour.
However, it is important to remember, that bad odour does not correlate with high toxicity. It is a common
misconception that we can detect dangerous materials by their distinctive and unpleasant odours. In
reality, there is no correlation between the toxicity of a material and the odour it produces. For example,
Diethylamine has the appalling odour of rotting fish yet it is only moderately toxic. Phosgene, on the
other hand, smells sweetly and pleasantly of newly mown grass; yet it is deadly! Furthermore, we cannot
rely on the sense of smell to protect us. For example, hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic gas with an
odour of rotten eggs. The gas is produced in manure pits, sewers and several industrial processes, yet
its distinctive odour is no protection. When we are exposed to its odour over a period of time we
experience what is called “olfactory fatigue” (literally fatigue of the sense of smell) and we cease to be
able to detect the odour even if the gas is in very high concentrations.
What are Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs)?
These are measures of the concentration of workplace chemicals that have entered a person’s body.
Usually the measurements are taken in the blood, urine or exhaled air. BEIs generally indicate a
concentration below which nearly all workers should not experience adverse health effects.
Biological monitoring of blood, urine or exhaled air helps occupational health professionals detect and
determine absorption via the skin or the gastrointestinal system in addition to that by inhalation.
Is there a Relationship between BEIs and TLVs?

BEIs are an index of a worker’s uptake of chemicals, in other words, the actual dose of the chemical
received by the worker. Air monitoring, on the other hand, determines the concentration of the chemical
in air or the potential exposure of a worker.
Most BEIs are based on a direct correlation with the TLV, that is to say the concentrations given for
chemicals with BEIs can be expected when the airborne concentration is at the TLV. However, some of
the BEIs, for example lead, are not derived from the TLV but are directly related to the dose known to
cause an adverse health effect.
Standards for Physical and Biological Agents

ACGIH also sets guidelines for other types of workplace exposure such as noise, thermal stress, some
biological agents and non-ionizing radiation. Interestingly, for ionizing radiation, ACGIH defers to another
organization, namely the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). ICRP sets the
world’s standards for ionizing radiation. The concepts on which ACGIH sets standards for chemicals and
ICRP sets standards for ionizing radiation are quite different and make a fascinating comparison of
divergent philosophies. But to summarize, ACGIH does not claim that TLVs will protect all workers.
Indeed, it is acknowledged that individual susceptibility and pre-existing illnesses are not considered in
setting most of limits for chemicals. To reiterate the TLV guide states:
“Threshold limit values (TLVs) refer to airborne concentrations of substances and represent conditions
under which it is believed nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day, over a working
lifetime, without adverse health effects.”
ICRP, on the other hand, states quite clearly that the purpose of its standards for ionizing radiation is the
protection of:
“…the individual, their progeny and mankind as a whole, while still allowing the necessary activities from
which radiation exposure might result.”
The ACGIH is based in the United States, but workplace exposure standards are also set in a number of
other countries most notably Germany, the United Kingdom and Sweden. In Canada, provincial
jurisdictions set OELs often adopting those of ACGIH or using ACGIH guidelines as a basis for their
regulatory standards.
Chemical Hazards
Perhaps the most common hazards confronting the occupational hygienist are those that come from
chemical agents. Ill health can be caused by exposure to excessive concentrations of mists, vapours,
gases or airborne solids in the form of dusts or fumes (note that a fume is a very fine solid aerosol
particle formed when a vapourized solid condenses in air). In addition, physical contact with chemicals
can irritate the skin or even be absorbed through the skin into the body.
Chemicals can cause two main kinds of health effects: local effects and poisoning.
What are Local Effects?

Local effects occur when a chemical comes directly in contact with the body. Examples include organic
solvents such as Varsol, paint thinner or degreasing agents. Such solvents can cause cracking, drying
and itching of the skin. These solvents extract the natural oils and fat from the skin causing them to
become dry and irritated.
Allergenic reactions on the skin are also examples of local effects. About 25 – 35% of the population is
allergenic to the metal nickel. Females are affected twice as often as males. Any contact with nickel
causes the skin to break out in rashes and hives.
Corrosive materials such as caustics or mineral acids can cause severe skin burns. One particular acid,
hydrofluoric acid, causes such insidious burns that it can lead to death. Hydrofluoric acid burns require
special medical treatment quite distinct from that given to other mineral acid burns. Another example of
local effects includes itching and burning of the eyes and respiratory irritation causing coughing. These
are caused by direct contact of the chemical vapour, gas or dust with moist membranes of the body.
What is Poisoning?
Poisoning is caused by chemicals which first contact the body and are absorbed into the blood stream.
They are then carried around the blood to the different organs where they may cause damage.
Poisoning can happen in two ways:
Acute poisoning is the most common type of poisoning. It is caused by receiving too much chemical at
one time. This kind of exposure can happen in accident situations such as in a major chemical spill or a
valve burst. It can also happen in non-accident situations such as when employees enter an empty
chemical vat for the purposes of cleaning and maintenance. The chemical vat may still contain high
levels of chemical vapours which remained when the vat was emptied. Acute poisoning can also happen
simply by working with a chemical in a poorly ventilated area. For example, if you were to spend two or
three hours paint stripping a piece of furniture in a small room or unventilated workshop you would soon
start to feel dizzy, sick and nauseous. You may also have a headache. These are the symptoms of acute
poisoning by the organic solvent in the paint stripper. The solvent acts upon the body’s nervous system
causing the symptoms of ill health. Note: the symptoms described above are quite common when
working with organic solvents and in many respects are similar to the symptoms caused by drinking too
much alcohol – which is also an organic solvent.
Another example of acute poisoning is called “Metal Fume Fever”, which consists of fever, chills and flu-
like symptoms. It is caused by exposure to freshly generated fumes of zinc or magnesium oxide,
produced during welding or soldering operations.
Chronic poisoning is a second way poisoning happens. In this case there is too much exposure
to small amounts of a chemical, repeatedly day after day over many years. Sometimes this is

called long-term exposure. The levels of chemical causing chronic poisoning are often much lower
than those that cause acute or sudden poisoning. On a day-to-day basis, exposure to modest
amounts of these chemicals causes no noticeable effect but after many years a serious disease
can result. Examples of chemicals producing chronic poisoning include asbestos (which causes a
rare type of lung cancer called mesothelioma), vinyl chloride (which causes an unusual type of liver
cancer called angiosarcoma) and mercury (which can attack the nervous system).
What Makes Chemicals Poisonous?

When practicing occupational hygiene it is not uncommon to find a high degree of concern about
chemical exposures from workers, health and safety committees and the general public. It is important
for us, as professionals, to understand that chemicals are not simply commodities made by man. Our
whole physical and natural world is made of chemicals. Buildings, roads, furniture, rocks, trees, the
earth, the pet cat or dog, wives, husbands and ourselves are all made of chemicals. Curiously, any
chemical found in the physical world can cause acute poisoning if too much of it is taken into the body at
one time.
What is a Dose Response Curve?
A dose-response curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between the dose of a substance
(such as a drug or a toxicant) and its effect on an organism. It provides a visual representation of the
relationship between the dose of a substance and the magnitude of its effect.
In toxicology and environmental health, dose-response curves are used to determine the toxic dose of a
substance, also known as the threshold limit value (TLV), which is the maximum amount of a substance
that a worker can be exposed to without suffering adverse effects. The shape of the dose-response
curve depends on the nature of the substance and the organism being exposed, and can be used to
determine the mode of action of the substance and the mechanisms of toxicity.
The curve can be used to identify the effective dose of a substance, the dose that produces a
therapeutic effect, as well as the toxic dose, the dose that produces adverse effects. The curve can also
be used to compare the toxicity of different substances, to evaluate the potential health risks of exposure
to environmental contaminants, and to determine the most effective dose for occupational or
environmental exposure control.
In general, the dose-response curve slopes upward, indicating that as the dose of the substance
increases, so does its effect. The steepness of the slope depends on the potency of the substance, and
the curve may level off at high doses, indicating that the effect reaches a maximum beyond which further
increases in dose do not produce further increases in effect. The dose-response curve is an important
tool in the assessment of the risks and benefits of exposure to substances in the workplace and the
environment.
From the view point of an occupational hygienist it is important to know which chemicals are strong
poisons and which are weak. This information can be obtained from laboratory testing with animals to
measure the acute poisoning strength of a chemical. Through animal testing, we can find out whether a
chemical is a strong, moderate or weak poison. The test is usually done using rats or mice.
It is called the LD50 (lethal dose 50%) test. The LD50 is the dose of a chemical which when given to a
group of animals on a single occasion will cause death in half (50%) of them. The chemical can be given
by mouth in which case a long tube to a syringe puts the chemical directly into the animal’s stomach
(see Illustration 3). This is the most common type LD50 test and it is called the oral LD50.

There are other types of LD50 tests, which may involve injection of the chemical into the muscles or other
parts of the body. The number of animals which die during the test is noted. At the end of each test all
the remaining animals are euthanised (killed humanely) and examined to gain clues about how the
poison worked. The LD50 is usually expressed as the number of milligrams (mg) of chemical given to the
animal per kilogram of its body weight (mg/kg). A high LD50 value means a low toxicity.
One of the difficulties for the health and safety professional is that lethal dose tests given orally or by
injection don’t match the conditions in the workplace because employees are not usually exposed to
chemicals by these routes. Sometimes, an LD50 test can be carried out by rubbing a chemical on to the
skin of an animal (usually a rabbit). This kind of test is more relevant to the workplace since people may
be exposed to chemicals by skin contact. The different types of LD50 tests are distinguished by calling
them LD50 oral, or LD50 skin, or LD50 im (intramuscular) and so on.
A more relevant test for workplace exposures is called the LC50 (lethal concentration 50%). A group of
rats or other animals are enclosed in a container with a known concentration of airborne chemical.
Several groups of the animals are exposed to the chemical in this manner to see how large a
concentration of the chemical in air is needed to kill 50% of them. The LC50 is the amount the chemical
dispersed in the air that will cause death in one half of the group of animals who were exposed for a
period of four hours or other specified time. The number of animals which die during each test is noted.
At the end of each test all animals are euthanised and examined to gain clues about how the poison
worked. The LC50 is usually expressed as the concentration of the chemical in parts per million of air
(ppm) or milligrams per cubic meter of air (mg/m3) or liter (mg/L).
LD- and LC50s are only estimates of the toxicity of the chemical. They are not constant values and will
vary between species. They also vary according to the way the study is done. It is important to
remember that the lethal dose tests do not tell people the concentrations at which toxic effects might first
appear. The test was not designed to do this. Safety professionals and employees should not be lulled
into a sense of security when working with a chemical with a high LD50 value. A high LD50 value tells
them that it probably takes a lot of chemical to cause death, but it might not take very much to cause
toxic effects like dizziness or nausea.
The LD- and LC50 tests tell us nothing about possible chronic effects of exposure. The test was not
designed to do this. LD- and LC50 values can be found on Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) and give an
indication of whether the chemical is very toxic, moderately toxic or essentially non-toxic.
The Global Harmonized System (GHS) classifies the acute toxicity (poisoning strength) of chemicals into
5 categories where category 1 materials have the highest toxicity and category 5 are the lowest and are
essentially non-toxic except perhaps to vulnerable populations. Category 5 does not have values for
inhalation routes, and to avoid unnecessary animal testing the GHS suggests that a "competent
authority" determine the likely inhalation equivalent to the 2000-5000mg/kg bodyweight range for oral
and dermal routes on a case by case basis. Note that the smaller the LD50 or LC50 the more toxic is the
chemical.
How Workplace Chemicals Enter the Body

There are three main ways that workplace chemicals can enter the body and cause poisonous effects,
by inhalation, skin absorption or ingestion. Other routes of entry are much less common.
Inhalation. Breathing in airborne chemicals as gases, dusts, fumes or vapours is the most common
route of entry in the workplace. To control the levels of airborne chemical, an occupational hygienist will
always recommend engineering controls, such as:
1. local ventilation at the source of the contamination

2. general ventilation
3. isolation of the process
4. substitution of the chemical used by something less toxic
As a last option, occupational hygienists will recommend the use of personal protective clothing and
equipment (PPE). Protective equipment and clothing are only recommended by the hygienist when all
practical and economic engineering solutions have been exhausted. PPE may indeed protect the worker
from exposure but, unlike engineering controls, PPE does nothing to reduce the hazard.
Skin Contact
Contact of liquid, solid and vapour state chemicals with the skin can be a major route of entry in to the
body. Our skin is not a continuous, impervious layer. It has many small holes in it where sweat passes
out and where hair grows through. The skin is full of fats and oils which prevent water and waterbased
solutions from passing through. However, some workplace chemicals are not water based. They are
called organic solvents e.g. Varsol, toluene, or white spirit. These solvents can dissolve the oils and fats
in the skin and subsequently pass through to enter the blood stream. Once in the blood, the chemicals
are transported around the body and may cause poisoning in the organs.
To prevent skin absorption, the occupational hygienist first suggests engineering and process controls
that prevent skin contact. If these are impractical then other measures such as the use of barrier creams,
gloves, aprons and protective suits may be recommended.
Ingestion
Ingestion is usually only a minor way in which workplace chemicals get into the body. Chemicals can
enter this route from food contaminated with workplace chemicals. Personal hygiene is important and
the provision of special eating areas away from the workplace materials can prevent chemical ingestion.
Other Routes
Chemicals can be injected into the body in some workplaces (e.g. in health care institutions) but this is
not a common route of entry in most workplaces.
Which Diseases are caused by Workplace Chemical Exposure?

Irritation
Perhaps the most common disease produced by chemical exposures is irritation. Materials causing
irritation do so with their ability to inflame the moist membranes of the body (the mucous membranes –
the eyes, nose, throat and mouth).
Many of these irritants are strong acids or alkalis and may be corrosive on direct contact. However,
inflammation of living tissue is quite distinct from chemical corrosion. Inflammation can be caused from
concentrations much lower than those producing corrosion.
With gases and vapours their degree of solubility in moisture is an important factor in determining the
extent of irritation they cause. Some materials such as ammonia, hydrogen chloride, sulphur dioxide and
hydrogen fluoride are extremely soluble and will dissolve rapidly into any moist surface they contact.
Asphyxiation
There are a number of workplace materials that deprive the tissues of oxygen. Simple asphyxiants are
inert gases. They cause asphyxiation when present in the atmosphere in sufficient quantities to reduce
the amount of oxygen available for breathing. Examples of such substances include nitrous oxide
(laughing gas), carbon dioxide, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen.
Apart from these ‘simple’ asphyxiants, there are ‘chemical’ asphyxiants, which have a specific toxic
action on biochemical mechanisms in the body, rendering it unable to use oxygen. Two classic examples
of chemical asphyxiants are carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. Carbon monoxide (CO) acts by
interfering with the transport of oxygen in the blood to the tissues. CO combines with a molecule in the
blood called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is the molecule that transports oxygen around the body. When
CO combines with haemoglobin it “blocks” oxygen from attaching therefore prevents oxygen
transportation around the body to the cells. Interestingly, diesel engine vehicles are preferred to gasoline
engines in underground operations because diesel fuel produces less CO.
Cyanides are transported to the tissues where they are able to inhibit an enzyme that allows the tissue to
use oxygen. Tissue hypoxia (lack of oxygen in the cells) results.
Anesthesia
The main toxic action of anesthetics is to depress the central nervous system, particularly the brain.
Materials having an anesthetic effect often cause headache, dizziness, loss of balance and sleepiness.
Alcohols are typical of the organic solvents that can cause anesthesia.
Nerve System Damage
Examples of chemicals causing damage to the nervous system include metals such as manganese,
mercury and thallium. The central nervous system seems particularly sensitive to organometallic
compounds and neurological damage results from materials such as methyl mercury and tetra-ethyl
lead. Carbon disulfide also acts on the nervous system. It has a pungent odour of rotting vegetation and
excessive exposure to it has been known to cause madness. Certain pesticides of the
organophosphorous group exert their lethal effect on insects by inhibiting an enzyme called
acetylcholinesterase that would normally breakdown the nerve transmitter acetylcholine. When
acetylcholine is not broken down, the nerves continue firing which in turn causes continuous muscle
contraction, exhaustion of energy supplies and ultimately death. Normally organophospho-pesticides are
used in concentrations that affect insects but not humans. Unfortunately poor spraying procedures and
inadequate protective measures can lead to overexposure in people with the same neurotoxic effects
noted in insects. For this reason, biological monitoring for acetylcholinesterase is sometimes carried out
on workers using organophosphorous pesticides.
Organic solvents are known to have effects on the nervous system. Some of these effects can be quite
dramatic. For example, exposure to n-hexane causes peripheral neuropathy. In this condition, the nerves
in the hands and feet lose the insulating sheath around them. This insulating sheath is called myelin and
without it the nerves die back leaving the hands and feet without sensation.
Liver Damage
One of the main functions of the liver is the detoxification of chemicals that have entered the body.
Organic chemicals are generally fat soluble (lipophilic) but to detoxify them they must be made water
soluble (hydrophilic). In the detoxification process the liver reduces the lipophilicity of organic chemicals
and increases their hydrophilicity. It does this by adding positive or negative charges on to the organic
chemicals thereby making them polar. The purpose of this action by the liver is to make all chemicals
water soluble (polar chemicals dissolve readily in water where non-polar ones usually do not). Once
dissolved in water, the polar chemical can be processed and then excreted by the kidney. Carbon
tetrachloride and trichloroethane (dry cleaning fluid) are examples of organic, non-polar compounds that
the liver attempts to detoxify. Unfortunately, detoxification isn’t always successful. Sometimes in
changing molecules to polarize them, the liver may inadvertently create molecules that are more toxic
rather than less. The molecules formed in the liver during the transformation of carbon tetrachloride for
example, produce severe liver damage. So do the liver transformed products of nitrosamines which are
common constituents of fabric dyes.
Vinyl chloride, an intermediate in the synthesis of polyvinylchloride (PVC), has been shown to cause an
unusual type of liver cancer called angiosarcoma.
Kidney Damage
Several workplace chemicals will exert damage to the kidney. Some of these include the chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as carbon tetrachloride or the salts of heavy metals such as lead and mercury.
Blood Damage
Materials known as nitrites, aniline and toluidine convert the oxygen-carrying portion of the blood
(haemoglobin) to a non-oxygen carrying form (methaemoglobin). The chemical arsine causes the red
blood cells to break open, and benzene damages the blood forming cells of the bone marrow.
Lung Damage
Particles that travel through the respiratory tract and deposit in the lungs are called “respirable.” They
usually range in size from 1 to 10 µm. (µm is called a micrometer or micron and is one thousandth of a
millimeter. For comparison a human hair is about 100 µm wide and a human red blood cell is about 7
µm in diameter).
A common workplace lung condition is called pneumoconiosis or dusty lung. Some dusts in the lung may
be relatively harmless but others such as sharp particles of silica or asbestos can cause much damage.
The most common type of asbestos in North America is called Crysotile. Over long periods of time
materials like silica and asbestos lodge in the deep recesses of the lung and slowly change healthy lung
tissue into scar or ‘fibroid’ tissue which has diminished elasticity (is unable to expand and contract fully)
during breathing and is unable to exchange oxygen with the blood.
Many dusts of organic origin such those of cotton or wood can cause disease of the lungs and alteration
in lung function. Materials which can cause impaired lung function at very low concentrations are
isocyanates, the most common of which is toluene diisocyanate (TDI). TDI and some other isocyanates
have the capacity to sensitize the lung and cause severe asthmatic reactions in some people who are
exposed to very low concentrations. Sensitization to isocyanates is a serious condition. Once sensitized,
a worker cannot go near a facility where isocyanates are present, without collapsing. If there is no
alternative location of employment at the company, the worker may lose their livelihood.
Skin
The most common occupational disease is dermatoses (skin disease). There are four main types of skin
exposures, namely: Mechanical, Chemical, Physical, and Biological
Friction, pressure and direct contact of tools or equipment with the skin essentially cause mechanical
exposures.
Chemical exposures can result in burns, for example, contact with acids or caustics. Also, contact with
chemicals can cause irritations and allergenic reactions. One of the most common skin allergies is to the
metal nickel. Nickel is alloyed with other metals and used in jewelry, watches and coins. On contact with
nickel, sensitive people break out in a rash known as “nickel itch.”
It is also possible for the skin to become “sensitized” to a chemical after its repeated use over a
prolonged period. Initially there is no reaction to the chemical but after weeks or months of use the skin
may develop itchy rashes or hives. This delay in response is called a latency or induction period and is a
strong characteristic of skin sensitization. Skin contact with certain chlorinated organic chemicals
(trichloroethylene, trichloroethane) can lead to severe skin inflammation with pustules. The condition is
called chloracne.
Physical and biological agents may also have an impact on the skin. For example, sunlight can cause
everything from mild redness (erythema) to malignant melanoma (a type of cancer). Biological agents
such as fungi, bacteria or viruses can cause several different skins infections.
Mechanical, chemical, physical or biological contact with the skin causes both local and systemic (whole
body) effects. Local effects occur directly at the site where the agent has touched the skin. Systemic
effects are those where the agent (usually chemical or biological) has contacted the skin and entered the
body by absorption or through cuts and abrasions. Local effects are by far the most common problem in
the workplace. Examples of local effects include contact dermatitis, irritation, allergies,
photosensitization, urticarial infections and acne. A large number of chemicals can cause these effects,
which are often associated with various trades (see Table 3).
Local effects like dermatitis are relatively easy to prevent. The use of appropriate gloves is often
sufficient particularly in instances where the exposures are to acids, such as in electroplating. The
material of which the gloves are made is critical. It must not be permeable to the chemicals used or
handled. Also, the gloves themselves can cause problems, for example, a significant portion of the
population shows sensitivity to latex.
Systemic effects are caused when the chemical or biological agent is transported to one or more target
organs where it has a health effect. Two examples of systemic effects are as follows:
Mercury intoxication: there is a well documented case of a chemistry professor who died of mercury
intoxication following skin contact with dimethyl mercury.
Hydrofluoric acid: there are many well documented cases of systemic poisoning caused by
hydrofluoric acid which does far more than just burn the skin. The acid penetrates the tissues
unrelentingly depleting the body of calcium as it goes. Without specialized and early treatment, death is
an almost inevitable consequence of any significant hydrofluoric acid burn. Hydrofluoric acid burns
cannot be treated as ordinary acid burns because the effect is systemic as well as local.
Air Sampling for Chemicals

Occupational hygienists are responsible for the evaluation of employee exposure to airborne chemicals.
Typically hygienists will assess the airborne concentration of a chemical and then compare that result to
an established exposure limit. Several standardized methods for the collection of air samples have been
developed and good accurate sampling is possible for a wide range of materials which may be present
as gases, vapours or dusts.
Types of Air Sampling
Air sampling is used for the following reasons:

1. To design or evaluate engineering controls

2. To establish and document compliance with government regulations
3. To determine employee exposure
The type of sampling approach used will depend on which of the above objectives is required.
Personal Sampling
When the objective is to evaluate the worker’s exposure personal air sampling is used. In this approach,
the worker wears a device to collect the contaminants in the air (Illustration 6). The collecting part in the
device is placed as close as possible to the breathing zone of the worker. In this manner, the
concentration collected closely approximates to the concentration inhaled. The concentration is
determined by noting the amount of contaminant collected and dividing it by the volume of air passing
through the sampler.
Area Samples
Occupational hygienists will assess airborne concentrations of contaminants in rooms, storage facilities
or line processes. Usually the sampling device (which can be the same as a personal sampler) is placed
in a fixed location close to an area of interest. For example if there was concern about the amount of
carbon monoxide produced from fork lift operations, area samples could be conducted along the routes
taken by the fork lift.
Grab Samples
A grab sample is literally that, a sample of air taken quickly (usually in less than five minutes). They are
often taken to identify peak or ceiling concentrations of the contaminant during periods of high
production. Grab samples may be used as a pre-screening method to determine whether more
extensive and long-term sampling is needed. If a grab sample indicates that the concentration of a
contaminant is well below the eight hour time weighted average exposure limit, even at times of peak
production, then long term personal sampling may not be necessary.
Integrated Air Sampling
This type of air sampling is used to estimate a worker's eight-hour (TWA) or 15 minute (STEL) exposure
to a particular substance by collecting one or more personal samples during a particular task.
Air Sampling Equipment

There are two categories of air sampling equipment:
1. Direct reading instruments
2. Sample collection devices
Direct Reading Instruments

Many gases, vapours and particulates in air can be measured immediately using direct reading
instruments. Usually readings are given as an instantaneous concentration or as a time weighted
average depending on its capabilities. Direct reading instruments can measure single compounds or
groups of compounds. The types of monitors available are as follows:
Combustible gas monitors.
Combustible gas detectors measure the concentration of flammable gases or vapours such as petroleum
solvents. There are many different types of combustible gas monitors on the market. Generally they are
based on one of two principles:

• the change in resistance of a metal conductor which is heated by gas combustion, or,
• the change in electrical conductivity of a metal oxide semiconductor in the presence of a
combustible gas.
Regardless of the operational principle of the gas monitor, both types require calibration using a
reference gas (usually pentane or hexane). In addition, the operator must be thoroughly familiar with the
limitations of the instrument and how to calibrate it. The first type of combustible gas monitor has a
treated, catalyst coated filament (often platinum). This catalyst can be poisoned by concentration of
silicone vapours as low as 1 ppm. A ‘hot-wire’ combustible gas detector should not be used in areas
where silicone vapours are present.
Combustible gas detectors are used to determine if combustible gases are present in the explosive or
flammable range.
An explosion is the violent and sudden burning of a material. The lowest concentration of a material in air
which can burn or explode is called the lower explosive limit (LEL). The LEL is usually expressed as a
percentage of the chemical in air. When the concentration of the chemical in the air is below the LEL, the
air and chemical mixture is “too lean” to burn.
The highest concentration of a material in air which can burn or explode is called the upper explosive
level (UEL). The UEL is also expressed as a percentage of the chemical in air. When the concentration
of the chemical in air is above the UEL, the air and chemical mixture is “too rich” to burn.
The range between the LEL and UEL is called the explosive or flammable range.
The simplest types of combustible gas meter can have readings from 0 to 100 % of the LEL.
Combustible gas monitors are available with audible and visual alarms. When the concentration reaches
a preset limit an alarm light or a loud alarm are activated. Sometimes an amphoteric cell (i.e. contains a
material that can act either as an acid or a base) is included in a combustible gas detector to measure
the percentage of oxygen present.
Oxygen Monitors
Oxygen is monitored to make sure there is a sufficient amount of it in areas where combustion or other
processes may use it up. In addition, certain processes may produce excess oxygen, such as oxygen
from oxyacetylene welding operations. Excess oxygen may present a fire hazard (Oxygen "feeds" a fire).
Normal air contains about 21% oxygen by volume and 16% is considered the minimum to support life.
There are many workplace situations such as entering empty chemical vats or enclosed work spaces,
man holes, tunnels, and mines where the oxygen content can become low enough to threaten life.
Oxygen detectors are usually one of two types:
• Polorgraphic – in this type of detector, oxygen is reduced at an electrode causing a discharge of

ions proportional to the degree of reduction and therefore the amount of oxygen present.
• Coulometric – these detectors allow oxygen to enter a battery like cell that has two electrodes
and an electrolyte. The entry of oxygen stimulates an oxidation reaction in the detector cell and
causes a current to flow which gives a reading proportional to the quantity of oxygen present.
Carbon Monoxide Monitors

Carbon monoxide can be a hazard in any area where combustion occurs: garages, bus terminals,
furnaces and so on. The most common instruments used to measure carbon monoxide are coulometric
or potentiometric (a polorgraphic detector can be used). On the entry of carbon monoxide into the cell
the resulting voltage or current is translated into a read-out of concentration. Battery powered
instruments can measure carbon monoxide up to 2000 parts per million by volume.
Indoor Air Quality Monitors
With the advent of "knowledge-based" industries and an increase in office type work, occupational
hygienists are increasingly called upon to do assessments of indoor air quality. Most detector devices
presently available measure what are known as “comfort parameters.” These include temperature,
relative humidity and carbon dioxide. Outside of certain levels and ranges, office workers will feel
discomfort. The American Society for Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineering
(ASHRAE) standard 55-1992 recommends different relative humidities in summer and winter as below:
ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 for Relative Humidity and Temperature
Season Relative Humidity Temperature Range Degrees C

SUMMER 30% 23-27
50% 23-26
60% 23-26
WINTER 30% 20-24

50% 20-24
60% 20-23
Ideally, carbon dioxide should not exceed 1000 ppm even though the TWA exposure value (TWA EV) in
Ontario Regulation 8-33 is given as 5000 ppm (based on the ACGIH guideline). OHSA also uses the
5000 ppm limit.
Mercury Vapour Monitors
Some direct reading mercury instruments exploit the change in electrical conductivity of a piece of gold
foil when it comes into contact with mercury vapour and forms an amalgam. The conductivity of the
amalgam is different from that of pure gold and the change in conductivity is related to the concentration
of mercury in air. Also, there are battery operated ultra-violet analyzers for mercury vapour. The wave
lengths of ultra-violet light emitted from a mercury vapour lamp are absorbed by mercury vapour in the
air drawn into the instrument. Instruments of this kind can detect mercury well below 0.05 mg/m 3.
Non-Specific Detectors
Several direct reading instruments do not detect specific chemicals but rather ‘classes’ of compounds.
Generally, they operate on principles of photo-ionization, thermal conductivity or flame ionization. Such
instruments are useful to detect leaks or atmospheres that are known to contain only a single type of
contaminant such as hydrocarbons or halogen containing compounds.
Ion Mobility Spectrometers
These are relatively new instruments and are dependant upon ion-molecule reactions with electrons
emitted from a source of radioactive nickel (63Ni). Originally this type of detector was for gases used in
chemical warfare but it can now be used for gases in the workplace. The more sophisticated types of this
equipment can be programmed to detect any number of compounds. They are often used for toluene
diisocyanate (TDI) monitoring.
Particulate Monitors

A number of monitors exist to measure aerosols in the form of dusts, liquids or condensed vapours.
Generally they are based on the light scattering properties of particles and are sensitive to size and
shape of the particles. These instruments have a pump drawing air containing particulate into the
sensing cell.
Another type of instrument for monitoring dusts uses a piezoelectric crystal. The crystal has a natural
oscillation which is changed by the amount of particulate matter deposited on it.
Colourimetric tubes and badges

Detector tubes and badges are widely used by occupational hygienists. They are portable, simple to
operate, inexpensive, easy to read, readily available and can detect a wide number of toxic materials.
Detector tubes usually contain a reagent that reacts with the airborne contaminant to produce a colour
stain. A graded scale gives an estimate of the concentration according to the length of the stain. To
operate them, the detector tubes are broken off at each end; one end is inserted into a handoperated
pump that draws in a specified quantity of air, in allowing a direct reading to be taken. Generally
speaking, detector tubes have a plus or minus 25 % accuracy. They are extremely useful for determining
whether more thorough personal or area sampling is required.
Passive monitors can be both in the form of badges worn by workers, or detector tubes (which do not
use a pump to draw air in). Direct readings can be taken according to the intensity or length of the stain.
Colour intensity is usually measured in terms of “ppm-hours.” Passive indicator badges are available for
a number of contaminants including toluene diiosocyante (TDI), carbon monoxide, phosgene and
ammonia.
Sample Collection Devices

For many workplace materials there are no direct reading instruments. In such cases samples must be
collected and subsequently analyzed or weighed in a laboratory.
Basic air sampling devices consist of the following:
• An air inlet
• A collection device
• An airflow meter
• A flow rate control valve
• A pump to draw air through the sampling train
Air flow through the sampling train is usually set in liters or cubic centimeters of air per minute.
Collection of Particulates
Dispersed solids such as smoke, fibers, fumes, nanomaterials, dusts and dispersed liquids such as fogs,
mists or condensates can be collected in sampling devices.
Filters
The simplest and most common collection device for particulates is the filter (see Illustration 7). There
are several different types which are selected on their ability to collect the material and their suitability for
analysis in the laboratory. Filters can consist of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), glass fiber (GF) or mixed
cellulose ester fibers (MCE). For most particulates a filter cassette 37 mm in diameter is used, the top

and bottom caps are removed so that contaminated air can enter the intake and then be collected on the
filter.
There are occasional exceptions, for example asbestos is collected using a 25 mm filter and an open
faced 50 mm cassette and a conductive extension cowl. This collection device improves the sensitivity of
the test and the cowl reduces the number of asbestos fibers attracted to the sides of the cassette by
static electricity (which would therefore not be counted or weighed on the filter).
Cyclones
The second most common collection method is a cyclone. Cyclones collect particles that are of
respirable size, that is, those that can be retained by the lung (generally below 10 µm). Typically
cyclones are used to collect silica containing dusts.
Air is drawn into the cyclone through a small hole and the centrifugal motion of the air inside forces the
larger particles into the outside of the air stream where they fall to the bottom of the cyclone. The smaller
respirable particles stay in the centre of the air stream and are drawn upwards on to a pre-weighed filter.
When the sampling is complete the filter is weighed again to determine the quantity of material collected.
Impactors
Impactors use particle inertia to deposit them on to a surface. If an obstacle causes a moving air stream
to bend rather than follow a straight course then the particles in the air stream tend to deposit on the
obstacle. A variety of “obstacles” can be used including glass, steel, filter paper, agar and so on.
Impinger
The impinger was very popular in the early days of occupational hygiene but is not used a lot today.
Impingers use the same particle collection method as an inertial impactor except that the particles are
collected in a liquid, usually water.
Elutriators
Elutriators are used in front of a sampling train. They remove large rough particles while smaller ones
can remain suspended and then be collected for subsequent analysis.
Electrostatic Precipitators
In these collection devices an electric charge removes particles from the air. Particles first pass through
a high voltage field where they acquire a charge and are then attracted to an oppositely charged
electrode. Obviously, the longer the passage through the collector the greater is the collection efficiency.
Suction Pumps
Air is drawn through all the above mentioned collection devices by use of a suction pump. Suction
pumps come in various shapes or sizes but since they are often used for personal sampling, they must
be lightweight, quiet and easily attached to a workers belt or clothing.
Suction pumps have a flow rate control valve and depending on the pump, they can control flow in the
following ranges:
• Low flow 0.5 – 500 ml / min

• High flow 0.5 – 5 L/ min
• Dual range high and low flow

Generally speaking the low flow pumps are used for sorbent tube sampling whereas the high flow pumps
are for filter, cyclone and impinger type sampling.
Flow Rate Meters
During a sampling procedure it is very important to maintain a constant flow rate through the sampling
train. Without a constant flow it becomes impossible to calculate the concentration of material collected
per volume of air. A number of devices are available to compensate for flow rate fluctuations during
sampling. Two of the most common are as follows:
Pressure compensating devices: these devices are used in situations where a sampling pump will slow
down if a filter becomes loaded with dust. Pumps with pressure compensating device have a sensor and
feedback mechanism to detect pressure changes and maintain the preset flow.
Critical flow orifice: some pumps will use what is known as a critical flow orifice to regulate the air flow
rate. Essentially this is a hole drilled in a metal plate through which the air stream being sampled is
directed. The flow rate through the orifice remains constant despite conditions at the inlet (such as a
clogged filter). A critical orifice attached to a sampling pump ensures that the pump draws air at the
desired flow rate.
Collection of Non-particulates (Gases and Vapours)

Gases and vapours are collected and then sent to special laboratories for analysis. Collection
techniques are as follows:
Absorption
In this collection method the gas or vapour is passed through a liquid which removes it from the air. The
liquid is usually selected because the contaminant vapour is highly soluble in it, without causing a
chemical reaction. For example, acid gases are highly soluble in deionized water.
Alternatively, the collecting liquid may contain a reagent that traps the vapour by reacting with it and
creating a stable compound that can be analyzed later. For example, Girard T reagent is used to absorb
formaldehyde.
Adsorption
A very common sampling approach for gas or vapour air sampling is to use tubes filled with granules of
silica gel or activated charcoal. Usually the charcoal is derived from coconut shells. The tubes are about
7 cm long and 4 mm.
An organic vapour is adsorbed into the tube unchanged. In a laboratory it can be extracted (desorbed by
a solvent) from the adsorbent for analysis by a technique such as Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC).
Adsorbent charcoal tubes have a “backup” section to increase their adsorptive capacity. However, when
the collected vapour in the backup section is greater than 10% of the amount collected in the front
section, “breakthrough” is said to have occurred. Breakthrough means that a fair quantity of the
contaminant may have been passed through the tube without being adsorbed. The results obtained are
therefore not valid.
Silica gel tubes are used for gases and vapours which do not adsorb or desorb effectively on activated
charcoal. Several other sorbent materials have been developed commercially to collect materials which
are not adsorbed by either activated charcoal or silica gel.

Other sampling techniques for gases or vapours include grab samples and passive monitors as
previously discussed.
Selecting the Sampling Method

The following points are considered in selecting an appropriate method for sampling:
• The physical and chemical characteristics of the material

• The regulatory requirements
• Cost and reliability
• The duration of the sampling
• Purpose of the sampling (compliance identification of exposure, recording exposures)
• Presence of interfering chemicals or conditions
• The type of sampling needed, personal, grab, area, or integrated
If you need to get a standard procedure for the sampling of a specific workplace chemical a good place
to start is in the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health’s (USA NIOSH) Manual of Analytical
Methods. Information can also be found in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (USA)
OSHA Chemical Information Manual.
Once a method is selected it is important that sufficient workplace air is sampled to obtain a reading of
contaminant. Often the various methods listed by NIOSH or OSHA will recommend a certain sample
volume, but if this is not available then as a rule of thumb it is possible to use the equation:
SV = LOD / (EL X F)
Where SV = minimum sample volume (liters)
LOD = lower limit of detection (µg)
EL = exposure limit (mg/m3)
F = anticipated fraction of threshold limit value (TLV) in atmosphere (as a decimal)
For example:
If the LOD for chemical A with a TLV 2.5 mg/m3 is 0.05 mg (50 µg) and the anticipated concentration is
30% of the TLV in workplace air then the minimum sample volume is calculated as follows:
Calculation: SV = 50 µg / 2.5 mg/m3 X 0.30
Answer: = 66.6 L
Often the flow required is specified in the air sampling method along with a minimum recommended
sample volume. Knowing these two parameters, the occupational hygienist can calculate the required
sampling time. For example if the recommended flow rate is 0.1 L /min and the minimum sample volume
is 20 L then the sample time must be calculated to the formula as follows:
Required sampling time minutes = Minimum sample volume (L) / Flow rate (L per min)
Using the example above:
Calculation: Required sample time minutes = 20 L / 0.1 L / min
Answer: = 200 minutes
Instrument Calibration
Before and after use in the field most air sampling instruments must be calibrated against an instrument
of known response and accuracy.
The sampling methods recommend a specific airflow and so suction pumps used to draw air through the
sampling train must be calibrated to the recommended airflow rate. Accurate calibration is critical and
there are two categories of calibration devices: Primary, and Secondary.
Primary
The most used and inexpensive instrument is the soap bubble flow meter. Essentially it consists of a
laboratory burette inverted and connected to the sampling train (complete with the collection device at
the end). The end of the inverted burette is dipped into soapy water and as a bubble is formed its
passage up the burette is timed using a stopwatch. Other primary calibrators are the Mariotti bottle and
the spirometer.
Secondary
Secondary calibrators include:
• Wet test meters

• Dry gas meters
• Rotameters
All of these devices are commercially available complete with instructions on how to connect them to the
sampling train and how to use them.
Keeping Records
An occupational hygienist must document all details of the sampling according to accepted professional
standards. This includes information on the time and location of the sampling, the type of sample, the
type of filter, the flow rates and total volumes as well as any information relating to the chain of custody
of samples during their transit from the sampling location to the analytical laboratory.
In most jurisdictions in the Western world, there are legal or professional obligations that require
sampling results to be shared openly with all interested workplace parties. Often results are placed in
clear view on an occupational health and safety notice board or in special circumstances may be
presented by the occupational hygienist to a health and safety committee of management and labour.
Units and Calculations for Chemical Exposures
You will note that in the TLV booklet, the concentration of gases and vapours in air is usually expressed
as “parts per million of air = ppm” or mg/m3:
ppm = parts of chemical gas or vapour measured in workplace air / million parts of air
OR
ppm = litres / 106
The TLV guide also contains a significant portion of standards expressed as milligrams per cubic meter
(mg/m3) which are the units used for fumes, mists, some dusts, and some gases and vapours:
Concentration mg/m3 = milligrams of material / m3 of air
In addition, the concentration of mineral dusts is often expressed as millions of particles per cubic foot of
air:
Concentration = millions of particles / cubic feet of air
Sometimes it is necessary to convert ppm to mg/m3 or vice versa. This is achieved using the knowledge
that there are 24.45 liters per gram molecule of a material at 25°C and 760 mm of mercury according to
the simplified formula.
mg/ m3 = ppm X molecular weight ( in grams) / 24.45
Exposures to a Single Chemical
The TWA is calculated by noting the concentration of the material to which the worker is exposed at
each task over an eight hour day and then by applying the formula:
TWA = [(conc. task "A" X time hours) + (conc. task "B" X time hours) + …..] / 8 hours
Example Exposure at a Degreasing Operation
A metal-parts degreasing process asks an occupational hygienist to evaluate Trichloroethylene exposure

near the degreasing operation.
Step A in the process begins first shift in the morning, when metal-parts, that have been degreased
overnight, are removed from the hot degreaser. A new batch of parts to be degreased is then placed in
the bath which is closed. The operation takes about 15 minutes.
In Step B, metal-parts removed from the degreaser are wiped down, a process that takes about 5 hours.
Step C has cleaned and dried parts stored for later shipment, a process that takes 3 hours.
The cycle of work is repeated every 8 hours. The occupational hygienist obtains the following sample
results:
o SAMPLE for step A

o 25 ppm 0.25 hrs
o SAMPLE for step B
o 10 ppm 4.75 hrs
o SAMPLE for step C

o 5 ppm 3.0 hrs

Calculate a time weighted average using this data. The TLV for Trichloroethylene is 50 ppm
with a 100 ppm STEL. Are employees being over exposed?
Calculation: TWA = [(25 X 0.25) + (10 X 4.75) + (5 X 3.0)] / 8 hours
(6.25 + 47.5 + 15)/8 = 68.75/8
Answer: = 8.6 ppm
Employees are not being overexposed. The TWA is 8.6 ppm and the TLV-TWA limit is 10 ppm.
Also, according to the sampling data, exposure at the 25 ppm STEL did not exceed 15 minutes.
Mixed Exposures
When two or more hazardous substances are present, which act on the same organ or body
system, their combined effect is considered according to the formula:
(C1 / T1) + (C2 / T2) +…(Cn/Tn) = 1
Where C is the concentration of the material in workplace air and T the respective TLV. If the
result exceeds 1, the threshold limit for the combined exposure is exceeded.
Example: Over Exposure Assessment

A worker is exposed to two neurotoxins, styrene monomer 18 ppm (TLV-TWA = 20 ppm) and
n-hexane at 22 ppm (TLV-TWA = 50 ppm). Is he over exposed?
Calculation: (18/20) + (22/50)
Answer: = 1.34
Therefore, the worker is overexposed, the mixed exposure is greater than 1.
Example: Calculating dust / fume concentration

A sample of hard metal dust was taken for 7 hours and 10 minutes (430 minutes) during a
cutting operation. The sample collected weighed 6.34 mg and was collected at 2.0 L per min.
Calculate the amount of hard metal exposure in mg/m3.
Calculation: mg/m3 = sample weight / volume of air sampled
= 6.34 mg / (430 minutes X 2.0)
= 6.34 / 860 L (or 0.86 m3)

Answer: = 7.37 mg/m3
This value would then be compared against the TLV for the particular hard metal measured.
Controlling Chemical Exposures
Chemical exposures can be controlled at three locations in a work process
• The source
• The air path
• The receiver
Strategies that use engineering controls at the source or the pathway are called “safe place.”
Strategies used at the receiver are called “safe person.”
The source which generates the airborne contaminant is the best place at which to put controls.
The source can be fitted with local ventilation, be isolated or be changed so that less toxic
materials are used.
In the air path, general ventilation such as an exhaust ceiling fan will reduce the concentration
of chemical reaching the receiver. Increasing the distance between the source and the receiver
will also help.
Controls at the receiver protect the worker but do nothing to reduce the hazard. Controls include
personal protective equipment, education (on how and why to use PPE) and reduction of worker
exposure time.
Industrial Ventilation
Good ventilation is such a critical factor in maintaining a healthy workforce that the subject has
become a subspecialty of occupational hygiene.
There are two basic types of ventilation used in industrial workplaces:
• local, and
• general
Local Exhaust Systems

When air contaminants are generated from a point source, the best way to control them is to
install an exhaust at or near the point of emission. In this way, the local exhaust will:
• remove the contaminant directly from the work area

• be more energy efficient than general ventilation
• operate at lower air volume flow rates
Because local exhaust systems may contain quite high concentrations of contaminant, it may be
necessary to filter and/or scrub the exhausted air before discharging it to the atmosphere.
Essentially, a local exhaust system will consist of:
• a hood to capture the emissions at the source; there are three basic types of hood (1) a
receiving hood, (2) an enclosure hood and (3) a capture hood.
• ducts and piping which will carry the contaminated air

• an air cleaner which will filter and scrub the air if necessary
• a motor and fan which draws the air from the source through the duct work and filters to
the exterior
• a stack to disperse the contaminated air.
Ventilation Terms and Equations

Static Pressure
In ventilation applications, the static pressure is generated by the fan and it is usually the
difference between the pressure and the exhaust system and atmospheric pressure. At the
hood, static pressure must be less than atmospheric pressure to draw the contaminants into
the ducting system.
Velocity Pressure
This is the pressure due to the flow of air within the ducting system. Velocity pressure is always
positive and is in the direction of the airflow.
Total Pressure
Total pressure is the algebraic sum of the static pressure (sp) and the velocity
pressure (vp): TP = SP + VP
Flow Rate
The rate at which flow through the ducting system can be described by the equation:
Q = VA
Where Q = the volume flow rate (ft3/minute, cfm, m3/sec)

V = velocity (fpm, mps)
A = the cross sectional area through which the air flows (feet squared, meter squared)
Face Velocity
Is the velocity at the face of the hood. It is often used in making recommendations for the
operating efficiency of a hood, however, it should be noted that a high face velocity is not the
sole important factor in the capture of contaminants. Contaminant capture depends on the
mass of air movement (Q) not solely on face velocity.
General (Dilution) Ventilation
There are industrial situations where local exhaust ventilation is impractical or unnecessary. In
such situations, it is possible to use general or dilution ventilation. Dilution ventilation is
particularly useful where the air contaminants are of relatively low toxicity and the emission
sources are dispersed around the workplace, not close to the employee breathing zones.
For dilution ventilation the location of the air intake and exhaust is important to ensure
contaminant concentrations are kept below acceptable levels.

