ENA Lab Manual (Update 17-4-2019)

EL228 - Electrical Network Analysis
LAB MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

FAST-NU, LAHORE
Lab Manual of Electrical Network Analysis
Created by: Beenish Fatima & Tooba Javed
Date: 17thMay, 2014
Last Updated: Mr. Yousuf Rehman
Date: 17th April, 2019
Approved by the HoD: Dr. S.M. Sajid
Date:
Page | 2
Table of Contents
Sr. No. Description Pg. No.
1 List of Equipment 4
2 Experiment No.1, Oscilloscope and Function Generator 5
3 Experiment No.2, Transient Response of a series RC Circuit 8
4 Experiment No.3, Transient Response of a series RL Circuit 12
5 Experiment No.4, Phasors 16
6 Experiment No.5, Series-Parallel R, L, C Circuits 20
7 Experiment No.6, AC Thevenin’s Theorem 24
8 Experiment No.7, AC Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 28
9 Experiment No.8, Power factor improvement 31
10 Experiment No.9, AC Analysis and Transient Analysis using PSPICE 35

Experiment No.10, Determination of an unknown component in a
11 47
circuit
12 Experiment No.11, Passive Low pass Filter 50
13 Experiment No.12, Passive High pass Filter 55
14 Experiment No.13, Resonance in RLC Circuit 60
15 Experiment No.14, Active Low Pass and High pass Filter 65
16 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 71
17 Appendix B: Safety around Electricity 72
18 Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports 74
19 Appendix D: Plotting in MATLAB 77
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List of Equipment
Sr.
Description
No.
1 Power Supply
2 DMM
3 Frequency Generator
4 Oscilloscope
5 Capacitors, Resistors, Inductors, Transformer
6 LCR Meter
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EXPERIMENT 1
Oscilloscope and Function Generator
OBJECTIVE:
Introduction to oscilloscope and function generator
EQUIPMENT:
Oscilloscope with probes
Function generator
THEORY:
OSCILLOSCOPE
An oscilloscope is an output device that allows the visual display of a signal with
information regarding the operating characteristics of a circuit or system that is not
available with a standard multi-meter. Though it is most often used to display a time-
varying voltage, it can also be used in a similar manner to that of a DC voltmeter.
In addition to display it is also used to measure the average value, frequency and time
period of a sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal signal. The screen of oscilloscope is divided into
centimeter divisions in the vertical and horizontal directions. The vertical sensitivity is
given in volts/div while horizontal scale is in time/div.
An electron beam is generated in the cathode ray tube, directed at the back of the screen,
and swept in time along x-axis. A voltage applied to the scope probes is increased and
applied to a pair of horizontal metal plates through which the electron beam passes. This
voltage deflects the beam in the vertical direction (y-axis). The sweep in the electron beam
combined with vertical deflection results in the appearance of a waveform on the screen of
the scope. There are two probes available with an oscilloscope. One is for channel 1 and
the other for channel 2. A vertical placement knob is provided with each channel, which
moves the waveform for that channel up and down. The vertical scale (volts/division) of
the waveform can be adjusted using a knob given with each channel. Divisions are the
visible grid lines on the oscilloscope screen. The knob that sets the horizontal scale in time
per division controls both channels.
FUNCTION GENERATOR
The function generator is a supply that generates different AC signals (sinusoidal, square-
wave, triangular) for a range of frequencies and amplitudes. Many generators have a DC
offset control that allows the user to shift the waveform in the positive or negative direction.
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PROCEDURE:
You will be briefed about various sections of the oscilloscope and function generator.
Understand the functionality and use of each of the controls given below.
OSCILLOSCOPE:
DISPLAY CONTROLS
(a) Focus
(b) Intensity
(c) Trace Rotation
(d) Cal
(e) Ground Socket
VERTICAL CONTROLS
(a) CH1 / CH2 Push buttons
(b) Position
(c) ALT / CHOP
(d) ADD / INV
(e) Volts/div
(f) AC / DC & GND
(g) CH1 X & CH2 Y
HORIZONTAL CONTROLS
(a) Position
(b) Time / Div
(c) X1/ MAG
TRIGGER CONTROLS
(a) Level
(b) Hold Off
FUNCTION GENERATOR:
(a) Function
(b) Amplitude
(c) Frequency (Main/ Fine)
(d) Frequency Display
(e) Range Hz/Gate Time
(f) Attenuation
(g) Output
(h) Sweep Width
(i) Sweep Rate
(j) Offset
(k) Ramp/Pulse
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EXERCISE -1:
Generate following signals using function generator and oscilloscope:
a) A triangular signal of frequency 1 KHz, and 10 Vp