Keeping contaminants below acceptable levels is achieved by using a parameter known as the
ventilation efficiency or ventilation effectiveness (K). Mathematically it is described as follows:
K = actual Qdilution required to achieve acceptable concentration
ideal Qdilution required to achieve the acceptable concentration
Where Qdilution = volume flow rate of dilution air.

The value of K in most industrial areas ranges from 1.5 – 3. If K > 3 the mixing should be
improved; in other words, the lower the K value the more effective the dilution of the
contaminant. Air flow through rooms, particularly in modern office environments, is critical for a
healthy working environment. While there are no hard and fast rules, five air changes per hour
is considered appropriate for the average office.
Example Air Changes per Hour
How much air is needed in cubic feet per minute to provide 5 air changes per hour in a room 10
ft by 60 ft by 150ft?
Calculation:
Volume of room = 10 x 60 x 150 = 90,000 cu ft
Amount to be changed in one hour = 5 x 90,000 cu ft
Answer:
Change per minute = (5 x 90,000 ) / 60 = 7500 cfm
Replacement of Make-Up Air
• All local and general exhaust ventilation systems must have air to exhaust and by basic
consideration of the conservations of mass that air must be supplied by an air supply
make-up system. Some basic principles for make-up air are as follows:
• The fresh air supply should be located away from any contaminating sources; i.e. air
intake systems positioned on the roof should be well away from exhaust stacks.
Prevailing wind directions should not allow exhausted materials to be blown toward air
intakes.
• To prevent rooms developing a negative pressure, the air supply system must be
provided with a fan.
• The point at which make-up air enters the building should be located to provide cross
ventilation so that the air distribution pattern is engineered to provide good fresh air
intake without interfering with the existing exhaust systems.
• Where possible fresh air should be introduced into the lower level of the plant, up to 10
ft, so that it is diluting contaminated air in the zone where people are working.
• Fresh air coming in may be cold and should be preheated to room temperature, usually
around 18 - 25ºC (25 - 80ºF).

Physical Hazards
Industrial Noise
Noise can be succinctly defined as unwanted sound. Sound is any pressure variation in air or
water that the human ear can detect. The noise frequency measured in cycles per second or
hertz (Hz) is the number of pressure variations per unit time. Variations in air pressure are
detected by the ear and interpreted by the brain to produce the sensation of hearing. Another
form of acoustic energy is vibration, which can be non-audible and is detected by touch or
feeling. There is little difference between the vibratory and sonic forms of acoustic energy.
Key to an understanding of noise and its potential health impact in the workplace is an
understanding of the physiology of the ear.
Note that the ear is divided into outer, middle and inner sections. The outer section, the pinna,
serves as a funnel to collect sound and channel it towards the ear drum which marks the border
between the outer and inner ear. Variations in air pressure cause the eardrum to move which in
turn transmits the pressure changes to three bones in the middle ear. These three bones are
called ‘ossicles’ and each has an individual name; the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil) and
the stapes (stirrup). The stapes is the bone nearest to the inner ear and it presses against the
oval window of an organ known as the cochlea. It is in the cochlea that the variations in sound
pressure are converted into neurochemical data for interpretation by the brain. The inner ear
also houses three semicircular canals arranged at different angles. These semicircular canals
play a critical role in maintaining balance.
Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) is caused by impairment of the cochlea. The cochlea
contains sensitive hair cells (cilia) in an area known as the ‘Organ of Corti’. Damage to the cilia
(hair cells) is caused by repeated exposures to certain kinds of noise in the workplace.
Hearing Loss
Types of hearing loss:
1. Conductive hearing loss: occurs when there is a problem with the external or middle ear
that prevents sound from being conducted efficiently to the inner ear.
2. Sensorineural hearing loss: occurs when there is damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or
the nerve pathways that transmit sound from the ear to the brain.
3. Mixed hearing loss: occurs when a person has both conductive and sensorineural
hearing loss.
4. Central hearing loss: occurs when there is a problem with the brain's ability to process
sound, rather than a problem with the ear itself.
Major causes of hearing loss:
1. Noise-induced hearing loss: can occur from exposure to loud noises, such as concerts,
firearms, or power tools.
2. Age-related hearing loss: is a common cause of hearing loss and typically occurs as
people get older.

3. Ototoxic drugs: certain medications can damage the inner ear and cause hearing loss.
4. Ear infections: can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss if left untreated.
5. Genetics: some forms of hearing loss are inherited and passed down from parents to
children.
6. Trauma: head injuries or damage to the ear can cause hearing loss.
7. Illnesses: certain illnesses, such as meningitis, mumps, and measles, can cause hearing
loss.
8. Chronic ear conditions: such as otosclerosis or Meniere's disease can lead to hearing
loss
OSHA Noise Program
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) Hearing Conservation Program is
a comprehensive program aimed at protecting workers from hazardous noise levels in the
workplace. The program is designed to prevent hearing loss and other noise-induced health
problems through monitoring, measurement, and control of workplace noise levels.
Who is included in the program: The program is mandatory for all employers who have workers
exposed to noise levels at or above 85 decibels (dB) averaged over an eight-hour workday. The
program is designed to protect all workers exposed to hazardous noise levels, regardless of
their job title, job duties, or length of service.
Monitoring: OSHA requires employers to monitor the noise levels in the workplace to determine
if workers are exposed to hazardous levels of noise. The monitoring must be done at least
annually, or more often if there are changes in the work environment that could affect noise
levels.
Sound measuring instruments: Employers must use accurate and reliable sound measuring
instruments to determine the noise levels in the workplace. The instruments must be calibrated
regularly to ensure accurate results.
Employee notification: Employers must inform workers about the results of the noise monitoring
and provide them with information about the hazards of noise and the importance of using
hearing protection. Workers must be informed about the results of their audiometric testing and
the need for further action, if necessary.
Audiometric testing: Employers must provide audiometric testing to all workers exposed to
hazardous levels of noise. Audiometric testing measures an individual's hearing ability and
helps determine if hearing loss has occurred. Testing must be conducted annually, or more
often if there is a change in hearing ability.
Standard Threshold Shift: A Standard Threshold Shift (STS) is a change in an individual's
hearing ability that is greater than an established amount and is considered to be a sign of
hearing loss. Employers must provide hearing protection and further action if an STS is
detected.

Training program: OSHA requires employers to provide training to all workers exposed to
hazardous levels of noise. The training must cover the dangers of noise exposure, the proper
use and maintenance of hearing protection, and the importance of regular audiometric testing.
Record keeping: Employers must keep records of all noise monitoring, audiometric testing, and
employee training. The records must be kept for the duration of employment, plus 30 years. The
records must be made available to OSHA upon request. The Hearing Conservation Program
helps ensure that workers are protected from the hazards of noise exposure in the workplace,
and helps prevent hearing loss and other noise-induced health problems.
OSHA Permissible Noise Exposure
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has established a permissible noise
exposure limit to protect workers from the harmful effects of noise in the workplace. According
to OSHA, workers should not be exposed to an average noise level of 85 decibels (dBA) or
higher over an eight-hour workday.
If workers are exposed to noise levels at or above 85 dBA, employers must implement a
Hearing Conservation Program, which includes:
1. Monitoring: Regular monitoring of noise levels in the workplace to determine if they are
at or above 85 dBA.
2. Sound measuring instruments: The use of appropriate sound measuring instruments to
accurately measure noise levels in the workplace.
3. Employee notification: Employees must be informed about the results of noise level
measurements and the potential for hearing loss.
4. Audiometric testing: Regular audiometric testing must be provided to workers to monitor
changes in their hearing over time.
5. Standard Threshold Shift: Employers must keep records of standard threshold shifts,
which indicate a change in an employee's hearing ability.
6. Training program: Employers must provide training to employees on the dangers of
noise exposure and methods of protecting their hearing.
7. Record keeping: Employers must keep records of noise measurements, audiometric test
results, and training for each employee.
OSHA's permissible noise exposure limit is based on a time-weighted average (TWA) over an
eight-hour workday. This means that the exposure to noise can vary throughout the day, but the
average exposure over an eight-hour workday must not exceed 85 dBA
Definitions
Noise: is defined as any unwanted or undesired sound or sound that is disruptive, either
physically or psychologically, in a particular environment.
Continuous noise: refers to a type of noise that is constant, ongoing, and without any breaks in
between. It can come from sources such as machinery, traffic, or construction sites.

Intermittent noise: is the type of noise that is not continuous and is composed of sounds that
are repeated with gaps in between. Examples of intermittent noise include hand-held power
tools or people shouting.
Sound: is defined as a vibration that travels through a medium, such as air, and can be heard
by the human ear. It is a type of energy that is created by the vibration of objects.
Period: refers to the time it takes for a wave to repeat itself. It is a measure of the time interval
between two consecutive peaks or troughs of a sound wave. In terms of sound, the period is
often related to the frequency of the sound wave, with higher frequency sounds having a shorter
period.
Frequency
Frequency is perceived as pitch. The human ear can perceive frequencies of between 20 and
20 000 Hertz (Hz).
Wave Length
Wave length is the distance that a sound wave travels in one cycle. It is an important property of
sound when considering barriers to reduce noise. Sound waves that have a larger wave length
than a thin barrier are little affected by its presence since they can often bend around. Noise
made of small wavelengths can be stopped or reduced by a thin barrier.
Velocity
In air at room temperature the speed of sound is about 344 m/sec (1130 ft / sec). In water,
sound travels at 1433 m/sec, 3962 m/sec in wood, and 5029 m/sec in steel.
Sound pressure
The human ear is very sensitive and allows us to detect tiny variations in sound pressure. This
means that noise (sound pressure) that can damage our hearing is not that large, perhaps only
a few thousands of a pound per square inch. Our ears can detect sound waves less than 20
µPa. The units (Pa) used to measure sound pressure are called Pascals (pronounced pas
KAL). Other units include Newton /square meter (N/sq m), microbars (µBar) and dynes per
square centimeter (d/sq cm). Note that 1 µBar = 1 d/sq cm = equals 0.1 N/sq cm= 0.1 Pa.
Sound Intensity
Sound intensity is similar to sound pressure except that it has both magnitude and direction.
When the sound intensity from a source is doubled the approximate decibel level increases by
3.
Decibels
The weakest sound that can be heard by a person with good hearing is known as the threshold
of hearing. At a reference frequency of 1000 Hz the threshold of hearing for an average person
is taken to be a sound pressure of 20 µPa. At the other end of the scale the greatest sound
pressure that can be perceived without pain is approximately 10,000,000 times greater.
Because of this huge range of sound pressure perception it is necessary to use a relative scale
of sound pressure rather than an absolute scale. For measuring sound the unit used is the Bel
and with respect to most sound measurements we use one tenth of this unit known as the
Decibel (dB). The dB is a dimensionless unit.

Sound Power (Lw)

Sound power is the amount of energy generated by a sound source. It is a measure of the total
energy emitted by a source and is expressed in units of watts (W).
Sound Measurement
A variety of sound measuring instruments are available to measure workplace noise. They are
sometimes called sound level meters, octave band analyzers, noise dosimeters, impact sound
level meters and sound survey meters.
For most industrial applications the sound level meter and the octave band analyzer are used.
Because we are interested in sound that might damage the human ear, manufacturers have
designed instruments in which the electronic circuits have a sensitivity that varies with
frequency in the same way as the human ear. In fact three internationally standardized
characteristics are incorporated into sound level meters:
• The A-weighting scale: this scale approximates to the human ear’s response for low
level sound.
• The B-weighting scale: this was designed for medium sound pressure levels
• The C-network: for high sound pressure levels.
These various weighting networks in a sound level meter enable it to respond to some
frequencies more than others. The A-weighted sound level measurement has become the one
most often used for the overall assessment of noise as a hazard, because it is thought to
incorporate noise that can injure the human ear. Indeed the A-weighted sound level has been
adopted by many standard setting organizations including the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the US Department of Labor.
Sound Level Meters
A sound level meter is an electronic volt meter that measures an electrical signal emitted from a
microphone. Sound level meters will normally have a range measurement 40-140 dB range.
Octave Band Analyzers
Sometimes during a noise assessment it is necessary to break all types of noise down into
various frequency components. Generally speaking humans find high frequency noise much
more disturbing than low frequency. High frequency is also capable of producing greater
hearing loss. Analysis of the different frequency of the noise maybe especially important to
develop engineering controls for a noise problem. Remember that when using an octave band
analyzer if an octave band spectrum increases by 3 decibels per octave the type of noise is
“white noise.”
Noise Dosimeters
The occupational hygienist can sample noise and record noise exposure in an instrument
containing a data logger. Data loggers will record noise exposure over a number of days or
weeks when a worker is moving around a plant from task to task. The most sophisticated
dosimeter can produce several types of statistical analyses and print records detailing the
history of a workers noise exposure.
Conducting a Noise Survey

A preliminary noise survey is usually conducted to identify the principal sources of noise in a
workplace and the areas where it may be difficult to communicate because of noise
interference. A preliminary noise survey is not used to determine employee exposure or other
details but simply to assess whether a potential noise problem exists and whether further
investigation or action is required.
Detailed Noise Survey
If as a result of a preliminary noise survey it is determined that a potential noise problem may
exist then a more in depth review of the situation is required. Usually a detailed noise survey will
attempt to assess:
• The noise levels at various work stations

• Employees who may need audiometric testing on a regular basis
• Areas where engineering controls may be required
• Employees and areas where personal hearing protection will be required
Generally a noise survey is made using a sound level meter that meets acceptable standards.
The meter is usually set for an A-scale slow response.
If the maximum sound level in a particular work area does not exceed 80 dBA it is generally
assumed that employees working in that area are within an acceptable noise environment.
However, if noise levels are recorded above 80 dBA then more detailed information is required
and it may be necessary to conduct worker exposure surveys with noise dosimeters. Noise
levels in the 80 – 90 dBA range are regulated in most jurisdictions.
When measuring noise at work stations it is important to take readings at the location where the
employee will be positioned when conducting their tasks. Often the noise level will vary
throughout the day depending on the particular stage of the process. There may be instances
when a printing press operator is exposed to levels of 90 dBA and above (when the press is in
full operation) but other periods of the day when the noise level is below 80 dBA. In these
instances it will be necessary to measure duration of exposure at various periods during the
day to determine if regulated levels have been exceeded.
Types of Noise
Continuous noise
Many workplaces have continuous noise which consists of broad band sound at an
approximately constant level. Employees are exposed to this kind of noise on a daily basis.
Many noise regulations are designed to protect hearing damage from continuous noise. For
example, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) noise standard in the
United States defines a permissible exposure level (PEL) as:
“…that noise dose that would result from a continuous eight hour exposure to a sound level of
90 dBA.”
Intermittent noise
This is defined as exposure to broad sound pressure levels at intervals throughout the day.

Impact type noise

This is noise that produces a sharp burst of sound such as might be made by hammer-blows.
Impact noise usually only lasts less than half a second and does not repeat more than once a
second. Most regulations state that employees should not be exposed to impact noise that
exceeds a peak of 140 dBA.
Noise Control
The extent of noise reduction needed is determined by comparing the measured levels in the
workplace with those established by regulations or standard setting organizations. Noise control
can be affected at three different areas as follows:
• The source
• The noise path
• The receiver
The Source
As with all occupational health and safety hazards the most desirable method of controlling the
problem is at its source. With noise, engineering controls at the source are usually the most
effective in noise reduction.
The Noise Path

Sometimes it is not possible to achieve full control at the source so additional controls in the
noise path may be necessary. Such controls can include baffles, enclosures and the use of
materials on walls and floors to absorb the sound wave. Often, a most effective noise reducer in
the noise path is an open window.
The Receiver
Protection of the noise receiver can include wearing earplugs and earmuffs. The difficulty with
these protective devices is that they do nothing to reduce or eliminate the hazard. Also,
protective hearing devices may interfere with a workers ability to hear instructions, warning
alarms or other sounds which are required for safety.
There are basically four types of personal hearing protection. These include:
• Earplugs (sometimes called aural inserts)

• Canal caps (superaural protectors)
• Earmuffs (circumaural protectors)
• Entire head enclosure (helmet)
Earplugs are very popular for hearing protection. They are usually made from plastic, glass,
down, foam or a wax cotton or rubber. They are inexpensive but the service life is short and
they are usually only good for a one time use.
Canal caps are not unlike earplugs except that the plugs are held together by a light-weight
head band. The tension in the band holds the plugs against the external opening of the ears.
Earmuffs provide a good acoustic seal. The cushions are usually filled with liquid foam or air
and the muffs are held against the ears by a spring loaded head band.

Entire head enclosures. Helmets can be used to cover earmuffs, plugs or canal caps. It can
reduce the noise reaching the receiver by an additional 5 – 10 dB. Generally speaking, helmets
are bulky and expensive which generally precludes their use from a normal industrial hearing
conservation program.
Another approach to controlling noise at the location of the receiver is to isolate the worker from
the noise source. A further strategy is to reduce the amount of time a worker is exposed by
rotating them to a less noisy workstation.
Audiometric Testing
A comprehensive noise control program will use audiometric testing of employees to identify
workers who are beginning to lose their hearing and to intervene before hearing loss becomes
worse. Audiometric testing also gives the company a history of the employee’s hearing ability. If
there are any significant shifts in the hearing threshold over the years of exposure it suggests
that the hearing protection being used is inappropriate or is not fitted properly. Audiometric
testing is sometimes required by government regulations.
Record Keeping
Exposure records for individual workers need to be reviewed to be determined if hearing
protectors are adequate. The audiometric records show whether a worker has incurred a
threshold shift in hearing or has had the threshold decrease gradually over time. As a part of
record keeping, there should be documentation of the audiometric technician’s training and
certification, audiometry, calibration data and any other medical or audiological test results.
The sound survey data, as well as engineering or administrative noise control measures should
also be kept in the records.
Program Evaluations
At predetermined intervals, check lists and audits will help evaluate the effectiveness of a
hearing conservation program and compare its performance against benchmarks published
elsewhere (NIOSH, OSHA and ANSI).
Noise Calculations
The following case studies describe some of the potential situations and calculations required
by an occupational hygienist.
Permission Noise Exposures
OSHA's permissible exposure limit (PEL) for noise is 90 decibels (dB) average sound level over
an 8-hour workday The formula is as follows:
T = 8 / 2^((L-90)/5)
Where:
• T is the maximum permissible exposure time in hours
• L is the noise level in decibels (dB)

The formula assumes that a 3-dB increase in noise level corresponds to a halving of the
permissible exposure time. The formula is based on the assumption that the maximum
permissible exposure to noise is 8 hours per day at a noise level of 90 dB.
Example:
If the noise level is 100 dB for an employee for 1 hour, then using the formula we can calculate
the maximum permissible exposure time as follows:
T = 8 / 2^((100-90)/5)
T = 8 / 2^(10/5)
T = 8 / 2^2
T=8/4
T=2
Therefore, the maximum permissible exposure time at a noise level of 100 dB is 2 hours.
Noise dosage
The noise dosage formula is used to calculate the cumulative noise exposure over a given
period of time. The formula is as follows:
d = 100 x Σ(ci / ti)
Where:
• d is the noise dosage in percentage
• ci is the duration of exposure at a particular noise level in minutes
• ti is the allowed exposure time for the corresponding noise level, as specified in the
relevant regulations or guidelines.
The allowed exposure time (ti) is typically specified in a table, such as Table 8.1 in the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations for Occupational Noise
Exposure (29 CFR 1910.95). This table provides the maximum allowable exposure time for
various noise levels, as follows:
Sound Level (dBA) Maximum Allowed Exposure Time (hours)
85 8

Sound Level (dBA) Maximum Allowed Exposure Time (hours)
90 4
95 2
100 1
105 0.5
110 0.25
115 0.125
To calculate the noise dosage, you need to measure the noise level and duration of exposure at
each level during the measurement period, and then use the formula to calculate the cumulative
noise exposure. You then compare the result to the maximum allowable noise dosage for an 8-
hour workday (100%), to determine if the noise exposure is within acceptable limits.
Example:
here's an example of how to calculate the noise dosage using the formula d = 100 x Σ(ci / ti):
Let's say you are measuring the noise exposure of a worker who is exposed to two different
noise levels during an 8-hour workday. You measure the noise levels using a sound level meter
and record the duration of exposure at each level. The measurements are as follows:
• The worker is exposed to a noise level of 90 dBA for 3 hours (c1 = 180 min)
• The worker is exposed to a noise level of 95 dBA for 2 hours (c2 = 120 min)
To calculate the noise dosage, you need to look up the maximum allowed exposure time (ti) for
each noise level, using a table such as Table 8.1 from the OSHA regulations. From the table,
you can see that the maximum allowed exposure time for 90 dBA is 4 hours, and for 95 dBA it
is 2 hours.
Using the formula d = 100 x Σ(ci / ti), you can now calculate the noise dosage as follows:
d = 100 x ((c1 / t1) + (c2 / t2)) where t1 = 4 hours, t2 = 2 hours
d = 100 x ((180 / 240) + (120 / 120))
d = 100 x (0.75 + 1)
d = 100 x 1.75

d = 175%
In this example, the calculated noise dosage is 175%, which exceeds the maximum allowable
noise dosage of 100% for an 8-hour workday. This indicates that the worker has been exposed
to excessive noise levels and may be at risk of hearing damage or other health effects. Action
should be taken to reduce the worker's noise exposure, such as through engineering controls,
administrative controls, or personal protective equipment.
TWA (Convert Noise Dosage)
The formula to calculate the Time Weighted Average (TWA) noise level based on the noise
dosage (d):
TWA = 16.61 * log10(d/100) + 90
Where:
• TWA is the Time Weighted Average noise level, expressed in decibels (dBA)
• d is the noise dosage, expressed as a percentage
The TWA is a measure of the average noise level over an 8-hour workday, taking into account
both the level and duration of exposure. The formula calculates the TWA based on the noise
dosage, which is calculated as the sum of the products of the duration and intensity of exposure
at different noise levels.
To use the formula, you would first calculate the noise dosage using the formula d = 100 x Σ(ci /
ti), as described in the previous section. Once you have the noise dosage, you can use the
formula to calculate the TWA noise level for the worker over the 8-hour workday.
For example, if the noise dosage was calculated to be 150% the TWA noise level would be:
TWA = 16.61 * log10(150/100) + 90
TWA = 16.61 * log10(1.5) + 90
TWA = 16.61 * 0.176 + 90
TWA = 92.9 dBA
In this example, the TWA noise level for the worker over the 8-hour workday is 92.9 dBA, which
is above the OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 90 dBA for an 8-hour workday. This
indicates that the worker has been exposed to excessive noise levels and may be at risk of
hearing damage or other health effects. Action should be taken to reduce the worker's noise
exposure to bring it within acceptable limits.

Combining noise levels
The formula to calculate the combined noise level (LPT) from multiple noise sources:
LPT = 10 * log10(Σ 10^(Lpi/10))
Where:
• LPT is the combined noise level, expressed in decibels (dBA)
• Lpi is the individual noise level from each noise source, expressed in decibels (dBA)
To use the formula, you would first measure or require the noise level from each noise source
in decibels (dBA). Then, you would use the formula to calculate the combined noise level from
all sources.
For example, let's say you measured the following noise levels from three different pieces of
machinery:
• Source 1: 85 dBA
LPT = 10 * log10(10^(85/10) + 10^(90/10) + 10^(95/10))
LPT = 10 * log10(10^(8.5) + 10^(9) + 10^(9.5))
LPT = 10 * log10(316.23 + 1000 + 3162.28)
LPT = 10 * log10(4478.51)
LPT = 96.5 dBA
In this case, the combined noise level (LPT) is 96.5 dBA. This indicates that the total noise level
from all sources is quite loud and potentially harmful to hearing. If the combined noise level
exceeds the recommended exposure limits, appropriate hearing protection should be used.
Sound levels at various distances
The sound level at a distance (d1) from a sound source can be calculated using the following
formula:
dB1 = dB0 + 20 * log10(d0/d1)
Where:

• dB1 is the sound level at the new distance (d1), measured in decibels (dB)
• dB0 is the sound level at a reference distance (d0), measured in decibels (dB)
• d0 is the reference distance, usually set to 1 meter (m)
• d1 is the new distance from the sound source, usually measured in meters (m)
This formula assumes that the sound is radiated equally in all directions from the sound source,
and that there are no obstacles or reflections that would affect the sound propagation.
For example, if the sound level at a reference distance of 1 meter is 80 dB, and you want to
calculate the sound level at a distance of 5 meters, the formula would be:
dB1 = 80 + 20 * log10(1/5)
dB1 = 80 + 20 * -0.699
dB1 = 80 - 13.98
dB1 = 66.02 dB
Therefore, the sound level at a distance of 5 meters would be approximately 66.02 dB,
assuming that the sound is radiated equally in all directions and that there are no obstacles or
reflections that would affect the sound propagation.
Sound Power (Lw)
The sound power level (Lw) of a sound source can be calculated using the following formula:
Lw = 10 * log10(W / W0)
Where:
• Lw is the sound power level, measured in decibels (dB)
• W is the sound power emitted by the sound source, measured in watts (W)
• W0 is the reference sound power, usually set to 10^(-12) watts (W), which is the
threshold of human hearing
The sound power level is a measure of the total sound energy emitted by a sound source,
regardless of the distance or direction from the source. It represents the total sound power that
is radiated in all directions.
For example, if the sound power emitted by a sound source is 1 watt, the formula would be:
Lw = 10 * log10(1 / 10^(-12))

Lw = 10 * log10(10^12)
Lw = 10 * 12
Lw = 120 dB
Therefore, the sound power level of the sound source would be 120 dB.
Sound Pressure (Lp)
The sound pressure level (Lp) at a specific point in space can be calculated using the following
formula:
Lp = 20 * log10(P / P0)
where:
• Lp is the sound pressure level in decibels (dB)
• p is the measured sound pressure in newtons per square meter (N/m^2)
• po is the reference sound pressure in newtons per square meter (N/m^2), which is
usually set to 0.00002 N/m^2
This formula is used to convert a measured sound pressure in N/m^2 to a sound pressure level
in dB, which is a more convenient unit for comparing and evaluating different sound levels.
Suppose that you measure a sound pressure of 0.1 N/m^2 at a specific location. Using the
formula Lp = 20 * log10(p / po), you can calculate the sound pressure level (SPL) at that
location in decibels (dB):
Lp = 20 * log10(0.1 / 0.00002)
Lp = 20 * log10(5000)
Lp = 20 * 3.7
Lp = 74 dB
So the sound pressure level at the location where the sound pressure was measured is 74 dB.
Sound Intensity (LI)
I = p^2 / (ρc)
where:
• I is sound intensity in watts per square meter (W/m^2)

• p is the sound pressure in newtons per square meter (N/m^2)
• ρ is the density of the medium in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3)
• c is the speed of sound in meters per second (m/s)
This formula relates the sound pressure to the sound intensity of a sound wave traveling
through a medium.
Here's an example:
If the sound pressure level is 90 dB and the density of air is 1.2 kg/m^3, what is the sound
intensity?
First, we need to convert the sound pressure level from dB to N/m^2:
p = 20 × 10^(90/20) × 10^(-6) = 0.02 N/m^2
Then, we can plug in the values into the formula:
I = (0.02 N/m^2)^2 / (1.2 kg/m^3 × 344 m/s) = 0.000000349 W/m^2
Therefore, the sound intensity is 0.000000349 W/m^2.
To convert the sound intensity to decibels (dB), we use the following formula:
Lp = 10 * log10(I/I0)
where:
• Lp: sound intensity level (in dB)
• I: sound intensity (in W/m2)
• I0: reference intensity, which is usually taken as 10^−12 W/m2.
Substituting the values given in the previous example, we get:
Lp = 10 * log10(10^(-7) / 10^(-12))
Lp = 10 * log10(10^5)
Lp = 50 dB
Therefore, the sound intensity level for the given sound pressure level is 50 dB.

Room Absorption
The formula for calculating room absorption is as follows:
NR = 10 * log10 (A2 / A1)
where NR is the noise reduction in decibels (dB), A1 is the total absorption units (sabins) in the
room before treatment, and A2 is the total absorption units (sabins) in the room after treatment.
To use this formula, you need to first measure the total absorption units in the room before and
after treatment. You can do this by measuring the surface area and type of materials in the
room, and calculating their respective absorption coefficients. The sum of all absorption
coefficients will give you the total absorption units for each condition.
Once you have these values, plug them into the formula and calculate the noise reduction in
dB. A higher value of NR indicates greater noise reduction, which is generally desirable in
acoustic treatment of a room.
Suppose you have a room with an A1 value of 50 sabins before treatment, and after installing
acoustic panels, the A2 value is reduced to 20 sabins. To calculate the noise reduction
achieved by the treatment, you can use the formula:
NR = 10 * log10 (A1 / A2)
NR = 10 * log10 (50 / 20)
NR = 10 * log10 (2.5)
NR = 3.97 dB
Therefore, the noise reduction achieved by the acoustic treatment in this example is 3.97 dB
Suppose you have a room with hardwood flooring that has an A1 value of 60 sabins before
treatment. After installing carpet with an NRC of 0.6, the A2 value is reduced to 20 sabins. To
calculate the noise reduction achieved by the carpet installation, you can use the following
steps:
1. Calculate the total absorption units (sabins) of the hardwood flooring:
• Let's say the room has dimensions of 10 feet by 12 feet by 8 feet high (assume a
rectangular room).
• The surface area of the walls is (10 + 10 + 12 + 12) x 8 = 352 square feet.
• Let's assume the walls are made of drywall, which has an absorption coefficient of
around 0.05 at mid-frequencies (500 Hz). So the total absorption units of the walls is 352
x 0.05 = 17.6 sabins.

• For the hardwood flooring, we can assume an absorption coefficient of around 0.02 at
mid-frequencies. The surface area of the floor is 10 x 12 = 120 square feet, so the total
absorption units of the flooring is 120 x 0.02 = 2.4 sabins.
• Therefore, the total absorption units of the room before carpet installation is A1 = 17.6 +
2.4 = 20 sabins.
2. Calculate the total absorption units (sabins) of the carpeted floor:
• Assuming the same dimensions for the room, the total surface area of the carpeted floor
is also 120 square feet.
• With an NRC of 0.6, the total absorption coefficient of the carpeted floor is 120 x 0.6 = 72
sabins.
• Therefore, the total absorption units of the room after carpet installation is A2 = 17.6 +
72 = 89.6 sabins.
3. Calculate the noise reduction (NR):
• Using the formula NR = 10 * log10 (A1 / A2), we get:
• NR = 10 * log10 (20 / 89.6)
• NR = -6.5 dB
Therefore, the carpet installation achieved a noise reduction of approximately 6.5 dB in this
example. Note that this is just a rough estimate, and the actual noise reduction may vary
depending on factors such as the frequency range of interest, the specific materials used, and
the room geometry.
Absorption along a transmission path
The calculation for absorption along a transmission path:

NR = 12.6 * (P α) ^ 1.4 / A
where:
• NR is the noise reduction in decibels per foot of length.
• P is the perimeter of the duct in inches
• A = cross-sectional area of the duct (in inches
• α = absorption coefficient of the lining material at the frequency of interest
To use this formula, you need to know the perimeter of the duct and the total absorption of the
materials in the duct.
Example:

Let's say we have a duct with a perimeter of 20 inches and a cross-sectional area of 50 square
inches. The lining material in the duct has an absorption coefficient of 0.5 at the frequency of
interest. We want to calculate the noise reduction per foot of length for this duct.
Plugging in the values into the formula, we get:
NR = 12.6 * (P α) ^ 1.4 / A
NR = 12.6 * (20 * 0.5) ^ 1.4 / 50
NR = 12.6 * 10 ^ 1.4 / 50
NR = 6.32 dB per foot of length
So, the noise reduction per foot of length for this duct is 6.32 decibels.
Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation is a form of energy caused by the spontaneous emission of ionizing particles
or protons from the nucleus of an atom. Ionizing means particles that can cause charges
(positive or negative) to form on other materials.
Occupational hygienists generally deal with ionizing radiation as it is used in research institutes,
health care facilities and a limited number of industrial applications such as power sources for
fire alarms. In this guide, we will look at the types of ionizing radiation and how to measure and
control them.
Atomic Structure
To properly understand ionizing radiation, we need to review the basic features of atomic
structure. All matter is composed of atoms. Each atom has two basic parts; a core, or nucleus,
which contains positively charged particles called protons, and neutral particles called neutrons.
Spinning around the nuclear core are comparatively light-weight negatively charged particles
called electrons. A neutral atom is one in which the number of positively charged protons is
matched by an equal of negatively charged electrons spinning around. Ionization is an energy
transfer process that changes this normal electrical balance of an atom. Examples are as
follows:
• Hydrogen is the simplest atom. In its neutral state it has one proton, no neutrons and
one electron.
• Helium. In its neutral states it has two protons, two neutrons and two electrons.
The number of protons in a nucleus is called the atomic number and is represented by the letter
Z, for example, a hydrogen atom contains one proton so the number Z of hydrogen is 1. Helium
has two protons in its nucleus so its atomic number (Z) is 2.
In a neutral atom the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons so the atomic
number also indicates the number of electrons spinning around the nucleus. All atoms which
have the same number of protons will be atoms of the same element

Using the atomic notation three fairly common and well-known elements could be represented
as follows:
1
1. Hydrogen 1 H (one proton)
4
2. Helium 2 He (two protons, two neutrons)
7
3. Lithium 3 Li (three protons, four neutrons)
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic number, Z, but a different atomic mass. In
other words, they have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
Hydrogen has three different isotopes, neutral hydrogen, deuterium, tritium.
Neutral hydrogen and deuterium occur naturally while the third isotope, tritium, is radioactive
and produced in reactors. All three isotopes of hydrogen have the same atomic number and
therefore the same number of electrons spinning around the nucleus.
Types of Ionizing Radiation

Radioactive atoms are unstable and will always attempt to get rid of excess energy so that they
can return to the neutral state. They get rid of their excess energy in the form of ionizing
radiation in a process which is called ‘disintegration’.
Ionizing radiation is measured in units called ‘Bequerels (Bq).’ These are the number of
disintegrations per second. The most commonly encountered types of ionizing radiation are as
follows:
Alpha particles are shot out of the nucleus of a radioactive atom during the process of
disintegration. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons and therefore are
structurally the same as a helium nucleus. As alpha particles contact other materials they will
slow down and combine with electrons from the material through which they are passing and
thus become helium atoms
Alpha particles have a large mass and therefore can travel only short distances through
materials they contact. In air they will only travel about 10 cm (4 inches). They are stopped dead
by the outer layer of the skin, sheet of paper or any thin material.
Because alpha particles can only travel short distances they produce dense ionization as they
travel expending all their energy over a few millimetres or centimetres. Since alpha particles can
be stopped by a layer of skin they are not considered to be serious radiation hazards outside of
the body. However, because of their ability to deposit all their ionization energy in a short
distance, they may cause severe radiation problems when they enter the body. For this reason,
alpha emitters are considered only to be internal radiation hazards.
Beta particles, like alpha particles, are ejected from the nuclei of radioactive atoms during
disintegration. However, beta particles have a negative charge and are the same mass as an
electron. There are other types of similar particles called positrons. They are similar to beta
particles (again with the same mass as electrons) but they have positive charge. They can also
be ejected from a nucleus during disintegration. A proton (positive charge) from which a
positron is emitted subsequently becomes a neutron (no charge). When positrons meet

electrons (i.e. a positive meets a negative) they are mutually annihilated yielding gamma
radiation.
Beta particles, either positive or negative, penetrate further than alpha particles. They can
penetrate the human body by about 0.2 – 1.3 cm (0.1 – 0.5 inches). They can penetrate wood
by about 4 cm (1.5 inches).
Very high doses of beta radiation can cause skin burns and when beta emitters are taken into
the body they are internal radiation hazards. When a beta particle is slowed down or stopped,
secondary X-radiation, known as Bremsstrahlung may be produced. Bremsstrahlung radiation is
hazardous.
Thin and light metals such as aluminium are used for shielding from beta particles because they
produce less
Bremsstrahlung radiation than dense heavy metals such as lead. Common beta emitters have
ranges of less than 9 m (30 ft) in air. They can usually be stopped by the walls of a room or by a
sheet of aluminium about 1.3 cm (0.5 inches) thick.
Neutrons are released upon the disintegration of some radioactive materials (unstable
isotopes). Neutrons have no charge and their range varies according to the energy with which
they are released. When they are stopped or slowed down they will produce secondary
emissions of protons, gamma, beta or alpha radiation. Lead should not be used to shield
neutron sources. When neutrons collide with lead they break into “high energy” fragments which
can cause biological damage.
Human exposure to neutrons essentially occurs around nuclear reactors. Neutrons are internal
radiation hazards when they release secondary forms of energy. The amount of harm they
cause is dependant upon the dose of neutrons and on their energy distribution.
Neutrons are best shielded with concrete, polyethylene or boron in materials such as
polyethylene or aluminium.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Two types of electromagnetic radiation are:
X-radiation is electromagnetic and ionizing. X-rays, as we commonly call them, are produced
when high speed electrons are suddenly slowed down and they strike a target. An X-ray beam
has a variety of wave lengths and energies. Generally speaking, the energy of an X-ray is
inversely proportional to its wave length. The more energy an X-ray possess, the shorter its
wave length.
When X-rays are very penetrating, they are called hard and when they are less penetrating they
are called soft.
Gamma radiation is also electromagnetic and ionizing and is identical to X-radiation except that
its source is a nucleus of an atom rather than an X-ray machine. Gamma radiation comes from
an unstable nucleus of an atom. Like X-rays, gamma rays can have a variety of wave lengths
and energies but the energy is fixed and is specific for the radionuclide from which is it was

emitted. Gamma radiation presents an external radiation problem due to its deep penetration.
Gamma radiation can only be stopped by several inches of lead.
Health Effects of Radiation Exposure
The effect of ionizing radiation on the human body is considered to be almost entirely due to the
ionization process. Ionization of cells and cell components destroys the capacity for cell
reproduction and may cause mutations (alterations in the DNA). Information on the human
health effects of ionizing radiation has been obtained from the following sources:
• Patients treated with radiation

• Workers who painted dials with luminous containing radium
• Studies of the survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• Health care workers exposed while administering radiation for diagnosis and therapy
• Early workers in the field of radiation
From all of these sources it is evident that ionizing radiation gives rise to a higher than normal
incidents of certain diseases such as:
• Lung, skin and other cancers

• Bone damage and cataracts
There has also been some evidence of life shortening. Geneticists also consider that radiation
damage to human DNA might result in birth defects and possibly the inheritance of damaged
DNA to successive generations. Interestingly, while the subject of birth defects and inherited
mutations has been a central theme in many science fiction stories there is little clear evidence
of it happening. It was not even observed in the survivors of the Japanese atomic bombings, a
feature that would suggest the human body has a tremendous capability for repairing cell
damage.
Health physicists classify the health effects of ionizing radiation into two broad categories:
1. Deterministic effects. A deterministic effect is a health condition that is clearly observable

and can be immediate or delayed, for example, skin reddening. Deterministic effects are
considered to have a threshold, i.e. below a certain exposure level, an effect such as
skin reddening will not be seen. Generally, deterministic effects are seen after large
exposures to ionizing radiation.
2. Stochastic effects. These are radiation induced cancers or genetic damage. Stochastic
effects are not considered to have a threshold below which they do not occur. It is
believed that even small doses have some impact.
Standards for Radiation Exposure

The accepted practice is to keep radiation exposures as low as reasonably achievable
(ALARA). Guidelines for the maximum permissible exposure to ionizing radiation are published
by the International Commission on Radiological Protection and Measurements (ICRPM). For
the prevention of cancer and genetic effects the exposure limit is specified in terms of a quantity
known as the effective dose equivalent (EDE) and is expressed in units of rems or sieverts (Sv).

The effective dose equivalent received in any one year by an adult worker should not exceed
five rems or 0.05 Sv.
Types of Radioactive Decay
There are several types of radioactive decay, including:
1. Alpha Decay: This type of decay occurs when a nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is
a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Alpha decay results in the
reduction of the atomic number of the nucleus by two and the atomic mass by four.
2. Beta Decay: This type of decay occurs when a nucleus emits a beta particle, which is an
electron. Beta decay results in the increase or decrease of the atomic number of the
nucleus by one, depending on whether a neutron decays into a proton or a proton
decays into a neutron.
3. Gamma Decay: This type of decay occurs when a nucleus releases a gamma ray, which
is a high-energy photon. Gamma decay does not change the atomic number or atomic
mass of the nucleus, but it does reduce its energy.
4. Positron Decay: This type of decay occurs when a nucleus emits a positron, which is the
antiparticle of an electron. Positron decay results in the reduction of the atomic number
of the nucleus by one.
5. Electron Capture: This type of decay occurs when an electron is captured by the
nucleus, resulting in the conversion of a proton into a neutron. Electron capture also
results in the reduction of the atomic number of the nucleus by one.
Radioactive Half-Life
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample of the
isotope to decay. It is a characteristic property of each radioactive isotope and is not affected by
physical or environmental conditions.
The half-life of a radioactive isotope can range from a fraction of a second to billions of years,
depending on the isotope. For example, the half-life of the isotope Carbon-14, which is used in
radiocarbon dating, is about 5,700 years. On the other hand, the half-life of the isotope
Plutonium-239, which is used as fuel in nuclear reactors, is 24,100 years.
The half-life of a radioactive isotope can be used to calculate the amount of radioactive material
that remains after a certain amount of time. For example, if a sample of an isotope has a half-
life of 1 year, then after 1 year, half of the original atoms in the sample will have decayed, and
half will remain. After 2 years, one-quarter of the original atoms will remain, and so on.
Calculating Radioactive Decay
N(t) = N0 * e^(-γ*t)
where:
• N(t) is the number of atoms remaining at time t.
• N0 is the number of original atoms.
• γ is the disintegration constant, which is equal to 0.693 divided by the half-life (T1/2).
• t is the time of decay.

So, to calculate the number of atoms remaining at a given time, you need to know the initial
number of atoms, the half-life of the substance, the disintegration constant, and the time since
the initial measurement.
For example, if you start with 1000 atoms of a substance with a half-life of 10 days and
measure it after 30 days, you can calculate the number of remaining atoms as follows:
1. Calculate the disintegration constant:

• The half-life of the substance is 10 days, so the disintegration constant is γ = 0.693 / 10
= 0.0693 per day.
2. Calculate the number of atoms remaining:
• The formula for the number of atoms remaining at time t is N(t) = N0 * e^(-γ*t).
• Plugging in the values, we get N(30) = 1000 * e^(-0.0693*30) ≈ 125
• Therefore, there are approximately 125 atoms remaining after 30 days.
Radiation Control Methods:
There are three controls for radiation: time, distance and shielding.
Time
The first control is time. Reducing the amount of time spent near a radiation source can help to
reduce exposure to harmful radiation. This can be achieved by limiting the duration of tasks,
rotating workers, or automating tasks to reduce exposure.
Dose = D x T
Where
D= dose rate
T= time of exposure
Let's say a worker is exposed to a radiation dose rate of 20 mrem/h for a total of 8 hours. To
calculate the total dose received, we can use the formula:
Total dose = dose rate x time of exposure
Plugging in the values we have:

Total dose = 20 mrem/h x 8 hours = 160 mrem
Therefore, the worker received a total dose of 160 millirem (mrem) after being exposed to a
radiation dose rate of 20 mrem/h for 8 hours.
Distance
The second control is distance. Increasing the distance between the radiation source and
workers or the public can also help to reduce exposure. This can be achieved by moving the
radiation source further away or using tools that allow workers to perform tasks from a distance.
The inverse square law and is used to calculate the relationship between the intensity of
radiation and the distance from the source.

The equation is:

I1 / I2 = (d2 / d1)^2
where:
• I1 is the intensity of radiation at distance d1 from the source.
• I2 is the intensity of radiation at distance d2 from the source.
• d1 is the distance from the source where I1 is measured.
• d2 is the distance from the source where I2 is measured.
This equation states that the intensity of radiation decreases as the distance from the source
increases, following an inverse square relationship. Specifically, the intensity decreases
proportionally to the square of the distance from the source.
To use the equation, you need to know the intensity of radiation at two different distances from
the source, as well as the distances themselves. You can then solve for one of the unknowns,
such as the intensity at one of the distances, given the other values.
For example, if you know that the intensity of radiation at a distance of 1 meter from the source
is 10 mrem/h, and you want to know the intensity at a distance of 2 meters, you can use the
equation as follows:
I2 = I1 / (d2 / d1)^2
Plugging in the values we have:

I2 = 10 mrem/h / (2 / 1)^2 = 2.5 mrem/h
Therefore, the intensity of radiation at a distance of 2 meters from the source is 2.5 mrem/h,
assuming that the intensity at a distance of 1 meter is 10 mrem/h.
Shielding
The third control is shielding. Adding a barrier between the radiation source and workers or the
public can help to reduce exposure. This can be achieved through the use of materials that can
absorb or deflect radiation, such as concrete, lead, or steel.
The HVL (half-value layer) is a measure of the effectiveness of a material at attenuating

(reducing) the intensity of radiation passing through it by half. It is defined as the thickness of
the material required to reduce the radiation intensity to half of its original value.
The equation for HVL (Half-Value Layer) is:

HVL = ln(2) / μ
where:
• HVL is the thickness of the material required to reduce the radiation intensity to half of its
original value.
• ln(2) is the natural logarithm of 2, which is approximately 0.693.
• μ is the linear attenuation coefficient of the material, which is a measure of how much
radiation is absorbed or scattered by the material per unit length.

The HVL is a useful concept in radiation protection and allows for a quick estimation of the
shielding required to reduce radiation to a certain level.
Let's say you have a beam of gamma radiation with an original intensity of 100 mrem/h. You
direct the beam towards a shield made of aluminum, and you want to know the thickness of the
shield required to reduce the radiation intensity to half its original value.
According to Table 26.4, aluminum has a linear absorption coefficient of approximately 0.2 cm^-
1 for gamma radiation.
Using the HVL concept, we know that the thickness of the aluminum required to reduce the
radiation intensity to half of its original value is:
HVL = ln(2) / μ = ln(2) / 0.2 cm^-1 = 3.47 cm
Therefore, to reduce the radiation intensity to half its original value, you would need to place a
shield made of aluminum that is at least 3.47 cm thick in the path of the gamma radiation.
For gamma or x- rays

The equation I = Ioe^(-μx) can also be used to calculate the effectiveness of a shield. It gives
the intensity of radiation after passing through a shield of a certain thickness, assuming that the
material has a linear absorption coefficient μ.
• I: intensity of radiation after passing through the shield

• Io: original intensity of the radiation before passing through the shield
• μ: linear absorption coefficient of the material
• x: shield thickness
This equation can be used to calculate the intensity of radiation after passing through a shield
of known thickness, given the original intensity and the linear absorption coefficient of the
material.
Example:
Let's say we have a radioactive source emitting gamma radiation with an intensity of 1000
counts per second. We want to determine the intensity of the radiation after it passes through a
shield made of lead with a thickness of 2 cm. The linear absorption coefficient of lead for
gamma radiation of this energy is 0.1 cm^-1.
Using the given formula, we can calculate the intensity of the radiation after passing through the
shield:
I = Ioe^(-μx)
I = 1000 e^(-0.1 * 2)
I = 1000 e^(-0.2)
I ≈ 818 counts per second

So, the intensity of the radiation after passing through the lead shield is approximately 818
counts per second. This means that the lead shield reduced the intensity of the radiation by
about one-third.
For beta radiation

The equation for beta (β) radiation is similar to the equation for gamma or x-rays, but it includes
an additional factor β, which accounts for the buildup of scattered radiation behind the shield.
The equation for beta radiation is:

I = βIo * e^(-μx)
where:
• I is the intensity of radiation after passing through the shield
• Io is the original intensity of the radiation before passing through the shield
• μ is the linear absorption coefficient of the material
• x is the thickness of the shield
• β is the radiation scatter "buildup" factor (for radiation workers, OSHA assumes β = 1).
The buildup factor accounts for the increased intensity of radiation that is scattered by the
material in the shield and then re-scattered back towards the source. This effect is not as
significant for gamma or x-rays, which generally penetrate materials more easily and do not
scatter as much.
Example:
Let's say a technician is working with a radioactive source emitting beta particles at an intensity
of 1000 counts per second. The technician needs to be protected from the beta radiation and
has a shield made of plastic with a thickness of 5 cm. The linear absorption coefficient of the
plastic material for beta radiation of this energy is 0.02 cm^-1. According to OSHA guidelines,
the scatter "buildup" factor, β, is assumed to be 1.
Using the given formula, we can calculate the intensity of the beta radiation after passing
through the plastic shield:
I = βIo * e^(-μx)
I = 1 * 1000 e^(-0.02 * 5)
I ≈ 904 counts per second
So the intensity of the beta radiation after passing through the plastic shield is approximately
904 counts per second. This means that the plastic shield reduced the intensity of the beta
radiation by about one-third. The scatter "buildup" factor, β, did not have an effect in this
scenario since it was assumed to be 1.

Calculating MW Radiation (Near Field)
Example:
Let's say we have an antenna with a diameter of 10 cm and a power output of 1 Watt. We want
to calculate the power density (W/cm^2) at a distance of 5 cm from the antenna (which is within
the near field region).
First, we need to calculate the effective antenna area A, which is given by:
A = pi*(D/2)^2
= pi*(10/2)^2
= 78.54 cm^2
Next, we can use the equation:
W = 4P/A
where P is the antenna power in Watts, and A is the effective antenna area in cm^2.
Substituting in the values, we get:
W = 4*1/78.54
= 0.0507 W/cm^2
Finally, we need to convert this to mW/cm^2, which gives us:
W/m^2 = 0.0507*10^3
= 50.7 mW/cm^2
So, the power density at a distance of 5 cm from the antenna is approximately 50.7 mW/cm^2

Calculating MW Radiation (Far Field)
Example:
Let's say we have an antenna with a gain of 10, an effective area of 10 cm^2, and a power
output of 100 mW. We want to know the power density at a distance of 50 cm from the antenna.
Next, we can plug in the values into the formula:
W = G * P / (4 * pi * r^2)
W = 10 * 100 / (4 * 3.14159 * (50)^2)
W ≈ 0.03 mW/cm^2
So the power density at a distance of 50 cm from the antenna is approximately 0.03 mW/cm^2.
Speed of Light Equation
Example:
Suppose we have a photon of light with a wavelength of 500 nanometers (500 x 10^-9 meters).
We can use the equation c = wavelength x frequency to calculate its frequency:
c = wavelength x frequency
frequency = c / wavelength

frequency = (2.999 x 10^8 m/s) / (500 x 10^-9 m)
frequency = 6 x 10^14 Hz
So the frequency of this photon of light is 6 x 10^14 Hz.
Alternatively, we can use the equation c = wavelength / T, where T is the period (time it takes
for one cycle) of the light wave. If we assume that the light wave is a simple sinusoidal wave,
then its period is just the inverse of its frequency:
T = 1 / frequency
T = 1 / (6 x 10^14 Hz)
T = 1.67 x 10^-15 s
Now we can use the equation c = wavelength / T to find the speed of light:
c = wavelength / T
c = (500 x 10^-9 m) / (1.67 x 10^-15 s)
c = 2.99 x 10^8 m/s
This is very close to the accepted value for the speed of light in a vacuum, which is 2.99792458
x 10^8 m/s.
Ionizing Radiation Detectors

Film Badges
Film badges are most commonly seen in research labs or health care institutes and are usually
worn on the lapels of staff working with ionizing radiation. Monitors are available for gamma, X
and high energy beta radiation. The film badge consists of a small piece of photographic film
wrapped in a solid cover and supported with a metal backing. Radiation interacts with the
photographic film, in essence, “exposing it” in the same way that light does. The badge is
removed at regular intervals and the film developed. By measuring the amount of darkening of
the film, an estimate can be made of the quantity of radiation exposure accumulated in minutes
or hours.
Thermal Luminescence Detectors (TLD)
These dosimeters are worn as badges or rings and they contain small chips of lithium fluoride.
In the presence of ionizing radiation energy, lithium fluoride will store the energy which will then
give a read out when the chip is heated. Light is released from the chip in proportion to the
amount of radiation absorbed.
Pocket Dosimeters

A number of pocket dosimeters are available using a variety of technical principles. The main
advantage of the pocket dosimeter is that it is a direct reading portable unit that allows a person
to see their radiation dose while working with a radiation source. Unlike the film badge or TLD
there is no waiting for laboratory processing of the dosimeter. Other well known direct reading
instruments for ionizing radiation include ionization chambers, Geiger-Muller readers and
scintillators.
Controlling Radiation Exposures
A radiation control program should establish the following key elements:
• Potential sources of ionizing radiation

• Safe working procedures
• Education of workers and management
• Regular monitoring of identified areas and equipment
• Well established decontamination and disposal procedures
• Laboratory analysis
• Record keeping
Non-Ionizing Radiation
Non-ionizing sources of radiation are types of energy. They are contained in an electromagnetic
spectrum and are usually classified according to their wave length and frequency. All kinds of
equipment and devices in industry can emit electromagnetic radiations in such a way that
workers are exposed. If radiations cause changes in biological systems then control measures
must be used.
Visible Light
In the workplace the purpose of lighting is to provide a comfortable, efficient and safe level of
illumination to do the work. Good lighting increases production, reduces error, enhances
housekeeping and has been shown to improve worker morale.
Generally speaking, illumination should be considered from the viewpoint of:
1. its quantity and,

2. its quality.
The quantity of illumination is usually expressed in terms of foot-candles. Various standard

setting organizations such as the American National Standard Practice of Industrial Lighting
(ANSPIL) have made recommendations for the number of foot-candles for particular types of
work and tasks.
The quality of light is equally as important as quantity. Excessively high illumination can
produce glare, reflections of surfaces that interfere with work and distracting shadows. A
workstation is ideal if there is no glare and if seeing is unimpaired. Generally speaking, glare
can be avoided and minimized by mounting the illumination as far away as possible from the
normal lines of sight and limiting the quantity of light directed at the eyes.

Usually this is done by shielding illumination to at least 25 degrees form the horizontal and
preferably down to 45 degrees. Reflective glare can be minimized by veiling the reflections or
using appropriate non-reflective materials.
In addition, when illumination is installed, care should be taken to ensure it’s relatively even
distribution around the work task to avoid shadows or darkened areas.
Measuring Light
There are several different kinds of direct reading light meters to measure illumination and
brightness. Instruments such as these should be used as a comprehensive part of a lighting
survey which details the following information:
• A description of the lighted area including the approximate dimensions of the room,
colours, areas of reflection and the temperature of the air near the illumination.
• The types of lighting systems currently in use, their condition, their wattage, how they
are spaced and mounted.
• Details of the illumination and brightness meters used including their model and date of
last calibration.
• Measurements taken at specific areas using the meter and from specific work locations
and viewing directions.
• Details of any evaluation and recommendations for improvement.
Ultraviolet Radiation
The spectrum of ultraviolet radiation extends from the near UV (sometimes called a ‘black light’
region) or UV-A of 400 to 300 nanometers (nm) to the far UV ranging from 300 to 200 nm.
Other regions of interest in the UV spectrum are the UV-C region (280-220 nm), noted for its
bactericidal effect and the UV-B region (320-290 nm) which is responsible for skin redness
(erythema) caused by the sun and also for inflammation of the cornea and possibly cataract
formation.
No UV radiation from the sun with wavelengths less than 290 nm reaches the surface of the
earth. This is largely because it is filtered out by the atmosphere. Note that the risk of
developing skin cancer from exposure to UV light is directly related to the intensity and duration
exposure to sunlight. Sunlight is the most common form of exposure to UV. The most prevalent
occupational exposure to UV is electric arc welding which has resulted in corneal and
conjunctival irritation or flashburns also known as “welders flash.”
Standards for Exposure

The TLVs recommended by the ACGIH are given in the TLV booklet and refer to UV radiation
with wavelengths in air between 180 and 400 nm. The recommendations represent conditions
under which it is believed that nearly all healthy workers may be repeatedly exposed without
acute adverse health effects such as erythema (skin reddening) and photokeratitis (eye irritation
and inflammation).
Measurement of Ultraviolet Radiation

Photovoltaic cells, photochemical detectors, photoelectric cells and photoconductive cells have
all been used as detectors for UV radiation. It is common to employ selective filters in front of
the detecting device to isolate the portion of the ultraviolet spectrum of interest in the survey.
Exposure Control
UV radiations are very easily absorbed by a wide variety of materials including clothing, ordinary
glass and water. Shielding and protection of the skin and eyes from UV radiation is not normally
a problem.
Lasers
The term laser stands for ‘light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.’ Laser radiation
is unique in that it is composed only of one or a few wave lengths of radiation. It can be focused
to deposit all its energy on a small area. Laser beams, much like UV light, can produce
biological damage in the form of thermal burns and photochemical injuries. The eyes and the
skin are the primary targets.
Concern about lasers is often related to their ability to produce retinal damage. Lasers can be
visible or they can be in the infrared-A range with wave lengths from 400 to 1400 nm. There are
a number of consumer and equipment standard setting organizations (ANSI and CSA) that
address product safety features. Occupational exposure limits are established by ACGIH and
details can be found in the TLV booklet.
Control Measures
Control measures for lasers depend on the class of laser. They can be divided into four classes
ranging from I, which is essentially harmless, to IV, which can be very hazardous. Precautions
and procedures for use become more stringent as the hazard class increases. Most lasers have
a label affixed to them by the manufacturer which describes their hazard class.
The ACGIH notes that normally it is not necessary to determine laser irradiances or radiant
exposures for comparison with the TLVs. The potential for hazard exposures can be minimized
by the application of control measures which are appropriate for the class of laser. Control
measures are applicable to all classes of lasers except Class I. Such measures, and other laser
safety information, can be found in the ACGIH publication, A Guide for Control of Laser
Hazards and the ANSI Z136 Series published by the Laser Institute of America.
Effective Irradiance
Effective irradiance refers to the amount of radiation that is available for a particular process or
application. It takes into account the spectral distribution of the radiation, as well as any filters or
other factors that may affect the amount of radiation that is actually available for use.
For example, in photovoltaic systems, effective irradiance is used to calculate the amount of
energy that can be generated by the solar panels. The effective irradiance takes into account
factors such as the angle of the sun, the amount of shading on the panels, and the spectral
distribution of the sunlight.
In medical applications, effective irradiance may be used to calculate the amount of radiation
that is actually reaching a patient during a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure. This helps to
ensure that the patient is receiving the appropriate amount of radiation for the intended
purpose, while minimizing exposure to healthy tissue.

Effective irradiance is an important concept in many fields, as it helps to ensure that radiation is
used safely and effectively for a variety of applications.
The equation for effective irradiance is:

Eeff = ∑λ Eλ × Sλ × Δλ
where:
• Eeff is the effective irradiance in W/cm2·nm
• Eλ is the spectral irradiance in W/cm2·nm
• Sλ is the relative spectral effectiveness (no unit)
• Δλ is the bandwidth in nm
This equation takes into account the spectral distribution of the radiation, as well as the relative
effectiveness of the different wavelengths for a particular application. The summation over λ
(lambda) indicates that the equation is integrating over the entire range of wavelengths.
Effective irradiance is an important concept in many fields, such as photovoltaics, lighting, and
radiation safety. It helps to ensure that the radiation being used is appropriate for the intended
application and that any potential health effects are minimized.
Example:
Let's say we want to calculate the effective irradiance for a specific light source with the
following spectral irradiance and relative spectral effectiveness values:
Eλ (spectral irradiance) = 2 W/cm2·nm for λ = 400 nm to λ = 500 nm, and 3 W/cm2·nm for λ =
500 nm to λ = 600 nm.
Sλ (relative spectral effectiveness) = 0.9 for λ = 400 nm to λ = 500 nm, and 0.8 for λ = 500 nm
to λ = 600 nm.
Δλ (bandwidth) = 100 nm.
We can calculate the effective irradiance as follows:
Eeff = (2 W/cm2·nm × 0.9 × 100 nm) + (3 W/cm2·nm × 0.8 × 100 nm)

= 180 W/cm2 + 240 W/cm2
= 420 W/cm2·nm
Therefore, the effective irradiance for this specific light source is 420 W/cm2·nm.
Optical Density
The equation for calculating optical density (OD) is:
OD = log(Iincident/Itransmitted)
where:
• OD is the measured optical density of the material being evaluated (dimensionless)

• Iincident is the incident laser beam intensity in W/cm2

• Itransmitted is the transmitted laser beam intensity in W/cm2
This equation is used to determine the amount of laser light that is absorbed by a material.
Optical density is a logarithmic measure of the attenuation of light through a material, with
higher values indicating greater absorption.
To use this equation, the incident laser beam intensity and the transmitted laser beam intensity
need to be measured using appropriate instruments, such as a power meter or photodetector.
The ratio of the transmitted intensity to the incident intensity is then calculated, and the
logarithm of this ratio gives the optical density.
Optical density is an important parameter in many applications, including laser safety and the
design of optical filters and coatings.
Example:
Let's say we have a material that we want to measure its optical density (OD) using a laser
beam. We shine a laser beam with an incident intensity (Iincident) of 5 W/cm2 onto the
material, and the transmitted intensity (Itransmitted) is measured to be 0.1 W/cm2.
We can calculate the optical density of the material as follows:
OD = log(Iincident/Itransmitted)
= log(5 W/cm2 / 0.1 W/cm2)
= log(50)
= 3.91
Therefore, the measured optical density of the material is 3.91. This means that the material is
absorbing a significant amount of the laser beam, and can be used to block or filter the laser
beam for various applications.
Microwave Appliances and Video Display Terminals

When microwave ovens first appeared concern was expressed because the radiation from an
oven could be picked up by the cardiac pacemakers manufactured at that time. The
pacemakers would then amplify the oven’s leaking radiation rather than the electrical activity of
the heart. Obviously, there were potentially serious consequences for the pacemaker user.
This problem is no longer a concern since pacemaker manufacturers have added protective
circuits and capacitors to block out any fugitive electric fields. There are now established
standards for the allowable amount of leakage from a microwave oven. However, leakage over
and above these allowable amounts might occur if the oven was damaged particularly around
the door. Damaged doors and locking systems should be repaired and replaced when problems
arise.
Most video display terminals (VDT) create two magnetic fields, a vertical one and a horizontal
one. A VDT has a cathode ray tube (CRT) essentially similar to a TV set. Electric and magnetic
fields around a VDT can be assessed but the significance of the readings is unknown.

Knowledge about the biological effects of these weak low frequency magnetic fields is limited
and is the subject of much ongoing debate.
Infared Radiation
Infrared radiation (IR) is a type of electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than visible
light, ranging from about 700 nanometers to 1 millimeter. IR radiation is emitted by all objects
that have a temperature above absolute zero, including the human body.
IR radiation is often used in industrial and scientific applications for heating, drying, and
sensing. It is also commonly used in household appliances such as remote controls and motion
sensors.
Exposure to high levels of IR radiation can cause skin burns, eye damage, and other health
effects. However, most IR radiation encountered in everyday life is not harmful to humans.
Some materials, such as certain types of glass and plastics, can block or reflect IR radiation. In
addition, special protective clothing can be worn to protect against IR radiation in certain
occupational settings, such as foundries or steel mills.
Thermal Stress
Many thousands of people who work are exposed to extremes of heat or cold. For example,
cold temperatures are found in freezer plants, cold storage facilities, work in northern climates,
fruit packaging houses and outdoor work in cold seasons. Similarly, much work is conducted in
hot environments such steel mills, pulp and paper mills, furnace operations, kitchens and
outdoor work in hot climates. A basic understanding of how heat is transferred, the reaction of
the body to hot and cold and the measurement and control of thermal stress are an important
part of general health in a safety management practice.
Heat Exchange/Balance Equation
There are several different variants of the heat balance equation but basically they all take
account of three factors that influence the degree of thermal stress on the human body. These
three factors include:
• the environmental conditions in the workplace

• the demands of the work
• the clothing worn
On this basis, the heat balance equation is given as:
S=M+R+C+K–E
Were,
S = the rate of heat storage (i.e. the change in intrinsic body heat)
M = the rate of metabolism (heat produced within the body)
R = the radiative gain (or loss)

C = the rate of convective heat gain (or loss)

K = the rate of conductive heat gain (or loss)
E = the rate of evaporative heat loss
Heat Stress
Hot environments, heavy physical work and warm clothing will increase the body temperature
and the heart rate. To compensate for increased internal body temperature, the body produces
sweat which escapes through the sweat pores and onto the surface of the skin. Evaporation of
sweat from the skin serves to cool the body and maintain equilibrium. However, there are
instances where the sweating response is inadequate to cool the body temperature and the
internal heat build up can cause a variety of heat related disorders.
Heat Symptoms
Disorders
Heat Rash Itching skin, skin eruptions, reduced sweating; generally caused by prolonged
sweating and inadequate skin cleaning or changing of sweat soaked clothing
Heat Cramps Painful abdominal muscles cramps or cramps in tired muscles causing
incapacitating muscle pain; generally originates from prolonged sweating without
replenishing the fluid or salt loss
Heat Brief blackouts or near fainting behaviour; often caused by pooling of blood in the
Syncope and legs or skin from standing or sitting in one position for too long in a warm
Dehydration environment.
Heat Often demonstrated with severe weakness, fatigue, dizziness and headache. There
Exhaustion may be a high pulse rate coupled with perfuse sweating, pale face although the
body temperature is normal or slightly increased.
Heat Stroke The most serious heat-related disorder and a risk of death. Heat stroke is
evidenced by chills irritability, restlessness, a red face, disorientation, erratic
behaviour, shivering, convulsions, unconsciousness and a body temperature that
may reach 40ºC (104º F).
Assessment of Environmental Temperature
Perhaps the most well-known index of environmental heat is called The Wet Bulb Globe
Temperature (WBGT) and is used widely to evaluate industrial heat stress. In an indoor
environment, the equation is as follows:
WBGTin = 0.7 Tnwb + 0.3 Tg
Where: Tnwb is the natural wet bulb temperature. The natural wet bulb temperature is a
measurement of temperature that takes into account the impact of both humidity
and air movement.

Tg is the globe temperature. The globe temperature is a measurement of radiant

heat from surrounding processes and equipment and convective heat exchange
with the ambient air.
Outdoors when there is no cloud and clear sunlight, the equation is as follows:
WBGTout = 0.7 Tnwb + 0.2 Tg + 0.1Tdb
Where: Tdb is the direct measure of the air temperature.
There are several electronic direct readout devices that can be used to measure WBGT.
However, it must be noted that WBGT is only an index of the heat in the environment. The
demands of the work (light, moderate or heavy), the acclimatization of the worker and the
clothing worn must all be taken into consideration to determine if a worker may become heat
stressed.
ACGIH in the TLV booklet describes a series of charts and decision trees that help the
occupational hygienist determine the risk of heat stress in specific work situations.
Heat Risk Control Methods

Heat control methods refer to the various techniques used to manage and mitigate the effects
of high temperatures in the workplace. There are three main categories of heat control
methods: engineering controls, administrative and work practice controls, and the prevention of
heat stress injuries.
1. Engineering controls involve the use of physical or mechanical systems to reduce

exposure to heat. Examples of engineering controls include air conditioning, ventilation
systems, and fans.
2. Administrative and work practice controls involve changes to work practices and
procedures to reduce exposure to heat. Examples of administrative and work practice
controls include providing regular rest breaks, rotating workers to less physically
demanding tasks, and adjusting work schedules to avoid working during the hottest parts
of the day.
3. The prevention of heat stress injuries involves a combination of education and training,
monitoring of workers' health and symptoms, and prompt medical treatment of heat-
related illnesses. Workers should be trained to recognize the symptoms of heat stress
and to take appropriate measures to prevent it, such as drinking enough fluids and
taking regular rest breaks. Employers should also provide adequate supplies of drinking
water and shade, and monitor the physical condition of workers to ensure they are not
suffering from heat stress.

In conclusion, the best approach to heat control is a combination of engineering controls,

administrative and work practice controls, and the prevention of heat stress injuries. By using
these methods together, employers can create a safer and more comfortable working
environment for their employees during hot weather conditions.
Cold Stress
The body’s reaction to cold is quite different to its reaction to heat. Sweating and acclimatization
to heat are crucial during heat stress exposures but cold stress motivates the body to conserve
heat by reducing blood circulation through the skin. This measure reduces the amount of heat
loss from the blood through the skin surface.
A second response of the body is shivering which increases the rate at which the body utilizes
its food to generate heat. Excessive cold stress and cold related disorders:
Cold Symptoms
Disorders
Raynaud’s Raynaud’s syndrome is caused by exposure to cold and vibration. Classically, the
Disorder fingers will blanch and become stiff. Intermittent with the blanching there may be
tingling and reddening.
Chilblain Chilblains are often found on the feet and they are usually caused by inadequate
protection against cold and dampness. Areas of the feet and toes may swell, suffer
spasms and have local itching with painful inflammation.
Trenchfoot Trenchfoot is a similar condition to frostbite and is caused by exposure to cold
(above freezing) and damp. Trenchfoot results in swollen areas, severe pain,
blisters, tingling and itching.
Frostbite Frostbite is generally caused by exposure to cold below freezing. The skin may
appear white-grey or yellow to blue and black. Blisters may appear along with a
burning sensation, numbness and tingling.
Hypothermia Hypothermia can be caused by excessive exposure to cold. There may be signs of
slurred speech, shivering, a slow weak pulse, unconsciousness, chills, fatigue or
drowsiness and a body temperature of 35ºC (95ºF).
There are two principle factors that determine loss of heat from the person to the environment,
namely the air temperature and the air speed. A wind chill index describes the combined cooling
effect of air temperature and wind velocity. Generally speaking, sophisticated monitoring
equipment is not needed to determine a risk of cold stress. A simple dry bulb temperature
measurement, an estimate of the air speed combined with the subjective responses of workers,
are sufficient for recognition of cold stress in the workplace. More details of control measures
recommended to prevent cold stress can be found in the ACGIH TLV booklet.
Cold Stress Risk Control Methods

Cold control methods refer to the various techniques used to manage and mitigate the effects of
low temperatures in the workplace. There are three main categories of cold control methods:

engineering controls, administrative and work practice controls, and the prevention of cold
stress injuries.
1. Engineering controls involve the use of physical or mechanical systems to increase
exposure to heat. Examples of engineering controls include heating systems, insulation,
and weather stripping.
2. Administrative and work practice controls involve changes to work practices and
procedures to reduce exposure to cold temperatures. Examples of administrative and
work practice controls include providing warm clothing and equipment, rotating workers
to less physically demanding tasks, and adjusting work schedules to avoid working
during the coldest parts of the day.
3. The prevention of cold stress injuries involves a combination of education and training,
monitoring of workers' health and symptoms, and prompt medical treatment of cold-
related illnesses. Workers should be trained to recognize the symptoms of cold stress
and to take appropriate measures to prevent it, such as wearing appropriate clothing and
taking regular rest breaks. Employers should also provide adequate heating, provide
warm shelters or break areas, and monitor the physical condition of workers to ensure
they are not suffering from cold stress.
In conclusion, the best approach to cold control is a combination of engineering controls,
administrative and work practice controls, and the prevention of cold stress injuries. By using
these methods together, employers can create a safer and more comfortable working
environment for their employees during cold weather conditions.
Biological Hazards
The rapid rise of biotechnology and its application in industry has brought prominence to
biological hazards in the workplace. The genetic modifications of crops, bacteria and animal
cells have raised public and workplace concerns about unforeseen dangers in the rapidly
developing genetic technology. The sudden appearance of life threatening conditions such as
legionnaire's disease (caused by the bacteria Legionella) and Sudden Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) (thought to be caused by a coronavirus) have also heightened public fears
about disease transmissions within the workplace.
However other types of biohazards have been with us for many years and are common in
agriculture, clinical laboratories, food processing and health care industries. Indeed some
occupations are known to have a high risk for certain biologically induced diseases.
Biologically Induced Diseases
Brucellosis, Q Fever, Laboratory workers, research workers, animal care takers, dish
Hepatitis, Typhoid Fever, washers, janitors and maintenance personnel for laboratories.
Tularemia, Tuberculosis
(infectious microbial
agents)
Histoplasmosis Farmers and horticultural workers
(fungal disease)

Toxoplasmosis, Food and grain handlers, farmers and labourers

Echinococcosis
(parasitic diseases)
Anthrax, Tularemia Animal product processors, those working with hides and those
skinning animals
Erysipelas Fish, shellfish, meat, or poultry processing.
Psittacosis (parrot Pet shop owners, poultry processing workers and farmers.
disease) (Chlamydia
psittaci)
Rocky Mountain Spotted Forestry workers
Fever, Lyme Disease
Molds (aspergillus Office workers, health care workers, post-operative patients,
versicolour, stachybotrys agriculture workers
chartrum)
Exposures to Biological Agents

Biological agents are unique and the method to evaluate exposure to them differs fundamentally
from that used for chemical or physical hazards. Air sampling, for example, is not typically used
to evaluate biological exposures (an exception would be sampling for airborne spores of mold).
More often, clinical specimens may be taken from workers who are showing disease symptoms
and then compared with wipes of bulk samples taken from the workplace and assessed for the
presence of disease containing organisms.
Also, because of the ubiquitous nature of molds and microbes, the wearing of personal
protective equipment is critical to exposure control. Unlike the situation with chemical and
physical hazards, PPE is not considered as the last resort for protection against biological
hazards. Allergenic or infectious biological materials also differ from chemical and physical
hazards in the following ways:
• there is no known threshold for exposure (although many in public health field believe a
threshold exists). Theoretically a single microbial organism can replicate in an infected
host and cause disease
• the idea of an occupational exposure limit for a biological agent is not appropriate. Molds
and microbes are found throughout the environment and it is not simply the dose
received that makes them hazardous
• unlike chemical or physical agents, biological agents can be rendered inactive by the
hosts immune system
Biological agents share with chemical and physical agents the need for a pathway from the
agent to the worker before any ill health is possible:
Mold, microbe, parasite→ source where the organism lives and reproduces→ escapes from
source and transmission→ entry into worker.

If any points in this chain are interrupted, then disease is not a possibility. Further, even if a host
is infected, disease is not an automatic consequence. The immune system may prevent the
disease.
Biosafety Management
For workplaces where there is a known and identifiable biosafety hazard (such as research
laboratories, health care institutes, clinical testing laboratories) the main purpose of a safety
management program is two-fold:
• containment of the infectious organism

• prevention of infection
The amount of containment required depends on the biological organism. Biological hazard is
described in four degrees of severity known as the biosafety level (BSL).
Agents designated as BSL1 are low risk and not known to cause disease in healthy adult
humans.
BSL2 agents can cause human disease that could be quite serious but preventive and
therapeutic measures are available. Examples would include the bacteria legionella,
staphylococcus aureus, streptococcus and salmonella; examples of virus would be Hepatitis A,
B, C, D and E, and rabies; fungal agents include cladosporium; and parasites for example
giardia and trichinella.
Work with BSL2 agents should involve access control, biohazard signs, possibly medical
surveillance, specific PPE and the use of special disinfecting or autoclaving procedures for
waste and equipment decontamination.
BSL3 agents are infectious by aerosol transmission. They are known to be serious or lethal to
humans and preventive measures or therapeutic treatment may be available. Examples include
HIV, rabies, yellow fever virus and tuberculosis. BSL3 containment requires specially designed
facilities, stringent procedures and special containment equipment. BSL3 agents may pose a
high individual risk but low community risk.
BSL4 organisms are dangerous posing a high risk of life threatening disease for which
preventive and therapeutic measures are not available. Examples would include ebola virus,
lassa fever virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus. BSL4 laboratories are very rare and are
generally constructed for government or military applications.
Biosafety Level Requirement
1. Biosafety Level I (BSL-1): The requirements for BSL-1 facilities include basic laboratory
practices, such as wearing gloves and avoiding ingestion or inhalation of materials.
Access to the laboratory is unrestricted, and there are no additional physical
containment requirements.
2. Biosafety Level II (BSL-2): In addition to the requirements of BSL-1, BSL-2 facilities
require the use of a biosafety cabinet for handling potentially infectious materials, the

use of gowns, masks, and eye protection, and the implementation of decontamination
procedures. Access to the laboratory is restricted, and there may be additional physical
containment requirements, such as locked doors or secure entryways.
3. Biosafety Level III (BSL-3): In addition to the requirements of BSL-2, BSL-3 facilities
require a secure laboratory facility with specialized safety equipment, such as a positive
pressure suit, and strict decontamination procedures. Access to the laboratory is highly
restricted, and there are additional physical containment requirements, such as secure
entryways, negative pressure rooms, and specialized ventilation systems.
4. Biosafety Level IV (BSL-4): In addition to the requirements of BSL-3, BSL-4 facilities
require a highly secure laboratory facility with specialized safety equipment, such as a
positive pressure suit, and strict decontamination procedures. Access to the laboratory is
extremely restricted, and there are additional physical containment requirements, such
as multiple secure entryways, specialized ventilation systems, and a high level of control
over movement and access within the laboratory.
The principal means of containment of biohazards is through biosafety cabinets. There are
several classes of these and their features and applications are below:
Selection and Classification of Biological Safety Cabinets
NSF Class Min. Intake Origin of HEPA Downflow Exhaust Contamination Application
(ft/min) Air Treatment Ducts/Plenums
Class I 75 None. Similar to lab fume HEPA to + or – pressure BSL1, BSL2,
hood with filtered exhaust. outside or BSL3
containment
Class II 75 From common plenum 70% + or – pressure Low to
Type A recirculation moderate risk
within the biological
cabinet, 30% agents, BSL1,
exhausted to BSL2, BSL3.
lab through
HEPA
Class II 100 From separate plenum of 50-70% - pressure Low to
Type B1 uncontaminated exhausted to moderate risk
recirculated inflow air. outside biological
through agents. BSL1,
HEPA BSL2, BSL3.
filter and Minute or
dedicated trace amounts
duct. of toxic
chemicals and
radionuclides

Class II 100 From lab air or outside air 100% - pressure Low to
Type B2 exhaust to moderate risk
outside biological
through agents. BSL1,
HEPA; no BSL2, BSL3
recirculation toxic
within cabinet chemicals and
radionuclides.
Class II 100 From common problem 70% - pressure Low to
Type B3 recirculated moderate risk
(similar to air is biological
Type A) exhausted to agents,
outside minute or
through trace amounts
HEPA filters. of toxic
chemicals and
radionuclides,
BSL1, BSL2,
BSL3.
Class III n/a Hermetically sealed glovebox enclosure for confining High risk
extremely hazardous materials. Used only in maximum agents, BSL4
containment laboratories.
Mold
The subject of mold as a biological hazard deserves more specific mention since its prominence
has risen in recent years. In particular, mold has become a concern in considerations of indoor
air quality. For many years, molds have been recognized as potential workplace hazards. For
example, workers involved in demolition and construction operations have become ill after
exposure to mold growing on excrement from pigeons or bats that occupied disused buildings.
Also, in heavy machine industries, mold growth in machine cutting fluids has been known to
cause problems.
However, in the Western economy, there has been huge growth in knowledge-based industries
and an expansion in office type work. It is in respect to indoor air quality problems in offices that
mold has gained its new prominence. It has been discovered that spores produced by mold can
cause respiratory problems such as runny nose, coughing and congestion. Occasionally, skin
and eye irritation have also been observed. People with hay fever and allergies seem
particularly susceptible to exposure to mold spores.
Mold lung infections have also been reported during building during renovations in hospitals,
schools and older portable buildings. Mold in the workplace has been indicated as a factor in the
following conditions:
1. Infection. Infectious lung diseases have been noted in people with reduced immune
systems such as hospital patients. Lung infections have also occurred in workers
completing demolition in old buildings with extensive bird droppings (Histoplasma
capsulatum).

2. Poisoning. Molds can produce poisons known as mycotoxins. Mycotoxins can cause
fevers, nose bleeds, sore throats, headaches, and general fatigue. Sometimes the
condition is known as an organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS) and can be caused by a
single high exposure.
3. Allergy sensitivity. People with allergies often show reactions to mold spores including
sore throats, cough, runny noses and eye irritations.
Investigations into the presence of mold in buildings has found that health symptoms are often
associated with the presence of the mold Stachybotrus chartrum. Lung infections on the other
hand, particularly those noted in hospital patients, have been associated with presence of
Aspergillus versicolor. Various species of aspergillus have also been noted in agricultural
workers where the disease is sometimes called “farmer’s lung.”
The most common symptoms of mold exposure, in the average office, seem to be allergies and
sensitivities. For the vast majority of healthy workers in an office building, mold exposure is
unlikely to cause any problem. Molds are found everywhere, indoors and outdoors, and there
are approximately 100, 000 different types of them. We are exposed to airborne molds on a
daily basis in our homes, in the open air and at work.
Measuring Mold
Mold can be measured as an airborne particulate using the equipment and techniques very
similar or identical to those used for measuring chemical particles. The types of mold present
can be identified by taking wipe samples of surfaces. Wipe samples do not generally help in
determining how much mold is in room air.
Standards for Mold
Measurements of mold concentrations DO NOT involve straight forward interpretation or cross-
referencing with known standards. There are no TLVs or permissible exposure limits for mold.
So, when interpreting results of mold sampling, we must adopt a common sense approach as
follows:
• Any mold species found in indoor air should not be at a greater concentration than the
same mold species found in outdoor air
• If a mold species is at a higher level indoors than outdoors, there is a strong likelihood
that it is growing, reproducing and distributing its spores within the building.
• If the air sampling demonstrates a higher level of mold species indoors than outdoors,
then there must be rigorous investigation to locate the indoor source of mold. Unless, of
course, it is the middle of winter and the outdoors will generally have much lower levels
of mold because the snow, ice and extreme cold will limit mold growth and dispersal.
Mold Control Measures

Before mold can grow, it needs nutrient and moisture. Areas of moisture in walls, floors,
carpeting and ceilings are often key to locating a source of mold growth. Without moisture, the
mold cannot grow. Once mold has been detected, clean up generally takes four main phases
as follows:
1. The removal of contaminated materials taking care not to spread spores or dust.

2. Using trained workers wearing special PPE to do the clean up.

3. Decontaminating any air conditioning and heating systems.
4. Repairing and replacing damaged areas such as floor tiles, wallboards and so on.
The best strategy for avoiding mold problems in a building is to clean up water spills and leaks
as soon as possible.
Ergonomics
What is Ergonomics?
The International Ergonomics Association (IEA):
“Derived from the Greek ergon (work) and nomos (laws) to denote the science of work,
ergonomics is a systems-oriented discipline which now extends across all aspects of
human activity. Practicing ergonomists must have a broad understanding of the full
scope of the discipline. That is, ergonomics promotes a holistic approach in which
considerations of physical, cognitive, social, organizational, environmental and other
relevant factors are taken into account. Ergonomists often work in particular economic
sectors or application domains. Application domains are not mutually exclusive and they
evolve constantly; new ones are created and old ones take on new perspectives.”
Ergonomics should be an essential element of any work task. Whether you’re sitting at a desk,
working on an assembly line or taking care of patients in a medical environment, ergonomics
can impact your life. Good ergonomics is about making the workplace fit all workers and their
physical, cognitive and psychosocial needs, rather than the other way around i.e. making the
worker fit their workplace.
Ergonomics should be pro-active looking at designing, adapting and altering workplaces to
avoid injury and minimize any potential issues. Ergonomically designed workplaces have a

ripple effect, increasing job satisfaction, productivity and well-being, thereby helping to reduce
costs to the organization in the long run
Ergonomics Regulations, Guidelines, and Enforcement

Why are some governments legislating ergonomics?
Most jurisdictions initiate ergonomics legislation with the goal of preventing or reducing work-
related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). MSDs refer to the same group of injuries that result
from cumulative exposure to hazards that lead to wear and tear on the body’s tissues and
structures. The substantial impact of these injuries on the economy, as well as the impact on
individuals and their families, provides political impetus for action to prevent injuries.
Most Occupational Health and Safety regulations contain a “general duty” clause requiring
employers to correct any undue hazards or risks to workers. Some jurisdictions use the
“general duty” clause to enforce corrective measures related to musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs) in the workplace. However, the experience of regulators, employers, and labour groups
in some areas is that general duty clauses are not specific enough to be routinely used to
require action on ergonomics issues. Specific labour groups have strongly supported the
development of ergonomics regulations to reduce the pain and suffering of work-related MSDs
among their members and have worked collaboratively with employers and government to
prevent and reduce MSDs.
What are the international trends with ergonomics?

In many parts of the world, compliance with relevant standards is a mandatory requirement in
major contracts, but even when it is not, standards provide definitive and authoritative
statements of good practice. They require organisations to consider and meet the needs of their
people. They help organisations meet their legal requirements under disability and health and
safety legislation. In addition they promote consistency by providing a consistent reference
across design teams or across time. ISO 9241 (1, 2, 5, 6, 11,12,13, 14, 15, 16) “The
Ergonomics of Human-System Interaction” remains one of the most influential standards in
ergonomics across the world. This standard supports Human Computer Interaction (HCI) and
includes:
• Analysing and defining system requirements

• Designing user-system dialogues and interface navigation
• Designing or selecting displays
• Designing or selecting keyboards and other input devices
• Designing physical workplaces for users
• Supporting and training workers
• Designing jobs and tasks.
Certification of Ergonomists
In the United States, the Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics (BCPE) certifies
professionals designated as either CPE (Certified Professional Ergonomist) or CHFP
(Certified Human Factors Professional).