b) A square signal of frequency 3 KHz, and 10mVp
c) A sinusoid of frequency 2.5 KHz and 1mVp
d) A sinusoid of frequency 2.5 KHz and 10Vp-p
EXERCISE -2:
Connect a simple voltage divider circuit. Function generator settings: 1.00 Vp-p, 1.00
kHz. Give AC sine wave and then square wave at input and observe the output in time
domain as well as in X-Y mode. Now, what happens when you reverse the terminals of
your function generator? That is, do the waveforms on the oscilloscope screen change?
EXERCISE – 3:
Generate following square wave signal:
Figure 1
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Briefly explain the functionality of oscilloscope and function generator knobs as

discussed in lab.
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EXPERIMENT 2
Transient Response of a series RC circuit
OBJECTIVE:
Observe the transient response of a resistive capacitive circuit.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Function Generator
Oscilloscope and Probes
Components
Capacitor: 10 nF
Resistor: 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ, 3.3 kΩ, 5.6 kΩ, 8.2 kΩ
THEORY:
Capacitors find many applications, both general and specific, in electronic circuits. In this
experiment, we will discover the basic behavior of a capacitor as an energy storage device
in a DC circuit.
Because a capacitor is formed of an insulating medium known as a dielectric, direct current
cannot flow between the electrodes. Consequently, the series RC circuit for DC reveals an
open circuit (∞ resistance). In large-valued capacitors, it may take a visibly short time for
the reading to stabilize as the device charges. With small-valued capacitors, however, the
effect is almost instantaneous. Some electrolytic capacitors have imperfect dielectrics and
will conduct a small amount of current referred to as leakage. This shows up as a high
resistance in the circuit.
To demonstrate the “transient” that occurs when a capacitor is connected to a DC source,
we will use an oscilloscope. The square wave signal allows us to charge and discharge the
capacitor.
CHARGING OF CAPACITOR:
( ) = (1– ) t ≤ to
Where is the final value of voltage at t = to
DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR:
( ) = t ≥ to
Where is the initial value of voltage at t = to
TIME CONSTANT (Τ): In RL and RC circuits, τ is time required by the voltage across a
component to increase to (1 - 1/e) = 63.2% of its final value or it can also represent the
voltage to decrease to 1/e = 36.8% of its initial value. The time constant of an RC circuit
is the equivalent capacitance multiplied by the Thévenin resistance as viewed from the
terminals of the equivalent capacitor.
Τ = RC
Page | 8
PRE LAB:
By using the 10nF capacitor, fill the third row (Calculated time constant) of table 2.
Figure 2
PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the value of capacitor from its marking. Record this in Table-1. Some
capacitors use a code like the resistor color code, using numbers instead of colors;
the value is usually in pF; e.g., 102 would indicate 10 x 10² pF = 1000pF. Other
capacitors simply have the literal value on them; e.g., 0.1μ.
2. Measure the actual values of resistances using DMM and record them in Table-2.
3. Using the measured value of each resistor in Table-2, calculate the expected time
constant.
4. Connect the circuit in Figure-2.
5. Give a square wave signal of 1Vp from the function generator.
6. Set the frequency in a way that you can measure the time constant conveniently on
the oscilloscope. The period T of the square wave must be long enough to allow the
complete charge/discharge of the capacitor. Usually T=10τ is appropriate for this
purpose.
7. Place oscilloscope probes across the voltage source for the Channel 1 and probes
across the capacitor for the Channel 2.
8. Observe and measure the time constant for each value of R in Table-2.
9. Calculate capacitance of the capacitor from the measured time constant values
using formula:
Capacitance (measured) = Time Constant (measured) / R (measured)
10. Swap positions of the capacitor and the resistor. Observe voltage across the resistor
on the oscilloscope.
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DATA FOR EXPERIMENT:
Table 1
Capacitor Value
(Nominal)
Table 2
Resistance
1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ 5.6 kΩ 8.2 kΩ
(Nominal)
Resistance
(Measured)
Time constant
(Calculated)
Frequency
Time constant
(Measured)
Capacitance
(Measured)
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Trace the input voltage and the voltage across the capacitor and the voltage across the
resistor as seen on the oscilloscope for any value of a resistor. Properly label the curves.
Also mention the time/div and volts/div for each channel. Label the period of time
corresponding to charging the capacitor, and the period of time corresponding to
discharging the capacitor.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. The resistance of a capacitor for dc should yield a resistance close to