Ergonomics Cost-Benefit
Ergonomics is typically introduced in the workplace in response to one of three
scenarios: something urgent (e.g. accident/injury, legislative compliance), something old
(e.g. rising costs of work injuries, production/quality problems), or something new (e.g.
redesign of product/production, building addition, purchasing new equipment, new
hires).
By systematically considering the human component from the beginning of the design
process for a new product, process, or work area, the incremental costs are minimal and
there is good potential for an optimal match between the design and user/worker. If the
design is finalized before the human component is considered, then the solutions are
already limited and design changes are more costly. Fixing an existing
design/process/tool is typically very costly and at this point it may not be possible to
optimize the match between the design and the human.
The incremental cost of ergonomics is minimal with something new. This includes a wide
range of “new” ergonomics applications, including training new hires in methods that
minimize risk of injury, considering the user from the outset of new consumer product
design, purchasing new tools or equipment, or designing a new facility. There are
obvious benefits of being proactive rather than reactive in addressing ergonomics
issues.
Why Invest in Ergonomics?
Work that is well designed can impact both quality and productivity by minimizing
training time, reducing errors, reducing fatigue and reducing boredom. Workers may
also feel their skills and capabilities are used and valued and they will therefore work
more efficiently. Products that are well designed from the perspective of the end user
require little customer support and training and will be easier to use.
In the workplace, workers are no longer willing to accept stressful or unsafe working conditions
and are now backed by increasingly stringent legislation. Trade unions continue to educate
workers about ergonomics and many current collective agreements make specific reference to
ergonomics issues.
Cost of Ergonomics to Your Organization

It is often difficult for organizations to assess the impact of poor ergonomics on the bottom line.
Most workplaces feel the pressure to continue to reduce costs. Your organization is paying a
price for ignoring ergonomics – but can you track the costs in your own business or
department?
The costs associated with a lost-time injury tend to be most visible. The direct costs to your
organization in compensation costs, wage replacements, treatment costs, etc., can be
calculated relatively easily. Indirect costs are typically more difficult to measure, such as lost
productivity, loss of knowledge/skill, time to train replacement workers, accident investigation
time, case management time, etc. In the first few months of a lost-time injury, the indirect costs
of workplace injuries can be four to five times the direct costs depending on the sector of work.
Costs of an injury tend to be front end loaded, as this is when the majority of time/cost is spent

on investigations, worker retraining, case management, etc. A good reason to be proactive

rather than reactive in injury prevention initiatives!
Work-related Injuries
Injuries occur when the task demands exceed the capacity of the body tissues and structures.
When task or activity demands exceed an individual’s tissue tolerance, the resulting
symptoms can range from mild temporary discomfort to permanent disability. As you are
reading this, you might be able to identify specific areas where you have some mild
discomfort, but by stretching or moving your body you can make the symptoms go away.
This type of situation is not typically a concern in the workplace, as most individuals
have some ability to move and change postures.
The prior section on Ergonomics Regulations, Guidelines, and Enforcement strongly

reinforces that the significant majority of ergonomics initiatives focus on the goal of reducing
work-related injuries. For this reason, it is helpful to understand more about common work
injuries. Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are the general category of injuries most
commonly linked to ergonomics. Although workers compensation systems focus on work-
related injuries, all injuries, whether work-related or not, have the potential to impact workers
both on and off the job.
Symptom surveys (asking workers to self-identify symptoms) are used frequently to gauge the
degree of imbalance between work demands and worker capabilities. When workers are
surveyed, it is not uncommon for a significant number to report mild discomfort that lasts for
many hours or to note an area of moderate to severe discomfort that occurs near the end of
their work shift. Often, these symptoms will disappear by the next day and therefore go
unreported. If employees are encouraged to report their symptoms at this early stage, then
ergonomics interventions and/or medical treatment can often prevent these symptoms from
escalating. This presents a significant opportunity to reduce both the initial and long term costs
of injuries.
When the intensity changes from discomfort to pain, it may be more difficult for the tissues
to recover during the time away from work. If the imbalance leads to a loss of function, then
the outcome can progress beyond lost productivity to sick time, modified work, or not being
able to work at all. When the first signs of loss of function are identified early, effective
treatment, job modification, or modified duty can greatly increase the potential for full
recovery. Ignoring the loss of function may lead to permanent damage or disability.
Most musculoskeletal injuries are easily recognized as either acute (rapid onset) or cumulative.
Acute injuries typically involve a single point in time where the demands exceed the capacity of
the body. They often involve slips and falls, a single overexertion, or collisions with objects.
Workers describe acute injuries using words like hit, fell, popped, and sudden.
Cumulative Injuries
Cumulative injuries follow a slightly different path. Over an exposure period (i.e. minutes, hours,
weeks, or years), the injury threshold for the tissue(s) decreases. Even with recovery periods
away from the work demands, there is slow erosion in the tolerance of the tissues. The task

demands, which were within the worker capabilities, begin to exceed the tissue tolerance and
the tissue fails, resulting in an injury.
What are Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)?
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are painful or debilitating injuries that involve muscles,
tendons, ligaments, joints, nerves, blood vessels, cartilage, spinal discs, or related soft tissue.
Other names given to this general category of injuries include: musculoskeletal injuries (MSIs),
repetitive strain injuries (RSIs), occupational overuse syndrome (OOS), and cumulative trauma
disorders (CTDs).
The roles of the key parts of the musculoskeletal system are:
• Bones: bear the weight or loads

• Muscles: contract to create movement
• Tendons: connect muscles and bones
• Ligaments: connect bones to bones
• Cartilage: reduce friction and provide cushioning between bones
• Nerves: communicate between the brain and the musculoskeletal system
• Blood vessels: bring nutrients and remove waste products from the musculoskeletal
system.
Multiple risk factors in the work environment are found to cause or aggravate MSDs. MSDs
may result from a combination of repeated actions, overexertion, awkward postures,
compression, and/or vibration. Frequency, intensity, and duration increase the risk of injury as
do work tasks where multiple risk factors occur at the same time. The injuries can range from
mild periodic symptoms to severe chronic and disabling conditions. MSDs occur typically in soft
tissue and include muscle strains, tendon inflammation and nerve impingement. MSDs can be
caused or aggravated by work demands. MSDs cover a large number of different medical
diagnoses including carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, low back pain, tension neck syndrome,
epicondylitis, vibration white finger, sciatica, and tenosynovitis, to name a few.
Increasing force, the amount, type (static or dynamic) and rate of repetition, duration of the task,
vibration, impact loading and exposure to cold are the primary risk factors / hazards that can
increase the prevalence of injury. Contact forces where, for example, the heel of the hand is
used as a hammer or the soft tissue of the arm is compressed against the hard square edge of
a desk can also contribute to MSDs by reducing blood flow and mechanically damaging the
tissues. Stress, work organization, overtime or incentives, non-work activities, and even
smoking can also increase risk of injury. Biological factors may predispose an individual to an
MSD... Women tend to be more prone to soft tissue injuries, as are those individuals who have
had previous sprains or fractures/breaks especially with poor rehabilitation. Medical conditions,
such as diabetes can also increase the risk of an MSD due to typical symptoms of the condition
(i.e. poor circulation, swelling in joints, etc). Although physically demanding work has historically
had a higher prevalence of MSDs, there are an increasing number of injuries associated with
sedentary office jobs.
Physical Ergonomics
Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological,
and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. This discipline

includes research into working postures, material handling, repetitive movements,

workplace layout, and health and safety.
Anatomy is the discipline that focuses on body structures; anthropometry is the study of
human body measurements; physiology seeks to understand the functions of living
organisms; and biomechanics deals with the mechanical laws related to human
movement.
The match between physical work and human capacities must consider both the strength and
endurance requirements of the muscle, and aerobic capacity (ability of the heart and lungs to
circulate oxygen and fuel to the tissues). Training can increase strength, endurance, flexibility,
and aerobic capacity. When starting a new job, there may be significant fatigue and discomfort
after the first day. After even a week on the job, there can be an increase in strength, flexibility
and aerobic capacity. Unfortunately, periods away from work will just as quickly erode this job-
specific fitness. If a worker has been away from physically demanding work for an extended
period of time, then there may be value in easing into work for a few days to reduce the risk of
injury. Although older workers may not have the same physical capacity as a young worker, this
is typically offset by either job-specific fitness and/or knowledge of how to “work smart” to
reduce the physical demands of the job. Typically we look to workplace design and layout to
control the risk factors for work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), but individual
differences in technique can influence the impact of posture, force, duration (of both the task
and years of work), vibration, and repetition. Experienced workers often unconsciously learn
how to minimize the impact of these hazards.
Physiology
The human body is able to move because of the contraction of the muscles, which make up
about 40% of our total body weight. Muscles can shorten to about half their normal resting
length and in the process use energy and produce waste products and heat. During muscular
work, the blood flow to the muscle increases substantially to supply the increased demand for
glucose and oxygen. Heart rate and blood pressure increase and the blood vessels that supply
the muscles enlarge. The blood removes the waste products produced by the muscle
contraction.
In general, a muscle is strongest at the beginning of its contraction (or close to its relaxed
length) at about the midpoint of the joint range of motion. For example, the arm is typically
strongest with the elbow angle between 90 and 120 degrees. The maximum force a muscle (or
group of muscles) can exert depends on age, gender, body characteristics, physical condition,
and motivation. The strength distribution (normal curve) for women is about 2/3 of that for men,
although there are some stronger women and some weaker men. If work demands only a
small percentage of muscular strength, then it is possible to continue the work for a longer
period of time. If the work requires a high percentage of total muscle strength, then this task
can be performed for a shorter time.
There is a difference between using large muscles groups versus small muscle groups. Larger
muscle groups can exert and generate more force. For example, when using a hammer, the
handgrip surrounds the handle and the action of hammering involves the large muscles of the
forearm. This type of grip is known as a power grip, where the muscles of the forearm exert the
force. By contrast, a precision grip (e.g. used with a table knife, file, pencil, spoon, chopsticks,

etc.) allows for more precise and controlled movements; however, the smaller muscles involved
in this type of fine motor skill have less than a quarter of the strength generated by a power
grip. Smaller muscle groups can generate lower force levels compared to larger muscle groups
and will fatigue at a faster rate when performing similar tasks.
Biomechanics
The general field of biomechanics is defined as follows: Biomechanics uses laws of physics
and engineering concepts to describe motion undergone by the various body segments and the
forces acting on these body parts during normal activities.5 Biomechanics describes and
assesses human movement.
Biomechanics involves the mechanical laws related to the forces and moments operating on
the human. This knowledge is useful in understanding how to prevent MSDs. Some key
concepts in biomechanics involve levers, moment arms, and torques.
Occupational biomechanics is the discipline concerned with the mismatching of human physical
capabilities and performance requirements in industry. It can be defined as the study of the
physical interaction of workers with their tools, machines and materials so as to enhance the
workers performance while minimizing the risk of MSDs
Examples of ergonomic work that deals directly with biomechanics are the development and
design criteria for office seating, recommending allowable weights to be lifted and carried and
design guidelines for hand tools.
Musculoskeletal Disorder (MSD) Workplace Hazards
The first step in reducing MSD hazards is identifying them. There are physical, biological and
sociological factors that may impact whether a worker is susceptible to an MSD. These factors
are not independent of one another. Normally, risk factors / hazards on their own do not
significantly contribute to injury. However, when hazards are found in combination the potential
for injury typically increases.
Hazard vs. Level of Risk

A hazard in health and safety terms is defined as: a condition, practice or substance with the
potential for causing loss, injury or harm to life, health or property. This could apply to MSD risk
factors or hazards as well. A more common way to describe MSD hazards would be; a group
of factors that can either directly or indirectly influence the onset and/or course of an MSD. In
the workplace, they are factors at work that have an association to MSDs.
In ergonomic terminology, hazards are often referred to as risk factors. This terminology should
not be confused with the “level of risk”.
The level of risk of a hazard is something that is assigned to each hazard to help determine the
associated risk of injury. Once job hazards have been identified and information about each
hazard has been collected (i.e. frequency, duration) that information should be compared to
guidelines or industry standards to determine the risk level for injury. Although many hazards

may be present in a job, they can range from low to high risk depending on the level of
exposure and severity. For example, a job that requires reaching forward 15 inches to lift a 5 lb.
item once every 10 seconds will have a lower risk of injury when compared to a job that
requires reaching forward to 20 inches to lift a 15 lb object once every 10 seconds. Both have
hazards (i.e. force, repetition, awkward posture); however, the severity of the hazard will
determine the level of risk. Identifying hazards and determining risk can be a valuable tool
when determining which areas of a job should be modified first. Generally, the higher the level
of risk of any given hazard, the greater the risk of employee injury; therefore, the greater the
need for change or job modification.
The level of risk to an individual depends on how long the worker is exposed to risk factors,
how often they have been exposed (including number of years on the job), and the level of
exposure.
Physical Workplace Hazards
The most common physical hazards for musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) include:
• awkward postures
• static work
• repetition
• force
• vibration
• temperature extremes, and
• impact loading
Awkward Postures
Posture describes the positions of the body joints while performing a given task. A neutral
posture, or anatomical position, is defined as the alignment of the body when standing in a
relaxed upright posture with feet shoulder width apart and both arms hanging relaxed at your
sides. In this position, the neck, shoulders and wrists are at the mid-point of their range of
motion. This posture aligns the head and neck with the spine, the spine has a natural lumbar
curve, and the hands are in line with the forearms. Ideally, work is designed to allow workers to
maintain at least some aspects of this neutral posture. The most critical aspects are maintaining
the lumbar curve, a generally upright posture, and avoiding using the body joints at the
extremes of their range of motion.
Postures with the potential to cause MSDs are referred to as awkward postures. Awkward
postures are postures that are outside of neutral. The further away from neutral a posture is,
the higher the risk of injury. When in an awkward posture, gravity acts about a joint to create
joint moments of force, thus, leading to muscle loading or loading of other tissues, such as
tendons or supporting tissues and reduces the tolerance of the tissues. Extreme postures are
the highest risk, as they can stress joint components, occlude blood flow and require high
muscle forces to hold the limb or joint position.
In the workplace, commonly observed awkward postures include workers reaching for their
computer mouse when at a different height than their keyboard; an assembly line operator or a
grocery store cashier reaching down a conveyor belt to retrieve a product rather than waiting for
the product; and material handlers reaching to the back of skids to access boxes. All of these

awkward postures could be minimized or eliminated by a combination of proper workstation set

up and the use of proper work practices.
Static Work
Muscle effort can be classified as either static (related to maintaining postures) or dynamic
(involving movement). Static effort involves a prolonged contraction of muscles where the body
or a joint is held in one position for a period of time. We perform static efforts throughout the
day; several muscle groups are tensed while we support our body in the upright standing
posture. Prolonged standing in one place can result in muscular fatigue in the legs and back
and discomfort related to insufficient return of blood from the lower extremities to the heart.
Dynamic effort involves the joints moving and the muscles alternating contractions and
exertions, tension and relaxation. The muscles serve as a pump to increase the blood supply to
the muscles. With dynamic work, blood flow can increase by about 20 times over resting blood
flow.
Many work tasks involve a combination of static and dynamic work. With computer work, the
back, shoulders, neck and arms can be required to perform static work if they are not supported
or the workstation is not properly set up. The fingers perform dynamic work while typing. For
work tasks that involve both static and dynamic muscle effort, the static component is typically
the limiting factor. For example, it is seldom the digits of the fingers that fatigue or are
uncomfortable with computer work; it is more often our neck or shoulders that experience
discomfort from being held in one position for too long.
Under similar conditions, static work leads to a higher energy consumption, higher heart
rate, and requires longer recovery periods than dynamic work. In the workplace, static
work is most often required to maintain unnatural postures of the head, neck, back or
arms. For example, if a worker is constantly looking up at a display screen, this places
static loading on the neck musculature. The result of this static muscle effort is
restricted blood flow to the tissues. If the static effort continues, the lack of blood flow
can result in waste products (lactic acid) accumulating in the muscle and producing the
acute pain of muscular fatigue. Similarly, in an industrial setting, workers may have to
hold a tool with outstretched arms and exert a force. This static posture can become
extremely fatiguing and demanding on the neck, shoulders and lower arms.
Repetition
Repetition, as defined in terms of MSD risk, is the time variation of a musculoskeletal

load. The time variation can be reported on a wide range of scales from seconds to
daily rates. When reporting repetition levels, the body part, the cycle time and the
number of movements per unit time should be included.
Quantitatively, repetitiveness is defined as the frequency of actions or work activities.

Repetitiveness of a task is the cyclical use of the same tissue. Injury risk increases the
more repetitive the task. Questions about ‘what is too repetitive’ are often asked in the
workplace in attempt to minimize the risk of injury. This is not easy to define as each
muscle group can perform different amounts of repetition before increasing their injury
risk.

For example, the fingers can do more repetitive work than the neck or back before
fatigue or discomfort occurs. Repetitive actions in neutral postures are typically
considered lower risk compared to the combination of repetition with other factors such
as force or awkward postures. When these hazards are combined with repetition, injury
risk increases.
Therefore, when determining the level of risk associated with repetitive tasks; the task
duration, posture, and force application requirements all must be considered to get a
valid risk rating. Studying repetition on its own will not provide a valid assessment of
injury risk.
Force
Force refers to the magnitude and intensity of the load that a muscle or group of muscles
must exert in order to perform a job demand. Injury related to force can occur from a one-
time exertion that exceeds a tissue’s tolerance level, although more frequently MSDs
occur from moderate to high levels of force being applied to the same muscle group over
an extended period of time.
Examples of common workplace tasks that require force include lifting, lowering, carrying,
pushing and pulling tasks. Force on the upper limb results from tasks that require
gripping and handling. Wide grips, slippery surfaces, gripping with awkward postures,
gripping unstable objects and gripping while wearing improper fitting gloves can all
increase the internal grip force requirements, thus, increasing the risk of injury.
Force can be documented as an external load (i.e. Newtons or weight in kg/lb) or an

internal load or force on the body structure (i.e. proportion of an individual’s capacity).
When assessing impact of force in a task, force is usually measured as an external load.
These loads are compared to guidelines such as the NIOSH lifting guidelines, 1981, or
the Liberty Mutual/Snook Tables, 1978 & 1991, to determine if loads are within
acceptable ranges to minimize injury risk.
Body tissues experience mechanical stress not just from external forces, but also from the
effect of gravity on body segments. The body centre of gravity is the point from which the
weight of the body is considered to act. The relative position of the centre of gravity determines
the stability of the body. If the centre of gravity moves outside the base of support for the body
weight (feet), then it can be very difficult to recover balance. Football players, for example,
provide a wide base of support (wide separation of their feet) and bend their knees to lower
their centre of gravity. In this position, it is very difficult for an opposing player to knock them off
balance. Getting a wide base of support and lowering the centre of gravity is useful when
exerting a lot of force in tasks involving lifting, pushing, pulling etc.
The area of the back and spinal column that receives the most loading, and therefore the most
vulnerable to injury related to forceful exertions, is the lumbar area or low back. The specific
activities that appear to put this area at risk are: lifting, pulling, pushing, frequent bending and
twisting, static work postures, and seated work.
The direction that force is applied impacts injury risk.

When the load is kept close to the body, the mechanical advantage minimizes the muscle force
required to lift or carry the load. Also important is the direction of force exertion, as shown in the
figure above. Using both hands to push an object straight ahead of the body is much less
physically demanding than either pulling in the same position or pushing to the left or right. With
arm muscle strength, the angle between the upper and lower arm not only influences the forces
the muscle can exert, but also determines the twisting torques that can damage tissue. Lifting
below the knees or above the shoulders is significantly more demanding than lifts between
knee and shoulder height. Lifting in these ranges should be minimized whenever possible.
When a job requires a worker to bend over to lift something, it is important to maintain a neutral
spine posture to minimize loading on the back. The back is strongest in an upright, neutral
posture. Back strength can decrease significantly when the spine is fully flexed (i.e. curving the
back into a “C” shape).
Twisting of the spine and twisting torques also increase injury risk. A twisting torque is a
movement that exerts a twisting force on the low back (e.g. raising an axe overhead when
chopping wood). If this force is exerted while the torso is kept stable, this does not put undue
stress on the low back. The concern is when the torso is twisting at the same time as a twisting
torque is applied. This situation is common when workers are taking products from a conveyor
line and twisting to place them on a skid behind them. The momentum of the box being moved
from the conveyor to the skid creates a twisting torque and if the worker continues to face the
conveyor line and twists at the waist to set the product on the skid, then this combination puts
considerable stress on the spine. To avoid this situation, a better option is to move the skid
further from the conveyor to force the worker to move their feet and avoid the harmful stresses
on the low back. The concept of having the toes and nose face in the same direction may be a
useful way to help workers understand this concept.
Risk of back injury is also increased by the fluid that accumulates in the spinal discs when a
person lies down for an extended period of time, such as after a night’s sleep. Research
evidence supports that stress on the discs and ligaments are higher for an hour or two after
rising from bed. The increased fluid content causes the spine to be more resistant to bending.
When possible, minimize forward flexion and manual handling of heavy items when first getting
out of bed. This has implications for some occupations, such as firefighting, because workers
may be woken up to respond to a call, which may involve strenuous tasks that require bending
and spine flexion.
There is a similar concern with extended time spent seated (e.g. in a vehicle) followed
immediately by lifting activities that put stress on the lumbar spine. This is a common issue for
delivery drivers, who drive for a considerable distance and then manually unload heavy
products. It is useful to have good lumbar support in the vehicle and, if possible, spend some
time allowing the spine to adapt to a standing posture before unloading the cargo. Completing
paperwork before doing the unloading or taking a short break provides time for the tissues to
adjust before stressing the spine. The ideal recovery time is about 30 minutes.
Vibration
Exposure to whole body and hand-arm vibration has many effects on the body, including the
development of MSDs. The physical impact from vibration can stretch ligaments, reduce
muscle strength, and restrict blood flow. In hand-arm vibration (HAV), vibration alters the

sensation in the hand, which can lead to over-gripping to maintain control of the object. A
vibration reflex causes extra muscle activity that leads to higher muscle loads. The frequency
and amplitude of the vibration determines the more specific health effects, but mechanical
vibrations cause changes in the position of both limbs and internal organs. MSDs linked to
vibration are primarily osteoarthrosis of the joints. Strong vibration impairs visual perception,
mental processing, and skilled motor tasks, thereby increasing the risk of errors and accidents.
Vibration can also affect metabolism, circulation and respiration. There are guidelines and
standards available, which define limits for human exposure to vibration, such as the ISO
standards12. As with other risk factors for MSDs, the ideal is to either eliminate the vibration
totally or limit the transmission to the operator.
Hand-arm vibration typically occurs from the use of hand held tools (e.g. drills, sanders, chain
saws) where the vibration is translated from the tool to the hand and arm. Whole-body vibration
most often occurs from contact with a supporting surface (i.e. floor or seat). An example of
whole body vibration includes operating a forklift truck with minimal dampening solutions or
standing on a platform that is attached to a machine that vibrates.
Temperature
Temperature has an impact on the physical demands of work. There is an overall added
physiological load when the human body is exposed to either very warm or very cold
environments. With muscle contractions, there is a tendency to exert more force when muscles
are cold, which further reduces the blood flow to the tissues. This is why the concept of a warm-
up is so useful, prior to starting physically demanding activities.
Allowing workers time to acclimatize to these extreme hot or cold work environments reduces
the risk of work demands exceeding the workers’ capacities.
Education is critical so that workers exposed to extreme temperatures can recognize early
symptoms and take action before problems develop. As an example, workers need to be
specifically educated about the need to drink fluids in hot environments, even when they are not
feeling thirsty. Feeling thirsty or light headed/dizzy are typically early signs of the onset of
dehydration indicating that the body requires more fluid.
With significant muscle work, it can be a challenge for the body to excrete the heat generated in
the muscles. Problems occur if internal heat production exceeds the body’s ability to get rid of
the heat. Air temperature, humidity, radiant heat, air movement, body hydration, and clothing
can all affect this heat balance. Heat stroke is most common in the very young or elderly
people. With prompt first aid, there is typically full recovery in a relatively short period of time. .
The body’s normal response to cold temperatures is to tighten and reduce its ability to function
optimally. Cold muscles and joints do not have the same range of motion, coordination or
strength. Studies have shown reductions in maximum grip strength in the order of 13-18%
following immersion in cold water and nerve conduction is impaired when skin temperatures are
between 8-10ºC. Cold can affect tissues directly or indirectly from wearing personal protective
equipment, such as gloves. Gloves have been shown to increase the musculoskeletal load
required to perform a task due to the fact that hand grip forces increase in the range of 7-28%,
depending on the type and fit of the gloves.

Workers in office environments may experience the effects of cold on their neck and shoulder
regions from air vents blowing towards their workstations. In meat processing, workers are
exposed to cold in combination with repetitive knife use, for example, which increases the
challenges of the job.
Mechanical Stress and Impact Loading

Mechanical stress and impact loading can result from contact with the external environment
that leads to loading on the musculoskeletal system. When there is contact between a body
part and an external object, mechanical stress on the tissues should be considered. Local
stress on skin can cause damage to underlying structures such as nerves, and blood vessels.
Pressure or pinch points on the sides of fingers are often seen from scissor use. Local stress
on the elbow and forearm commonly results from supporting the body weight on work surfaces.
The ulnar nerve can be compressed in the palm of the hand from pliers and other tools that
cause pressure points in the hand.
Large impact loads such as using the hand as a tool can cause vascular damage. When trying
to stop objects or resist a force such as kickback or torque from nut drivers or screw drivers, the
muscles contract by lengthening, which leads to high potential for muscular damage.
Biological and Sociological Factors

Physical factors are often the focus of ergonomic initiatives in the workplace, as they are the
factors that can most easily be minimized, reduced or eliminated. Biological and sociological
factors are often not addressed as they can become challenging and often political to deal with.
The following are some of the biological and sociological factors that could impact injury risk.
Biological factors may include:

• Age
• Size
• Gender
• Illness or disability
• Previous injuries
• Physical fitness and health levels
Sociological factors may include:

• Perception of workload
• Relationships with co-workers
• Relationship with Supervisor
• Work culture
• Ability to handle stress
Identifying MSD Risk Factors in the Workplace

1) Physical demands of work activities, including:
• force required
• repetition
• duration
• work postures

• local contact stresses
2) Aspects of the layout and condition of the workplace or workstation, including:

• working reaches
• working heights
• seating
• floor surfaces
3) Characteristics of objects handled, including:

• size and shape
• load condition and weight distribution
• container, tool and equipment handles
• the environmental conditions, including cold temperature
4) Characteristics of the organization of work:

• work-recovery cycles
• task variability
• work rate
Cognitive Ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory,
reasoning, and motor response, as these affect interactions between people and other
elements of a system. This field of research looks at mental workload, decision-making, skilled
performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, training, and work stress. The
focus on this type of work resulted from development of the silicon chip and the resulting work
on computer based systems. As more people began working on computer systems, the way
they thought and conceptualized became important to reduce operator frustration and stress
and improve the overall system performance. This section summarizes some of the important
aspects to consider in cognitive ergonomics.
Vision
Vision handles approximately 85% of our information input, although with computer work vision
accounts for 100%. Due to the way the eyes work, it is only possible to focus on a very small
area at a time, so the eyes must scan large chunks of data.
Over 50% of adults wear eyeglasses to correct the focus of the eye. For regular computer
users, bifocals and progressive lenses can result in awkward head and neck postures. Single
vision lenses, prescribed specifically for the visual distance to the computer screen, allow more
flexible work postures. Computer workstations should be set up so that the user sits in a
relaxed position with a neutral head and neck posture. For those who wear bifocals, the top of
the computer monitor should be slightly below their eye height to accommodate how they view
the screen through their lenses.
Visual discomfort and strain is common in computer users. Factors such as screen flicker,
bright light and reflective light on the computer screen, and poor readability have all been
related to visual discomfort. Recommendations for displays include: dark characters on light
backgrounds, no perceived flicker, characters with sharp edges, no reflections on the screen,
no direct light shining in an operator’s eyes and appropriate character size and type

With age, visual acuity drops along with the speed of focusing and the range over which the
eye can focus. Older adults are more sensitive to glare and also tend to need more ambient
light than their younger counterparts. Task lighting is the best way to deal with this need rather
than increasing overall lighting levels.
About 8% of males and 0.5% of females have anomalous colour vision. These people can see
in colour, but interpret colour differently than the rest of the population. Reds cause the most
problems, followed by greens; the biggest challenge is distinguishing greens from reds. In the
workplace it is important to use cues where several aspects of the design distinguish a critical
piece of information from others in the environment. Traffic lights are a good example of this
design principle, as the position, size, and sometimes even shape of each light is an indicator of
change, not just the colour.
If work involves visual inspection, then visual acuity and colour vision may be critical. Lighting,
and special purpose aids (e.g. use of shadows, background colour, filters, magnification,
grouping) can make it easier to see defects when doing visual inspection tasks.
Written Text
The use of upper and lower case text improves reading speed by about 13% over text written in
all capitals. Pay attention to highway exit signs and other street signs as you drive. When the
street names are written in upper and lower case, it is often possible to recognize the desired
street (e.g. Mississauga) by seeing the overall shape and pattern of the word, long before you
can see the individual letters. On paper, reading speed increases with the use of serif fonts for
chunks of text and sans serif fonts for labels and titles. Serifs are the slight projections finishing
off a stroke of a letter - … for example, “T” (Times New Roman) versus “T” (Arial font).
Commonly used serif fonts are Times New Roman (10 point) or Courier (10 point). The text of
this domain is written in 10 point Arial, which is a logical choice given this material will be
viewed online by many readers. For soft copy reading, sans serif fonts are usually more legible.
For hard copy reading, the preferred font size is typically nine or ten for students with older
adults prefering 11 or 12.
Readability varies with contrast, colour, font size, lighting, and other factors.
Left justified text (with ragged right margins) is also easier to read than fully justified text (where
each line fills the entire space between the two margins). All text in this domain is left justified
with the sole exception of this paragraph. Although computers permit a large selection of fonts,
font sizes, and different highlighting techniques, overuse of these effects can interfere with
reading. Colouring text can also reduce legibility. It is useful to first design things in black and
white and then judiciously add colour if it helps make it easier to do the job. Medical record filing
systems often use colour in this way.
With computer displays, moving objects attract attention. When this feature was first available,
many websites had continuously spinning and changing elements. Many of these features have
been eliminated as it became evident that these features distract visitors from their purpose of
reading the main content of the website.
Hearing
Hearing is the second most important source of incoming information. We can monitor sound
in the background without consciously attending to it. Auditory input is non-directional and it is

possible to isolate one sound from among a large number of other sounds. The click of a door
latch provides feedback that the door is closed, a feature that may command attention only
when the click is not heard. This kind of selective deafness allows us to ignore a boring
conversation going on all around us, but notice when someone offers dessert. Selective
monitoring of sound allows new mothers to sleep soundly despite a racket of general household
noise, yet immediately wake to the slightest noise made by the baby.
Noise has been described as any annoying or disturbing sound. Noise can result in impaired
alertness, disturbance of sleep and annoyance. Although noise has not typically been shown to
impair our ability to perform manual work, it can produce a vegetative effect on our internal
organs and make it difficult to concentrate and hear someone who is speaking. It has been
shown to interfere with complex mental activities. Field studies have shown that reductions in
noise can result in fewer errors, less rejected pieces and improvements in productivity.
Noise-induced hearing loss is considered the most prevalent irreversible industrial disease.
Hearing loss is relatively common and an increasing issue in the worker population. Strong and
repeated loud noises can lead to temporary hearing loss, but after being “deafened” repeatedly,
permanent damage can result. The relative arrival time of sounds at the two ears helps localize
where the sound is coming from, so hearing loss in one ear makes it difficult to know where
sounds are coming from. Hearing loss is also a significant concern with those workers who may
have spent much of their younger years plugged into some sort of auditory device emitting
music that is often above safe noise levels for industrial work environments.
Hearing protection in workplaces is required based on noise exposure levels over the working
day. The risk of damage to the auditory system increases both with the intensity of the sound
and the duration of exposure. It has been shown that periods of relative quiet can reduce the
risk of hearing damage (i.e. taking breaks away from noise exposure). Although hearing
protection limits exposure to loud noises, it can also make it difficult to communicate. If workers
wear hearing protection, then critical sounds like fire alarms must be loud enough to be
distinguished and supported by non-auditory cues like flashing lights. These redundant cues
(e.g. use of both an auditory and a visual alarm to signal the same critical situation) are also
useful if workers with hearing loss in one ear are expected to quickly identify the source of a
critical alarm.
Psychomotor skills
Psychomotor skills involve the action of a muscle as a direct result from a mental process. Light
assembly work involves this combination of muscle activity, skill, coordination, visual
perception, and hand-eye coordination. The task may involve not only the manipulation of parts,
but also the coordinated use of tools in the process.
The origin of human movement is in conscious mental activity. The link between the two has
been well researched over many decades. Fitts’ Law6 is one of the landmark studies of
human movement that predicts the time it takes to move from a starting point to a final target
area. The kind of motion it describes is aimed and rapid. The time needed to reach a target
is a function of the distance to the target and the size of the target. Fitts’ law is used to model

the act of pointing, and applies both in the real world (pointing with a hand or finger) and on a
computer (with a mouse). Fitts’ Law also applies to eye movements.
In the work environment, there are few work tasks where Fitts’ Law does not apply. As an
example, calculator keyboard layouts can often be quite different and can result in
performance differences of 30-40%. One predictable feature across all designs is that the
‘Enter’ key is bigger than the rest, as on the computer keyboard. However, the size and
location of the function keys are critical in determining movement times and thus,
performance.
Fitts’ Law is also applicable to the use of the computer mouse. Using the mouse (the target)
requires moving one hand off the keyboard. For common actions involved in entering text, it
can take substantially less time to keep both hands on the keyboard and use keyboard
shortcuts to accomplish the task, rather than using the mouse. Utilizing keyboard shortcuts
can also promote more equal use of both hands, rather than increasing the workload for one
hand. When the mouse was first introduced, it was used to complete as many computer
operations as possible; even those that had been previously accomplished using keys on the
main keyboard. The number of musculoskeletal complaints associated with computer work
increased simultaneously. Computer users most often use their dominant hand to control the
mouse (the right hand for 90% of the population), which is typically already overused with
regular day-to-day activities.
Other applications of Fitts’ Law include the way that information is displayed for searching. A
vertical arrangement (like in the phone book), is substantially easier to search. With displays,
the corners and edges should be used for important information and the target size should be
larger. Newspapers recognize this and typically charge more for an ad in the corner than one
in the middle of the page. With pull down menus in software, putting the most frequently used
command at the top of the list limits the distance that both the eye and cursor must travel. In a
large organization where large numbers of people perform highly repetitive tasks thousands
of times in a day, it may be possible to cost justify custom design of software to substantially
decrease the time to complete the task (and also reduce errors). Data entry forms should
have visible space and boundaries for the information fields and the fields should be aligned
so the eye doesn’t have to constantly jump.
Combinations of nerve and muscle activations (motor patterns) are learned and can become
automatic as with walking or riding a bike. The same is true in the workplace. Practice does
not necessarily make a task perfect, but it can make it permanent. Certain patterns that are
repeated over and over become automatic and, as a result, can be very difficult to change.
For example, if a worker has always lifted heavy objects using improper posture, it is very
difficult to change this movement pattern. In the workplace, newly hired workers, with no prior
motor patterns for specific work tasks, need to start off by learning work methods that
minimize physical demands and risk of injury. With practice, experienced workers can learn
new motor patterns, like lightly contracting the supporting muscles of the spine prior to a
heavy lift, or keeping the lumbar spine in a neutral position. Workers returning from a work
injury are often highly motivated to relearn work methods that reduce their risk of re-injury.

Information Processing
The more complicated a task is, the longer it takes to mentally process. For example, it
takes significantly less time to sort a deck of cards into two piles (red and black), than it
does to sort the deck by suit (four choices). The speed of processing information can be
affected by attention and motivation. In the workplace, this concept can be applied by
removing unnecessary complexity from tasks. In many instances, it was not a conscious
decision to build unnecessary complexity into job demands, but rather jobs just evolved
that way. If the complexity is unnecessary, then this can have enormous implications on
productivity. In some instances, however, adding complexity can improve the job by
reducing worker boredom and monotony.
There is a limit to the number of “things” that can simultaneously demand our attention.
This is one of the arguments used in some jurisdictions that have banned cell phone use
while driving. Although the hands free phone decreases the physical demands of the
task, the competing attention demands of the driving and phone conversation put drivers
at risk.
Short Term Memory (STM)
A classic study by Miller7 demonstrated that short term memory (STM) has a very limited span
and is susceptible to interference. Miller determined a limit of 7 plus/minus 2 for STM. This
indicates that we can deal with five digit numbers without difficulty, but by 9 digits, STM is
overloaded. For example, Social insurance numbers have 9 digits (987876654) and users will
have difficulty keeping them in STM without error. Thus, this number cannot be taken over the
telephone and entered into a computer without a high probability of error. There are two specific
ways we can assist short-term memory (STM). One is chunking, where the social insurance
number becomes 987-876-654. Children learn the alphabet by chunking into “abcd efg hijk
lmnop qrs tuv w x y z.” The other way to assist STM is to provide frequent closure, as when the
listener nods in conversation to indicate they have understood the message so far.
Long Term Memory (LTM)
There is no limit to the capacity of long-term memory (LTM), although we often have trouble
retrieving the information. If we rehearse long enough, information transfers into long-term
memory. The objective of learning and training is to have information transfer into LTM. Things
that influence the ease of the transfer into LTM include characteristics of the learning design
such as associations, concrete examples, etc. Designers can make learning easier by avoiding
abstract and obscure terms and commands.
There are two ways of retrieving information from long term memory (LTM) - recall and
recognition. Recall is our active vocabulary; typically 2,000 to 3,000 words that we actively use
in our daily activities. Our passive vocabulary of words that can be recognized probably
stretches to 10,000 words. Recall is helped by having material with good organization,
association, and a suitable framework.
If you were asked to make a list of all the people in your workplace, you would recall the
names. In order to recall the names, there must be an initial learning effort where you learned

the names. If you have learned everyone’s name and can organize the list by department, or
mentally walk through the building, listing people as you pass them, etc., then this process can
be relatively fast. Another example is learning keyboard shortcuts for frequent tasks to quickly
retrieve information using recall when required.
The other way to retrieve information from long term memory (LTM) is recognition. If you hadn’t
made the effort to learn the names of every employee in the workplace, you might still be able
to come up with an accurate list by scanning a potential list of names. Although this activity is
easier, it is generally much slower than recall. The task will be easier if the list is formatted so
you can scan down the list (and not across – Fitts’ Law), or put text in alphabetical order.
A challenge with computer software and cell phones is that the number of features has
exploded, and has potentially made it more difficult to do basic tasks. Tasks become more
difficult when our mental model of how the software works, for example, is not compatible with
the way the software engineer has designed it. Humans filter everything through our own
mental models of how the world should work, and when products do not behave as we think
they should, frustration results. Consider this example: in North America, we expect that when
the light switch is up the light is on. However, in Europe, the population stereotype is the
opposite; the light is off when the switch is in the down position. It can be confusing until you
realize that the mental model we use at home does not always apply elsewhere.
Human Error or Poor Design?
Worker performance is shaped by systematic factors that relate back to underlying human
characteristics. Individual differences are a big part of this. Human performance research has a
long history of investigating the factors that lead people to wrongly assess situations and/or
take wrong actions. Experts in this area can often predict both the types of misinterpretations or
errors that are likely to occur and specific ways to design and organize work so that these
errors are minimized. Good design results from systematically considering the human
characteristics that contribute to performance.
Unfortunately, this highly relevant discipline is misaligned by the popular belief that human error
is the cause of accidents, injuries, or other problems. In reality, human error is a symptom,
rather than the cause of the problem. The challenge is to look beyond the human and
understand the root cause. Highly complex systems, like those involved in the tragic events at
Three Mile Island or the Bhopal chemical plant, are not so easy to understand or predict. One
isolated human error did not result in these catastrophic failures.
Early on there was a recurring problem with bank machines. Users took their money and left
their bank cards in the machine. Popular wisdom labeled the problem as human error: users
should pay attention, not be so stupid to leave their card behind, etc. If human errors are
typically symptoms rather than root causes, then what was the real issue? Some basic human
characteristics were overlooked when designing the machine. Users focused on the desired
outcome, which was getting cash to put in their wallets. Although many people carry their bank
cards in their wallets, once the money was put away, the tendency was to rush off to the next
task. Current bank machine designs require you to physically remove your card from the
machine before any cash is dispensed.

Was it human error or poor design? Many aspects of our designed environment do not consider
our basic human characteristics and end up making us feel stupid (e.g. not knowing whether to
push or pull on doors to open them)8.This further perpetuates the myth that it is our mistakes
and/or stupidity that cause problems, not poor design.
Organizational Ergonomics
Organizational ergonomics looks at how to use organizational structures, policies, and
processes to optimize the match between people and their work environment. This
includes issues such as communications, work design, teamwork, design of working
times, quality, new work methods (telework, virtual organizations), and participatory
design. Another phrase commonly used to describe this field is organizational design and
management (ODAM).
How work is organized has a significant impact on how easy it is to do the job. If, for
example, the worker is well rested, well trained, and their skills are valued and
appreciated, the outcome of their workday will be much different than a coworker who is
sleep deprived, bored, and poorly trained and supported. The impact will be evident in
personal wellbeing and health, safety, productivity, and quality.
In most workplaces, organizational systems have evolved historically, often without

systematic consideration of the potential impacts on both workers and the organization.
This presents a tremendous opportunity to reexamine some of the organizational
practices and implement changes that result in positive outcomes for both workers and
employers.
In general, organizations do not understand or track the impact of organizational

structures, policies, and processes on the work environment as a whole. Consistent with
the ergonomics process, it is critical to monitor the impact of organizational change to
ensure that the intended overall benefit is being realized. Some organizations have
chronic cycles of absenteeism, overtime, and quality problems that go unrecognized.
Knowing the patterns can help identify where organizational changes can be
implemented to break these negative cycles.
Organizational influences can shape human performance and thus, injuries, errors, and
productivity. Changes can be made to job demands (e.g. workload, variety, work
pressures, cognitive demands) in order to address specific mismatches between workers
and their jobs. It is also helpful to look at the content of jobs (repetitiveness, challenge, skill
utilization, and skill development) to see if there are opportunities for improvement.
Training
Effective training addresses key issues that are relevant to the work environment and has
the outcome of influencing worker behaviour. Classroom training may not be the most
effective way for all workers to learn. The most effective programs typically use multiple
approaches, including formal training, reinforcement on the job, and other organizational
supports, such as supervision, processes, procedures, learning aids, and refresher
training. This also supports the individual differences in the way people learn, and the

reality that most people require consistent support and reinforcement in order to change
behaviours.
Job Control
Job control (including control over the task, decisions, organization, physical environment,
resources, work pacing, and skill usage and development) is clearly linked as a risk factor in
developing work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).
Lack of job control can be a major source of stress at work. Social interactions and support
from colleagues and supervisors (including dealing with complaints, praise, monitoring, etc.) will
have a positive impact on both individuals and their organizations. Uncertainty about roles and
role conflicts are not uncommon in the workplace, with conflicting statements like “safety is top
priority but these items must go out today”. When there are goal conflicts like this, people are
set up for predictable human errors. Concerns about future or potential job loss and technology
issues, including computer problems and performance monitoring, also have an impact.
Given the major influence that stress can have on workers and organizations, there is
obvious value in organizing work to reduce negative stresses and balance work
demands with worker capabilities. Research shows that this approach can reduce MSDs
and increase productivity. If workers feel their skills are recognized, well matched to their
jobs, and valued, then there can be a tremendous positive impact on worker wellbeing
and morale, which benefits both workers and employers.
An overriding organizational issue is management style and degree of worker participation.

Effective leadership includes managing teamwork and group dynamics, problem-solving and
decision making, involving workers, introducing change, and communication. Organizational
issues can make or break a promising ergonomics initiative or any other workplace change.
Hours of Work
Key decisions made at an organizational level involve hours of work such as length of work
shift, start times, shift work, rotation schedule, overtime, and scheduling of breaks. All of these
factors can have a significant impact on worker health, morale, errors, and the risk of work-
related injuries. Although there is some conflicting research evidence on all of these topics, it is
clear that each of these factors can have positive and/or negative impacts, depending on how
they are implemented.
More organizations are changing their hours of work to accommodate continuous operations,
which is resulting in more shift work and overtime. Asking workers their opinions about shift
work and/or overtime typically results in two opposing views. Some workers oppose shift work
and overtime because of the impact on their health and social life. Others see certain
advantages in being able to plan their leisure time and/or increase their income. Workers are
often willing to overlook short-term health effects for other benefits.
In general, over half of all shift workers experience some negative health effects. Disturbed
sleep patterns often result in chronic sleep deprivation. Most human body functions fluctuate
according to a 24-hour cycle known as the circadian rhythm. The body functions that are most
linked to this cycle are sleep and readiness for work. Both the body and mind are designed to

be active during the day and asleep at night. When work disrupts this pattern, it can affect both
health and performance.
There are clearly health impacts of sleep deprivation as well as potential changes in movement
and reaction times, and ability to process information. Older workers appear to have more
difficulty adapting to night work and also experience more difficulty with disturbed sleep
patterns when on rotating shifts. At the same time, experienced shift workers can develop
strategies that help offset the impact of shift work.
The effects of shift work on family and social life can also add stress. Employees working shift
work typically experience more difficulty maintaining a healthy lifestyle (good eating habits, non-
smoking, regular exercise), which puts them at greater risk for health issues such as chronic
fatigue, digestive troubles or heart disease. With the increasing use of 12-hour shifts, there is
growing concern about fatigue and safety, especially in jobs that are physically or mentally
demanding. Although some workers adapt to continuous night work, others may never be able
to adjust to this work schedule. The common estimate is that at least two out of ten people who
try permanent night work are unable to continue for either medical or social reasons (family,
friends). Where possible, continuous night work should be voluntary.
There is considerable research focused on trying to understand the impact of the length of the
work shift and the rotation cycle both on performance and long term health. To optimize hours,
the type of work and other organizational factors should be taken into consideration. With
physically demanding work, if the eight-hour shift increases to a 12-hour shift schedule, then
the overall level of aerobic requirements should be reduced to eliminate accumulated fatigue.
Supporting good health habits (e.g. nutrition, exercise) and scheduling effective work breaks
can also help reduce the impact of shift work. Considering cognitive ergonomics in the design
of jobs involving monitoring or vigilance can make it easier to do these jobs over extended
periods of time.
When making decisions around hours of work it is critical to carefully consider the latest
research evidence and potential impacts. Worker preference is not always consistent with what
is best for health and performance. As new information becomes available, it may lead to
significant improvements in the way we schedule work to optimize the balance between
production demands and worker capabilities.
Incentives
There are a wide variety of workplace initiatives designed to reward performance. Some link
compensation or bonuses (financial or time) to safety, attendance, individual performance, or
team or organizational results. Workers who finish the job quickly may be able to leave before
the end of their regularly scheduled workday. Others may have mandatory overtime that results
in good compensation. A concern with incentives is that they may encourage workers to take
shortcuts or work beyond their capabilities (both physical and cognitive). Early signs and
symptoms of injury can be ignored resulting in the injuries being more severe once they are
identified.
As with the other organizational ergonomics issues, there are no simple solutions that fit all
work environments, but workers and employers can both bear the health and performance
impacts. If there are incentives in place, it may be useful to see if there are patterns that link

factors like overtime hours with accidents, injuries, quality, or errors. These results can help
support management decisions that minimize any negative effects.
Job Rotation
Job rotation, team production, or job enlargement are often suggested as methods to reduce
the risk of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). This is intended to minimize the
physical impact on any one individual and also give workers the skills to do several tasks.
Research continues to show, however, that the most effective strategy to prevent MSDs is
using design to eliminate workplace MSD hazards.
Job rotation has both positive and negative outcomes for both workers and organizations. A
successful job rotation schedule should allow workers to rest certain muscle groups. If, for
example, there is a production line position that requires a high intensity of shoulder activity and
the worker rotates to another job that also demands high use of the shoulder, the intention to
reduce the risk of injury through job rotation has not been achieved. A more appropriate job
rotation schedule would allow the worker to rotate to a position that demands nominal shoulder
activity such that the shoulder muscles can rest and recover.
If a workplace is interested in implementing a job rotation, job sharing or job enlargement

program, it is advised that they review the physical and cognitive demands of the job tasks,
review the production and organization considerations and then outline the positive and
negative impacts of such an implementation, including the impact on injury risk.
Warm-up and Stretching Programs
By stretching the muscle effectively, tension can be minimized and joint range of motion and
blood flow to the muscle can be improved. By warming up cold muscles, you can “prepare
them for work”.
Although the implementation of on the job warm-up and stretching programs is somewhat
controversial, some research has shown benefits to in-house stretching and its ability to lower
work-related injury costs. When used as a component of an ongoing ergonomic initiative,
workplaces have seen reductions in injury costs and improvements to employees’ range of
motion, physical work habits and body awareness when working. To state that the warm-up
and/or stretching program worked independently of other factors is often hard to conclude and
this is one reason this research has been inconsistent. In many cases, workplaces state that
the overall wellness of their workers improved when they implemented a stretching program.
This result is likely not solely from of the physical act of stretching, but rather the combination of
this and employees feeling that “management cares about their wellbeing”.
Similar to the advice given above for implementing a job rotation, when an organization is
interested in developing a warm-up or stretching program for its workplace, it is advised
that they review the physical and cognitive demands of the job tasks, the production and
organization considerations and then outline the positive and negative impacts of such an
implementation, including the impact on injury risk.
Maintenance
Another organizational issue that can have a significant impact on work demands is the
condition of equipment and tools. For example, ambient lighting in a workplace that is

only cleaned once a year can make it harder for workers to do visual inspection tasks
effectively, as the lights get covered in dust and their illumination is reduced. Individuals
may experience eye strain, develop a more stooped posture in order to better see their
work tasks, and/or have difficulty assessing the expected quality standards. A regular
maintenance and replacement schedule can help avoid some of these problems.
Preventative maintenance programs should be in place to ensure that equipment
problems or other breakdowns are quickly addressed. For example, if a forklift or
mechanical lift breaks down in the warehouse, there should be contingency plans in
place that ensure workers are not manually handling objects that were intended to be
moved with mechanical assists.
The Ergonomics Process
There are different ways to apply ergonomics in the workplace, including adding MSD
hazard identification to the mandate of the health and safety committee, starting an
“ergonomics” team, training all employees in the basics of ergonomics, modifying
organizational processes to ensure the “human factor” is part of all decision-making
(e.g. design, production, purchasing, human resources, etc.), hiring an Ergonomist, or
using outside Ergonomic Consultants to design and implement ergonomics. The best
option is one that fits with the culture of the organization and has the support of both
management and workers.
Although the number, wording, and sequence of steps may differ, there are some
common elements in all occupational ergonomics processes. Medical management is a
common step in many models that focuses on reduction of workplace issues. The
systematic approach is not dependent on either the motivation (something urgent, new,
or old), or the focus (physical, cognitive, or organizational ergonomics).
The objective of any occupational ergonomics process is to eliminate hazards and

mismatches between people and their tasks and work environment. Where elimination
is not possible, the objective is to systematically control the hazards to minimize the risk
of injury and optimize the match between workers and their jobs. This process is
referred to by many organizations and Ergonomists as an “Ergonomic or
Musculoskeletal Disorder Prevention Program”. As it really is a continuous process, we
will be referring to the steps as a “process” in this document.
Identify a starting point and establish a foundation for success
The motivation to set up an ergonomic process in an organization may be an urgent
compliance issue (regarding health and safety or quality), something new (the decision to
purchase a new tool for a specific work task), or something old (ongoing productivity challenges
linked to injuries, absenteeism, or poor morale).
Key predictors of success for ergonomics initiatives include senior management commitment
and worker involvement in the process. The team approach is a common and highly effective
way to address ergonomics issues. It is ideal if there is a senior management “champion”
formally linked with the group. Potential team members might be worker or union
representatives, managers/supervisors, maintenance/facilities staff, health and safety
personnel, staff from purchasing, engineers, human resources specialists, health care
providers, and ergonomists. In a small workplace it might be a team of two or three people who

do the job. The ideal is a small effective team that has a common motivation to move forward to
address ergonomics in the workplace. The team needs a clear mandate in terms of both
responsibilities and authority.
Educate
It is important that those involved in implementing ergonomics initiatives begin with a common
understanding of key MSD hazards, impacts of the mismatch between workers and their
environment/tasks, and how to identify signs and symptoms of this mismatch. This education
should relate back to the initial starting point, which might identify a primary focus on
organizational, cognitive, or physical ergonomics issues.
At this stage it is important to become familiar with the ergonomic assessment tools that might
be most applicable. The Resource section at the end of this domain provides a few starting
points. It is useful to consult with your local regulatory body, industry associations, safety
organizations, Ergonomic Consultants and colleagues to get specific guidance on the
assessment and evaluation tools that would be most useful and usable.
Identify MSD Hazards

When identifying hazards, be sure to involve those who are doing the work. What is most
demanding, difficult, frequent, and costly? Observe the work and ask why things are done in
that specific way. Are there things that make the job more difficult sometimes? Do workers feel
discomfort at the end of the day? What is the most difficult part of the job for new workers to
learn? Are there common errors or quality problems that recur? Have there been accidents or
near misses? Where are the challenges with productivity?
Seek input from a range of perspectives, including worker/union representatives,

managers/supervisors, health and safety representatives, technical specialists,
maintenance/facilities, purchasing, worker/union representatives, designers, engineers, human
resources, etc. It is also important to involve an experienced Ergonomist or an individual
trained in ergonomics to assist with the hazard identification process. Ensure those who are
doing the hazard identification have been trained on what MSD hazards are and how to
properly identify them. The process will not be effective in reducing injuries if hazards that are
not really a concern are being identified or if significant hazards are being missed.
The challenge at this stage is to identify potential hazards (work actions, tasks, processes, jobs)
and their underlying risk factors. Is there other information you need to gather to better
understand the risks? Before spending resources to collect further information, be sure the
outcome will help better understand and therefore, address the specific ergonomics issues in
your workplace. For example, doing a job analysis or physical demands analysis of every job in
the organization can either be a nice paperwork exercise or a useful tool. There is no point in
collecting information that is not going to be used.
Ideally a company will develop an internal auditing program that allows for identification of
problem jobs within a work area. This could be completed based on injury statistics, worker
complaints, inability to retain staffing in a specific area or identification of high risk postures, or
forces within the work area. Ideally the identification should involve a level or prioritization in
order to prevent msd or ergonomics injuries.

Perform Risk Assessments

Assessing the risk of the hazards that have been identified and determining priorities for
ergonomic interventions is an important step. Any immediate hazards to health and safety are
obviously the top priority. Some ergonomic assessment tools may help you prioritize the issues
that are of greatest concern.
When analyzing MSD hazard trends it is useful to look for patterns. If numbers or descriptions
are represented in some sort of visual format, this may make it easier to see relationships that
were not evident when looking at numbers. Ideas include: plotting lost-time injuries against
overtime (that may not ever have been previously associated), looking at quality issues by
individual workstation, or using coloured dots on a floor plan to track the physical locations
where injuries are occurring.
It is important to collect numbers and other data in order to move beyond subjective “opinions”.
What does the accident/injury data show? Are there numbers on production, absenteeism,
turnover, training times, first aid visits, job analysis, or quality audits that highlight any potential
ergonomics concerns? Where are the greatest costs? What is the most challenging issue with
training? Does the data support the observations and subjective input? Numbers not only help
determine a starting point for an ergonomics intervention, but they also provide a baseline
against which to measure the impact of change.
The data collected and used in risk assessments can range from simple checklists to highly
sophisticated computer based models (Refer to Assessment Tools under the Applied
Ergonomics Section). The resources range from scientifically validated tools available in the
public domain that can be freely copied and reproduced, to proprietary materials that must be
purchased. Making use of tools that have been developed and rigorously evaluated through
research provides confidence that the results will be valid. On the other hand, when first getting
started it might be sufficient to either adopt existing tools or develop your own simple tools to
collect information. If an organization is taking the approach to develop their own assessment
tools, it is advisable that they seek the assistance of a Certified Ergonomist. In most situations it
may be best to use tools that are validated by research.
Investigate Controls
Development of solutions following reporting of an ergonomic injury should be based on injury
severity as well as worker exposure. Solutions should be pro-active in that they address current
and potential MSD injuries. Solutions should be implemented in a timely fashion. Solutions may
be:
• Engineering based controls

• Work practice controls or
• Personal protective equipment.
A multidisciplinary team can often come up with the most creative ways to reduce MSD
workplace hazards. Some of the people who provided input during the hazard identification
stage will have useful input about how to address the issues.

When addressing physical, cognitive, or organizational ergonomics issues, the ideal is to

change the design of work to completely eliminate the hazard or mismatch. This is most often
achieved by implementing “engineering” controls. Where this is not possible, the next option is
to attempt to limit the problem so that the impact on the worker is reduced. A final resort is to try
to use administrative controls to limit the exposure of workers.
Outside suppliers may be able to identify new options that were not previously available. Simple
tools like cardboard mockups can help identify potential problems that might otherwise be
overlooked when making physical changes to the work area. Communication is essential,
whether it be involving the worker in the process, teaching an employee about why and how to
adjust their chair, or systematically selling the benefits to all the workplace parties directly
involved. Tools such as link diagrams can help assess the options when trying to optimize the
layout of a work area.
After reviewing the options, it is necessary to narrow down the alternatives. By prioritizing the
controls, and evaluating which recommendations are going to have the biggest impact on injury
reduction or are the most feasible to implement, the list of options can be minimized. At this
stage, it may be necessary to consider resource limitations like budgets and timelines. The
creative alternative may end up taking priority over the ideal solution.
Linking the focus of your ergonomic improvements with existing business objectives can help
sell the initiatives to senior management. If ergonomics is new in your work environment, there
may be value in
“stacking the deck”, as initial success helps build support for continuing initiatives. If you start
by having significant impact with a highly visible, low cost change, then both workers and
management can visibly see and experience the benefits. This then builds internal commitment
to continuing with the process.
Implement Controls
Once controls have been decided upon, it is important that steps are taken to assign
responsibility and timelines for implementation. A schedule should be established to ensure
that the prevention program is moving forward and changes are occurring. This can occur
through health and safety or ergonomic committee meeting minutes or other tracking
documentation.
Experience shows that there is value in taking small, measurable steps. If the ergonomics
intervention does not have the intended impact, then there is an opportunity to learn from this
experience and try again, without having made a very costly error. (If large-scale
implementations don’t have the intended impact, then the response may be to end any future
involvement with ergonomics.) There is an obvious benefit if you can start with a particular
workstation where the worker is receptive to change and will help sell the initiative to
coworkers.
Often the best approach is a combination of engineering and administrative controls to

ensure that the change is implemented and adhered to in the way it was intended. For

example, if a workstation has been changed or modified to minimize a hazard, employees

should be educated on any new work procedures for the new set up.
Monitor Effectiveness
This is a critical step. Did the change have the intended impact of reducing the risks? A
powerful tool is simply taking digital photographs of work postures before and after physical
changes to the work area. Repeat some of the key measures that were used at the beginning
of the process. Does the data show any differences? Does the change impact current business
objectives and measures?
Other effective ways of determining the effectiveness of a control is to track injury, quality and
production statistics and data. Have injuries been reduced? Has production increased? Have
errors or defects been reduced? These are valuable pieces of information that, when obtained,
can support whether a change was a success or not. Employee feedback surveys are another
way to determine if interventions should be “tweaked” rather than starting over.
Even interventions that appear to be brilliant may fail because the workers were not part of the
process, supervisors didn’t buy into the change, and/or there wasn’t true support from upper
management. If the change did not address the issues, there is still an opportunity to learn from
the experience. The team should try to understand the underlying reasons for the change not
being effective. If you are certain you have identified and assessed hazards properly, then
return to Step 5 and continue in this short loop (Steps 5, 6, 7) until there is a positive impact.
When the intervention is successful, move on to Step 8.
Follow up on the successful intervention to see if there are ways to make ergonomics part of
other decision-making processes in the organization so that these same issues don’t come up
in future. What mechanism would ensure that the human factor is considered when purchasing
tools or equipment? If a quality problem with a supplier’s components were the issue, what can
be changed to ensure it doesn’t happen again? Is there value in documenting best work
practices for this task? Can engineering establish design specifications to ensure workers of
different body sizes are accommodated? Do human resource policies need to be modified?
Very seldom will one simple change optimize the match between workers and their tasks. In
order to match things on a physical, cognitive, and organizational ergonomics level, there are
typically a number of different initiatives needed to truly balance worker characteristics and job
demands.
Communicate
To assist with employee buy in and awareness, it is important to communicate ergonomic
changes and improvements to the workplace. Health and Safety boards, pre-shift meetings
and memos can all assist in ensuring that the workforce feels involved with any improvements
that may reduce MSD injuries. This process can reduce employee concerns and ease
resistance to change.
When changes to workstations, processes, layouts or workflow occur, documentation often

requires updating. Making employees aware that changes have been made to Standard Work
Instructions, Job Safety Analyses or other corporate reporting is essential to maintaining a safe
workplace, as well as an up-to-date program.

Expand on Success
Expand on small scale implementations and apply change(s) more widely in the workplace. Are
there other identical workstations or work tasks? Can this same training be given to newly hired
employees? Ensure that both management and workers are involved in the process and
understand the benefits of the impending changes.
Once you have completed the ergonomic process in one area or department, move on to the
next on your priority list.
Consider Effective Medical Management

All work-related injuries and illnesses should be assessed either on-site with medical team, or
offsite with an occupational healthcare provider.
In the event of a work-related injury or illness, the medical care provider/professional will:
• Provide diagnosis and establish treatment protocols for workers

• Determine if reported musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) signs or symptoms are work-
related
• Comply with Return-to-Work program by recommending restricted, modified, or
transitional work duties when appropriate
• Refer injured workers to clinical resources for therapy or rehabilitation
• Provide employer with timely work status reports
If the company has an Early Return-to-Work program and can offer return-to-work opportunities
to all injured employees in accordance with work restrictions identified by a recognized medical
provider.
Management Commitment to Ergonomic Programs

Management buy-in or acceptance of the value of an ergonomics program is vital to the
success of the program. There has to be belief in the program as well as fiscal responsibility to
ensure that the initial building of a program will succeed. Once the program is established,
management commitment remains vital to ensure adequate resources for as well as active
participation in both the Identification and Control of ergonomic risk factors.
Ideally, the Management would also support an effective ergonomics or msd reporting system
and have an effective mechanism for responding promptly to employee reports of discomfort.
Effective communication between the management and employees is
essential. Duties of management will include:
• Active support and participation in the Ergonomics Program including review of
workstation evaluations conducted in their departments and the implementation of
recommended control measures.
• Encourage active participation by employees including requests for assessments,
completion of self-assessment and follow-up assessments when required, ensure
attendance at required training and encourage participation in the development of
control measures.
• Ensure early reporting of symptoms is encouraged in their department and provide
a prompt response.

• Ensure the implementation of recommended control measures and develop a

system to monitor their effectiveness. (University of California)
Worker Involvement
Workers are the essential element to the success of the ergonomics program and should be
consulted for their input and assistance with identifying ergonomic risk factors, workstation
evaluations, development, and implementation of controls and training.
Every worker should be responsible for conducting himself/herself in accordance with

ergonomic programs or policies.
Duties of workers should include:
Use of the company’s internal ergonomics program to review work area upon hire and as
required (updates, after a workstation evaluation, relocation of workstation, etc.)
• Use the appropriate tools, equipment, parts, materials, and procedures in the manner
established by managers and supervisors and report when they are not in good
condition.
• Attend ergonomics training as required and apply the knowledge and skills acquired
to actual jobs, tasks, processes, and work activities
• Report musculoskeletal disorders (MSD’s) signs or symptoms and work-related
MSD hazards to his/her manager/supervisor as early as possible to facilitate proactive
interventions and/or prompt medical treatment.
• Take responsibility for his/her personal health and safety.
Assessment Tools
One of the most common challenges in the workplace is trying to define an acceptable
level of risk for an identified hazard. When attempting to understand the impact of MSD
hazards or prioritizing which hazards to control for first, it is important to use
assessment tools to help identify the level of injury potential associated with the hazard.
There is a wide array of ergonomic and MSD assessment tools, standards and guidelines
that can help determine if a hazard is a potential risk and to what degree. The arsenal of
assessment tools start with simple checklists that can be done in-house by employees
(such as Health & Safety committee members, Supervisors, etc.), to complex
biomechanical models and rating systems that require more training and may have to be
performed by an Ergonomist or other experienced professional. This document will
describe some general considerations when using assessment tools and identify some of
the more common ones used in the practice of ergonomics.
Qualitative Methods
Approaches to assessing jobs vary both in the degree of effort required and the training
needed. A qualitative method may involve having an experienced Ergonomist do a
walkthrough of the work environment and use their professional judgment and
experience to suggest areas of concern. Another commonly used qualitative tool is a
checklist which lists job risk factors (and perhaps the threshold level which would make
it a concern). These checklists guide the user in systematically observing jobs or tasks.
Although this approach still involves some judgment, the process is usually quite simple

and straightforward with a yes or no response. Checklists are widely available through
ergonomic texts, government organizations and safety groups (see Resource section).
Qualitative assessments can also help prioritize where to begin conducting more
detailed risk assessments. In addition, qualitative measures can serve as benchmarks
to measure the impact of ergonomics implementations.
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative assessment methods typically involve collecting objective data and then
doing some type of data analysis to come up with a result. These methods include the
NIOSH Revised Lifting Equation, heart rate assessments, and biomechanical analyses.
Typically, these tools and methods are used more often in research work, rather than by
practitioners in everyday work settings. There are many tools that are based on
compressive models of the spine and are often computerized to allow quick comparisons
with other assessment tools and thresholds. These tools can assess stresses on the low
back related to manual handling tasks, as well as repetitive tasks involving the upper
limbs.
Some other tools involve workers subjectively rating various physical and mental
demands of work. Two of the most widely used subjective rating scales for physical
demands in the workplace are the Borg scales of perceived exertion and perceived
discomfort. These are tools where individuals respond to questions about their jobs
using a pre-defined scale and method. Perceived exertion involves workers rating their
perception of the impact of physical exertion. Employees can similarly rate their level of
discomfort related to work. As with the NIOSH equation, the Borg scales must be used
in a very precise way if the results are to be valid.
Most assessment tools that are used in practice have both quantitative and qualitative
assessment components. Some of the more common assessment tools will be discussed later
in this section, including Liberty Mutual/Snook tables and postural assessments.
Physical Demands Analysis

There is a growing trend in the workplace to complete a Physical Demands Analysis or
Assessment (PDA) for each job. The terms Job Demands Analysis / Assessment (JDAs), and
Job Demands Description (JDD) are also common terms for this type of assessment.
The PDA is a detailed job description, which includes specific information about the physical
requirements of the job. A useful PDA will include duration and frequency information of
demands such as strength, mobility, dexterity and posture. PDAs should also document
characteristics of the work environment, tools and equipment used, the mental or cognitive
demands of the task, and relevant organizational factors. Weights, dimensions, distances,
ranges and frequencies should be measured using calibrated equipment, such as force gauges
and scales. This ensures a valid and reliable document that is more useful for return to work
and, if necessary, determining associations of work-relatedness of tasks.
The PDA can be a very useful tool if the information is organized, measured and collected
accurately. Unfortunately, many PDAs are completed and then left in a file drawer until the next
updating. PDAs can provide human resources personnel and potential job applicants with an

accurate and up-to-date description of the job demands. Some workplaces share the form with
Health Care Professionals involved in treating injured workers to help make informed decisions
about when and how a worker should return to work after an illness or injury.
The PDA can also be used as part of the supporting documentation to determine if the task
demands are an essential part of the job. This information can be used in accommodation
cases or for developing post offer pre-employment testing programs. The information from
PDAs can also help identify jobs or tasks that are a priority for ergonomics interventions (i.e.
where physical demands are documented as high, they can be assessed to determine if the
demands exceed the capabilities of the majority of workers).
Knowing the potential uses of a PDA can help determine the format of the information and how
it is collected. In order to be useful, they should be updated every time there is a substantial
change in the job. The process should ensure input from the workers who actually do the job,
as a short observation period can miss the most demanding aspects of the job that may be
done infrequently.
Anthropometrics
The variability of most human physical characteristics can be described by the normal curve
and percentiles (refer to Figure 9 for further information). Many years of research have resulted
in a better understanding of human physical characteristics, variability, limitations, and the
impact of training. Unfortunately, despite this history, much of this knowledge is not widely
applied to design. When work demands are not in balance with human capabilities, the risk of
injury increases, and both human and work systems have limited effectiveness and efficiency.
Daniels and Churchill’s classic anthropometric study from 19529 reinforces an important fact
about human characteristics. They measured 131 different body dimensions of 4,063 male
military personnel. From the list of the 131 different measurements taken, they selected the ten
measurements that were the most important in clothing design. For each of these ten body
measurements, they defined “average” as the middle 30 percent on the normal curve (i.e. 15
percentile values on either side of the mean or average).
This clearly demonstrates that having one “average” characteristic does not ensure other
characteristics will also be “average”. The data from this classic study were applied to develop
sizing for clothing design to accommodate the variety in both individual body dimensions and
the way they are combined.
Individual Differences
Consideration of individual differences is a key principle when applying ergonomics. Although
people have basic body parts and human characteristics, there is considerable variability
between parts and characteristics. The differences between individuals must be recognized and
accommodated in order to optimize the fit between people and their jobs.
Often overlooked are some of the key differences between people that relate to communication.
These differences have a significant impact on training, and health and safety issues. Verbal

and written instructions and forms (including accident and injury reports) are often a challenge
to interpret for those whose first language is not English. In many workplaces, supervisory staff
and workers speak different languages and have only limited understanding of another
language. Literacy is also a significant issue in the workplace. Studies show that one in five
high school graduates cannot read well enough to handle the challenges of everyday life. Using
plain and simple language helps. Word processing software not only can help by checking
spelling and grammar, but it can also evaluate the readability of text. This is a useful feature
when trying to change wording to make text easier to read.
Workers from different ethnic backgrounds may also have different experience related to work
ethics, reporting injuries, and personal responsibility for safety. Newly hired employees and
young workers are often uncomfortable about speaking up about safety issues or instructions
they do not understand. Given the variability in our workforce, it is difficult to assume that
exposing workers to a one-size-fits-all lecture on health and safety will result in everyone
understanding, retaining, and applying this new information on the job. Other critical individual
differences include vision, hearing, reaction times, threshold for tissue injury, and ability to
attend to multiple tasks. There are also gender differences that go beyond just physical size
and muscle strength.
Normal and Average

Most body dimensions and many other human characteristics fit within a normal (Gaussian)
distribution. If you measure one characteristic (e.g. mathematical skill, height, dexterity, reaction
times, response to monotonous tasks, arm strength, time to learn a new task) for a large
number of individuals, and plot the results on a graph, they typically fall into a pattern that looks
similar to the figure below.
Depending on the population and the characteristic measured, the curve may be taller, flatter,
wider, or narrower, but the basic “bell” shape remains the same. The curve is symmetrical
about the mid-point or average.
When data fits on a normal curve, the statistical standard deviations of the data are then used
to calculate percentiles. With reference to design, percentiles describe the percentage of the
population accommodated by specific design criteria. As the figure above demonstrates, the
percentiles are closer together in the centre of the distribution and further apart at the tails. The
average (shown by the dotted line that reaches to the peak of the curve) is also the 50th
percentile.
A common fallacy is that the workplace should be designed for the “average” worker. There are
no people who are “average” in most or all respects, so attempts to design for the “average”
end up fitting nobody very well. Designs must consider the variations, ranges, and
combinations of different human traits in order to make the workplace safe, effective, and
efficient. If fit is critical, it is necessary to design for the population on either side of the 50th
percentile.
Designing for the mythical “average” person (i.e. 50th percentile), would only accommodate half
of the population. Those taller than the average (50% of the population) would be at risk of
hitting their heads. A better approach is to design for the 95% height value (or if possible, the

99% height value) so most people would be able to walk upright through doorways without risk
of hitting their head.
Another practical design issue might be determining the position of an overhead control or
switch for an assembly line. If the position is determined by the arm reach of an average male
(i.e. 50th percentile), then smaller women might not be able to reach. In this instance, designing
for a 5th percentile (or ideally 1st percentile) woman would accommodate 95% (or 99%) of the
female worker population, and all men.
Other individual differences that would have to be considered would include the
potential for taller workers to bump into it and variations in hand size that might have an
impact on the design of the actual switch.
It is important to remember that not only are there variations within large populations, but there
are also variations within smaller subgroups, such as workers with short term or permanent
disabilities.
On average, women are smaller than men, except in hip measurements. As we age, we
actually get shorter, but also tend to be heavier. There are also ethnic differences in
body size. For example, the Asian population is smaller than the North American
population. When designing products or workplaces, it is critical to use valid
anthropometric data that represents the user population.
Body dimensions change over time within populations. Over the last 50 years the North
American population has averaged about one centimeter growth in height per decade.
The biggest change in recent years is the significant increase in body weight and
obesity of the North American population. As this trend is also linked to a decrease in
physical activity levels, there will have to be changes in the workplace to accommodate
change in body size and shape (e.g. workspace layout, sizing of personal protective
equipment) and decreased physical work capacity.
Workers are different sizes, and also different shapes (i.e. weight distribution). There
may be concerns raised about the physical limitations of pregnant women who may have
to work with arms extended as their protruding abdomen limits how close they can get to
their work.
The correct sizing of personal protective equipment (PPE) is critical if the PPE is to
protect the worker and not increase the risk of injury. Respiratory protection, hard hats,
and hand protection must be available in sizes that accommodate the variety in the
workforce. Workers who wear protective gloves that are too large can end up having to
exert considerably more force to grip a tool. This is a common problem for women with
small hands. The additional demands of gripping with a loose glove can tip the balance
and put the task demands above the threshold for injury.
Work posture is determined by the body dimensions of the individual and the physical
layout of the work area and work task. Not only do anthropometric measures vary, but
postures also vary. Designing around a fixed upright posture is not realistic. The human

body is meant to move and few people maintain a completely straight upright posture,
but rather tend to slouch somewhat and regularly change their posture.
There are detailed anthropometric tables available for specific populations that give
seated heights, arm lengths, eye heights, elbow heights, etc. A challenge is that good
anthropometric data is expensive to collect and historically many of the studies have
measured military populations. Companies may contract organizations to do large
studies to support their product design work, but this information is not available to the
public. It is important to be aware of the source of any anthropometric data in order to
assess whether it is directly applicable to the population in your workplace. For example,
data from military populations or young university students may not directly apply to a
mature workforce.
Many different sources have compiled design guidelines based on anthropometric data,
which can be found on websites, in ergonomics reference texts, and as part of many
software and CAD/CAM packages used in design. The underlying anthropometric data
should be relevant to your workplace. If, for example, your workers are predominantly
Asian women, then guidelines from a U.S. website based on a general adult population
may suggest a workspace layout that doesn’t allow the majority of your workers to reach
comfortably.
A general rule of thumb is to design so the smallest female can reach and the largest
male can fit. For example, with the design of a car seat, there must be enough
adjustability to allow the small woman to reach to the pedals and yet still allow the large
male to fit between the steering wheel and the seat. Ignoring differences in body size can
force workers into awkward postures and increase the physical demands of the task. The
fit of personal protective equipment and clothing is also critical as it impacts safety,
comfort, and the physical demands of work.
Working Heights
The height of the work surface is a critical component in determining the postural
demands of work. If the work surface is too low, then the head, neck and back are flexed,
and static muscle effort is required to maintain the position. If the work surface is too high,
then the upper arms are forced to extend away from the neutral posture. In general, it is
very physically demanding to work with the hands either below knee height or above
shoulder height. The body size of the worker and size of the objects being handled also
have an impact on the ideal work height.
Kroemer and Grandjean21 suggest some starting points for determining work height. For
light work where good vision is critical, the ideal work height will be between elbow and
shoulder height for the standing worker to reduce the stress on the neck. For the North
American population this is typically between 95105 cm for women and 100-110 cm for
men. Tasks involving light assembly work are ideally positioned closer to waist height
(between 85 and 90 cm for women and 90-95 cm for men). Heavy work involving force
exertion is typically easiest when the work height is below waist level (between 70-85 cm
for women and 75-90 cm for men).

Manual Handling Risk Assessments

Some of the more prevalent MSD hazards are overexertion type hazards related to manual
handing (i.e. lifting/lowering, pushing/pulling and carrying). The following is a list of tools
that can be used to assess manual handling demands/hazards:
• Biomechanical modeling (equation based often used in computer programs)
• 4D WATBAK (computer software)
• BakPak (computer software)
• NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health)
• Liberty Mutual Manual Material Handling (MMH) Tables (Snook Tables)
• Anthropometric data
• Manual Handling Assessment Charts
• Mital et.al Tables
• ACGIH Lifting TLV (American Conference of Industrial Hygienists)
Of these tools, the most practical and widely used in the workplace are the Liberty Mutual MMH
Tables (Snook tables).
Liberty Mutual Manual Material Handling (MMH) Tables

As mentioned previously, the most useful assessment tools are often a mix of qualitative and
quantitative methods. The Liberty Mutual (also commonly called the Snook) tables10 are an
example of this, involving some basic judgments and measurements in order to assess a
manual handling task. The tables are based on research done at the Liberty Mutual Research
Centre in the United States. Experienced industrial workers (accustomed to physical lifting
tasks) determined what combinations of load weights, load sizes, location of the task with
respect to their bodies, and frequencies of lifting/lowering, carrying, pushing/pulling they were
willing to do over the course of a whole work shift. Individuals tried various lifting tasks and
adjusted the weight upward or downward to a level where they could complete a set of lifts to
meet a set criteria (e.g. lifting once every two minutes throughout a workday). These
psychophysical studies combine the workers’ subjective physical and psychological perceptions
to define what is too hard, too easy, or just right. For a combination of job factors, the results for
lifting/lowering, carrying, pushing, and pulling are given as weights that a percentage of the
population finds acceptable. There are separate tables for men and women. The weight

threshold that is acceptable to 75 percent of women is often used when designing workplace
tasks as this accommodates most workers. If the weight is higher than this threshold, then there
is value in redesigning the task to reduce the physical demands.
NIOSH Lifting Equation

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) first published guidelines for
lifting in 1981 and then updated them in 1991. The NIOSH lifting equation can be used to
identify and classify some of the risks associated with a lifting task. The outcome is a
Recommended Weight Limit (RWL) which is a recommended weight/load that 75% of the
population of healthy workers can lift over a period of time (up to 8 hours). The NIOSH equation
also produces a Lifting Index (LI) which estimates the physical stress associated with a manual
lifting job. This can help establish priorities for ergonomics interventions. The Lifting Index has
also been expanded to encompass a Cumulative Lifting Index (CLI). The CLI allows for various
lifting tasks to be assessed in combination, which provides a more accurate risk rating for jobs
with a variety of lifting demands. The NIOSH Applications Manual for the Revised NIOSH
equation provides detailed guidelines for use and stresses that one-handed lifts are outside of
the intended use of the tool.
The NIOSH Lifting Equation is a widely used tool for assessing the physical demands of
manual lifting tasks in the workplace. The equation uses multiple components to estimate the
risk of injury associated with a particular lifting task and provides guidance on how to reduce
that risk.
1. Horizontal Component: This component considers the horizontal distance between the
load and the lifter, as well as the load's weight and the lifter's posture.
2. Horizontal Multiplier: This multiplier adjusts the horizontal component based on the type
of grip used to hold the load.
3. Vertical Component: This component considers the vertical distance between the load
and the lifter, as well as the load's weight and the lifter's posture.
4. Vertical Multiplier: This multiplier adjusts the vertical component based on the height of
the load relative to the lifter's waist.
5. Distance Component: This component considers the distance traveled by the load
during the lift, including any twisting or turning of the load.
6. Asymmetry Component: This component considers any asymmetry in the load, such as
an offset weight or an uneven distribution of weight.
7. Frequency Component: This component considers the frequency of the lifting task,
including the number of lifts per minute and the duration of the lifting task.
8. Lifting Duration: This component considers the duration of the lifting task, including any
rest periods.
9. Frequency Multiplier: This multiplier adjusts the frequency component based on the
number of lifts performed per minute.

10. Coupling Component: This component considers the degree of coupling between the
lifter and the load, including any twisting or turning of the load.
11. Coupling Multiplier: This multiplier adjusts the coupling component based on the type of
coupling used to hold the load.
12. Lifting Index: The Lifting Index is a numeric value that summarizes the physical
demands of the lifting task and can be used to assess the risk of injury associated with
that task. The lower the Lifting Index, the lower the risk of injury.
Here's a step-by-step example of how to use the NIOSH Lifting Equation to calculate the RWL
for a manual lifting task:
1. Determine the horizontal component (HC): HC = LC x HM Where LC is the load weight

(in pounds) and HM is the horizontal multiplier. The horizontal multiplier is based on the
type of grip used to hold the load, and ranges from 1 to 2.5.
2. Determine the vertical component (VC): VC = LC x VM Where VM is the vertical

multiplier. The vertical multiplier ranges from 1 to 2, and is based on the height of the
load relative to the lifter's waist.
3. Determine the distance component (DC): DC = DCM x LC x (DM + CF) Where DCM is
the distance component multiplier (ranges from 1 to 2), DM is the horizontal distance the
load is lifted (in inches), and CF is the coupling factor (ranges from 0 to 2).
4. Determine the asymmetry component (AC): AC = ACM x (LC x AS) Where ACM is the
asymmetry component multiplier (ranges from 1 to 2), and AS is the asymmetry factor
(ranges from 0 to 1).
5. Determine the frequency component (FC): FC = LC x (FM + FD x FT) Where FM is the

frequency multiplier (ranges from 1 to 2), FD is the duration of the lift (in minutes), and
FT is the frequency of the lift (in lifts per minute).
6. Sum the components to determine the RWL: RWL = LC x (HC + VC + DC + AC + FC)
This is a simplified example, and in practice, the calculations would be more complex, taking
into account additional factors such as the lifter's posture, the size and shape of the load, and
the work environment. The NIOSH Lifting Equation provides a comprehensive and systematic
method for evaluating the physical demands of manual lifting tasks and helps to reduce the risk
of injury in the workplace.
The NIOSH Lifting Equation is a guideline used to assess the physical demands of a lifting task
and to determine whether a lift can be performed safely, based on the worker's physical
capabilities. The equation takes into account multiple factors, including the weight of the load,
the distance it needs to be lifted, the frequency of the lift, and the presence of any awkward
postures or positions. The equation is a complex mathematical formula, so here is an example
of how it could be used in practice:

Suppose a worker needs to lift a 25-kg box from the floor to a height of 1.2 meters, and they will
be performing this lift 30 times per hour. The box will be lifted and placed on a shelf, so the
worker will need to lift the box to a height of 1.2 meters, then reach and place it on the shelf.
The first step is to calculate the horizontal component, which is the weight of the load multiplied
by the horizontal distance it needs to be lifted:
Horizontal Component = 25 kg * 1.2 m = 30 N
Next, the horizontal multiplier is calculated, which takes into account the frequency of the lift
and any awkward postures or positions:
Horizontal Multiplier = 1.3
The vertical component is calculated as the weight of the load multiplied by the vertical distance
it needs to be lifted:
Vertical Component = 25 kg * 1.2 m = 30 N
The vertical multiplier is calculated based on the vertical distance of the lift and the frequency of
the lift:
Vertical Multiplier = 1.1
The distance component is calculated as the distance the load needs to be lifted, multiplied by
the horizontal and vertical multipliers:
Distance Component = (1.2 m * 1.3) + (1.2 m * 1.1) = 2.76 m
The asymmetry component is calculated based on the weight distribution of the load and the
asymmetrical posture of the worker:
Asymmetry Component = 0.8
The frequency component is calculated as the number of lifts per hour, multiplied by the
frequency multiplier:
Frequency Component = 30 lifts/hour * 0.5 = 15
The final step is to calculate the Lifting Index, which is the sum of all the components:
Lifting Index = (30 N * 1.3) + (30 N * 1.1) + 2.76 m + 0.8 + 15 = 51.56
The Lifting Index should not exceed 51, so in this example, the worker would not be able to
perform this lift safely, according to the NIOSH Lifting Equation.
Postural Assessments
A variety of postural assessments are available depending on the type of work and the body
part being assessed. In general, postural assessments assess postures required to perform a
task. If awkward postures are extreme, static, repetitive, and/or require force or exertion to

maintain, injury risk increases accordingly. A number of these assessment tools group body
parts together (e.g. upper limbs) and provide an overall risk rating score. When assessing
postures it is important that the tool being used incorporates other physical hazards to ensure a
“true” rating score is obtained. Holding your arm up above your head is an extreme posture but
that alone does not classify the shoulder to be at a high risk for injury. Posture assessments
that also include repetition, force and duration will more accurately assess injury potential than
tools that do not assess the interaction affect of the hazards.
The following are a list of some posture assessments that have been developed and may be
used in research or in the workplace. Each of these tools will have benefits and limitations and
will be in different stages of being validated:
Upper limb risk assessments
• Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA)

• ANSI Postural Guideline (DRAFT) (American National Standards Institute)
• Strain Index
• ACGIH Hand Activity Level (HAL)
• Loading on the Upper Body Assessment (LUBA)
• Occupational Repetitive Actions Index (OCRA)
Whole body risk assessments
• Quick Exposure Checklist (QEC)

• Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA)
• ManTRA
• OWAS
Computer/Office Environments
A large percentage of our workforce performs sedentary work, which most often involves
computer related tasks. These types of tasks should not be regarded as being an area of low
risk. Static and stationary work puts the body under stressful conditions, especially when
prolonged. With developments in handheld and computer related technology, task variety has
become minimal and our bodies are being exposed to stress for longer continuous periods of
time. Our bodies were built to move. When we move we optimize circulation, heat generation
and metabolism. The reduction of physical movement at work has created an epidemic of
muscle atrophy, obesity and susceptibility to MSDs.
Workplaces should ensure they are setting up employee workstations and office environments
in accordance with office ergonomic guidelines.
Seating
Though research strongly indicates that efficiency and wellbeing are improved with good
ergonomic seating, we still see workers, who are usually on the computer for long periods of
time, using a thinly upholstered chair with little adjustment. This is a concern, as the longer an
individual sits, the more at risk they are to experiencing back discomfort, which is the most
severe problem associated with poor seating.

Awkward seating postures and poor seating can speed up the deterioration of spinal discs. As
we sit, the spine curves to accommodate a seated position. This curvature increases our
intervertebral disc pressure and stretches the lower back muscles (Erector Spinae). Increases
in disc pressure mean the discs are being overloaded and will wear out more quickly.
Stretching of muscles over prolonged durations can start to weaken the muscle fibers leading
to increased injury risk. By providing ergonomically approved seating, lower back injury risk
can be minimized.
It is a challenge selecting a good ergonomic workstation chair, as there are so many
makes, models and types on the market today. Chairs provide a variety (or lack thereof)
of adjustments with different operating mechanisms. There are currently no
manufacturing requirements standardizing the type, number or location of adjustments
on a chair. Buyers should beware and do their own research when purchasing a chair,
as many manufacturers claim that their models are “ergonomic”.
Due to the inconsistency and large number of adjustments on chairs, users sometimes
become desensitized to the need to adjust their chairs. Many employees who experience
chair-related MSDs (i.e. lower back discomfort, decreased lower limb circulation,
increased tension in shoulders/neck, etc.) do not know how to properly adjust their chair
to best fit their bodies. Many users do not even know how their chairs can be adjusted
or what the various levers and buttons do. Therefore, they miss the opportunity to use
the benefits of their chairs. Chairs are often been found with zip ties and packing
restraints still attached to the mechanisms, indicators that the chairs have never been
adjusted. Employers should ensure that workers know how to use and adjust their
chairs so they do not lose the value in the chairs they have purchased.
When selecting a workstation chair, workplaces should consider the following adjustments:
• Firm lumbar support to maintain lower lumbar curvature of the spine

• Height adjustable back rests to ensure that the lumbar support can be appropriately
positioned in the lower lumbar curve, thus, providing good support when seated
• An appropriately sized seat pan. Seat pans come in a variety of depths (often
small, medium or large) to provide an adequate amount of support under the legs
when seated. Seat pans should not contact the back of the knees, as employees
will more likely sit on the front edge of the chair, nor should they be too small, as
this can increase pressure in the lower back
• Height adjustability. Of all chair adjustments this is the most well known and used
mechanism; however, if the height adjustment does not have a range appropriate
for the user, awkward hip, knee and lower limb postures can occur.
• Height adjustable arm rests to provide arm support. The armrests should adjust
and allow for proper posture. Armrests that are too high or too far away can
contribute to neck and shoulder discomfort.
• Backrest recline. Studies have shown that by reclining the backrest to
approximately 110-120°, there is reduced pressure on the lumbar discs. Allowing
employees the option to recline their backrest while performing some non-computer
task can be beneficial.

• Seat pan tilt can often offer relief for those suffering from sciatica and provides an
alternative adjustment to alter body postures when sitting for prolonged amounts of
time.
• 5 caster base to ensure stability when moving.
Although an ideal workstation setup for computer users is illustrated in figure 12, it is
critical that workers do not stay in one position for long periods of time, but rather have
an opportunity to frequently move and change postures. In general, employees should
stand up for at least five minutes every hour. This helps alleviate accumulated fatigue
that results from static muscle effort and postures.
Display Screens
The most common display screen in an office is the computer monitor. Static awkward
neck postures (i.e. looking up or down) and poor visual acuity (i.e. VDT is too close or far
away) can often contribute to tension neck syndrome and eyestrain. As these disorders
often take months or even years to develop, identification of the problem can be
challenging. It is important that employees set up their computer monitors and any other
VDTs in the workplace properly. Leaning forward, craning of the head and difficulty
reading text are symptoms of improper setup.
Increasing visual display terminal (VDT) sizes (21+ inch screens) and decreased office
space results in an imbalance when attempting to ensure a correct monitor set up. The
top of the screen should be in line with the user’s eye height and the distance
approximately an arm’s length away. However, this changes if you use an oversized
monitor or wear bifocals. To ensure neck injury risk is minimized, the user’s head
should be upright when viewing a VDT (i.e. not looking up or down). There should also
be good contrast between the text and background to make it easy to read. Although it
is possible to have all sorts of exotic colours for text and background, colour can often
make it more difficult to view.
Eye strain is another common problem associated with VDT use. In an office
environment, eye strain is most commonly a result of inappropriate lighting and glare.
Ambient lighting that is too bright can lead to glare, or reflective lighting. To minimize
glare, display screens should be positioned perpendicular to the windows and between
rows of overhead lights. Ensure that computer screens are routinely cleaned as dust
and dirt can reduce clarity and increase eye strain. When involved in long periods of
intense computer work, there is a natural tendency to lean forward towards the screen,
putting static stress on the neck and shoulders, and also to blink less frequently. Office
workers often report irritated eyes at the end of the day, which can be a result of a
combination of dry indoor air, limited lubrication from blinking, and eye strain.
Keyboard / Mouse
The keyboard and mouse require repetitive hand, forearm and finger work. This
repetition can lead to discomfort and injury if there is poor match between the
keyboard/mouse and the user’s hand (i.e. a small mouse for a large hand) or if the
keyboard and mouse are not set up properly to promote neutral postures. The average
keying expectancy for an Office Administrator is approximately 65 words per minute,
with the average word being 4-5 letters long. This equates to 260-325 finger repetitions

per minute; a significant level that can pose problems if other factors are not ideal.
Although the majority of the workforce will find a standard mouse and keyboard
adequate for common use, the set up of these pieces becomes imperative to ensure
MSDs such as forearm tendonitis/tenosynovitis, carpal tunnel syndrome and
epicondylitis do not develop.
The keyboard and mouse should be thought of as a system. They should be positioned on
the same working surface to ensure that postures are neutral and relaxed. Height
adjustable equipment (i.e.
keyboard trays) may be required to ensure that all employees are able to achieve
proper body positioning.
For mouse use, keep the elbow close to the body. Most people mouse using their right hand.
When positioning the mouse on the right side of the keyboard challenges arise, as the mouse is
further away then desired due to the location of the number pad on this side of the keyboard.
There are now keyboards being made with removable number pads so that mouse can be
positioned closer. Most users can adapt to using the mouse with their non-dominant hand,
especially if the work does not require precise targeting with the mouse. Start out with a short
period every day and slowly increase the duration. Most users find they can become equally
adept with the non-dominant hand within a few weeks. If the majority of work is on the keyboard,
it is more efficient and less physically demanding to become familiar with the shortcut keys that
allow you to keep both hands on the keyboard.
There are many different options for keyboard and mousing equipment and although the
standard keyboard/mouse may work well for some of us when set up properly, there will be
exceptions to the rule and specialized equipment may be required. It is often best to consult a
professional prior to purchasing these specialty items to reduce increased costs from
unnecessary or ineffective purchase choices.
Work Organization
There is value in organizing work so that it is necessary to stand and move as part of routine
tasks (e.g. printing documents). Some individuals find the telephone a helpful cue and stand up
when they first answer the phone. This type of “micro-break” is very helpful in relieving
accumulated muscle fatigue. Others find it helpful to adjust their chairs when returning from a
break. If the phone is used for a significant part of the day, a headset avoids the static postures
associated with use of a telephone handset.
Laptops
The laptop, although portable and convenient, brings inconsistencies with the human-machine
interaction model. The increasing use of laptops presents a challenge, as the screen and
keyboard are attached and this restricts the work posture of the user. If using laptop for a full
day on a work surface meant for a desk top, the risk of musculoskeletal disorders is significantly
greater than when using a larger desktop monitor with a detached keyboard and mouse.
For workers who use a laptop as their primary computer, consideration should be given to
provision of a peripheral mouse and keyboard and use of a ‘clamshell’ laptop riser to achieve a
neutral working posture.

Software websites now suggest ways to optimize fonts for readability on laptops, as visual
fatigue can be an issue. Individuals with large hands end up adopting extreme wrist postures
because of the small keyboard size. The newer screens on laptops (“Brightvu”, etc.) create
issues with glare that the original LCD screens reduced.
Assessing a Computer Workstation

Using a standardized checklist will ensure that each workstation is assessed on the same
principles and that all pieces of equipment are reviewed. When performing an office
assessment, it is imperative to assess and alter each piece of equipment, as each piece ties in
with another (i.e. lowering the chair to support the feet may cause the monitor to be too high
and poor neck postures to occur). A workplace may choose to develop their own office
ergonomics checklist; however, generic checklists can easily be obtained
Role of an Ergonomist
Ergonomists focus on improving the match between workers and the workplace, relying on
ergonomic principles, knowledge and tools. The workers have capabilities, limitations and
needs that must be considered to minimize musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), incidents of
human error and their effects. All aspects of the workplace, including jobs, tasks, products,
systems, policies/procedures and training can benefit from implementing ergonomic initiatives.
Training and Education
Training and education is one of the key roles of an ergonomist in implementing an ergonomics
program. Each of the stakeholders must be aware of what the ergonomics program is being
established to accomplish and what it will not be used for. If any of the stakeholders feel that
the ergonomics program is not in their best interests, the process can stall. Ideally, a senior
manager will act as a champion for the process to ensure that staff and resources can be made
available as required.
Proactive Ergonomics
How an ergonomist approaches implementing ergonomics will depend on what phase a project
is in when they are consulted. The easiest and most cost effective stage to involve an
ergonomist is in the planning stage or the implementation stage (proactive ergonomics). The
ergonomist can work with engineering, designers (including architects), purchasing, health and
safety, management and maintenance to ensure equipment/tools, workstation setup and work
flow are most ideal for the workers to minimize MSD hazard exposure while maximizing
productivity, efficiency and quality.
Proactive ergonomics emphasizes the prevention of work related musculoskeletal disorders
through recognizing, anticipating and reducing risk factors in the planning stages of both work
and workplace design. The Ergonomist functions to ensure that proper selection and use of
tools, job methods, workstation layouts and materials will impose no undue stress and strain on
the majority of workers.
An Ergonomist’s training is perfectly suited to act in a consultative role between the parties
involved in the initial design process. With knowledge in the assessment of human skills and
limitations, the Ergonomist can work with Architects, Planners and Designers to facilitate a
‘Human-centred’ approach. The Ergonomist will take into consideration the impact that
workspace layout, tools, equipment and materials can or may have on workers.

Ergonomics can and should be an integral component of design. Knowledge of, for example,
the anthropometrics, functional working postures, and strength capacities have a huge impact
on the end user’s ability to work within a space, complete task demands and have a good
working relationship with a product.
Humans have a wide range of physical characteristics and design must reflect their
characteristics. In addition, design must reflect changes in demographics. The following
diagram taken from Allsteel’s ‘Ergonomics and Design: A Reference Guide’ depicts
anthropometrics for height across a North American population – the 99thile male to the 1st ile
female.
Design of a product should take into account all of the characteristics that will impact usability.
Ergonomists have a unique ability to be able to combine those characteristics and compare
them with the known standards for anthropometrics, postures, strengths etc. In addition, the
Ergonomist is able to effectively task analyse the product and ensure that
a. the product can be used as designed,

b. the product does not exceed the capacity of end users,
c. provide modification processes to fine-tune the product.
Employee substance abuse

Employee substance abuse is a major concern in the workplace as it can impact the health and
safety of employees, their coworkers, and the overall operations of the organization. Substance
abuse refers to the use of illegal drugs or the misuse of prescription or over-the-counter drugs.
To control substance abuse in the workplace, employers can implement a substance abuse
policy that outlines the consequences of drug and alcohol use and abuse, and establishes a
clear process for testing and treatment. This policy can include the following elements:
1. Drug and Alcohol Testing: Employers can conduct pre-employment drug tests and
periodic tests during employment to ensure that employees are not under the influence
of drugs or alcohol while on the job.
2. Employee Assistance Program: Employers can offer an Employee Assistance Program
(EAP) to provide support and resources to employees struggling with substance abuse.
The EAP can include counseling, rehabilitation, and support groups.
3. Training and Education: Employers can provide training and education on the dangers of
substance abuse and the importance of maintaining a drug-free workplace. This can
include seminars, workshops, and training sessions on substance abuse prevention.
4. Disciplinary Actions: Employers can establish clear disciplinary actions for employees
who violate the substance abuse policy, such as termination, suspension, or referral to a
treatment program.
In addition, employers can also support their employees by promoting a healthy work
environment, encouraging physical and mental wellness, and providing a safe and supportive
workplace culture.