(a) ∞ Ω (b) 0 Ω (c) Neither of these
2. Which of the following statements are correct for Figure-1, when square wave
input is high?
(a) Current can flow indefinitely
(b) Current can flow for a short period of time
(c) Current cannot ever flow in this circuit
3. What will be the effect of connecting another resistor in
a. Series with the first resistor
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b. Parallel with the first resistor

c. Parallel with the capacitor?
4. When the square wave input is high and the capacitor is charged no current flows
in the circuit. The moment input square wave signal goes low capacitor starts to
discharge. The current jumps up to some value and then again decays toward zero.
On what does this initial value of current depend
(a) R (b) C (c) Vs
(d) R and C (e) R and Vs
5. What will happen if we change the order of elements in the circuit (e.g. put the
capacitor between the two resistors, or switch the leads from the battery)?
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EXPERIMENT 3
Transient Response of a series RL circuit
OBJECTIVE:
Observe the transient response of a series RL circuit and understand the concept of time
constant.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Digital multi-meter (DMM) with probes
DC power supply with probes
Function generator with probes
Components
Resistors: 270 Ω, 470 Ω, 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ, 3.3 kΩ
Inductor: 10mH
THEORY:
In this experiment, we apply a square waveform to the RL circuit to analyze the transient
response of the circuit. The pulse-width relative to the circuit’s time constant determines
how it is affected by the RL circuit.
Figure 3
The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or current source
is referred to as the step response of the circuit. In RL circuits, the inductor (assumed to be
completely discharged) begins acquiring energy after the sudden application of an external
power source.
The expressions for the current in the circuit and the voltage across the inductor after the
voltage source is applied are given by:
( / )
( ) = (1– ) t≥0 (1)
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( )= (2)
where V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t ≥ 0. Notice that Eq. 1 indicates that
the current increases from zero to a final value of V/R (as shown in Figure-4) at a rate
determined by the time constant τ. However, voltage across the inductor decreases with
time as is shown in Figure-5.
Figure 4
Current build up across Inductor in a Series RL circuit.
(Time axis normalized by τ)
Figure 5
Inductor Voltage vs time
TIME CONSTANT (Τ):

The time constant of an RL circuit is the equivalent inductance divided by the Thévenin
resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent inductor.
Τ=L/R (3)
PRE LAB:
By using the 10mH inductor, fill the third row (calculated time constant) of Table 4.
Page | 13
PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the value of inductor using LCR meter. Record this in Table-3.
2. Measure the actual values of resistances using DMM and record them in Table-4.
3. Using the measured value of each resistor in Table-4, calculate the expected time
constant.
4. Connect the circuit in Figure-3.
5. Give a square wave signal from the function generator.
6. Set the amplitude of input signal and frequency in a way that you can measure the
time constant conveniently on the oscilloscope. The period T of the square wave
must be long enough to allow the complete charge/discharge of the inductor.
Usually T=10τ is appropriate for this purpose.
7. Place oscilloscope probes across the voltage source for the Channel 1 and probes
across the inductor for the Channel 2.
8. Observe and measure the time constant for each value of R in Table-4.
9. Calculate inductance of the inductor from the measured time constant values using
formula:
Inductance (measured) = Time Constant (measured) * R (measured)
10. Swap positions of the inductor and the resistor. Observe voltage across the resistor
on the oscilloscope.
Table 3
Inductor Value
(Nominal)
Table 4
Resistance
270 Ω 470 Ω 1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
(Nominal)
Resistance
(Measured)
Frequency
Time constant
(Calculated)
Page | 14
Time constant
(Measured)
Inductance
(Measured)
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Trace the curve for input voltage and the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across
the resistor as seen on the oscilloscope for any value of resistor. Also mention the time/div
and volts/div for each channel. Label the period of time corresponding to establishing a
magnetic field in the inductor, and the period of time corresponding to discharging the
magnetic field in the inductor.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Comment on the shape of the voltage waveform across the inductor. You should
see spikes that exceed the original supply voltage. How can this be? How can you
get more voltage from the inductor than the power supply voltage?
1. Why the voltage waveform across the resistor makes sense?
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EXPERIMENT 4
Phasors
OBJECTIVE:
To observe phase difference of voltage and current of a capacitor in RC circuit using
oscilloscope
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments:
Function generator
Components:
Resistor: 1 kΩ
Capacitor: 0.1 μF
THEORY:
The sinusoid is a distinctive signal waveform. If a sinusoidal source is connected to a
network of linear passive elements, then every voltage and current in that network will be
sinusoidal in the steady state, differing from the source waveform only in amplitude and
phase angle. This concludes that the sum of number of sinusoids of one frequency, but of
arbitrary amplitude and phase, is a sinusoid of the same frequency. This summation
property is important because its analysis involves the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage
or current law. The Kirchhoff’s voltage law for ac circuit states that the phasor sum of the
voltages around the closed loop is equal to zero. If voltage or current are both sinusoidal
functions of time, a plot of both to the same time scale will show a displacement between
them except for the case of pure resistance. This displacement is the phase angle and never
exceeds 90˚ or π/2 radians. This phase angle is always described as “what the current i does
with respect to the voltage v”; e.g. i leads v by 90˚ in a pure capacitor. In a series RC circuit,
1
the current leads the voltage by tan-1 ( ) as shown in the Figure-6.
RC
Figure 6
Page | 16
MEASURE PHASE ANGLE USING OSCILLOSCOPE

Two waveforms of the same frequency but with different phase angles are shown in Fig.7.
Measure the time period, T of the waveform first. It can be measured as long as there is at
least slightly more than a complete cycle on the screen (at least three zero crossings) as
shown in Figure-7. Never try to determine the period by measuring from one peak to the
next. The results will be less accurate due to the difficulty in finding the exact center of
the peaks.
Figure 7
Use AC coupling and carefully set the zero of both signals at the center of the screen. Then
measure the difference in time between the adjacent zero crossings of the same slope.
To improve the accuracy of this measurement, use the horizontal position control to center
the interval, Δt, on the screen and then expand the time scale to make the interval cover as
much of the screen as possible. Also expand the vertical scale so the zero crossings are
steep enough to make it easy to see exactly where the line crosses zero as shown in Figure-
8. Measure this interval as accurately as possible.
Figure 8
The phase angle (in radians) is then calculated as:

θ = ω Δt ……….. (1)
The sign of the angle depends on which of the two waveforms is used as the reference for
zero phase. If the thin waveform in Figure-8 is used as the reference, then since the other
waveform reaches zero before the reference reaches zero it is leading the reference
Page | 17
waveform. This is a positive phase shift. A negative phase shift would move the waveform
to the right of the reference waveform.
PRE LAB:
Q1. Derive an equation for determining phase difference between two sinusoids (Eq. 1)
Q2. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 8. Derive the expression for phase of the voltage
across the capacitor in terms of ω, R, and C.
Q3. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 8. Derive the expression for phase of the voltage
across the resistor in terms of ω, R, and C.
Q4. By using the derived expressions in Q2, and Q3, fill the second row of tables 1, 2, and
3 respectively.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure-9.
Figure 9
2. Set the source voltage and frequency at 4 Vp and 100Hz, respectively.