The fundamentals of epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of how diseases and health conditions occur in populations and the
factors that influence their distribution. It is a fundamental aspect of public health and
occupational health and safety. In the context of safety, the fundamentals of epidemiology are
critical for understanding the risk factors that contribute to work-related illnesses and injuries.
Epidemiological studies can be observational or interventional, and they can involve various
types of study designs such as cohort studies, case-control studies, cross-sectional studies, and
randomized controlled trials. The goal of these studies is to identify risk factors for diseases and
conditions and to understand the natural history and causes of these diseases.
Examples of the application of epidemiology in the workplace include the study of the
relationship between exposure to hazardous chemicals and the development of chronic
diseases, such as cancer and respiratory illnesses. Epidemiology can also be used to study the
incidence and prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders, such as repetitive strain
injuries and back pain.
The use of epidemiology in the workplace can help to identify areas for intervention and to
prioritize resources for workplace health and safety programs. It is a valuable tool for developing
evidence-based policies and practices that can improve the health and well-being of workers.

Domain 7- Environmental Management Systems

Environmental Regulations
The United States has a complex system of environmental regulations designed to protect
human health and the environment. Here is an overview of some of the key environmental
regulations in the United States:
Clean Air Act:
This act, first passed in 1963 and amended several times, regulates air pollution from both
mobile and stationary sources. It sets standards for emissions from automobiles and industrial
facilities, and it gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to regulate and
enforce these standards.
1. Purpose: The Clean Air Act was enacted to protect public health and the environment
from the harmful effects of air pollution. It sets National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for six criteria pollutants (ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead), and it requires states to develop plans to attain
and maintain these standards.
2. Authority: The Clean Air Act gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the
authority to enforce the NAAQS and to regulate emissions from both mobile and
stationary sources. The EPA works with state and local agencies to implement the Clean
Air Act and to enforce the regulations.
3. Mobile Sources: The Clean Air Act regulates emissions from mobile sources, including
cars, trucks, and other vehicles. It requires vehicle manufacturers to reduce emissions
from vehicles, and it requires states to adopt inspection and maintenance programs to
ensure that vehicles are operating properly.
4. Stationary Sources: The Clean Air Act regulates emissions from stationary sources,
including industrial facilities and power plants. It requires facilities to obtain permits for
their emissions and to install control technologies to reduce emissions to levels that
protect public health and the environment.
5. New Source Review: The Clean Air Act requires facilities that are undergoing major
modifications or that are being built from scratch to undergo a New Source Review
(NSR) process. The NSR process ensures that new sources of air pollution will not
cause or contribute to violations of the NAAQS.
6. Enforcement: The Clean Air Act provides for civil and criminal enforcement of the
regulations, including fines, injunctions, and penalties. The EPA can also take action
against states that do not meet their obligations under the Clean Air Act.
7. Amendments: The Clean Air Act has been amended several times, most recently in
1990, to strengthen the regulations and to address new air pollution problems. The
amendments expanded the EPA's authority to regulate hazardous air pollutants and to
require the use of new technologies to reduce emissions.

Clean Water Act:

This act, first passed in 1972, regulates the discharge of pollutants into the nation's surface
waters, including lakes, rivers, streams, and wetlands. It sets water quality standards for all
contaminants in surface waters, and it gives the EPA the authority to enforce these standards.
1. Purpose: The Clean Water Act was enacted to restore and maintain the chemical,
physical, and biological integrity of the nation's surface waters. It sets water quality
standards for all contaminants in surface waters and sets limitations on the discharge of
pollutants into surface waters.
2. Authority: The Clean Water Act gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the
authority to regulate discharges of pollutants into the nation's surface waters. The EPA
works with state and local agencies to implement the Clean Water Act and to enforce the
regulations.
3. Permitting: The Clean Water Act requires facilities that discharge pollutants into surface
waters to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit.
The NPDES permit sets limitations on the discharge of pollutants and requires the facility
to implement best management practices to reduce pollutants.
4. Water Quality Standards: The Clean Water Act requires states to adopt water quality
standards for all contaminants in surface waters and to set limitations on the discharge
of pollutants into surface waters. The water quality standards must be protective of
public health and the environment.
5. Wetlands Protection: The Clean Water Act regulates the discharge of pollutants into
wetlands and sets limitations on the filling and dredging of wetlands. It requires a permit
for any activity that may result in the discharge of pollutants into wetlands or the filling or
dredging of wetlands.
6. Enforcement: The Clean Water Act provides for civil and criminal enforcement of the
regulations, including fines, injunctions, and penalties. The EPA can also take action
against states that do not meet their obligations under the Clean Water Act.
7. Amendments: The Clean Water Act has been amended several times, most recently in
1987, to strengthen the regulations and to address new water pollution problems. The
amendments expanded the EPA's authority to regulate stormwater runoff and to regulate
discharges from agricultural activities.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act:
This act, passed in 1976, regulates the management of hazardous and non-hazardous solid
waste. It sets standards for the treatment, storage, and disposal of solid waste, and it requires
facilities to manage their waste in a manner that protects human health and the environment.
1. Purpose: The RCRA was enacted to protect public health and the environment from the
harmful effects of solid waste management practices. It sets standards for the
management of hazardous and non-hazardous solid waste and requires the safe and
environmentally sound disposal of solid waste.

2. Authority: The RCRA gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to
regulate the management of solid waste. The EPA works with state and local agencies
to implement the RCRA and to enforce the regulations.
3. Hazardous Waste: The RCRA regulates the management of hazardous waste, including
the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. It
sets standards for the management of hazardous waste and requires facilities that
generate hazardous waste to obtain a permit for their waste management activities.
4. Solid Waste: The RCRA also regulates the management of non-hazardous solid waste,
including the disposal of solid waste in landfills and the management of municipal solid
waste. It sets standards for the management of solid waste and requires facilities that
manage solid waste to obtain a permit for their waste management activities.
5. Landfills: The RCRA regulates the design, construction, operation, and closure of
landfills that accept solid waste. It sets standards for the management of solid waste in
landfills and requires landfills to implement measures to protect public health and the
environment.
6. Enforcement: The RCRA provides for civil and criminal enforcement of the regulations,
including fines, injunctions, and penalties. The EPA can also take action against states
that do not meet their obligations under the RCRA.
7. Amendments: The RCRA has been amended several times, most recently in 1984, to
strengthen the regulations and to address new solid waste management problems. The
amendments expanded the EPA's authority to regulate the management of hazardous
waste and to require the safe and environmentally sound disposal of solid waste.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA):
This act, also known as the Superfund law, was passed in 1980 to address abandoned and
uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. It requires responsible parties to clean up these sites and it
establishes a trust fund to pay for cleanups where responsible parties cannot be found.
1. Purpose: CERCLA was enacted to address environmental contamination from
hazardous waste sites and to provide a mechanism for cleaning up these sites. It sets
standards for the cleanup of hazardous waste sites and provides funding for cleanup
activities.
2. Authority: CERCLA gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to
regulate the cleanup of hazardous waste sites. The EPA works with state and local
agencies to implement CERCLA and to enforce the regulations.
3. National Priorities List: CERCLA requires the EPA to maintain a National Priorities List
(NPL) of the most hazardous waste sites in the United States. The NPL serves as a
priority list for cleanup activities and provides the basis for EPA enforcement actions.
4. Liability: CERCLA imposes strict, joint, and several liability on the current and past
owners and operators of hazardous waste sites for the costs of cleanup. It also imposes
liability on the generators and transporters of hazardous waste for the costs of cleanup.
5. Cleanup: CERCLA requires the cleanup of hazardous waste sites to meet certain health
and environmental standards. The cleanup process may include the removal of

hazardous waste, the treatment of contaminated soil and groundwater, and the long-
term management of contaminated sites.
6. Funding: CERCLA provides funding for cleanup activities through a tax on the chemical
and petroleum industries. The funding is used to pay for the cleanup of hazardous waste
sites and to compensate individuals who have been injured by hazardous waste.
7. Enforcement: CERCLA provides for civil and criminal enforcement of the regulations,
and individuals who do not meet their obligations under CERCLA.
Toxic Substances Control Act:
This act, passed in 1976, gives the EPA the authority to regulate the production, import, use,
and disposal of chemicals and other toxic substances. It requires manufacturers to provide
information on the health and environmental effects of chemicals, and it gives the EPA the
authority to regulate chemicals that pose a risk to human health or the environment.
1. Purpose: TSCA was enacted to ensure that chemicals are used in a manner that
protects human health and the environment. The law requires that chemicals be tested
for their potential impact on human health and the environment and provides the EPA
with the authority to regulate the use and distribution of chemicals that pose a risk.
2. Authority: TSCA gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to
regulate the use and distribution of chemicals in the United States. The EPA has the
authority to restrict or ban the use of chemicals that pose a risk to human health or the
environment.
3. Chemical Inventory: TSCA requires chemical manufacturers to provide the EPA with
information about the chemicals they produce and distribute, including information about
the health and environmental effects of the chemicals. The EPA maintains a Chemical
Substance Inventory, which provides information about the chemicals that are used in
the United States.
4. Risk Assessment: TSCA requires the EPA to assess the risk posed by chemicals and to
regulate the use of chemicals that pose a risk to human health or the environment. The
EPA can require additional testing, restrict the use of chemicals, or ban the use of
chemicals that pose a risk.
5. Pre-Manufacture Notification: TSCA requires manufacturers to notify the EPA before
they begin manufacturing new chemicals. This provides the EPA with the opportunity to
assess the potential health and environmental risks of the new chemicals and to regulate
their use if necessary.
6. Record-Keeping: TSCA requires manufacturers to keep records about the production,
use, and distribution of chemicals. The records must include information about the health
and environmental effects of the chemicals.
7. Reporting: TSCA requires manufacturers to report releases of chemicals into the
environment. The reporting must include information about the health and environmental
effects of the chemicals and the steps that have been taken to minimize the releases.

8. Enforcement: TSCA provides for civil and criminal enforcement of the regulations,
and individuals who do not meet their obligations under TSCA.
Environmental Management Systems
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) are systematic approaches used by organizations
to manage their environmental responsibilities and to improve their environmental performance.
An EMS is a framework that helps an organization identify, assess, and control its
environmental impacts, and it provides a structured approach to continually improving
environmental performance.
An EMS typically includes the following components:
1. Policy: The organization establishes an environmental policy that states its commitment
to environmental protection and sustainability.
2. Planning: The organization identifies its significant environmental impacts and sets goals
and objectives to reduce those impacts.
3. Implementation and Operation: The organization implements processes and procedures
to achieve its environmental goals and objectives, and it integrates environmental
considerations into its daily operations.
4. Checking and Corrective Action: The organization monitors and evaluates its
environmental performance, identifies opportunities for improvement, and takes
corrective action to address any non-conformances.
5. Management Review: The organization periodically reviews its EMS to ensure it is
effective and to identify opportunities for improvement.
An EMS can be based on various standards, including ISO 14001, which is an international
standard for environmental management systems. Organizations that implement an EMS can
benefit from improved environmental performance, reduced environmental risks and liabilities,
and improved stakeholder relationships.
It's important to note that an EMS is a dynamic and evolving system, and organizations must
continually review and improve their environmental performance to stay in compliance with
environmental regulations and to meet the changing expectations of stakeholders.
Environmental protection and pollution prevention methods (e.g., air, water, soil, containment,
soil vapor intrusion,and waste streams)
Environmental protection and pollution prevention methods refer to the various strategies,
technologies, and processes that are implemented to minimize or prevent the negative impacts
of human activities on the environment. These methods aim to reduce the release of pollutants
and waste into the air, water, and soil, and to prevent the contamination of environmental media
that may harm human health or damage ecosystems.
Air
There are several methods that can be used to protect the environment and prevent air
pollution:

1. Emissions Reduction: Reducing emissions from sources such as factories, power plants,
and vehicles is one of the most effective ways to prevent air pollution. This can be done
by improving energy efficiency, converting to cleaner fuels, and upgrading equipment to
reduce emissions.
2. Best Management Practices: Implementing best management practices, such as using
closed-loop systems to capture and reuse chemicals, can reduce the amount of
pollutants released into the air.
3. Pollution Prevention Planning: Developing a pollution prevention plan that includes
reducing emissions, using cleaner technologies, and implementing best management
practices can help prevent air pollution.
4. Emissions Trading: Emissions trading programs, such as cap-and-trade programs, allow
companies to trade emissions credits, allowing them to reduce emissions more
efficiently and cost-effectively.
5. Cleaner Technologies: Adopting cleaner technologies, such as electric vehicles and
renewable energy sources, can reduce emissions and help prevent air pollution.
6. Education and Outreach: Educating the public about the causes and effects of air
pollution, and promoting the use of cleaner technologies and best management
practices, can help prevent air pollution.
7. Regulation: Enforcing environmental regulations, such as the Clean Air Act, can help
prevent air pollution by setting standards for emissions and requiring companies to take
steps to reduce emissions.
8. Research and Development: Supporting research and development of new technologies
and best management practices can help prevent air pollution by finding new ways to
reduce emissions and improve air quality.
9. Monitoring: Regular monitoring of air quality can help track the success of pollution
prevention efforts and identify areas where further action is needed.
Water
There are several methods that can be used to protect the environment and prevent water
pollution:
1. Treatment and Discharge: Implementing treatment and discharge methods, such as
wastewater treatment plants, can reduce the amount of pollutants released into
waterways. This can include physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods.
closed-loop systems to capture and reuse chemicals, can reduce the amount of
pollutants released into waterways.
reducing emissions, using cleaner technologies, and implementing best management
practices can help prevent water pollution.

4. Emissions Trading: Emissions trading programs, such as cap-and-trade programs, can

be applied to water pollution in some cases. This allows companies to trade emissions
credits, allowing them to reduce emissions more efficiently and cost-effectively.
5. Cleaner Technologies: Adopting cleaner technologies, such as low-impact development
methods and rain gardens, can reduce the amount of pollutants that reach waterways.
6. Education and Outreach: Educating the public about the causes and effects of water
practices, can help prevent water pollution.
7. Regulation: Enforcing environmental regulations, such as the Clean Water Act, can help
prevent water pollution by setting standards for discharges and requiring companies to
take steps to reduce pollutants.
and best management practices can help prevent water pollution by finding new ways to
reduce emissions and improve water quality.
9. Monitoring: Regular monitoring of water quality can help track the success of pollution
Soil
There are several methods that can be used to protect the environment and prevent soil
pollution:
1. Source Reduction: Reducing the use of harmful chemicals, such as pesticides and
fertilizers, is one of the most effective ways to prevent soil pollution. This can be done by
using alternative products, such as organic fertilizers, and reducing the amount of
chemicals used in agriculture.
2. Best Management Practices: Implementing best management practices, such as
conservation tillage and crop rotation, can reduce soil erosion and the amount of
pollutants released into the soil.
reducing the use of harmful chemicals, using cleaner technologies, and implementing
best management practices can help prevent soil pollution.
4. Cleaner Technologies: Adopting cleaner technologies, such as phytoremediation and
bioreactors, can help clean up contaminated soil and prevent soil pollution.
5. Education and Outreach: Educating the public about the causes and effects of soil
practices, can help prevent soil pollution.
6. Regulation: Enforcing environmental regulations, such as the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), can help prevent soil pollution by setting
standards for the management of hazardous waste and requiring companies to take
steps to clean up contaminated sites.


and best management practices can help prevent soil pollution by finding new ways to
reduce emissions and improve soil quality.
8. Monitoring: Regular monitoring of soil quality can help track the success of pollution
Containment
Containment is a method used to prevent the spread of pollution and protect the environment.
There are several methods of containment that can be used to protect the environment and
prevent pollution:
1. Physical Containment: Physical containment methods, such as dikes, berms, and
trenches, can be used to contain pollutants and prevent them from spreading.
2. Chemical Containment: Chemical containment methods, such as adding stabilizing
agents to hazardous substances, can prevent the spread of pollution by keeping
substances from becoming mobile.
3. Biological Containment: Biological containment methods, such as using microorganisms
to break down pollutants, can prevent the spread of pollution by reducing the amount of
pollutants in the environment.
4. Waste Management: Proper waste management, including the proper disposal of
hazardous waste, can prevent the spread of pollution by keeping pollutants from
entering the environment.
5. Emergency Response Planning: Developing an emergency response plan, including
procedures for containing spills, can prevent the spread of pollution by quickly and
effectively containing spills and preventing them from spreading.
6. Monitoring: Regular monitoring of the environment can help track the success of
containment efforts and identify areas where further action is needed.
Soil Vapor
Soil vapor refers to the gas phase of soil, which can contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and other pollutants that can have negative impacts on human health and the environment.
Here are some methods that can be used to protect the environment and prevent soil vapor
pollution:
1. Source Reduction: Reducing the use of harmful chemicals and pollutants that can
contribute to soil vapor pollution can help prevent the spread of pollutants. This can be
done by using alternative products, such as low-VOC paints and solvents, and reducing
the amount of chemicals used in industrial processes.
closed systems and containment structures, can help prevent soil vapor pollution by
reducing the release of pollutants into the soil.
3. Soil Vapor Extraction: Soil vapor extraction is a technology used to remove VOCs from
the soil by pumping air into the soil to create a vacuum and extract the pollutants.

4. Ventilation: Improving ventilation in buildings, such as homes and schools, can help
prevent soil vapor pollution by reducing indoor exposure to pollutants.
5. Education and Outreach: Educating the public about the causes and effects of soil vapor
practices, can help prevent soil vapor pollution.
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), can help prevent soil vapor pollution by
setting standards for the management of hazardous waste and requiring companies to
take steps to clean up contaminated sites.
and best management practices can help prevent soil vapor pollution by finding new
ways to reduce emissions and improve soil quality.
8. Monitoring: Regular monitoring of soil vapor quality can help track the success of
pollution prevention efforts and identify areas where further action is needed.
Intrusion
Intrusion refers to the movement of pollutants into an area where they are not normally found,
such as the migration of groundwater contaminants into a clean aquifer. Intrusion can have
negative impacts on human health and the environment, so it's important to prevent it from
occurring. Here are some methods that can be used to protect the environment and prevent
intrusion:
1. Land Use Management: Proper land use management, such as restricting the use of
hazardous materials near sensitive areas, can help prevent the spread of pollutants and
intrusion.
2. Groundwater Monitoring: Regular monitoring of groundwater quality can help detect the
presence of contaminants and identify areas where intrusion is occurring.
3. Source Control: Implementing source control measures, such as controlling the release
of hazardous substances, can prevent the spread of pollutants and intrusion.
4. Containment: Implementing containment measures, such as using liners or caps, can
prevent the spread of pollutants and intrusion.
5. Remediation: Cleaning up contaminated sites, such as through the use of excavation or
soil vapor extraction, can prevent the spread of pollutants and intrusion.
6. Education and Outreach: Educating the public about the causes and effects of intrusion
and promoting the use of best management practices can help prevent intrusion.
7. Regulation: Enforcing environmental regulations, such as the Safe Drinking Water Act
and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA), can help prevent intrusion by setting standards for the management of
hazardous substances and requiring companies to take steps to clean up contaminated
sites.


and best management practices can help prevent intrusion by finding new ways to
reduce emissions and improve environmental quality.
Waste Streams
Waste streams refer to the flow of waste from its source to its ultimate disposal. Effective waste
management is important for protecting the environment and preventing pollution. Here are
some methods that can be used to protect the environment and prevent pollution from waste
streams:
1. Reduction: Reducing the amount of waste generated through practices such as source
reduction and waste minimization can help prevent pollution from waste streams.
2. Reuse: Reusing materials, such as through composting or recycling, can help prevent
pollution from waste streams by reducing the need for disposal.
3. Recycling: Recycling waste, such as paper, plastics, and metals, can help prevent
pollution from waste streams by reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills or
incinerators.
4. Proper Disposal: Properly disposing of waste, such as through landfilling or incineration,
can help prevent pollution from waste streams by reducing the release of pollutants into
the environment.
5. Hazardous Waste Management: Proper management of hazardous waste, such as by
using special treatment or disposal facilities, can help prevent pollution from waste
streams by reducing the risk of harm to human health and the environment.
6. Education and Outreach: Educating the public about the importance of waste reduction,
reuse, and recycling and promoting best management practices can help prevent
pollution from waste streams.
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), can help prevent pollution from waste
streams by setting standards for the management of waste and requiring companies to
take steps to properly manage their waste.
and best management practices can help prevent pollution from waste streams by
finding new ways to reduce waste and improve environmental quality.
How released hazardous materials migrate/interact through the air, surface water, soil, and
water table
Air
When hazardous materials are released into the atmosphere, they can migrate and interact with
other substances in a variety of ways depending on the physical and chemical properties of the
substances involved. Some of the key factors that affect the movement and interaction of these
materials include the size and shape of the particles or droplets, the density and viscosity of the
material, the surrounding temperature and pressure, and the presence of other substances in
the atmosphere that may react with or transport the material.

One key way that hazardous materials can migrate through the air is through dispersion, where
the material is spread out over a larger area due to the influence of atmospheric winds and
turbulence. This can cause the concentration of the material to become diluted over time,
reducing its overall impact. However, if the material is highly reactive, it may interact with other
substances in the atmosphere and form new compounds, changing its properties and potentially
increasing its toxicity.
Another important factor that affects the migration of hazardous materials is the ability of the
material to be transported by air currents. If the material is volatile, it may evaporate into the air,
where it can be carried long distances by winds. Conversely, if the material is heavier than air, it
may sink and accumulate near the ground, potentially impacting populations and ecosystems in
a localized area.
The interactions between hazardous materials and other substances in the atmosphere can
also play a significant role in their migration. For example, some materials may react with water
vapor in the air to form droplets, which can then fall to the ground as precipitation. Other
materials may react with other pollutants in the air to form new, potentially more hazardous
compounds.
Surface Water
The migration and interaction of hazardous materials in surface water is a complex process that
is influenced by a variety of physical, chemical, and biological factors. Some of the key factors
that affect the movement and interaction of these materials in surface water include the
chemical and physical properties of the material, the characteristics of the water body (e.g.,
size, flow rate, and temperature), and the presence of other substances in the water that may
react with or transport the material.
One important way that hazardous materials can migrate through surface water is through
dilution, where the concentration of the material decreases over time due to mixing with the
surrounding water. The extent of dilution will depend on the flow rate of the water body and the
volume of material released. However, if the material is highly soluble or reactive, it may
continue to pose a risk even after dilution has occurred.
Another key factor that affects the migration of hazardous materials in surface water is the
ability of the material to adsorb onto particles or sediment in the water. This can slow the
movement of the material and increase the risk of it accumulating in certain areas. Conversely,
if the material is highly mobile, it may be transported long distances through surface water and
potentially contaminate other water bodies.
The interactions between hazardous materials and other substances in surface water can also
play a significant role in their migration. For example, some materials may react with dissolved
oxygen or organic matter in the water to form new compounds that may be more or less toxic
than the original material. In addition, some materials may be taken up by aquatic plants or
animals, which can transport the material through the food chain and potentially impact human
and wildlife populations.
Soil
The migration and interaction of hazardous materials in soil is a complex process that is
influenced by a variety of physical, chemical, and biological factors. Some of the key factors that

affect the movement and interaction of these materials in soil include the chemical and physical
properties of the material, the characteristics of the soil (e.g., texture, structure, and organic
matter content), and the presence of other substances in the soil that may react with or
transport the material.
One important way that hazardous materials can migrate through soil is through leaching, where
the material moves downward through the soil profile due to gravity and the influence of water.
The extent of leaching will depend on the solubility and mobility of the material, as well as the
permeability and structure of the soil. If the material is highly soluble, it may leach into the
groundwater, potentially contaminating wells and other water sources.
Another key factor that affects the migration of hazardous materials in soil is the ability of the
material to adsorb onto soil particles or organic matter. This can slow the movement of the
material and increase the risk of it accumulating in certain areas. Conversely, if the material is
highly mobile, it may be transported through the soil profile and potentially contaminate other
areas.
The interactions between hazardous materials and other substances in soil can also play a
significant role in their migration. For example, some materials may react with organic matter in
the soil to form new compounds that may be more or less toxic than the original material. In
addition, some materials may be taken up by plants or animals, which can transport the material
through the food chain and potentially impact human and wildlife populations.
Water Table
The migration and interaction of hazardous materials in the water table is a complex process
that is influenced by a variety of physical, chemical, and biological factors. Some of the key
factors that affect the movement and interaction of these materials in the water table include the
chemical and physical properties of the material, the characteristics of the groundwater (e.g.,
flow rate, temperature, and chemical composition), and the presence of other substances in the
groundwater that may react with or transport the material.
One important way that hazardous materials can migrate through the water table is through
dissolution, where the material is dissolved in the groundwater and transported by the flow of
the groundwater. The extent of dissolution will depend on the solubility and mobility of the
material, as well as the flow rate of the groundwater. If the material is highly soluble, it may
move rapidly through the water table and potentially contaminate other water sources.
Another key factor that affects the migration of hazardous materials in the water table is the
ability of the material to adsorb onto soil particles or sediment in the groundwater. This can slow
the movement of the material and increase the risk of it accumulating in certain areas.
Conversely, if the material is highly mobile, it may be transported long distances through the
water table and potentially contaminate other water bodies.
The interactions between hazardous materials and other substances in the water table can also
play a significant role in their migration. For example, some materials may react with dissolved
oxygen or organic matter in the groundwater to form new compounds that may be more or less
toxic than the original material. In addition, some materials may be taken up by plants or
animals that rely on groundwater, which can transport the material through the food chain and
potentially impact human and wildlife populations.

Sustainability principles
Sustainability principles refer to a set of guidelines that aim to ensure the long-term health and
well-being of the environment and its inhabitants. These principles can be applied to a wide
range of activities, including natural resource management, urban planning, product design, and
many others.
Here are some key sustainability principles:
1. Intergenerational equity: This principle holds that the needs of present generations
should be met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It emphasizes the importance of considering the long-term consequences of our
actions and ensuring that they are sustainable over time.
2. Ecological Footprint: This principle refers to the impact of human activities on the
environment, including the use of natural resources and the generation of waste. The
goal is to minimize our ecological footprint and ensure that we are not consuming
resources faster than they can be replenished.
3. Life Cycle Assessment: This principle involves evaluating the environmental impact of a
product or activity throughout its entire life cycle, from extraction of raw materials to
disposal or recycling. The goal is to minimize the environmental impact of a product or
activity at each stage of its life cycle.
4. Polluter Pays: This principle holds that the costs of pollution and environmental
degradation should be borne by those who cause it. This encourages businesses and
individuals to reduce their environmental impact by making them financially responsible
for the consequences of their actions.
5. Reduction of waste: This principle emphasizes the importance of reducing waste and
increasing the efficiency of resource use. This can be achieved through measures such
as recycling, composting, and reducing the use of single-use products.
6. Clean and Renewable Energy: This principle aims to shift away from non-renewable
sources of energy, such as fossil fuels, and towards cleaner, renewable sources of
energy, such as wind and solar power. This helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and minimize the impact of energy production on the environment.
Waste water treatment plants, onsite waste water treatment plants, and public water systems
Wastewater treatment plants
Waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) are facilities designed to remove pollutants and
contaminants from wastewater, typically from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources. The
goal of these plants is to produce treated water that meets certain quality standards and can be
safely released back into the environment, either directly into surface waters or via infiltration
into groundwater aquifers.
The treatment process at a WWTP typically consists of several stages, including:
1. Pretreatment: This stage involves the removal of large objects and debris from the
wastewater, as well as the adjustment of pH and temperature. This helps to protect the
equipment in the later stages of treatment.

2. Primary treatment: This stage involves the physical separation of solid and liquid
components of the wastewater through sedimentation and filtration. The solid waste,
known as sludge, is removed and processed further, while the liquid waste proceeds to
the next stage of treatment.
3. Secondary treatment: This stage involves the biological treatment of the wastewater,
typically using microorganisms that consume organic matter and other pollutants in the
wastewater. The most common type of secondary treatment is activated sludge
treatment, which uses a mixed population of microorganisms to break down the organic
matter in the wastewater.
4. Tertiary treatment: This stage involves the further treatment of the wastewater, typically
to remove nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), heavy metals, and other
contaminants. This stage may involve physical, chemical, or biological processes, such
as chemical precipitation, reverse osmosis, or advanced oxidation processes.
5. Disinfection: This stage involves the treatment of the wastewater with chemicals, such
as chlorine or ultraviolet light, to kill any remaining pathogens. This is an important step
in ensuring that the treated wastewater meets the quality standards for discharge into
the environment.
In conclusion, waste water treatment plants are a critical component of modern society, helping
to protect public health and the environment by removing pollutants and contaminants from
wastewater. The treatment process at these plants typically involves several stages, including
pretreatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, tertiary treatment, and disinfection, to
produce treated water that is safe for release back into the environment.
Onsite wastewater treatment plants
On-site waste water treatment plants (OWWTPs), also known as decentralized wastewater
treatment systems, are designed to treat wastewater at the source of generation, rather than
transporting it to a centralized treatment plant. These systems are typically used in rural or
remote areas, or in cases where it is not economically or technically feasible to transport the
wastewater to a centralized treatment plant.
The treatment process at an OWWTP can vary depending on the specific design and the
contaminants present in the wastewater, but it typically includes the following stages:
1. Pretreatment: This stage involves the removal of large objects and debris from the
wastewater, as well as the adjustment of pH and temperature. This helps to protect the
equipment in the later stages of treatment.
2. Primary treatment: This stage involves the physical separation of solid and liquid
components of the wastewater through sedimentation and filtration. The solid waste,
known as sludge, is removed and processed further, while the liquid waste proceeds to
the next stage of treatment.
3. Secondary treatment: This stage involves the biological treatment of the wastewater,
typically using microorganisms that consume organic matter and other pollutants in the
wastewater. The most common type of secondary treatment is activated sludge

treatment, which uses a mixed population of microorganisms to break down the organic
matter in the wastewater.
4. Tertiary treatment: This stage involves the further treatment of the wastewater, typically
to remove nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), heavy metals, and other
contaminants. This stage may involve physical, chemical, or biological processes, such
as chemical precipitation, reverse osmosis, or advanced oxidation processes.
5. Disinfection: This stage involves the treatment of the wastewater with chemicals, such
as chlorine or ultraviolet light, to kill any remaining pathogens. This is an important step
in ensuring that the treated wastewater meets the quality standards for discharge into
the environment or reuse.
It's important to note that OWWTPs require careful design, operation, and maintenance to
ensure that they are effective in removing contaminants and protecting the environment.
Regular monitoring and testing of the treated wastewater is also important to ensure that it
meets the quality standards for discharge or reuse.
In conclusion, on-site waste water treatment plants are an important alternative to centralized
treatment plants, particularly in rural or remote areas where transportation of the wastewater is
not feasible. These systems typically involve several stages of treatment, including
pretreatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, tertiary treatment, and disinfection, to
produce treated wastewater that is safe for discharge or reuse.
Public water systems
Public water systems are facilities that are owned, operated, and regulated by government
entities, and are designed to provide safe and reliable drinking water to the public. These
systems are a critical component of modern society, ensuring that communities have access to
clean and safe drinking water.
The typical design of a public water system includes several components, including:
1. Source water: This is the water that is collected from rivers, lakes, aquifers, or other
sources, and is typically treated and disinfected before it is distributed to consumers.
2. Treatment plants: These facilities are designed to treat the source water, removing
contaminants and pollutants that may be present. The treatment process typically
involves several stages, including coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection,
to produce safe and reliable drinking water.
3. Distribution system: This is the network of pipes, pumps, and storage tanks that
distribute the treated water from the treatment plant to consumers. The distribution
system is designed to ensure that the water is delivered to consumers at a constant
pressure and temperature, and that it meets the quality standards for drinking water.
4. Monitoring and testing: This is an important component of a public water system,
ensuring that the water meets the quality standards for drinking water, and that it is free
from contaminants and pollutants. This typically involves regular monitoring of water
quality parameters, such as pH, temperature, and the presence of contaminants, as well
as regular testing of water samples to confirm that the water meets the quality
standards.

In conclusion, public water systems are critical to the health and well-being of communities,
providing safe and reliable drinking water to the public. These systems typically include several
components, including source water, treatment plants, distribution systems, and monitoring and
testing, to ensure that the water meets the quality standards for drinking water.
Registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemicals (REACH) and restriction of
hazardous substances (RoHS)
Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and restriction of Chemicals (REACH) is a regulation
of the European Union (EU) that governs the registration, evaluation, authorization, and
restriction of chemicals used within the EU. The purpose of REACH is to improve the
protection of human health and the environment from the potential risks posed by chemicals,
and to ensure the free movement of chemicals within the EU.
Under REACH, companies that manufacture, import, or use chemicals within the EU are
required to register the chemicals with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). The
registration process requires the submission of a comprehensive dossier, including
information on the properties of the chemical, its uses, and any potential risks to human
health and the environment. The ECHA evaluates the information submitted, and may impose
restrictions or authorizations on the use of certain chemicals, based on the risk they pose.
Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) is a directive of the European Union that

restricts the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. The
purpose of RoHS is to minimize the environmental impact of electronic waste, and to protect
human health from exposure to hazardous substances.
RoHS restricts the use of six hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment:
lead, cadmium, mercury, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), and
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The directive requires that these substances be
replaced with safer alternatives, where feasible.
In conclusion, both REACH and RoHS play important roles in the regulation of chemicals in
the EU. REACH governs the registration, evaluation, authorization, and restriction of
chemicals used within the EU, while RoHS restricts the use of certain hazardous substances
in electrical and electronic equipment, to minimize their impact on human health and the
environment.

Domain 8- Training/Education
Training needs analyses (e.g., development, delivery and evaluation, etc.)
Instruction &Training Fundamentals

Because “training” is a bedrock of OHS management systems, it is important that OHS
professionals have a complete view of the components of training, basic principles of adult
learning, basics of evaluating learning effectiveness, and an understanding of various
instructional delivery models. Training is not a unique domain of the OHS function. In fact,
effective training is essential for any organization to achieve goals and survive in a rapidly
changing world. An appropriate definition of “training” is:
"The action of teaching a person a particular skill or type of behaviour such that they can
become a more effective contributor to corporate goals and objectives."
This definition implies several things:
• Training is essentially an imparting of something (skills, knowledge) to a learner,

• This skills/knowledge transfer is intended to enable the learner such that a positive,
contributing partnership relationship with the employer is possible, and
• The overarching goal of any effective training program must be linked directly and
visibly to the goals of the employer.
In this definition, training enables learners to optimize their contribution. It is important to note
there is no distinction between types of training. Hyphenated training terms like “OHS-training”,
If the employer has goals, and learners need skills/knowledge to achieve those goals,
then training is indicated. For instance, if a goal of the employers is to ensure that all
workers use PPE correctly, then training on the use, care and maintenance of relevant
PPE may be required. Also, if a new process or piece of equipment is required at a
facility, employees will need to be trained to use that equipment or manage the new
process effectively. In today’s face-paced world front-line supervisors inevitably require
new skills in communication, performance measurement, tutoring and coaching. This
training has to be linked to organizational goals.
The steps involved in creating a training program can be seen in the following process.

A more detailed way of looking at the process is ADDIE (analysis, design, develop,
implement and evaluate).
ADDIE is an acronym that can be used to describe a process for developing workplace
training. The following diagram demonstrates the steps in the ADDIE process.

Determining Your Purpose

Beginning with the end in mind
It is important when designing any type of training or education program that you are
clear on what you are trying to accomplish. Understanding your purpose and overall
objectives will be key to determining your training methods and design as well as your
method for evaluating how well learners have understood the information being
presented.
The purpose of your training is the overall goals you wish to accomplish. It basically
describes why you are developing the intended instruction. Learning outcomes are the
detailed and specific behaviours learners must demonstrate to show they have
accomplished the learning purpose.
There are many methods that can be used to understand a programs purpose and
learning objectives. Most training is, at its essence, focused on further developing an
individual's skills, knowledge, or attitude. The purpose is to take the learner from their
present level to the place they need to develop toward. The purpose and objectives of
the training, therefore, are determined by the specific behaviours learners need to
exhibit to demonstrate this growth. Basically the purpose and objectives of your
training program are a gap analysis focused on recognizing where individuals are
currently at and determining where they need to be. Several methods can be used to
determine this including a review of organizational needs focusing on human resource
development, and the development of competency profiles.
Organizational Determinants
One method of organizing training opportunities is to look holistically at the organization
and determine key areas in which training or certification will be beneficial or required.
Here are some examples of areas in which an organization may require training.
On-boarding and orientation - when bringing on new employees it is often critical to
provide them information on the organization and specifically on health and safety
requirements.
Job specific training - training to improve workplace competency and achievement. These
can be determined through competency profiles.
Work group orientation - training given to improve team or group focused work. This
could also include team building opportunities.
Personal growth and career advancement - this training and education allows individuals
within the organization to advance their skills and personal growth.
Health and wellness or safety specific education training - this is training focused
specifically on improving employee understanding of health and safety information.
Ongoing or continuous training - this type of training could include reoccurring
training, such as first aide that needs to be recertified every three years. It could also
include cross-training, retraining, or updating of skills.

Emerging training - this is training that could occur as a result of new products, new
equipment, emerging market trends, etc.
Some useful questions to ask when designing training based on organizational needs are the
following:
• Is the lack of performance caused by insufficient knowledge, skills, or attitudes? (If

the problems are a result of organizational deficiencies, training and education may
not be the solution).
• In what working conditions will individuals be expected to apply their learning?
• How will the working conditions affect the application of the training or education?
• How clearly do people understand the job or work requirements?
• What are the current skills, knowledge, or attitudes of the individuals participating in
the instruction?
• How likely is the instruction to be well received?
• What adult learning principles should be integrated into the learning to improve
learner outcomes?
Competency Profiles or Models

A competent person is someone who is adequately qualified, suitably trained and with sufficient
experience to safely perform work without supervision or with only a minimal degree of
supervision. Competencies in the workplace are observable and measurable. They relate to
performance and emphasize behaviour.
Competency cannot be defined by a training completion certificate. A certificate only

demonstrates that the individual has completed the training program. It can be an
indication of competency, but it does not necessarily define or demonstrate
competency. For example, a worker may have a certificate to demonstrate they have
completed a course on WHMIS. This does not necessarily demonstrate the workers
capability of safely dealing with chemicals in the workplace. A better assessment of the
workers skill in chemical handling could be a workplace assessment where the worker
explains or demonstrates the processes needed for safe hazardous material handling in
the workplace.
Competency profiles, sometimes called competency models, are organized and detailed
listings of knowledge, skills, or attitudes based on organizational needs, legislative
requirements, industry needs, employee or union requirements, and health and safety
requirements. These skill sets can begin with the job profile created by HR. From there a
more detailed listing of skills would be developed. The key competencies are then
expanded into performance-based behaviours that reflect the knowledge, skills, attitudes,
and abilities required to successfully complete the job. These also may include a level of
proficiency for each noted behaviour. For example a worker may demonstrate adequate
skill, advanced skill or mastery level in a given competency. Competency profiles can be
informed through Job Task Analysis (JTA), Task Hazard Analysis (THA), and stakeholder
consultations.
Competency profiles have multiple advantages for both organizations and individuals.
Competency profiles ensure workers are adequately demonstrating the skills required

to safely complete their work. They also do an excellent job of demonstrating due
diligence for ensuring worker safety. Competent workers tend to increase profitability
and productivity for the organization. Competency profiles are more effective than
traditional job descriptions for building a strong safety culture. Competency profiles are
useful tool for individuals as well. Employees are able to clearly see what skills are
required for their work and what level of proficiency they are demonstrating in the
skills. It becomes clear and often motivating for employees to recognize specifically
what skills are required and what is needed for skill enhancement. Employees can also
gain a clear understanding of what competencies would be required to allow them to
advance within a company or within the industry.
Developing the Learning Objectives
A critical component in designing effective training is understanding specifically what

behaviours you wish the learner to demonstrate in the workplace when the training is
completed. These behavioural outcomes are your learning objectives.
Learning objectives are similar to the purpose or goal of the program, but break down
the overall purpose into very specific learning outcomes. Your learning objectives
should tie directly into the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that you wish to see
developed.
Learning objectives are very useful because they are, in essence, a summary of what
you want each individual to take away from your instruction. They help you to
understand the main points you are trying to convey, assist you in organizing and
designing your instruction, and guide you in developing learning activities. Furthermore,
they can be shared with workers to guide them in understanding what they are required
to learn.
There are four factors for creating strong learning objectives.
Action verbs: Learning objectives should use action verbs that describe the specific
behaviours you want learners to demonstrate to show they have learned the concept
you are presenting. Examples of verbs may be demonstrate, describe, or interpret as
opposed to a more difficult to demonstrate verb such as 'understand'.
Conditions: this notes any relevant factors that are part of the demonstrated behaviour.
Examples of conditions might include working as a group, during an open book exam, or
after being shown a demonstration.
Standards or criteria: This is a way of detailing how or to what level a learner must
perform the behaviour. Examples of criteria might include with 80% accuracy, in
compliance with company policies, or within a 20 minute time period.
Audience: Understanding your audience is a key part of defining your learning
objectives. Recognizing the different needs and levels of knowledge of your audience
can be useful in relating your objectives, and later in defining your instructional
methods and your learning activities. The following are samples of learning
objectives.

Unclear Learning Objectives Better Learning Objectives

Participants will learn how to effectively Participants will successfully apply workplace policies
implement company policy and to pre-job inspections, including all major steps in the
procedures. process, during informal workplace inspections
Participants will be able to explain three or more
Participants will understand how to
personal fatigue management strategies they can use
effectively manage fatigue in the field.
in a field situation.
Learning Domains
It is important when developing learning objectives to think about the type of learning you wish
to occur.
Learning can be demonstrated through knowledge, skills or attitudes.
Knowledge is a way of demonstrating thinking, memory, or mental skills. Knowledge
focuses on the cognitive or thinking domain.
Skills are a demonstration of manual or physical abilities and are typically thought of as
kinesthetic learning. Skills are a part of the psychomotor or doing domain.
Attitude is more closely related to our social and emotional intelligence. It is part of the
affective or feeling domain that focuses on emotions and values. Sometimes abilities is
included in this component as well.
Understanding if learners are to be able to demonstrate knowledge, skills, or attitudes
these elements will be key determinants guiding how the training is designed, delivered
and evaluated.
Learning Complexity
Another important element to keep in mind when designing learning objectives is the
complexity or sophistication of what you want learners to demonstrate.
Bloom's Taxonomy further assists us by recognizing that our development in each of

these domains can take place in a progressive hierarchy of learning. In essence, it
begins with the simplest behaviours and gradually builds to the most complex behaviours
that you wish to see demonstrated within each domain. The taxonomy begins with the
bottom layer, or most basic level of remembering, and progresses all the way to the
more intricate behaviours of evaluating and creating. The taxonomy can be applied to
each of the three domains.
For example, if you were working in the cognitive domain, you may begin at the
knowledge level where individuals can recall basic information, such as being able to
recite policy or list the OHS rules. From there you will move forward, perhaps to the
application stage where individuals can apply that knowledge to their specific workplace
situation. This may be demonstrated by applying general OHS rules to forklift operation,
or relating policy to other workplace settings.
Progressing further up the Taxonomy, you may have learners move all the way to the
evaluation level. At this level they will begin to make judgments about the value of the

ideas or materials. For example, you may have them, as a group, take generic forklift
evaluation checklists and note which items on the checklist make sense for their
particular work environment. You may also have them compare different safety
checklists available to determine which is most useful, or have them create a checklist
specific to their work environment.
By using the verbs associated with each level, you will be able to see the specific
behaviours learners must demonstrate to achieve these levels of learning. This is useful
in assisting the trainer in understanding their learning objectives, and eventually in
designing the learning activities.
Design and Development of Content
The previous steps can be used to determine what core content is needed. The content
will be based on what learning is needed to create the behaviours needed to
demonstrate the learning objectives. For example, if a learning objective is to
demonstrate safe handling procedures for workplace chemicals in the warehouse, the
content may include: instruction on workplace symbols, workplace chemical labeling,
PPE required for handling specific types of chemicals, etc. The presentation and
evaluation of this learning content should ensure learners can adequately demonstrate
the objectives through behaviours. This may include having learners provide a detailed
description of how to apply the knowledge gained or having learners give a
demonstration of their learning in the workplace.
Content should be of sufficient detail to allow the development of the skills, knowledge,
or attitudes/abilities needed to achieve the performance required. As much as possible,
that knowledge should also begin at the approximate competency level of the learners
and move them forward. Starting at too basic a level is often boring and unmotivating
for learners, and starting at too advanced of level can deter or confuse learners.
Method of Instruction
The purpose and learning objectives of your instruction may also determine what
method of instruction will be used.
A differentiation can be made between the terms education and training. Education
can be said to refer to higher-level cognitive understanding. It often relates to
theoretical knowledge and background related to a topic. Education focuses on
building knowledge. It works to develop skills such as reasoning, judgment, and critical
thinking. Education focuses on broadening our understanding.
Training is used to build knowledge, skills, and competencies directly related to a specific
outcome. Training often focuses on understanding how to do something. Training tends to be
connected with a more practical and hands on learning. For the purposes of this study guide the
word training is used to refer to all learning programs.
Education and training often take place in a more formal setting. They frequently occur
in a classroom style setting that involves an instructor who facilitates or directs the
learning for a number of learners or students. This learning can also be done online,
through group study, through short instructional meetings, through team building
exercises, via conferences, etc.