3. View the source voltage, VS, on Channel 1 and voltage across the capacitor on Channel
2 of the oscilloscope.
4. Measure the phase difference between the source voltage, VS, and the voltage across
the capacitor, VC, using the oscilloscope. Record this value in Table-5.
5. Repeat above step for each frequency in Table-5.
6. Swap the capacitor with resistor and hook the probes in the same fashion.
7. Repeat Steps 4 for the phase difference between the source voltage, VS, and the voltage
across the resistor, VR. Record the values in Table-6.
8. The phase angle between VR and VC should be 90˚. Verify by using the equation:
|θ1| + | θ2| = 90˚
Record the values in Table-7.
Page | 18
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Plot calculated and measured phase as a function of frequency for both capacitor (Table 5)
and resistor (Table 6) voltages.
Table 5: Phase shift of voltage across the capacitor with respect to the applied voltage
Frequency (kHz) 0.1 0.5 1 5 10
Phase θ1˚ (Calculated)
Phase θ1˚ (Measured)
Table 6: Phase shift of voltage across the resistance with respect to the applied voltage
Phase θ2˚(Calculated)
Phase θ2˚ (Measured)
Table 7
|θ1| + | θ2| (Calculated)
|θ1| + | θ2| (Measured)
% Error
POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Why calculated and measured values differ with each other?
2. Plot the oscilloscope display in voltage-time mode for Vs vs Vc and Vs vs VR for
any one frequency.
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EXPERIMENT 5
Series-Parallel R, L, C Circuits
OBJECTIVE:
This experiment examines the voltage and current relationships in series-parallel R, L, C
networks. Both Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law may be applied to
these circuits.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Function Generator
Components
Resistors: 1 kΩ and 10Ω (x2)
Capacitor: 10nF
Inductor: 150mH
THEORY:
Many complex R, L, C networks may be analyzed by reducing them to simpler series or
parallel circuits. In this analysis each series or parallel element is complex impedance made
up of a series or parallel combination of other components and thus producing a phase
angle between +90 and -90 degrees. Consequently, the simple “all right angles”
relationships found for basic series and parallel circuits may be replaced with more general
relationships resulting in non-right angled behavior. In spite of this, both Kirchhoff’s
Current Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law must still be satisfied for the entire circuit, as
well as any sub-circuits or branches.
Figure 10: RLC Circuit – 1
Page | 20
PRE LAB:
Determine theoretical values in respective columns of Tables 8, 9, 10, and 11. Show all
your work.
PROCEDURE FOR RLC CIRCUIT – 1:
1. Connect the circuit of Figure-10 on breadboard.

2. Place probes of an oscilloscope across the resistor and measure voltage magnitude and
angle of inductor-resistor branch (VLR). The voltage across the capacitor (VC) may be
found by using KVL with Vin and VLR. Alternatively, swap positions of the capacitor
and the LR branch and observe waveforms and determine magnitude and angle of VC
using the oscilloscope. The input current (Iin) may be found by dividing the capacitor’s
voltage by its reactance. Record these values in Table-9.
3. Using LCR meter, measure C and L. Using these values, compute reactance (ZC, and
ZL) and record in Table-8 (Experimental Column).
4. Based on the experimental values, determine the experimental total impedance ZT and
parallel branch impedance (R || ZL) values via Ohm’s Law. Record these values in
Table-8 (Experimental column).
ZT =
R || ZL =
Table 8
Theory Experimental Experimental
Theory θ (Magnitude) θ
(Magnitude)
ZC
ZL
R || ZL
ZT
Page | 21
Table 9
(Magnitude)
VLR
VC
Iin
Figure 11: RLC Circuit - 2
PROCEDURE FOR RLC CIRCUIT - 2:
By using the oscilloscope, determine the required values for Tables 10 and 11 by
following the similar procedure as done for the circuit in Figure 10.
Table 10
(Magnitude)
ZC
ZL
Page | 22
R + ZL
ZT
Table 11
(Magnitude)
ILR
IC
Iin
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Is the phase relationship between circuit voltages or currents in a series-parallel AC

circuit necessarily a right-angle relationship?
2. Based on measurements, do KVL and KCL apply to the tested circuits (show working)?
3. How can we measure phase angles for ILR, Iin and IC? Write down a complete procedure.
Page | 23
EXPERIMENT 6
AC Thevenin’s Theorem
Objective:
In this experiment, Thevenin’s Theorem will be examined for the AC case. Thevenin
source voltage and Thevenin impedance will be determined experimentally and compared
to theoretical values. Both resistive and complex loads will be connected to the Thevenin
equivalent circuit and the corresponding load voltage will be compared to the load voltage
of the original circuit.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Function Generator
Components
Resistors: 50Ω, 1.5 kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 1 kΩ (x2)
Capacitor: 0.1µF
Theory:
Thevenin Theorem states that any linear two port network can be replaced by a single
voltage source and a single series impedance Z. While the theorem is applicable to any
number of voltage and current sources, this experiment will only examine single source
circuits for the sake of simplicity. The Thevenin voltage is the open circuit output voltage.
This may be determined experimentally by isolating the portion to be Thevenized and
simply placing an oscilloscope at its output terminals. The Thevenin impedance is found
by replacing all sources with their internal impedance and then applying appropriate series-
parallel impedance simplification rules. If an impedance meter is available, an easy method
of doing this in the lab is to replace the sources with appropriate impedance values and
apply the impedance meter to the output terminals of the circuit portion under investigation.
Figure 12
Page | 24
Figure 13
PRE LAB:
Determine theoretical values in respective columns of Tables 12, 13, and 14. Show all
your work.
PROCEDURE:
1. For the circuit of Figure-12, calculate the voltage across the 1 kΩ load resistor (Vload)
and record this value in Table-12. Also calculate the expected Thevenin voltage and
Thevenin impedance. Record these values in Table-13. In the Thevenin equivalent
circuit, insert a load resistor and calculate Vload again. Record this value in Table-14.
2. Build the circuit of Figure-12. Set the generator to 1 kHz sine wave at 2Vp-p. Measure
the load voltage and record it in Table-12.
3. Remove the load and measure the unloaded output voltage. This is the experimental
Thevenin voltage. Record it in Table-13.
4. Replace the voltage source with a 50 Ω resistor to represent its internal impedance.
Set the impedance meter to 1 kHz and measure the resulting impedance at the open
load terminals. This is the experimental Thevenin impedance. Record these values in
Table 13 and compare it with the theoretical values.
5. Build the Thevenin equivalent circuit of Figure-13 and insert the 1 kΩ load resistor.
Measure the load voltage and record it in Table-14. Compare it with the values of the
original (non-Thevenized) circuit.
Page | 25
Table 12 (Original Circuit)

Theory Experimental
(Magnitude & (Magnitude &
angle) angle)
Vload
Table 13 (Thevenin Parameters)

Theory Experimental
angle) angle)
VThevenin
ZThevenin
Table 14 (Thevenin Equivalent Circuit)