Coaching and mentoring are other methods of delivering information. These tend to be
more informal learning opportunities and are often delivered directly within the learning
setting. These delivery methods may involve formal instruction and evaluation systems
such as checklists or learning profiles. They may also be completed on a more informal
basis.
Evaluation Strategies
A management axiom is ‘what gets measured gets managed.’ Increasing
competitiveness in business means that organizations are increasingly interested in
developing high-performance workplaces, and in ensuring that their human resource
development expenditures are providing value to the organization. In this component, the
task is to develop a means of determining the extent to which learning transfer has
occurred as a result of your training efforts. While there are several strategies in use, one
useful way of summarizing them is:
• Satisfaction index - This common device asks learners questions about the
quality of instruction, the facilitator’s style, visual aids, learning relevance,
comfort of the venue, and so on. While useful feedback to the
instructor/facilitator, it has little to do with whether appropriate skills/knowledge
have actually transferred to the shop floor.
• Goal Achievement – Of greater value is an instrument or process that enables
trainers and facilitators to determine to what extent learning goals have been
achieved by the learners. In typical workplace settings, this may require
demonstration of a new skill, or some form of pencil/paper test of knowledge
such as case study, multiple choice quiz, etc. There is an entire body of applied
science (psychometrics) that deals with the construction of valid and reliable
tests, but there are also a number of practical ways that learning goal
achievement can be verified at the shop floor level.
• Learning transfer - While achieving learning goals in the classroom or
instructional area is an important first step, of greater importance is knowing the
extent to which new skills or knowledge have actually transferred to the job. A
common problem is not for learners to fully achieve learning goals in a
classroom setting, but for them to be unable/unwilling to demonstrate those new
skills on the shop floor. This is most often a result of a gap between
expectations of the
learning goals (which are most often developed by training staff), and operational
values (which are determined by cultural factors). If new behaviours/skills taught
in the classroom are not acceptable to fellow-workers or supervisors, they will not
readily transfer. This is a common phenomenon in OHS management circles.
• Performance improvement - The ultimate goal of workplace training is to enable the
learners to provide an improved contribution to organizational goals. It is not uncommon
for training goals to be achieved, and even transferred to the shop floor/job, but the final
training effectiveness evaluation is a determination of whether the new skills/knowledge
actually improves work performance. It is not uncommon for well-designed instruction to
fully transfer, without any improvement in performance. This can almost always be
traced back to an inadequate or faulty needs analysis and/or learning goal setting
process.

Levels of Learning Evaluation
Level Measures Benefits
• Trainer may get feedback helpful in

Satisfaction Learner satisfaction with making improvements
Index learning experience • Trainer may determine whether learners
perceive benefit from instruction
• Enables trainer to adjust instruction to

Goal Whether learners achieve improve outcomes
Achievement stated learning outcomes • Learners get constructive feedback on
learning performance
Whether learning • Trainer may determine effectiveness of

Learning transfers instructional techniques
Transfer from classroom to shop • Management may gain sense of value for
floor training
• Final and most important measure of
training
Whether training effort
utility
made desired
Training • Requires ownership from line managers
contribution to
Relevance to validate training value, or return on
organizational
investment
performance
• Validates needs analysis and
instructional processes.
Evaluation Techniques
If the initial purpose and learning objectives are clearly laid out, evaluation is often a
straightforward process. Workplace education and training should seek to evaluate the
behaviours you wish workers to demonstrate. Evaluation falls in two different places of
the development process. The plan for how evaluation will occur is determined during
the initial planning stages of training. It is a key component of the design and
development steps in the ADDIE model. The actual evaluation, of course, will occur
during and after the instructional stage. When determining the type of evaluation to
use, it is important to review purpose and learning objectives. Understanding what
behaviours must be demonstrated to show required learning is essential.
For example, if you want learners to understand how to competently operate a fork lift truck
in a busy warehouse environment, a written test will not be a sufficient evaluation method.
Driving a forklift requires a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The evaluation
must be a way of demonstrating these competencies. Evaluation could involve a written test,
but it must also involve some form of skill demonstration. Demonstrated ability to perform the
task of driving the forklift safely in a busy warehouse environment would be an essential part
of evaluating this learning objective.

Evaluation for learning objectives can be done either informally or formally or through a
combination of both approaches. The previously determined learning outcomes should
determine which methods are used.
Informal Evaluation Techniques
Not all instruction requires a formal test to be able to determine if learning objectives
have been met. Often informal evaluation methods can be used. There are a number of
ways of determining if learners have understood what has been presented.
Questioning - When working in the knowledge domain of learning objectives it often
works to merely question the group to confirm understanding. Asking specific questions
or more open ended questions that allow people to provide feedback is a useful way to
do this. Open ended questions often work well to discover if any misunderstandings
have occurred. It is also important to allow participants to ask questions to clarify their
understandings. If the method of instruction included coaching or training, questions
should be asked of both the worker and the coach or instructor.
Observation - When your learning objectives are in the skills and affective (or attitude)
domains, it often works well to make observations in the workplace to determine if
behaviours are occurring. These can be informal observations made while walking
around the workplace, or more formal observations made during inspections. If you are
supervising coaching or training, you may wish to spend some time observing the coach
or trainer who is completing the instruction.
Time samplings - If you are seeking long-term changes in behaviour, be sure to make
observations immediately after the instruction, and over and extended period of time.
Plan for inspections or informal observations three months, six months, or even a year
after the instruction to ensure desired behaviours are still occurring.
Rating scale. Depending on the learning objectives you are reviewing, it may be
beneficial to use a rating scale. This will help you to rate the levels at which learners
are demonstrating the new behaviours.
Checklist - If there are many aspects to the behaviours you are observing, it may be useful
to develop a checklist to be sure all of the needed behaviours are occurring. This can easily
be combined with a rating scale if the new behaviours are complex.
Work samples - Again, this is dependent on the behaviours you are instructing toward.
Seeing the new competencies presented in completed work may be an easier way to
assess if the learner has developed and is demonstrating the new knowledge, skills, and
or attitudes.
Interviews - This technique may be useful for some learning objectives, especially
those in the affective domain where you are looking for examples of a new attitude
being developed. It may involve discussions with several people in the workplace, or
supervisors or managers, to determine if the sought after attitude is being
demonstrated.
Activities - Often informal or fun activities can be used to allow learners to demonstrate
that they have understood information presented and are now able to demonstrate

desired behaviours. It is always a good idea to make learning fun as this increases the
likelihood of learners remembering and wanting to continue their learning.
Anecdotal - Anecdotal information comes from general things observed in the
workplace that provide an understanding of whether or not desired behaviours are
occurring. These may consist of comments made at a meeting or other informal
observations you make.
Formal Evaluation Techniques
Often it is useful to have a more formal evaluation in place to be able to assess learning.
This may be because passing a formal test of some sort is what is required to pass a
course or receive certification in the skill.
Formal Interviews - Interviews may be involved in a formal evaluation process. These
are often more targeted interviews with the employees, supervisors, managers, or
other key stakeholders to determine if the competency behaviours are being
demonstrated consistently in the workplace. Interviews can become part of existing
processes such as an internal audit process or a formal workplace evaluation. If
individual growth plans are part of your workplace, specific questions targeting
competency can be included in the growth plan discussions.
Written tests - Written tests can be useful in determining competency behaviours, but
these work best for knowledge based learning objectives in the cognitive domain.
Written tests are easy to administer and are often overused when trying to assess
competency behaviours. Use written tests only if it is truly measuring the competency
behaviours you wish to see. Be sure the questions included in the written tests are
directly related to the learning objectives outlined for the instruction.
Observations or workplace inspections - These can also be part of formal
evaluations. If using these as part of your formal evaluation criteria, they should be
structured and have specific behaviours or work samples predetermined. When using
observations and inspections as formal evaluation techniques, it is also important to
have a baseline. A baseline describes what was previously occurring, and allows you to
note improvements in knowledge, skills, or observed attitudes in the workplace. Formal
observations and inspections should also reoccur over a set period of time to ensure
behaviours remain consistent.
Skill demonstration - Formal evaluation of skills may require workers to be able to
independently complete a specific task to a specific criteria. Many trades use this as a
way of formally evaluating skill competency. It is often a useful way of evaluating a
workers progression in increasing their skill competency as they are moving up within
their job responsibilities.
Evaluation Principles
Evaluation Principle # 1
• Measure ultimate training effectiveness by relevant learning transfer.
What gets measured gets managed. This is as true of training programs as anything
else. However, what one measures is at least as important as the act of measuring

itself. Data derived from measuring activities is evaluated and is necessary for
determining appropriate resource deployments, return on investment, establishing
priorities and other critical training decisions. The ultimate purpose of training is to:
“teach a person a particular skill or type of behaviour such that they can become a more
effective contributor to corporate goals and objectives”.
For that reason, if one measures the wrong factors, one will get wrong information to
base decisions on, resulting in a compounding of training management errors. It’s no
different than principles of measuring OHS performance. OHS programs that consistently
measure only trailing indicators (i.e. frequency and severity rates, injury patterns, etc) are
basing their OHS program management decisions on data derived after a loss occurs. In
contrast, measuring leading factors like risk indicators means that program management
decisions are based on factors identified before a loss, which are generally much more
effective in guiding OHS program than trailing indicators.
There is tendency to attempt to measure training effectiveness by factors that are at
best only symptomatic of actual effectiveness. For instance, many organizations
measure training effectiveness in terms like:
• Training Days Completed: number of persons in training times number of
training days attended.
• Contact Hours: hours of active instructional delivery time persons participating

in learning.
• Percentage of Budget: increasingly common in public institutions, it is based

on meeting a training expenditure goal expressed as a percentage of an
operational budget - most often, a percentage of the wage/salary budget
component.
• Return on Investment: probably the most misused traditional tool, using ROI
models to measure training effectiveness often factually misrepresents actual
costs and returns because of the many unknowable variables. On the surface,
training ROI sounds simple. Add the costs of training and compare/contrast
those with the savings resulting from the training.
• Learners have needs. They must be met for effective training to take place.
Training evaluation systems often refer to the extent that organizations benefit from
training. However, these models can lose sight of the fact that unless individual learner
needs are met, organizational needs will not be met. The organization is people.
People have needs. Those needs must be addressed throughout the training cycle,
starting with the needs analysis, through the evaluation stage and into the instructional
delivery phase. We’re not referring here to subjective, ‘warm and fuzzy’ needs, but
rather the real needs that people have to contribute and succeed at their work and the
very real desire to be equipped properly to make that contribution.

When evaluating learning, an important component is a review of whether, and to what

extent, the learners perceive that their learning needs have been adequately
addressed. In the final analysis, the learners themselves are probably the best source
of data on this subject. If they’ve been properly engaged in the needs analysis process,
the resulting learning goals and instructional design will reflect this engagement. If the
evaluation process indicates learners are not satisfied with how their learning needs
have been addressed, something has gone amiss, either in the needs analysis, goal
setting, instructional design, or delivery phases.
• Has management credibility been enhanced or reduced as a result of this training?
Early in the 21st century, there’s a growing credibility gap with organizational leaders –
in every sector. Corruption, bad faith business practices, exploitation of people, deceit,
and personal gain at the loss of others have all served to taint organizational leaders
generally. Unfortunately, this broad brushing tends to taint other leaders who are of
noble intent and practice – and there are many. However, the overall societal
perception of those carrying the mantle of “Manager” is not nearly as positive as it was
even 10 years ago.
A recurring theme is an apparent gap between an organization’s stated values and
their actual performance. For example, a typical OHS program statement will say
something like “XYZ Manufacturing believes workplace safety is a top priority,” yet
company managers will consistently demonstrate that safety is not even on their radar
screen when juxtaposed between production and other operational priorities. This
blatant hypocrisy damages management credibility and increases the likelihood that
legitimate directions from organizational leaders will be dismissed as invalid or ignored
- perpetuating the command and control mindset that limits trust and mutual respect
between stakeholders, and yet which is so central to the ultimate success of a modern
OHS management system.
Instruction
Once you’ve determine what is to be taught, to whom, and how learning will be
evaluated, you can start to consider which of many instructional strategies to employ to
enable your learners to achieve these goals. Traditional ‘face-to-face’ instruction,
involving one or more 'trainers/facilitators’ with learners in a classroom or work setting
will continue to be an important means of equipping people for some time to come.
Newer instructional tools are becoming more popular as well, and are being constantly
improved. For instance, there is a rapidly growing application of interactive, electronic
instructional media, rather than traditional classrooms. There are real strengths to both
traditional and emerging instructional technologies, and you need to evaluate many
factors to determine which instructional strategy will provide the most cost-effective
transfer of learning goals to your learners. Once that is done, there remains only the
development of specific instructional exercises to achieve the learning goals, some
form of learning evaluation, and feedback to the curriculum and evaluation steps to
enable continuous improvement of your training program.

Instructional Delivery Principle # 1

• Keep time between learning and opportunity to use learning as short as possible.
This should be a no-brainer, but a surprising amount of training activity is planned and
executed around budget cycles and ‘downtime’ needs, rather than around optimizing
learning transfer. For example, your fiscal year is coming up and there is a small
surplus in your training budget. What sorts of pressures exist to land on your budget
targets by purchasing training – whether needed at that time or not? Or your operation
is going into a seasonal maintenance cycle, so rather than layoffs, use the time for
training – even though the learners will not be able to use those new skills for months!
These are common scenarios, which serve to reinforce in the mind of management the
notion that training is not a particularly effective use of corporate resources.
There is a decay factor between instructional delivery and application. Figures vary
between studies, but generally the amount of learning that will actually transfer from the
classroom (learning environment) to the job deteriorates quickly with time. Some
studies suggest more than 50% of the learning will have evaporated in 24 hours. This
implies a need to ensure that your instructional activities are done at – or as close as
possible to – the actual time that skill/knowledge is needed on the job. In fact, on-the-
job training has a significant advantage over many other classroom-based methods for
this very reason.
Delivery Principle # 2
• Learning occurs best when the instructional environment most closely resembles the
actual working environment.
People learn best through mental engagement. Mental engagement is most effective
when the learners are able to relate the instruction to their actual work environment.
This is why the use of simulators for instruction is growing in popularity and
effectiveness. It may not always be possible to instruct learners in actual operational
environments (for example, teaching pilots emergency flight response techniques in a
loaded aircraft in flight), but a well-designed simulation can be as effective, and often
enables much better control over the learning environment than on-the-job instruction.
Practical examples include:
• If teaching accident investigation skills, have each team conduct an investigation into a
simulated scene. Having them create field sketches, collect evidence and interview
‘witnesses’ is a powerful way of simulating a real world situation, which will result in
MUCH greater learning transfer than simply lecturing about those skills in a class
setting.
• Teach inspection skills by doing an inspection, in the actual operational environment

they’ll be using those skills in.
• When teaching Job Hazard or Risk Analysis, use actual tasks in the learner’s working
environment, one that the learners can relate to immediately and realistically.

• Instruct PPE using the actual PPE workers are issued, rather than stock ‘training aids’
the instructor may be more familiar with.
• As much as possible, teach learners new equipment operation using the actual
equipment.

• Feedback is a “gift” and learners deserve feedback.
Learning is a process of moving from the known, to the unknown. Frequently, trainers
forget that their learners are not yet expert in the new skills/knowledge and move too
quickly through down the learning path. Typically, adult learners are not particularly
vocal about their learning process in a group setting. If they are not learning as quickly
as the instructor is moving, they tend to withdraw, hoping they’ll be able to pick up the
new skills from their colleagues, or figure it out on their own later.
As mentioned earlier, learners have needs. A fundamental need of every learner is
continual feedback on how they’re doing with the new skill. This need is met by providing
frequent, non-threatening feedback on their performance.
Frequent then, means at each step of the learning process. For example, learning an
incident investigation procedure would typically involve several steps. Learners need
feedback on their performance during and at the conclusion of each of those steps, as
well as feedback on their performance on the entire task.
Non-threatening feedback means-- without embarrassment or humiliation. They are
learning and are therefore not yet expert. One way to shut down a learner is to publicly
criticize performance or make disparaging remarks in front of colleagues. Encourage
positive behaviours, correct negative behaviours. Be consistent and equitable with all
learners. Create a ‘safe’ environment where mistakes in the learning process are used
as teachable moments for all to learn, rather than an occasion for personal criticism.
• Learning is ALWAYS based on prior learning.
On a neurological level, learning means that new channels and links in the brain are
established, thus expanding our overall intelligence and enabling additional learning to
be achieved more readily – because of the expanding capacity of the brain. This truth
applies to job training as well as to graduate studies. The principle of increasing mental
capacity applies to both.
However, we sometimes forget this principle, and commit one of two errors:
• First Error: Starting instruction at a level beyond the current learner’s level.
New learning must be based on prior learning, so the mind can make the
connection between what is being taught and some pre-existing knowledge. For
example, you have developed a first-rate accident analysis module, with a
comprehension section and case study on multiple causal factors. It becomes
clear that many of the learners have no idea what multiple causal factor

analysis is, let alone how to apply it to the accident investigation and analysis
process. Most often, this error is a result of weaknesses in the training needs
analysis process or setting learning goals. If this occurs in your session, do not
proceed further until the learners become competent with required preliminary
knowledge/skills. Until they master the underlying skills, they will be unable to
master the new skills.
• Second error: Starting instruction at a level too basic for the learners. This is
the opposite of the first error, but is also quite common. In this instance,
learners are presented with instruction on skills/knowledge they have already
mastered. Not only is this seen by the learners as a waste of their time and
energy, it does little to enhance the credibility of the organization’s
management, or the instructor. Their entire perception of training may be so
tainted by this experience that it will be particularly difficult to get willing
participation in any future learning options offered by the organization

• Do it right. Or don’t do it at all!
For every job task, there is a right – and a wrong – way to perform it. Sometimes there may be
a gap between the ‘official right ways’, and how it is typically performed on the job.
When instructing learners on procedures or tasks, it is imperative that they are taught
the ‘right way’. For that reason, a first step in your instructional design process should
be to verify how the job/task is actually performed in operational conditions in your
shop. If there is a gap between ‘right’ and ‘actual’, start by reviewing actual practices to
determine if they are an improvement on the ‘official’ version – or an example of
inadequate supervision or training.
Avoid the temptation to take shortcuts in your instruction. Your learners are like a blank
slate. What you write on their minds and hearts is what they will carry into their work
and life. Foundational to this principle is old-fashioned integrity. Your instructional skills
are a reflection of your character, and – because the organization places you in a
position of trust as an instructor – your actions also reflect directly on the organization.
Therefore, take time to be adequately prepared for instruction, ensure that you know
HOW to do the task/skill correctly and demonstrate excellence to the learners. Your
personal demonstration of skills/knowledge will be a much more eloquent teaching model
than your words – if a gap exists between words and actions.
For those teaching applied skills on the job (i.e., those requiring manual, or motor skills as
well as knowledge), the following simple model can guide you to effective and consistent
instruction of those skill/knowledge sets:
• Step 1 - Introduction.
Explain what is to be learned, How it will be instructed and How the skill will be
evaluated (tested), Why the learner needs this skill and Where it fits into their
job
• Step 2 - Perfect Demonstration.

Demonstrate the entire task, explaining each step as it is performed. Depending

on the complexity of the task, it may be valuable to demonstrate the task more
than once. For instance, replacing a toner cartridge on the average laser printer
is probably a task that could be demonstrated and explained once. However, a
task like teaching a learner how to lift a pallet using a lift truck may require
several demonstrations.
• Step 3 - Practice with full supervision.
Guide the learner through each individual step in the task, carefully explaining
each step, along with an explanation of why each step is important. Depending
on the complexity of the task and the learner’s prior knowledge, this step may be
repeated several times.
• Step 4 - Practice with moderate supervision. The learner has been guided through the
task to the point where (s)he’s able to attempt it without direct control. At this point, the
learner should be asked to explain to the instructor what each step is and why it is
important. It is critically important that there be no deviation from the ‘perfect’
demonstration skill level. The learner should continue with this level of supervision until
the task can be done without error. At this point, the focus is on quality of performance,
not speed.
• Step 5 - Practice with limited but supportive supervision.
Once the instructor is comfortable that the learner knows HOW to do the task
without error, the learner should be given opportunity to practice the skill/task to
build up speed. At this point, there is an increasing focus on quantity of
performance, but NEVER at the expense of quality. This step should continue
until the learner and instructor are both comfortable with moving to the final
step.
• Step 6 - Evaluation
At this point, the learner has been guided by the instructor, step by step through
each part of the task; has been given opportunity to demonstrate basic mastery
of the task by doing the task and explaining each step to the instructor and has
also had a period of practice building up speed while maintaining perfect
performance. At this point, a final evaluation (test) is indicated. The test will have
been explained in Step 1, so there is no surprise about what is expected
Instructional delivery principle # 6
• Know yourself and your learners!
Probably the most important lesson OHS professionals can adapt to their own
training practice is the fact that there is a constant tension between the
instructor’s unique instructional style, and the normally varied learning styles of
everyone else in the learning environment. The smaller the gap between
learning and teaching style, the greater the rate of successful mastery, or
learning transfer. The wider the gap, the more likely the instructor will view
learners with differing styles as ‘tree stumps’, or worse. For that reason, it is
important for career instructors to take a few moments to consider their own
instructional style, as well as the range of possible learning styles they will

encounter. At the very least, this will strengthen their empathy with and
sensitivity to the gap that exists between the instructor and learner styles.
There are additional factors that can impact the chemistry between instructor and
learner, including age, gender, intellect, and personality, learning disorders – all
of which can also impact the actual instructional style being employed.
There are numerous models available to discuss adult learning and teaching
styles, but these are currently among the most frequently cited:
1) David Kolb’s learning theory. Kolb proposes that experiential learning has six main
characteristics:
• Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes.

• Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience.
• Learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of
adaptation to the world (learning is by its very nature full of tension).
• Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.
• Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment.
• Learning is the process of creating knowledge that is the result of the transaction
between social knowledge and personal knowledge.
2) Teaching styles theory. Basically, instructors tend to fit one of the following
categories:
A. Expert
Possesses knowledge and expertise that students need. Strives to maintain status
as an expert among students by displaying detailed knowledge and by challenging
students to enhance their competence. Concerned with transmitting information
and insuring that students are well prepared. Examples include college/university
instructors.
B. Formal Authority
Possesses status among students because of knowledge and role as a faculty
member. Concerned with providing positive and negative feedback,
establishing learning goals, expectations, and rules of conduct for students.
Concerned with the correct, acceptable, and standard ways to do things and
with providing students with the structure they need to learn. May be suitable
style for college teaching assistant, or very senior OHS professional.
C. Personal Model
Believes in "teaching by personal example" and establishes a prototype for how
to think and behave. Oversees, guides, and directs by showing how to do
things, and encouraging students to observe and then to emulate the
instructor's approach. Appropriate model/style for many OHS practioners in
typical ‘instructional’ roles.
D. Facilitator
Emphasizes the personal nature of teacher-student interactions. Guides and
directs students by asking questions, exploring options, suggesting alternatives,

and encouraging them to develop criteria to make informed choices. Overall

goal is to develop in students the capacity for independent action, initiative, and
responsibility. Works with students on projects in a consultative fashion and
tries to provide as much support and encouragement as possible. Especially
appropriate instructional style in an organizational culture where a relatively
high level of academic sophistication among learners is common.
E. Delegator
Concerned with developing students' capacity to function in an autonomous
fashion. Students work independently on projects or as part of autonomous
teams. The teacher is available at the request of students as a resource
person. Goal is to have learner's function autonomously. May contribute to
improved learner professional development and learner confidence, as well as
increased trust and mutual respect between learner and instructor. However,
this depends on the learner's ability to function autonomously. Some learners
exhibit higher levels of anxiety when not closely supervised, depending on their
own learning style, history and confidence.
There are dozens of self-assessment tools online that can be accessed at no cost.
Those identifying themselves as ‘trainers’ or ‘instructors’ would be well advised to
spend some time familiarizing themselves with a few examples of each in order to best
help their learners become the trainers their companies need them to be.
Knowledge/comprehension of adult learning principles.
The concept that adults learn differently from children stems from Malcolm Knowles’
theories on andragogy - the specific needs of adult learners. Knowles emphasized that
adult learners are self directed; they bring a wealth of previous experiences that should
be used to integrate new knowledge; they want information to be relevant and useful;
and they prefer to take responsibility for their own learning and their own decisions.
The following are some basic principles to use when designing adult learning materials.
Incorporating these principles into instructional design will increase learning
opportunities and improve the likelihood that the training will be effective.
1. It is important to involve adults in planning and evaluating their own
instruction. This is based on the assumption that adults need to know why it is
important for them to learn something and they like to have control in how they
learn it. Involving adult learners in the instructional process allows them to take
control and direct their own learning. Adults can be involved in various ways:
through sharing learning outcomes, through allowing learners greater control in
how they interact with the resources and materials, or through the method in
which learning is demonstrated. For example, many online learning programs
allow students to move through the resources at their own pace. Instructors can
also give open ended assignments or provide flexible methods of demonstrating
learning tasks.
2. Past experiences form the foundation for new learning. Allowing adult
learners to integrate new knowledge into their past experiences is key to the
learning process. This is based on the idea that adults need to learn

experientially. Past experiences can be brought into learning situations by

allowing learners to share their experiences with the topic and to relate it to their
current situations. Past experiences, either positive or negative, often provide a
solid basis for learning activities.
3. Learning should be relevant to an adult’s job or personal life. This is based
on the assumption that adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
When learners understand the immediate application for what they are learning,
they are more likely to be motivated to acquire and integrate the information
being presented. It is extremely useful when designing instruction to clearly
demonstrate how the information being presented will be useful to learners.
4. Learning should be focused on solving problems rather than simply
reviewing content. This is based on the assumption that adults approach
learning through problem-solving.
Integrating problem-solving opportunities into instruction is a key way to
motivate adult learners. Learners can be encouraged to try to develop solutions
to a proposed problem, either individually or in groups. This often provides a
practical application for the knowledge and is likely to increase overall
understanding of the concepts.
Motivations of Adult Learners
Motivation is extremely important in all things that we do, but is of particular importance in
adult learning. The following are some key motivators for adult learning.
Personal advancement: The desire to achieve a higher status in a job or to improve
one's professional standing. This may also include the desire to develop skills needed
to competently complete a current job or position.
Personal improvement: This is the desire to improve oneself or one's skills in order to
better who they are. Often health, holistic, and self improvement learning is done for this
reason.
External expectations: This is learning that is done in order to fill an expectation or
because of a recommendation from someone in authority. This also includes learning
done to comply with obligations for work.
Cognitive interest: This is the desire for learning for the sake of learning, seeking
knowledge out of curiosity or to satisfy an inquiring mind.
Social relationships: This is learning based on the desire to strengthen or increase social
circles, for example to make new friends, meet new colleagues, network, etc.
Social welfare: The desire to improve the world around you, to give something back
to the community, to participate in community work.
Escape or stimulation: This is the desire to learn in order to relieve boredom, provide a
break in work routine, or to provide a contrast to other more monotonous tasks in life.
This is often learning that is done in relation to hobbies or enjoyable past times.
Recognizing the reason or motivation for the learning can help by tailoring the learning
outcomes and the information to be more relevant.

Learning Styles
Learning styles refer to the preference people give to the way in which information is
provided and processed. The following diagram illustrates some of the many components
of adult learning styles.
Sensory preference refers to the method through which learners prefer to gather information.
For example, visual learners prefer to have information depicted graphically. They will be
assisted by pictures, drawings, diagrams, etc. These learners often take notes as they best
absorb language when presented visually as opposed to the spoken word.
Auditory learners best process information that is heard. They may use a tape recorder
for notes and often talk out loud when processing information.
Tactile or kinesthetic learners prefer a hands-on approach. These learners benefit from
demonstration or from the ability to physically act out or complete a task.
Social learning preference indicates how much interaction is preferred when absorbing
or processing information. Individuals who are introverted are more likely to enjoy
presentations by subject matter experts, working alone or in very small groups, or self-
paced independent study. They tend to process information internally.
Individuals who are more extraverted often prefer to process information while
interacting with others. They prefer instructional techniques such as working in groups,
playing games or other interactive activities, or participating in small or large group
discussions.

The cognitive component of our learning style refers to how we typically process
information. Global learners tend to see the big picture and then fill in the details. These
learners prefer instructional techniques such as starting with the overarching concept
and then determining the why and how. These learners prefer to first understand the
theory then determine practical applications.
Sequential learners, on the other hand, tend to understand information logically and
prefer linear steps. They preferred to process the details and then create the big picture.
These individuals like information presented in a step by step process. They enjoy
concrete practical examples. They prefer to have the practical applications presented
first, and then develop or understand the applicable theory.
It is useful for an instructor to understand the diversity of learning styles. As much as
possible instructional design should try to accommodate a variety of learning styles.
For example, information can be presented orally while a visual supplement is
presented through a PowerPoint. Learners can later be given the opportunity to interact
with the material in a group or individual problem-solving activity.
Learner Diversity
Adult learners bring a wealth of experiences to their learning. These experiences
shape both who they are and how they learn and interpret new information.
Instructional design should include an understanding of the diversity of the group being
presented to. This could include understanding age or generational differences, cultural
differences, educational or literacy differences, gender differences, socio-economic
differences, etc.
Education and training methods and techniques (e.g., classroom, online, computer-based, AI,
and on-the-job training
Classroom
Classroom training methods and techniques can vary depending on the goals of the training and
the learning style of the attendees. Some common methods include:
1. Lecture: This is a traditional method where the trainer delivers information to the
attendees using a presentation or talking directly to the class.
2. Demonstration: This method involves showing the attendees how to perform a task or
process through practical demonstration.
3. Group Discussion: This method involves encouraging attendees to discuss and share
their knowledge and ideas with each other.
4. Role-playing: This method involves having attendees act out real-life scenarios to
practice and reinforce their learning.
5. Case Study Analysis: This method involves presenting a real-life scenario and asking
attendees to analyze and solve the problem together.
6. Interactive Games and Quizzes: This method involves using games and quizzes to
reinforce learning and make it more engaging and fun.

7. Hands-on Activities: This method involves having attendees participate in practical

activities to apply their learning and gain hands-on experience.
8. Video Presentations: This method involves showing attendees a video to illustrate a
concept or provide a real-life example.
9. Brainstorming: This method involves having attendees work together to generate ideas
and solutions to problems.
The most effective training method will depend on the material being covered, the learning style
of the attendees, and the goals of the training. A skilled trainer will often use a combination of
methods to engage the attendees and reinforce their learning.
Online
Online education and training methods and techniques differ from traditional classroom training
as they take advantage of technology and the internet to deliver content and engage students.
Some common methods and techniques used in online education and training include:
1. Online Courses: This method involves using platforms such as Coursera, Udemy, or
EdX to deliver self-paced courses to students.
2. Video Conferencing: This method involves using tools such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams,
or Google Meet to conduct live, virtual classroom sessions.
3. Webinars: This method involves using platforms such as GoToWebinar or Webex to
deliver a presentation or lecture to a large group of attendees over the internet.
4. E-Learning Modules: This method involves using tools such as Articulate, Captivate, or
Moodle to deliver interactive and multimedia-based learning experiences.
5. Virtual Classrooms: This method involves creating a virtual environment that simulates a
traditional classroom experience and allows students to interact with each other and the
instructor.
6. Online Collaboration and Discussion: This method involves using forums, discussion
boards, or collaborative documents to encourage students to engage with each other
and the instructor.
7. Gamification: This method involves using game elements such as points, badges, and
leaderboards to motivate and engage students.
8. Virtual Labs and Simulations: This method involves using virtual environments to provide
hands-on experience and reinforce learning.
9. Adaptive Learning: This method involves using algorithms to adjust the pace and content
of the course based on the student's performance and learning style.
The most effective online education and training method will depend on the material being
covered, the learning style of the students, and the goals of the training. A skilled instructor will
often use a combination of methods to engage the students and reinforce their learning.
Computer-based

Computer-based education and training methods and techniques make use of technology to
deliver and enhance the learning experience. Some common methods and techniques include:
1. Interactive Software: This method involves using software programs that provide
interactive learning experiences and reinforce concepts through games, simulations, and
other activities.
2. Online Tutorials: This method involves using video tutorials, written instructions, or
interactive simulations to guide students through a specific task or concept.
3. E-Books and Digital Textbooks: This method involves using electronic books and digital
textbooks that can be accessed and read on a computer, tablet, or other device.
4. Virtual Classrooms: This method involves creating a virtual environment that simulates a
traditional classroom experience and allows students to interact with each other and the
instructor.
5. Adaptive Learning: This method involves using algorithms to adjust the pace and content
of the course based on the student's performance and learning style.
6. Coding and Programming: This method involves using tools such as Codecademy,
Scratch, or Khan Academy to provide interactive and hands-on learning experiences for
coding and programming.
7. Virtual Labs and Simulations: This method involves using virtual environments to provide
hands-on experience and reinforce learning, especially for subjects such as science,
engineering, or computer science.
8. Gamification: This method involves using game elements such as points, badges, and
leaderboards to motivate and engage students in the learning process.
The most effective computer-based education and training method will depend on the material
being covered, the learning style of the students, and the goals of the training. A skilled
instructor will often use a combination of methods to engage the students and reinforce their
learning.
AI
Artificial Intelligence (AI) education and training methods and techniques make use of AI
technology to deliver and enhance the learning experience. Some common methods and
techniques include:
1. Virtual Tutors and AI-Powered Learning: This method involves using AI-powered tutors
to provide individualized feedback and guidance to students.
2. Interactive Learning Platforms: This method involves using AI-powered platforms that
provide interactive learning experiences and reinforce concepts through games,
simulations, and other activities.
3. Adaptive Learning: This method involves using AI algorithms to adjust the pace and
content of the course based on the student's performance and learning style.

4. Intelligent Recommender Systems: This method involves using AI algorithms to

recommend learning resources and activities that are personalized to the student's
learning style and needs.
5. Machine Learning: This method involves using machine learning algorithms to provide
hands-on experience and reinforce learning for subjects such as data science, computer
science, or engineering.
6. Natural Language Processing: This method involves using NLP algorithms to facilitate
communication between students and the AI tutor or to automate the grading of written
assignments.
7. Chatbots and Virtual Assistants: This method involves using chatbots and virtual
assistants to provide students with instant feedback and support.
The most effective AI education and training method will depend on the material being covered,
the learning style of the students, and the goals of the training. A skilled instructor will often use
a combination of methods to engage the students and reinforce their learning. Additionally, AI
technology is constantly evolving and new methods and techniques are emerging all the time,
so it is important for educators and trainers to stay up-to-date with the latest developments.
On-the-job training
On-the-job training (OJT) is a type of education and training that takes place in the workplace,
allowing employees to learn new skills and gain practical experience while performing their job.
Some common methods and techniques used in on-the-job training include:
1. Hands-On Experience: This method involves allowing employees to perform tasks and
complete projects under the supervision and guidance of experienced employees or
managers.
2. Shadowing: This method involves having employees observe and follow experienced
employees or managers as they perform their job, allowing the employee to gain a
deeper understanding of the job and learn new skills.
3. Coaching and Mentoring: This method involves having experienced employees or
managers provide one-on-one guidance, feedback, and support to employees as they
learn new skills and perform their job.
4. Job Rotation: This method involves rotating employees through different departments or
positions within the company, allowing them to gain a broad range of experiences and
skills.
5. Cross-Training: This method involves training employees in skills that are outside of their
regular job responsibilities, allowing them to develop a broader skill set and be more
versatile in their role.
6. Classroom Instruction: This method involves using traditional classroom training to
supplement on-the-job training and provide employees with additional knowledge and
skills.

7. Simulation and Role-Playing: This method involves using simulations and role-playing
exercises to provide employees with hands-on experience and reinforce their learning.
The most effective on-the-job training method will depend on the skills being taught, the learning
style of the employees, and the goals of the training. A skilled instructor or manager will often
use a combination of methods to engage the employees and reinforce their learning.
Additionally, on-the-job training should be ongoing and integrated into the regular work
environment to ensure that employees continue to develop and improve their skills.
Methods for determining the effectiveness of training programs (e.g., determine if trainees are
applying training on the job
Determining the effectiveness of training programs is important to ensure that the objectives of
the training are being met and that the trainees are applying the training on the job. Some
methods to determine the effectiveness of training programs include:
1. Pre and post-training assessments: Before and after the training, you can conduct
assessments to measure the trainees’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and compare the
results to see if there has been any improvement.
2. On-the-job observation: You can observe the trainees as they perform their tasks to see
if they are applying the training in their work.
3. Feedback from supervisors: You can ask the trainees’ supervisors for feedback on the
trainees’ performance and see if they are using the training in their work.
4. Performance improvement metrics: You can measure the performance improvement
metrics related to the training objectives to see if the training has had a positive impact.
5. Return on investment (ROI) analysis: You can calculate the ROI of the training program
to see if it has been a good investment.
6. Employee satisfaction surveys: You can conduct employee satisfaction surveys to gather
feedback on the training program and determine if it has been effective.
7. Follow-up training: You can provide follow-up training to reinforce the training and see if
the trainees are retaining the information and applying it in their work.
Effective presentation techniques

Effective presentation techniques can help to engage and inform your audience, and make your
message memorable. Some commonly used and effective presentation techniques include:
1. Storytelling: This technique involves using a story to illustrate a point or convey a
message, which can help to make the information more relatable and memorable for the
audience.
2. Visual aids: This technique involves using graphics, charts, images, and videos to
support and enhance your message. Visual aids can help to clarify complex information,
make the presentation more engaging, and aid in retention.
3. Analogies and Metaphors: This technique involves using comparisons and examples
that the audience can easily understand, to help explain complex or abstract concepts.
4. Interactive Elements: This technique involves incorporating interactive elements such as
quizzes, polls, or hands-on activities into the presentation, which can help to keep the
audience engaged and foster a sense of involvement.

5. Repetition and Reinforcement: This technique involves repeating key points or

messages several times throughout the presentation, to help ensure they are retained by
the audience.
6. Body Language and Nonverbal Communication: This technique involves using effective
body language, eye contact, and gestures to enhance the impact of your message and
convey confidence and enthusiasm.
7. Q&A Session: This technique involves allowing time for questions and discussion at the
end of the presentation, which can help to clarify any misunderstandings, reinforce key
points, and build a sense of community with the audience.
8. Simplicity and Clarity: This technique involves using clear, concise language and
avoiding technical jargon or complex concepts, to ensure the audience can easily
understand and retain your message.
PowerPoint presentation standards refer to the guidelines for creating professional-looking and
effective presentations using Microsoft PowerPoint. These standards typically include guidelines
for design elements such as color scheme, font usage, image placement, and overall layout.
Here are some commonly used PowerPoint presentation standards:
1. Fonts: Sans-serif fonts such as Arial, Calibri, or Verdana are typically recommended for
PowerPoint presentations, as they are easy to read on a screen. It's also recommended
to use a consistent font throughout the presentation and to use a font size of 18-22
points for the main body text.
2. Color Scheme: A simple and consistent color scheme, such as a monochromatic palette
or a complementary color combination, can help to create a professional and cohesive
look for your presentation. It's also important to consider the readability of text on the
background color.
3. Layout: A clean and organized layout, with consistent spacing and alignment, can help
to make the information in your presentation easy to understand and follow. Using a grid
structure or consistent margins can also help to reinforce this structure.
4. Images: High-quality images can help to make your presentation more visually appealing
and engaging. It's recommended to use images that are relevant to the content of the
presentation and to use image placement and size consistently throughout the
presentation.
5. Animations and Transitions: Animations and transitions can help to make the
presentation more dynamic and engaging, but it's important to use them sparingly and in
a way that supports the content, rather than distracting from it.
6. Slide Structure: A consistent slide structure, such as using the same background and
header on every slide, can help to reinforce the overall visual identity of the presentation
and make the information easier to follow.
The height and thickness of a font in a PowerPoint presentation can vary depending on several
factors, such as the display device, the size of the slide, and the distance from which the slide is
viewed. Generally speaking, the height of a font is determined by its point size, which is the size

of the font expressed in points. One point is equal to approximately 1/72 inch. The thickness of
a font, or its weight, is determined by the specific typeface and can range from light to heavy.
When it comes to distance, the ideal font size for a PowerPoint presentation will vary depending
on the size of the room and the distance from which the audience is viewing the slide. As a
general guideline, it's recommended to use a font size of at least 28 points for the main body
text on a slide, and to adjust the font size accordingly based on the size of the room and the
viewing distance.
Additionally, it's also important to consider the legibility of the font at the given distance. For
example, using a thin or light font weight may not be easily legible at a distance, so it may be
necessary to use a heavier font weight in these cases.
It's always a good idea to do a test run of the presentation to ensure that the font size and
weight are appropriate for the viewing distance and conditions.
Charts and graphs are useful tools in a PowerPoint presentation to help communicate
information and data in a visual manner. They can be used to show trends, compare data sets,
highlight relationships, and make information easier to understand.
PowerPoint provides several options for creating charts and graphs, including:
1. Bar Charts: A bar chart is used to compare data between different categories. It can be
used to show the differences between the values of each category.
2. Line Charts: A line chart is used to display trends over time. It can be used to show
changes in data over a specific period.
3. Pie Charts: A pie chart is used to represent proportions of data in a circular format. It can
be used to show how a whole is divided into different parts.
4. Column Charts: A column chart is similar to a bar chart, but with the categories
represented as columns rather than bars.
5. Scatter Charts: A scatter chart is used to show the relationship between two variables. It
can be used to show the correlation between two sets of data.
6. Area Charts: An area chart is used to represent proportions of data over time. It can be
used to show how a whole changes over time.
To create a chart or graph in PowerPoint, you can select the data you want to use, go to the
Insert tab, and then choose the type of chart or graph you want to create. PowerPoint will then
generate the chart or graph based on your selected data.
Once you have created your chart or graph, you can format it to match your presentation style,
including adding colors, labels, and customizing the axis. You can also add animation to your
chart or graph to make it more dynamic and engaging for your audience

Domain 9- Law and Ethics

Workers Compensation
Workers Compensation History
The history of workers' compensation in the United States can be traced back to the late 19th
century, when industrialization and urbanization brought new risks and hazards to the
workplace. Prior to the establishment of workers' compensation programs, workers who were
injured on the job had few options for seeking compensation or medical treatment. In many
cases, they were forced to rely on charity or sue their employer in court, which was often an
expensive and time-consuming process with uncertain results.
The first workers' compensation law was passed in the state of Wisconsin in 1911. Over the
next several decades, other states followed suit, and by the mid-1940s, all states had
established some form of workers' compensation program.
These programs were designed to provide a system for compensating workers who were
injured on the job, regardless of who was at fault for the injury. In exchange for this guaranteed
compensation, workers gave up their right to sue their employer for damages. This arrangement
ensured that workers could receive prompt and fair compensation for their injuries, while also
reducing the risk of costly lawsuits for employers.
Since the establishment of the first workers' compensation programs, the laws and regulations
governing these programs have evolved and changed over time. Today, workers' compensation
programs continue to provide an important safety net for workers who are injured on the job,
and they remain an essential component of the employment relationship in the United States.
Current Workers' Compensation Laws
Workers' compensation laws in the United States are designed to provide medical and financial
benefits to employees who are injured or become ill as a result of their job. These benefits are
intended to help cover the costs of medical treatment, lost wages, and other related expenses.
Each state has its own workers' compensation laws, and there are some variations in coverage
and benefits between states. However, there are some general principles that apply to workers'
compensation programs across the country.
1. Coverage: Most employers are required by law to provide workers' compensation
coverage for their employees. In some states, coverage is mandatory for all employers,
while in others it is only required for companies with a certain number of employees.
Some states also provide for optional coverage for self-employed individuals.
2. Benefits: The specific benefits provided by workers' compensation programs can vary by
state, but they typically include medical benefits, temporary disability benefits,
permanent disability benefits, and death benefits. Medical benefits are intended to cover
the costs of medical treatment, including hospitalization, surgery, and rehabilitation.
Temporary disability benefits are paid to workers who are unable to work as a result of
their injury or illness, while permanent disability benefits are paid to workers who have
suffered a permanent injury or impairment. Death benefits are paid to the surviving
spouse or dependents of a worker who dies as a result of a job-related injury or illness.
3. Claims process: The process for filing a workers' compensation claim typically involves
reporting the injury or illness to the employer, seeking medical treatment, and then filing

a claim with the state workers' compensation board or insurance carrier. In some cases,
the claim may be disputed, and the worker may need to attend a hearing or mediation to
resolve the dispute.
4. Limitations: Workers' compensation laws typically place some limitations on the benefits
that are available to injured workers. For example, some states limit the amount of time
that an employee can receive temporary disability benefits, while others limit the amount
of money that can be paid for permanent disability benefits. Additionally, workers'
compensation laws may exclude certain types of injuries or illnesses from coverage,
such as those that are the result of horseplay or drug or alcohol use.
Overall, the current workers' compensation laws in the United States provide a safety net for
workers who are injured or become ill as a result of their job. These laws help to ensure that
workers receive prompt and fair compensation for their injuries, while also reducing the risk of
lawsuits and other legal disputes.
Coverage Exemptions
In the United States, there are certain circumstances under which an employer may be exempt
from providing workers' compensation coverage for their employees. Some of the most common
exemptions include:
1. Independent Contractors: Independent contractors, who are not considered employees,
are generally not covered by workers' compensation laws. However, the definition of
"independent contractor" can vary by state, and there may be some gray areas in the
determination of who is an employee and who is an independent contractor.
2. Domestic Employees: Domestic employees, such as household servants and nannies,
are sometimes exempt from workers' compensation coverage. The exact rules and
regulations vary by state, and in some cases, employers may be required to provide
coverage for domestic employees if they meet certain conditions.
3. Agricultural Workers: Agricultural workers are often exempt from workers' compensation
coverage, although this can also vary by state. In some states, agricultural workers are
eligible for workers' compensation benefits if they are injured on the job, while in others
they are not.
4. Volunteer Workers: Volunteer workers, who perform work without compensation, are
generally not eligible for workers' compensation benefits. However, some states may
provide coverage for volunteer firefighters or other types of volunteer workers who are
injured while performing their duties.
5. Small Businesses: In some states, small businesses with a limited number of employees
may be exempt from workers' compensation coverage requirements. The exact
threshold for what constitutes a small business can vary by state, and there may be
other conditions or exceptions that apply.
It's important to note that the laws and regulations surrounding workers' compensation coverage
exemptions can vary significantly from state to state, and it's important to consult with a
knowledgeable attorney or the state workers' compensation board for specific guidance on your
situation.