Theory Experimental
angle) angle)
Vload
Page | 26
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. How does the AC version of Thevenin’s Theorem compare with the DC version?
2. Will the Thevenin equivalent circuits be altered if the source frequency changes? If
so, why?
3. Verify that Thevenin’s Theorem also works with an inductive source and a complex
load. Use following Figure with R1 = 1.5 kΩ, R2 = 2.2 kΩ, L = 10 mH, Rload = 1 kΩ
with Cload = 0.1µF. Vin is 2 Vp-p with 10 kHz frequency.
Figure 14
Page | 27
EXPERIMENT 7
AC Maximum Power Transfer
OBJECTIVE:
In this experiment, maximum power transfer to the load will be examined for the AC case.
The load’s resistive component will be varied to discover its effect to load power and
determine the value required for maximum load power.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Function Generator
Components
Resistors: 1 k Ω, 50 Ω, variable resistor (5 kΩ maximum)
Capacitor: value to be decided by calculations
Inductor: 10mH
THEORY:
In DC circuits, maximum power transfer is achieved by setting the load resistance equal to
the source’s internal resistance. This is not true for the AC case. Instead, the load should
be set to complex conjugate of the source impedance, the complex conjugate having the
same magnitude as the original but with the opposite sign for the angle. By using the
complex conjugate, the load and source reactive components will cancel out leaving a
purely resistive circuit similar to the DC case. When calculating the true load power, care
must be taken to remember that the load voltage appears across complex load impedance.
Only the real portion of this voltage appears across the resistive component, and only the
resistive component dissipates power.
Figure 15
Page | 28
PRE LAB:
Determine theoretical values in respective columns of Tables 15 and 16. Show all your
work.
PROCEDURE:
1. Build the circuit of Figure-15 using R=1 kΩ and L= 10 mH, but leaving off the load
components. Replace the generator with a 50 Ω resistor and determine the effective
source impedance at 10 kHz using the impedance meter. Record this value in Table-
15, including both magnitude and phase. Determine the load impedance which should
achieve maximum power transfer according to the theorem and record it in Table-15.
Finally, determine values for Rload and Cload to achieve this load impedance and record
in Table-15. Also note down the theoretical values of source and load impedances (Rload
and Cload) in Table-15.
2. Connect the circuit in Figure-15. Replace Rload with a variable resistor having
maximum value of 10 kΩ. For Cload, use the value calculated in Table-15. Use multiple
capacitors if necessary to achieve a closer value. Set the generator to 10 Vp-p at 10
kHz, making sure that the amplitude is measured on the oscilloscope with the generator
loaded by the circuit.
3. Measure the magnitude of the load voltage and record in Table-16. Also compute the
expected load voltage from theory and the load power based on the measured load
voltage and record in Table-16. Repeat these measurements and calculations for the
remaining load resistance values in the table.
Table 15
Theory Experimental
Zsource
Zload
Rload
Cload
Page | 29
Table 16
Vload Pload Pload
Vload Theory
Experimental Theory Experimental
Rload (Magnitude
(Magnitude &
& Angle)
Angle)
400
600
800
1k
1.2k
1.8k
3k
5k
Graphical Analysis:
Plot calculated and measured Vload and Pload as a function of Rload. Provide three graphs
showing calculated and measured results for (i) |Vload|, (ii) < Vload , and (iii) Pload.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Comment on physical interpretation of the plots.
3. In general, given certain source impedance, what load impedance will achieve
maximum load power?
4. Will achieving maximum load power also achieve maximum efficiency? Explain.
Page | 30
EXPERIMENT 8
Power factor Improvement
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to learn how to measure the power factor of load and
to improve the power factor by connecting a capacitor parallel to the load.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Function Generator
DMM
Components
Resistors: 270Ω, 1kΩ
Capacitor: value to be decided by calculations
Inductor: 150mH
THEORY:
Power factor of an electrical power system is defined as the ratio of real power flowing to
the load to apparent power in the circuit. It is also defined as the cosine of the difference
between voltage angle and current angle. Further it can also be defined as the ratio of
resistive impedance to total impedance.
Power factor = Cos (θv – θi)
Real Power
Power factor = Apparent Power
It is a practical measure of efficiency of power distribution system. It ranges from 0 to 1