Workers' Compensation Premiums

Workers' compensation premiums are the fees that employers pay to provide workers'
compensation coverage for their employees. These premiums are used to fund the workers'
compensation system, which provides benefits to workers who are injured or become ill as a
result of their job.
The amount of the workers' compensation premium that an employer must pay depends on
several factors, including:
1. Classification of employees: Workers' compensation premiums are based on the type of
work that employees perform, and the risks associated with that work. For example,
employees who work in construction or other physically demanding jobs may be
assigned to a higher risk classification, and therefore pay a higher premium, than
employees who work in an office environment.
2. Size of the company: Larger companies generally pay higher workers' compensation
premiums than smaller companies, because they have a greater number of employees
and a higher overall risk.
3. Claims history: An employer's claims history can also impact the amount of their
workers' compensation premium. If an employer has a history of frequent or expensive
workers' compensation claims, their premium may be higher than an employer with a
clean claims history.
4. State laws: Workers' compensation laws vary from state to state, and the amount of the
premium that an employer must pay can also vary depending on the state in which they
do business.
The workers' compensation premium is typically paid on a yearly basis, although some
employers may choose to pay it on a monthly or quarterly basis. The premium is calculated
based on the employer's payroll and the classification of their employees, and it may be
adjusted annually to reflect changes in the employer's business, workforce, or claims history.
In general, workers' compensation premiums are tax-deductible for the employer, and they are
not considered taxable income for the employees. However, it's always a good idea to consult
with a tax professional or accountant for specific guidance on your situation.
Calculating Experience Modification Rates
An experience modification rate (EMR) is a number that reflects a company's past experience
with workers' compensation claims and is used to adjust the workers' compensation premium
that the company must pay. Here's an example to illustrate the calculation of an EMR:
Suppose a company has $100,000 in actual losses from workers' compensation claims over the
past year. The expected losses for a company of this size and in this industry are $150,000. To
calculate the EMR, divide the actual losses by the expected losses:
EMR = $100,000 ÷ $150,000 = 0.67
This company's EMR is 0.67, which means that they had better-than-average claims experience
compared to other companies in their industry and size. As a result, their workers' compensation
premium may be adjusted downward.

Now, suppose that a different company in the same industry and of the same size had $200,000
in actual losses and the same $150,000 in expected losses. Their EMR would be calculated as
follows:
EMR = $200,000 ÷ $150,000 = 1.33
This company's EMR is 1.33, which means that they had worse-than-average claims experience
compared to other companies in their industry and size. As a result, their workers' compensation
premium may be adjusted upward.
It's important to keep in mind that the calculation of an EMR can be complex, and the exact
formula may vary depending on the state in which the company does business. However, the
basic idea is that an EMR is used to compare a company's actual claims experience to the
expected claims experience for their industry and size, and to adjust their workers'
compensation premium accordingly.
Calculating Total Case Incident Rates
The Total Case Incident Rate (TCIR) is a metric used to measure the number of occupational
injuries and illnesses in a workplace per 100 full-time workers in a given period. It is calculated
using the following formula:
TCIR = (Total number of injuries and illnesses x 200,000) / Total hours worked by all employees
The factor of 200,000 is used to standardize the incidence rate to 100 full-time employees
working 40 hours per week for 50 weeks per year.
For example, if a company had 20 injuries and illnesses in a year and its employees worked a
total of 2,000,000 hours during that period, the TCIR would be:
TCIR = (20 x 200,000) / 2,000,000 = 2.0
This means that for every 100 full-time employees, there were 2.0 injuries and illnesses in that
workplace during that period.
The TCIR can help companies identify potential safety hazards and evaluate the effectiveness
of their safety programs over time. It can also be used to compare the safety performance of
different companies or industries.
Calculating Days Away, Restricted, or Transfer Rates
The Days Away, Restricted, or Transfer (DART) rate is a metric used to measure the number of
occupational injuries and illnesses that result in days away from work, job transfer, or work
restrictions per 100 full-time workers in a given period. It is calculated using the following
formula:
DART rate = (Number of injuries and illnesses involving days away from work, job transfer, or
work restrictions x 200,000) / Total hours worked by all employees

For example, suppose a company had 10 injuries and illnesses that resulted in days away from
work, job transfer, or work restrictions during a year, and its employees worked a total of
2,000,000 hours during that period. The DART rate would be:
DART rate = (10 x 200,000) / 2,000,000 = 1.0
This means that for every 100 full-time employees, there were 1.0 injuries and illnesses that
resulted in days away from work, job transfer, or work restrictions during that period.
The DART rate can help companies evaluate the effectiveness of their safety programs in
preventing more severe injuries and illnesses that result in lost workdays or job transfers. It can
also be used to compare the safety performance of different companies or industries.
Calculating Severity Rates
The Severity Rate is a metric used to measure the severity of occupational injuries and illnesses
in a workplace. It is calculated by dividing the total number of lost workdays by the total number
of hours worked by all employees, and then multiplying the result by 200,000. The formula for
calculating the Severity Rate is as follows:
Severity Rate = (Number of lost workdays x 200,000) / Total hours worked by all employees
For example, suppose a company had a total of 50 lost workdays due to occupational injuries
and illnesses during a year, and its employees worked a total of 2,000,000 hours during that
period. The Severity Rate would be:
Severity Rate = (50 x 200,000) / 2,000,000 = 5.0
This means that for every 100 full-time employees, there were 5.0 lost workdays due to
occupational injuries and illnesses during that period.
The Severity Rate can help companies evaluate the severity of injuries and illnesses in their
workplace and identify areas where improvements can be made to prevent injuries and reduce
lost workdays. It can also be used to compare the safety performance of different companies or
industries.
Waiver of Subrogation
A waiver of subrogation is a provision in an insurance contract that limits an insurance
company's right to seek reimbursement from another party for claims that it has paid. It typically
applies to property and liability insurance policies.
In the context of workers' compensation insurance, a waiver of subrogation may be included in
a contract between an employer and a contractor or subcontractor. The purpose of this
provision is to ensure that the employer's workers' compensation insurance will be the primary
source of recovery for employees who are injured on the job, regardless of who is responsible
for the injury.
Here's how it works: If an employee is injured on the job and files a workers' compensation
claim, the employer's workers' compensation insurance will pay the claim. However, if the injury

was caused by the negligence of a third party (such as a contractor or subcontractor), the
insurance company may have a right of subrogation to seek reimbursement from the third party.
A waiver of subrogation provision in the contract between the employer and the contractor or
subcontractor would waive this right of subrogation. This means that the insurance company
would not be able to seek reimbursement from the contractor or subcontractor, even if the injury
was caused by their negligence.
The purpose of a waiver of subrogation is to ensure that employees receive prompt and
adequate compensation for their injuries, without the need for a lengthy and potentially
complicated legal process to determine who is responsible. It also helps to avoid disputes
between insurance companies and contractors or subcontractors over who is responsible for
paying claims.
It's important to note that not all insurance policies include a waiver of subrogation provision,
and the specific terms and conditions of such a provision may vary from policy to policy. It's also
important to carefully review the terms of any waiver of subrogation provision to ensure that it
provides adequate protection for employees and meets the needs of all parties involved.
Safety Professional's Role and Responsibilities in Workers' Compensation
As a safety professional, you play a critical role in managing workers' compensation within your
organization. Your responsibilities may include:
1. Developing and implementing safety programs: You may be responsible for developing,
implementing, and maintaining safety programs designed to reduce the risk of workplace
injuries and illnesses. This may involve conducting risk assessments, identifying
hazards, and developing strategies to mitigate those hazards.
2. Conducting training: You may be responsible for conducting safety training for
employees to help them understand the risks involved in their jobs and how to work
safely to avoid injuries.
3. Investigating incidents: When an injury or illness occurs, you may be responsible for
investigating the incident to determine the cause and identify ways to prevent similar
incidents in the future.
4. Maintaining accurate records: You may be responsible for maintaining accurate and up-
to-date records of all workplace injuries and illnesses, including information about the
cause of the injury or illness, the employee's job duties, and any other relevant
information.
5. Communicating with insurance carriers: You may be responsible for communicating with
the organization's workers' compensation insurance carrier to report claims and provide
information about incidents.
6. Managing return-to-work programs: You may be responsible for developing and
implementing return-to-work programs that help employees who have been injured or
are recovering from an illness to safely return to work as soon as possible.
7. Staying up-to-date with laws and regulations: You may be responsible for staying up-to-
date with laws and regulations related to workers' compensation, including changes to

laws and regulations, and ensuring that the organization is in compliance with all
applicable requirements.
In summary, as a safety professional, you play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and well-
being of employees and managing workers' compensation in your organization. By taking an
active role in developing and implementing effective safety programs and managing workplace
injuries and illnesses, you can help to reduce the risk of harm to employees and minimize the
cost and impact of workers' compensation claims.
Reporting of Injuries and Claims
The reporting of injuries and claims is a crucial aspect of the workers' compensation process. It
is the responsibility of the employer to report any workplace injuries or illnesses to the
appropriate parties, including the injured employee, the workers' compensation insurance
carrier, and any relevant government agencies.
Here are the steps involved in reporting an injury or claim for workers' compensation:
1. Notify the employee: If an employee is injured or becomes ill as a result of their work, it
is the employer's responsibility to immediately notify the employee of the injury or illness
and provide them with any necessary medical treatment.
2. Report the injury: The employer should report the injury to their workers' compensation
insurance carrier as soon as possible, providing all relevant information about the injury,
including the date and time of the incident, the type of injury, and the circumstances
surrounding the injury.
3. Complete necessary forms: The employer may need to complete and submit a number
of forms, including incident reports, claim forms, and medical authorization forms, to the
workers' compensation insurance carrier.
4. Provide medical treatment: The employer should ensure that the injured employee
receives prompt and appropriate medical treatment, including any necessary follow-up
care.
5. Maintain records: The employer should maintain accurate and up-to-date records of all
workplace injuries and illnesses, including the date and time of the incident, the type of
injury, and any relevant medical information.
6. Notify relevant agencies: Depending on the jurisdiction, the employer may also be
required to notify relevant government agencies, such as the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), of the injury.
It's important to note that the reporting process can vary depending on the jurisdiction and the
specifics of the workers' compensation system in place. Therefore, it's important for employers
to familiarize themselves with the requirements for reporting injuries and claims in their state or
jurisdiction.
By promptly and accurately reporting workplace injuries and illnesses, employers can help to
ensure that injured employees receive the benefits they are entitled to under the workers'
compensation system, while also protecting their own interests and managing the costs
associated with workers' compensation claims.

Case Management
Case management in workers' compensation refers to the coordination of care for workers who
have suffered a job-related injury or illness. The goal of case management is to ensure that
injured workers receive prompt, appropriate, and cost-effective medical care, and that they are
able to return to work as soon as possible.
Here are some of the key elements of case management in workers' compensation:
1. Assessment: The first step in case management is to assess the needs of the injured
worker, including any medical, rehabilitation, or vocational needs. This assessment is
performed by a case manager, who will work with healthcare providers, rehabilitation
specialists, and other professionals to develop a comprehensive understanding of the
injured worker's needs.
2. Coordination of Care: The case manager works with healthcare providers, rehabilitation
specialists, and other professionals to coordinate the care of the injured worker, ensuring
that they receive the right medical treatment at the right time. This may involve arranging
appointments, ensuring that the injured worker is receiving the appropriate medications,
and ensuring that they are following a recommended treatment plan.
3. Monitoring Progress: The case manager monitors the progress of the injured worker,
tracking their recovery and ensuring that they receive any necessary follow-up care. This
may involve regular check-ins with the injured worker and their healthcare providers, as
well as updates to the workers' compensation insurance carrier.
4. Facilitation of Communication: The case manager facilitates communication between the
injured worker, their employer, and the workers' compensation insurance carrier, helping
to ensure that everyone is informed about the status of the case and any necessary next
steps.
5. Return to Work: The case manager works with the injured worker and their employer to
develop a plan for a safe and effective return to work, including any necessary
accommodations or modifications. This may involve arranging for modified duty or light-
duty work, or working with the injured worker and their employer to make any necessary
changes to their job duties or responsibilities.
6. Cost Management: The case manager also plays a role in managing the costs
associated with workers' compensation claims, working to ensure that medical treatment
is cost-effective and that claims are managed in a way that minimizes costs for both
employers and injured workers.
By working closely with injured workers, their employers, and the workers' compensation
insurance carrier, case managers play an important role in ensuring that workers receive the
medical care and support they need to recover from their injuries and return to work as soon as
possible. Through the coordination of care, communication, and cost management, case
managers help to ensure that workers' compensation claims are handled efficiently, effectively,
and fairly.
Here is an example of how case management might work in a workers' compensation claim:

1. An employee, Mary, is injured on the job. She reports the injury to her employer and is
taken to the hospital for medical treatment.
2. The employer reports the injury to the workers' compensation insurance carrier, which
assigns a case manager to Mary's claim. The case manager is responsible for
coordinating all aspects of Mary's claim, including medical treatment, rehabilitation, and
return-to-work efforts.
3. The case manager works with Mary's treating physician to develop a treatment plan that
is tailored to her specific needs. The plan may include physical therapy, medication, and
other forms of medical treatment, as well as a return-to-work plan that is designed to
help Mary recover and return to work as soon as possible.
4. The case manager also works with Mary's employer to ensure that she receives the
appropriate accommodations and support to help her recover and return to work. For
example, the case manager might work with the employer to provide Mary with modified
duties, or to arrange for transportation to and from medical appointments.
5. As Mary's recovery progresses, the case manager monitors her progress and provides
ongoing support and assistance. This may include helping Mary to access additional
medical treatment or rehabilitation services, or working with her employer to help her
return to work.
6. Once Mary has fully recovered from her injury, the case manager closes the claim and
ensures that all necessary documentation and paperwork has been completed.
In this example, the case manager played a critical role in helping Mary to recover from her
injury and return to work as soon as possible. By coordinating all aspects of Mary's claim, the
case manager helped to ensure that Mary received the medical treatment and support she
needed, and that her return-to-work efforts were successful.
Case management is an important part of the workers' compensation process, as it helps to
ensure that injured workers receive the medical care and support they need, and that their
claims are resolved in a timely and effective manner.
Prompt Reporting
Prompt reporting of injuries and illnesses is a critical component of the workers' compensation
process. The purpose of prompt reporting is to ensure that injured workers receive timely
medical treatment, that their claims are handled efficiently, and that their rights and benefits
under the workers' compensation system are protected.
Here are some key aspects of prompt reporting in workers' compensation:
1. Time Limits: Most states have strict time limits for reporting injuries and illnesses,
typically ranging from 24 hours to 7 days. Injured workers must report their injury or
illness to their employer as soon as possible in order to preserve their rights under the
workers' compensation system.
2. Employee Responsibility: It is the responsibility of the injured worker to report their injury
or illness to their employer as soon as possible. This can be done by filling out a
workers' compensation claim form, calling the employer, or speaking to a supervisor.

3. Employer Responsibility: Employers are responsible for providing injured workers with
the necessary information and forms to report their injury or illness, and for ensuring that
the appropriate information is submitted to the workers' compensation insurance carrier.
4. Documentation: Proper documentation of the injury or illness is critical in the workers'
compensation process. This includes the date and time of the injury or illness, a
description of the event or incident, and any relevant information about the conditions at
the time of the injury or illness.
5. Medical Treatment: Prompt reporting of injuries and illnesses is important in order to
ensure that injured workers receive timely medical treatment. This may involve
transportation to a medical facility, examination by a doctor, and any necessary
diagnostic tests or procedures.
6. Claim Processing: Prompt reporting of injuries and illnesses is also important in order to
ensure that claims are processed efficiently and effectively. This may involve
coordinating with the workers' compensation insurance carrier, arranging for medical
treatment, and providing information to support the claim.
Prompt reporting is essential to ensuring that workers receive the medical care and support they
need, and that their rights and benefits under the workers' compensation system are protected.
By reporting their injury or illness as soon as possible, injured workers can help to ensure that
their claims are handled efficiently and fairly, and that they receive the support they need to
recover from their injury or illness and return to work.
Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program
A Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program is a program that is designed to help injured workers
return to work as soon as possible after an injury or illness. The program provides injured
workers with the support they need to recover from their injury or illness and return to work in a
safe and productive manner.
Here are some key aspects of a Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program:
1. Purpose: The primary purpose of a Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program is to help injured
workers return to work as soon as possible after an injury or illness. This is typically
done by providing injured workers with alternative or modified duties that are within their
physical capabilities, and that allow them to continue working while they recover from
their injury or illness.
2. Employee Eligibility: Injured workers who have a work-related injury or illness may be
eligible for a Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program. Eligibility typically depends on the
nature and severity of the injury or illness, and the worker's ability to perform alternative
or modified duties.
3. Employer Responsibility: Employers are responsible for implementing and managing the
Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program, and for providing injured workers with alternative or
modified duties that are within their physical capabilities. Employers may also be
responsible for coordinating with the workers' compensation insurance carrier and with
medical providers to ensure that injured workers receive the support they need to
recover from their injury or illness and return to work.

4. Medical Approval: Injured workers who participate in a Return-to-Work/Light Duty

Program typically need medical approval to return to work, and may also need ongoing
medical monitoring to ensure that their injury or illness is not exacerbated by their return
to work.
5. Benefits: Return-to-Work/Light Duty Programs provide injured workers with a number of
benefits, including the ability to continue working while they recover from their injury or
illness, and to maintain their income and benefits while they are unable to perform their
regular duties. Injured workers who participate in a Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program
may also be able to receive medical treatment and other support services as part of their
recovery.
6. Monitoring and Evaluation: Return-to-Work/Light Duty Programs are typically monitored
and evaluated regularly to ensure that they are effective and that they are meeting the
needs of injured workers. This may involve tracking the number of workers who
participate in the program, the length of time it takes for workers to return to work, and
the outcomes for workers who participate in the program.
A Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program is an important component of the workers' compensation
system, and is designed to help injured workers recover from their injury or illness and return to
work as soon as possible. By providing injured workers with the support they need to recover
from their injury or illness, and by allowing them to continue working while they recover, a
Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program can help to ensure that workers receive the medical care
and support they need, and that they are able to return to work in a safe and productive manner.
Here is an example of how a Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program might work:
1. An employee, John, injures his back while lifting a heavy object at work. He visits a
doctor and is diagnosed with a strain.
2. John's employer implements a Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program, and provides John
with alternative or modified duties that are within his physical capabilities. For example,
John might be assigned to work in a different department where the duties are less
physically demanding.
3. John continues to receive medical treatment and physical therapy while he is
participating in the Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program. He also receives ongoing
support from his employer and the workers' compensation insurance carrier, including
access to medical treatment and other support services.
4. As John's injury improves, he gradually returns to his regular duties. His progress is
monitored and evaluated by his doctor and his employer, to ensure that he is able to
perform his duties safely and effectively.
5. Once John has fully recovered from his injury, he returns to his regular duties. He
continues to receive support from his employer and the workers' compensation
insurance carrier, as needed.
In this example, the Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program helped John to recover from his injury
and return to work as soon as possible. By providing him with alternative or modified duties that

were within his physical capabilities, John was able to continue working and earning an income,
and he received the medical care and support he needed to recover from his injury.
A Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program is an important component of the workers' compensation
system, and can help injured workers recover from their injury or illness and return to work as
soon as possible. By providing injured workers with the support they need to recover, a Return-
to-Work/Light Duty Program can help to ensure that workers receive the medical care and
support they need, and that they are able to return to work in a safe and productive manner.
Legal issues (e.g., tort, negligence, civil, criminal, contracts, and disability terminology)
Legal issues in the context of safety refer to the laws and regulations that govern safety and
health in the workplace. The following are some of the key legal issues:
Tort
Tort law refers to the legal principles and remedies that apply in cases involving harm to
someone's person, property, or reputation. Torts are a type of civil wrong, as opposed to
criminal wrongs. Tort law is distinct from contract law, which deals with obligations that arise
from agreements between parties.
Tort law provides a mechanism for individuals to seek compensation for injuries or harm
suffered as a result of someone else's actions or failure to act. In a tort case, the plaintiff (the
person who has suffered harm) must prove that the defendant (the person who caused the
harm) had a legal duty to act in a certain way, that the defendant breached that duty, and that
the plaintiff suffered harm as a result.
Examples of torts include:
1. Negligence: A failure to exercise reasonable care that results in harm to another person,
such as a driver who causes a car accident because they were texting while driving.
2. Battery: Intentionally causing physical harm to another person, such as punching
someone in the face.
3. Defamation: Making false statements that harm another person's reputation, such as
spreading false rumors about someone.
4. Invasion of Privacy: Intruding into someone's private affairs or disclosing confidential
information about them, such as taking and publishing photographs of someone without
their permission.
5. False Imprisonment: Intentionally confining or restraining someone against their will,
such as locking someone in a room.
Negligence
Negligence is a legal concept that applies when a person fails to exercise the level of care that a
reasonable person would have exercised in similar circumstances, and as a result, causes harm
to someone else. Negligence is a type of tort, which is a civil wrong, as opposed to a criminal
wrong.
In order to establish a case of negligence, the plaintiff (the person who has suffered harm) must
prove four elements:

1. Duty of care: The defendant (the person who caused the harm) had a legal duty to act in
a certain way, such as a duty to drive with reasonable care or a duty to maintain a safe
property.
2. Breach of duty: The defendant breached that duty, such as by driving recklessly or
failing to repair a hazardous condition on their property.
3. Causation: The defendant's breach of duty caused the plaintiff's harm, such as causing a
car accident or a slip and fall on a hazardous property.
4. Damages: The plaintiff suffered actual harm or losses, such as physical injuries, property
damage, or financial losses.
If the plaintiff can prove these elements, they may be entitled to compensation for their injuries
or harm. The amount of compensation may depend on the specific facts of the case, such as
the extent of the plaintiff's injuries and the defendant's degree of fault.
Civil law
Civil law is a branch of the legal system that deals with disputes between individuals or
organizations, as well as the regulation of private rights and obligations. Civil law is distinct from
criminal law, which deals with crimes committed against society as a whole.
In civil law, individuals or organizations can bring lawsuits against each other to resolve disputes
and seek compensation for harm suffered. Civil lawsuits typically involve disputes over private
rights and obligations, such as contract disputes, property disputes, personal injury claims, and
disputes over the enforcement of legal rights.
Civil law provides a range of remedies for individuals and organizations to resolve disputes,
including monetary damages, injunctions (court orders requiring someone to do or not do
something), specific performance (a court order requiring someone to perform a contractual
obligation), and declaratory relief (a court order declaring the rights and obligations of the
parties in a dispute).
Civil law also includes a range of substantive laws, such as contract law, property law, family
law, and employment law, that regulate private rights and obligations and provide the legal
framework for resolving disputes.
Criminal law
Criminal law is a branch of the legal system that deals with crimes committed against society as
a whole. Criminal law is distinct from civil law, which deals with disputes between individuals or
organizations and the regulation of private rights and obligations.
In criminal law, the state or federal government brings charges against an individual who is
accused of committing a crime. The goal of criminal law is to hold individuals accountable for
their actions and to protect society by deterring criminal behavior and punishing those who
break the law.
Criminal offenses are classified into two broad categories: misdemeanors and felonies.
Misdemeanors are less serious crimes that are typically punished by fines or imprisonment for
up to one year. Felonies are more serious crimes that are punished by imprisonment for more
than one year or, in some cases, the death penalty.

The elements of a criminal offense vary depending on the jurisdiction and the specific crime, but
generally, the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed
each of the elements of the crime.
The criminal justice process typically begins with an arrest, followed by an arraignment, during
which the defendant is informed of the charges against them and enters a plea of guilty or not
guilty. If the defendant pleads not guilty, the case proceeds to trial, where the prosecution
presents evidence to support the charges and the defendant has the opportunity to present a
defense. If the defendant is found guilty, they may be sentenced to a period of imprisonment,
fines, or other penalties.
Contracts
Contract law is a branch of civil law that governs the formation, performance, and enforcement
of agreements between parties. A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more
parties, where each party agrees to perform certain obligations in exchange for some form of
consideration (e.g., money, goods, services, promises, etc.).
In order for a contract to be enforceable, it must contain certain essential elements:
1. Offer and acceptance: One party must make a clear and definite offer, and the other
party must accept that offer.
2. Consideration: Each party must receive something of value in exchange for their
promises under the contract.
3. Capacity: Both parties must have the legal capacity to enter into a contract, such as
being of legal age and not under duress or undue influence.
4. Legality: The contract must not involve illegal or prohibited activities.
If a contract is formed, the parties are bound by its terms and must fulfill their obligations under
the contract. If one party breaches the contract by failing to perform their obligations, the other
party may have the right to seek remedies, such as monetary damages or specific performance
(a court order requiring the breaching party to perform their obligations).
Contract law also governs issues related to contract formation, such as misrepresentation
(making false statements to induce someone to enter into a contract), duress (using improper
pressure to force someone to enter into a contract), and undue influence (using a relationship of
trust and confidence to induce someone to enter into a contract).
Disability terminology
Disability law refers to the laws that protect the rights of individuals with disabilities and ensure
that they are not discriminated against on the basis of their disability. Disability law
encompasses several federal laws, including the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the
Rehabilitation Act, and the Fair Housing Act, as well as state laws that provide similar
protections.
The ADA is a federal law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in
several areas, including employment, public accommodations, transportation, and
telecommunications. The Rehabilitation Act is a federal law that prohibits discrimination against
individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance.

The Fair Housing Act is a federal law that prohibits discrimination in housing based on disability,
among other things.
Disability law requires that employers, places of public accommodation, and landlords make
reasonable accommodations to allow individuals with disabilities to fully participate in and
access their services and programs. This can include things like installing accessible features,
such as ramps and grab bars, modifying policies and procedures, or providing auxiliary aids and
services, such as sign language interpreters or assistive technology.
Disability law also provides for remedies for individuals who have been the victim of disability
discrimination, such as monetary damages, injunctions (court orders requiring someone to do or
not do something), or other forms of relief, such as an order to make reasonable
accommodations.
Terminology
1. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): A federal law that prohibits discrimination against
individuals with disabilities in several areas, including employment, public
accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications.
2. Reasonable Accommodation: An adjustment or modification to a job, work environment,
or program that allows an individual with a disability to participate and perform essential
job functions.
3. Accessibility: The design and construction of buildings, products, and services to be
usable by people with disabilities.
4. Assistive Technology: Any device or system that helps individuals with disabilities
perform tasks they would otherwise be unable to do, such as a computer software
program that converts text to speech.
5. Auxiliary Aids and Services: Any type of support or technology that helps individuals with
disabilities access information, such as a sign language interpreter or large print
materials.
6. Disability: Refers to a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more
major life activities, such as walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, or
working.
7. Disability Rights: The legal protections guaranteed to individuals with disabilities,
including the right to equal access to services and programs and the right to be free from
discrimination on the basis of disability.
8. Fair Housing Act: A federal law that prohibits discrimination in housing based on
disability, among other things.
9. Rehabilitation Act: A federal law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with
disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance.
10. Undue Hardship: An exception to the obligation to provide reasonable accommodations
in the workplace, where the accommodation would result in significant difficulty or
expense for the employer.

Protection of confidential information (e.g., privacy, trade secrets, personally identifiable

information, and GeneralData Protection Regulation [GDPR])
Privacy
Privacy refers to the right of individuals to keep their personal information, activities, and
relationships confidential and protected from public scrutiny or unauthorized access by others.
This includes information such as one's name, address, social security number, financial
information, medical records, and other sensitive information.
The concept of privacy is rooted in the idea that individuals should have control over their
personal information and how it is used and shared. Privacy laws and regulations are designed
to protect individuals from the unauthorized collection, use, and disclosure of their personal
information by governments, businesses, and other organizations.
In many countries, privacy is considered a fundamental human right and is protected by law. For
example, in the United States, the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution protects citizens
against unreasonable searches and seizures, while the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act (HIPAA) provides specific privacy protections for medical information.
In today's digital age, privacy concerns have become increasingly complex, as the massive
amounts of personal information collected and stored by technology companies and
governments can be easily accessed and used for various purposes. As a result, privacy laws
and regulations continue to evolve to keep pace with new technologies and the changing ways
in which personal information is collected, used, and shared.
In the workplace, privacy and safety are important considerations for employees and employers
alike. Maintaining privacy in the workplace can contribute to a safer and more secure
environment in several ways:
1. Personal Information: Employers are responsible for safeguarding the personal
information of their employees, including sensitive information such as Social Security
numbers, financial information, and medical records. Keeping this information
confidential and protected from unauthorized access helps to prevent identity theft and
other types of fraud, which can negatively impact an employee's safety and financial
security.
2. Workplace Monitoring: Employers may monitor their employees' activities in the
workplace, such as internet usage or email communications, to ensure productivity and
compliance with company policies. However, this monitoring can also have a negative
impact on employee privacy and morale. Employers must be transparent about their
monitoring practices and ensure that they do not infringe on employees' privacy rights.
3. Confidentiality: In many industries, employees handle confidential information, such as
trade secrets, customer data, and proprietary information. Maintaining the confidentiality
of this information helps to protect both the employees and the employer from potential
security breaches and unauthorized disclosures, which can have serious consequences
for workplace safety.
4. Employee Privacy: Employees also have a right to privacy in the workplace, including
the right to private conversations, private mail, and personal use of technology.

Employers must respect these rights and ensure that their policies and practices do not
infringe on employees' privacy.
By balancing privacy and safety in the workplace, employers can create a more secure and
supportive environment for their employees. This can improve employee morale, foster trust and
transparency, and ultimately contribute to a safer and more productive workplace
Trade Secrets
A trade secret is confidential information that provides a business with a competitive advantage.
It can be any information that is valuable to the business, including formulas, processes,
patterns, compilations, programs, devices, methods, techniques, or customer lists, among
others. To qualify as a trade secret, the information must be:
1. Secret: The information must not be generally known or readily accessible to others in
the industry.
2. Commercially Valuable: The information must have actual or potential commercial value
and provide a competitive advantage to the business.
3. Reasonably Protected: The business must take reasonable steps to maintain the
confidentiality of the information, such as implementing non-disclosure agreements and
physical security measures.
Trade secret law provides legal protection for trade secrets by allowing businesses to take legal
action against individuals or companies that misappropriate or steal their confidential
information. This helps to protect a business's competitive advantage and prevent unfair
competition.
One example of a trade secret is the formula for Coca-Cola, which is a closely guarded secret
that has provided the company with a competitive advantage for over a century. Another
example is the customer list of a company, which can provide valuable information about
potential sales and marketing strategies.
In many countries, trade secret law is governed by common law or statutory law, such as the
Uniform Trade Secrets Act (UTSA) in the United States. In the European Union, trade secret
protection is governed by the Trade Secrets Directive, which provides harmonized protection for
trade secrets across all EU member states.
It's important to note that trade secret protection is not unlimited, and businesses must take
reasonable steps to protect their confidential information. Additionally, trade secret protection
may be limited by other laws, such as those protecting employees' rights to free speech and
freedom of information.
Personally Identifiable Information
Personal Identifiable Information (PII) refers to any information that can be used to identify an
individual. This information can include, but is not limited to, the following:
1. Full name
2. Social Security number
3. Date of birth

4. Address
5. Telephone number
6. Email address
7. Financial information, such as bank account numbers or credit card information
8. Medical information
9. Driver's license number
10. Passport number
PII is sensitive information and its protection is important to maintain the privacy and security of
individuals. In the digital age, PII is often collected and stored by various organizations, such as
employers, financial institutions, healthcare providers, and government agencies. These
organizations have a responsibility to protect this information from unauthorized access, misuse,
or disclosure.
There are various laws and regulations that govern the collection, storage, and use of PII, such
as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union and the California
Consumer Privacy Act in the United States. These laws aim to protect individuals' rights to
privacy and to control how their personal information is collected, stored, and used.
In conclusion, PII is sensitive information that requires proper protection and management to
maintain the privacy and security of individuals. Organizations must comply with relevant laws
and regulations and implement appropriate measures to secure PII and prevent unauthorized
access or misuse.
General Data Protection Regulation
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is a regulation of the European Union (EU)
that governs the collection, storage, and use of personal data of EU citizens. The GDPR applies
to all organizations operating within the EU, as well as organizations outside the EU that offer
goods or services to individuals in the EU.
The GDPR sets out a number of rights for individuals in relation to their personal data, including
the right to:
1. Be informed: Individuals have the right to be informed about the collection, storage, and
use of their personal data. Organizations must provide clear and concise information
about how personal data is processed and for what purposes.
2. Access: Individuals have the right to access their personal data and to receive a copy of
it.
3. Rectification: Individuals have the right to have inaccurate personal data corrected or
deleted.
4. Erasure: Individuals have the right to have their personal data deleted under certain
circumstances, such as when it is no longer necessary for the purpose for which it was
collected.

5. Restrict processing: Individuals have the right to restrict the processing of their personal
data under certain circumstances, such as when they contest its accuracy.
The GDPR also sets out a number of obligations for organizations that process personal data,
including the obligation to:
1. Obtain valid consent: Organizations must obtain valid consent from individuals for the
collection, storage, and use of their personal data.
2. Implement appropriate technical and organizational measures: Organizations must
implement appropriate measures to secure personal data and prevent unauthorized
access or misuse.
3. Appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO): Organizations must appoint a DPO if they are a
public body, or if the processing of personal data is a core part of their business
activities.
4. Report data breaches: Organizations must report data breaches to the relevant
supervisory authority and, in some cases, to individuals affected by the breach.
The GDPR provides for significant fines for non-compliance, which can be up to 4% of an
organization's global annual revenue or €20 million, whichever is greater.
In conclusion, the GDPR is a comprehensive regulation that provides individuals with greater
control over their personal data and imposes strict obligations on organizations that process
personal data. Organizations must comply with the GDPR to protect the privacy rights of EU
citizens and to avoid significant fines for non-compliance.
Standards development processes
Law standard development processes refer to the systematic methods and procedures used to
create and maintain laws and regulations. These processes help ensure that laws are clear,
consistent, and meet the needs of society. There are several law standard development
processes that are widely used, including:
1. Legislative process: The legislative process is a formal process used to create new laws
or change existing ones. It typically involves several stages, including introduction of a
bill, committee review, floor debate, and passage by both houses of a legislative body,
such as a parliament or congress.
2. Regulatory process: The regulatory process is a procedure used by government
agencies to create and enforce regulations. This process typically involves a public
notice and comment period, where stakeholders can provide input on the proposed
regulation, and a final rule-making stage, where the agency considers the comments
and finalizes the regulation.
3. Case law: Case law is a body of law created by judicial decisions. It is developed
through a series of court cases where judges make decisions based on the facts of each
case and the existing legal principles. Over time, these decisions become precedents
that are used to guide future decisions.
4. Administrative law: Administrative law refers to the body of law created by administrative
agencies, such as executive departments or independent regulatory commissions. This

law is created through a process of rule-making, where agencies issue regulations that
have the force of law, and adjudicative proceedings, where agencies hear cases and
make decisions that are binding on the parties involved.
Each law standard development process has its own strengths and weaknesses and is suited to
different types of laws and requirements. Organizations and governments often adopt a
combination of different processes to create and maintain laws that meet their specific needs.
In the context of safety, standards development processes are important for ensuring that best
practices are established and followed in various industries. The development of standards
helps organizations to improve their performance and reduce the risk of accidents, incidents, or
harm to employees and the environment.
1. Standard development organizations: Standards development organizations, such as
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), and the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), play a crucial
role in the development and implementation of standards in various industries.
2. Collaborative approach: Standards development is often a collaborative process that
involves a variety of stakeholders, including industry experts, government agencies, and
trade organizations. This approach helps to ensure that standards reflect the latest
knowledge, best practices, and technology in a particular industry.
3. Consensus-based approach: Standards development is typically based on a consensus-
based approach, which means that all stakeholders have the opportunity to provide input
and feedback during the development process. This approach helps to ensure that
standards reflect the needs and interests of all stakeholders.
4. Review and approval process: After a standard is developed, it must be reviewed and
approved by the relevant standards development organization. This process ensures
that the standard is technically sound and meets the requirements of the industry.
5. Implementation and enforcement: Once a standard is approved, it is up to organizations
to implement and comply with the standard. Standards development organizations may
also have mechanisms in place to enforce compliance with the standard, such as
certification or audits.
In conclusion, standards development processes play a critical role in improving safety and
reducing risk in various industries. Organizations must ensure that they participate in the
development of standards, implement and comply with approved standards, and continuously
review and improve their processes and procedures to ensure that they are following best
practices and reducing risk to employees, the environment, and the public.
The ethics related to conducting professional practice (e.g., audits, record keeping, sampling,
and standard writing)
In the context of safety, ethical considerations are crucial when conducting professional
practice, The following are some important ethical principles to consider:
1. Objectivity: Ethical conduct requires professionals to maintain objectivity and impartiality.
This means avoiding conflicts of interest and ensuring that the results of their work are
based on facts, evidence, and professional judgment.

2. Confidentiality: Ethical conduct requires professionals to maintain confidentiality and

respect the privacy of individuals and organizations. This means that information must
be kept confidential, unless it is necessary to share it for the purpose of improving
safety.
3. Honesty and Integrity: Ethical conduct requires professionals to act with honesty and
integrity. This means that professionals must provide accurate, complete, and relevant
information, and not engage in any activities that would compromise their integrity.
4. Responsibility: Ethical conduct requires professionals to take responsibility for their
actions and decisions. This means that professionals must ensure that their work is
conducted in a responsible and professional manner, and that they are accountable for
the outcomes of their work.
5. Professionalism: Ethical conduct requires professionals to maintain high standards of
professionalism. This means that professionals must have the necessary knowledge,
skills, and experience to perform their work effectively, and must follow best practices
and established standards in their field.
Audits
Ethics play a crucial role in audits focused on workplace safety. Auditors are responsible for
ensuring that the workplace is safe for employees and that organizations are in compliance with
relevant laws and regulations. The following are some of the ethical considerations related to
audits focused on safety:
1. Objectivity: Auditors must be objective and impartial in their assessments. They must not
be influenced by external factors, such as relationships with the organization being
audited, and must provide an accurate assessment of the workplace’s safety.
2. Confidentiality: Auditors must maintain the confidentiality of the information they gather
during an audit. This includes not disclosing any information to unauthorized individuals
and protecting sensitive information, such as employee medical records.
3. Independence: Auditors must be independent and free from conflicts of interest. They
must not have any financial or personal relationships with the organization being audited
that could impact their ability to perform an objective assessment.
4. Due diligence: Auditors must perform their duties with due diligence and take
appropriate steps to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information they gather.
This includes verifying the information, conducting a thorough examination of the
workplace, and following established auditing procedures.
5. Reporting: Auditors must report their findings in a clear and concise manner, highlighting
any areas of concern. They must also make recommendations for improvement where
necessary.
Record keeping
Ethics play an important role in record-keeping related to workplace safety. Organizations have
a responsibility to keep accurate and complete records of workplace safety incidents and to
maintain the confidentiality and security of sensitive information, such as employee medical

records. The following are some of the ethical considerations related to record-keeping in
workplace safety:
1. Accuracy: Records must be accurate and reflect the true state of affairs in the
workplace. Organizations must take steps to ensure that the information contained in the
records is complete, up-to-date, and reflective of the actual situation.
2. Confidentiality: Organizations must ensure the confidentiality and security of sensitive
information, such as employee medical records. This includes protecting information
from unauthorized access, ensuring that only authorized personnel have access to the
records, and properly disposing of records when they are no longer needed.
3. Privacy: Organizations must respect the privacy of employees and protect sensitive
information, such as personal health information. This includes ensuring that employees’
personal information is not disclosed to unauthorized individuals and that employees
have the right to access their own records.
4. Retention: Organizations must maintain records for the appropriate length of time and
follow established retention schedules. This includes disposing of records in accordance
with relevant laws and regulations.
5. Transparency: Organizations must be transparent in their record-keeping practices and
be open about the types of records they maintain, how they are used, and who has
access to them
Sampling
Ethics play a critical role in sampling related to workplace safety. Sampling is a commonly used
method for assessing workplace safety, but it requires a certain level of impartiality and
objectivity to ensure that the results are accurate and representative of the workplace as a
whole. The following are some of the ethical considerations related to sampling in workplace
safety:
1. Objectivity: Sampling must be impartial and objective. The sampling process must be
designed to ensure that the results are representative of the workplace as a whole and
that the results are not influenced by the personal opinions or biases of the individuals
conducting the sample.
2. Confidentiality: Confidential information, such as employee medical records, must be
protected during the sampling process. This includes ensuring that only authorized
personnel have access to the information and that the information is not disclosed to
unauthorized individuals.
3. Independence: Sampling must be independent and free from conflicts of interest.
Individuals conducting the sample must not have any financial or personal relationships
with the organization being sampled that could impact the impartiality of the results.
4. Transparency: The sampling process must be transparent and open to scrutiny. This
includes clearly documenting the sampling method, the results, and any limitations of the
sample.

5. Due diligence: The individuals conducting the sample must perform their duties with due
diligence and take appropriate steps to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results.
This includes verifying the information, following established sampling procedures, and
properly storing and maintaining the sample.
Standard writing
Ethics play an important role in the development of standards related to workplace safety. The
development of workplace safety standards is a complex process that involves a wide range of
stakeholders, including workers, employers, government agencies, and other organizations. The
following are some of the ethical considerations related to standards writing in workplace safety:
1. Objectivity: Standards must be impartial and objective, and must be based on the best
available scientific evidence and expert opinion. The standards must not be influenced
by personal opinions or biases of the individuals involved in the standards writing
process.
2. Confidentiality: Confidential information, such as trade secrets or proprietary information,
must be protected during the standards writing process. This includes ensuring that only
authorized personnel have access to the information and that the information is not
disclosed to unauthorized individuals.
3. Transparency: The standards writing process must be transparent and open to scrutiny.
This includes clearly documenting the standards writing process, the criteria used to
develop the standards, and the input and feedback received from stakeholders.
4. Collaboration: The standards writing process must involve collaboration between
relevant stakeholders, including workers, employers, government agencies, and other
organizations. This ensures that the standards are based on a broad range of
perspectives and expertise, and that the standards are representative of the needs and
interests of all stakeholders.
5. Responsibility: Individuals involved in the standards writing process must take
responsibility for their actions and decisions, and must act in the best interests of
workplace safety. This includes ensuring that the standards are based on the best
available scientific evidence, and that the standards are comprehensive, consistent, and
enforceable.
The relationship between labor and management
The relationship between labor and management is an important dynamic in any organization. It
encompasses the interactions between workers, represented by labor unions or other employee
organizations, and management, represented by the employer or business owner. The following
are some key aspects of the relationship between labor and management:
1. Collective bargaining: Collective bargaining is the process by which workers and
management negotiate the terms and conditions of employment, including wages, hours
of work, benefits, and working conditions. Collective bargaining is often facilitated by
labor unions, and the outcome of these negotiations is reflected in a collective
bargaining agreement.

2. Employee representation: Employees have the right to representation in the workplace,

and labor unions play an important role in representing the interests of workers. This
includes advocating for workers' rights, negotiating fair wages and benefits, and
promoting safe working conditions.
3. Labor-management cooperation: A successful relationship between labor and
management requires cooperation and collaboration. This includes open
communication, mutual trust and respect, and a commitment to resolving conflicts in a
fair and reasonable manner. When labor and management work together, they can
achieve mutually beneficial outcomes that improve the workplace and the lives of
workers.
4. Conflict resolution: Conflict between labor and management is a natural part of any
relationship, but it is important to resolve these conflicts in a constructive manner. This
may involve mediation, arbitration, or other forms of dispute resolution, and the outcome
of these processes must be based on fairness and impartiality.
5. Legal framework: The relationship between labor and management is governed by a
complex legal framework, including labor and employment laws, collective bargaining
agreements, and other regulations. It is important for both labor and management to
understand their rights and obligations under the law, and to comply with these
obligations in order to maintain a positive and productive relationship.
The relationship between labor and management in the safety world refers to the interaction and
cooperation between employees (labor) and management in creating and maintaining a safe
working environment. This relationship is essential for the success of safety initiatives, as both
labor and management play important roles in promoting and maintaining a safe work
environment.
Labor is responsible for following safety rules and procedures, reporting hazards and incidents,
and participating in safety training and inspections. They play an important role in promoting
safety culture and can contribute to the identification and resolution of safety issues.
Management, on the other hand, is responsible for setting safety policies, providing adequate
resources and training, and ensuring that safety is given priority in all aspects of operations.
They play a critical role in leading the safety effort, setting expectations, and creating a
supportive work environment that promotes safety.
For the relationship between labor and management to be successful, it requires open
communication, mutual respect, and cooperation. This can be achieved through regular safety
meetings, joint safety inspections, and involving employees in the decision-making process. A
positive relationship between labor and management can lead to improved safety performance,
increased morale, and greater productivity.
BCSP Code of Ethics
The Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) Code of Ethics is a set of ethical principles
that guide the behavior and decision-making of safety professionals. The Code of Ethics
provides a foundation for ethical conduct and helps to ensure that safety professionals act in the
best interest of their clients, employers, and the public.
The BCSP Code of Ethics consists of the following five principles:

1. Competence: Safety professionals are expected to maintain the highest level of

knowledge and expertise in their field and to continually improve their skills.
2. Objectivity: Safety professionals must maintain impartiality and objectivity in their work
and not allow personal or organizational interests to influence their judgment.
3. Confidentiality: Safety professionals must protect confidential information obtained in the
course of their work and not disclose it without proper authority or justification.
4. Professionalism: Safety professionals are expected to conduct themselves in a
professional manner and to maintain the highest standards of integrity and ethical
behavior.
5. Responsibility: Safety professionals are responsible for their actions and must take steps
to minimize harm and to ensure the safety of their clients, employers, and the public.
Examples of ethical violations that could occur in the safety field include:
• Failing to report a safety hazard that poses a threat to public health or safety
• Ignoring safety procedures or protocols to save time or money
• Falsifying or altering safety records or data
• Disclosing confidential information without proper authority or justification
• Conflicts of interest or accepting gifts or compensation that could compromise objectivity
Adherence to the BCSP Code of Ethics is considered essential for the credibility and integrity of
the safety profession. By following the principles outlined in the Code of Ethics, safety
professionals demonstrate their commitment to ethical conduct and to maintaining the trust of
the public and their clients.

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Active and Passive Engineering Controls ................................................................................................. 209

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