and is always referred to as leading or lagging. In case of a leading power factor, current
leads the voltage. While in case of a lagging power factor, current lags the voltage. To
better understand the concept of power factor and its relation with inductors and
capacitors, one must know the basic behavior of capacitors.
Capacitors store energy in the electric field due to potential difference across their two
terminals. The stored energy in a capacitor tends to maintain the constant voltage across its
terminals and hence opposes any change in voltage across its terminals. Therefore in
capacitors current leads the voltage and they are considered to have a leading power factor.
On the other hand, an inductor stores energy in the magnetic field due to flow of current
through it. The stored energy in an inductor opposes any change in the flow of current
through it. Hence in inductors voltage leads the current and they are considered to have a
lagging power factor. Behavior of capacitors and inductors is exactly opposite to each
other.
Due to a low power factor a load draws more current than that with a high power factor for
the same amount of useful power transferred. So more current means more losses in
Page | 31
distribution lines and also larger conductor would be required. Hence, the cost of power
system increases. Further the energy bill for commercial and industrial consumers is
usually calculated on the basis of apparent power. With the low power factor, apparent
power increases for the same amount of active power. Hence, the cost of electricity for
consumer increases and they have to pay the increased energy bills. To reduce the cost,
engineers try to increase the power factor and make it closer to unity. In this experiment
we will observe how to measure the power factor of a load and how we can improve it by
connecting a capacitor in parallel to the load.
Figure 16
PRE LAB:
Determine theoretical values in the respective columns of Tables 17, 18 and 19. Show all
your work.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the actual value of resistors and inductor and record them in Table 17.
2. Implement the circuit of Fig.16 on the breadboard.
3. Connect supply voltage of Vin= 5Vp at 3kHz and calculate the theoretical and
experimental values of VL . Record them in Table 18.
4. Now swap the positions of load branch and 270 Ω resistor and measure the magnitude
and phase angle of VR1 with respect to Vin. It will be the phase angle of Iin. Note this
value in Table 18.
5. Now measure the power factor of circuit by the following formula and record the
value in Table 18.
Power factor = Cos (θv – θi)
Where
θv – θi = angle between input voltage and current.
Page | 32
6. Now calculate the value of reactance XC and use it to compute the capacitance required
to improve the power factor to 1. Record these values in Table 19. Using LCR meter,
measure C. Using this value, compute reactance XC and record in Table-19
(Experimental Column).
7. Connect this capacitor in parallel to the load, measure the magnitude and phase angle
of VR1 and VL and use them to measure the phase difference between VR1 and Vin. Note
these values in Table-19.
8. Calculate the improved power factor of circuit and record the value in Table-19. Check
whether the power factor has improved or not. For unity power factor, VR1 and Vin must
be exactly in phase.
Table 17
Theory Experimental
R1
RL
XL
ZL Magnitude
ZL θ
Table 18 (without parallel Capacitor)

Experimental Experimental θ
Theory Mag Theory θ Mag
VL
VR1
Cos (θv – θi)
Page | 33
Table 19 (with parallel Capacitor)
Theory Experimental
Xc
VL
VR1
Cos (θv – θi)
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. In order to improve the power factor, which type of capacitors should be used?
Series capacitors or shunt capacitors?
2. In a circuit, low reactive power compared to active power indicates what?
How will you measure the phase of Iin to measure the power factor on an
oscilloscope?
3. What is the cosine inverse of power factor? Define it.
Page | 34
EXPERIMENT 9
AC analysis and transient analysis using PSpice
OBJECTIVE:
Learn to perform ac analysis and transient analysis using PSpice
SETTING-UP ANALYSIS
You can select and specify a PSpice analysis. Fig. 17 will display.
 To add up analysis, select set up to display ‘analysis setup’ dialog box, or click
the button.
 You can make your required selections from here.
 When you are done, select the check boxes of the analysis you want to use.
 Click the close button.
Figure 17
(A) BIAS POINT DETAIL
Bias Point Detail writes the detailed bias information to the simulation output file.
The information reported to the output file includes:
a) Node voltages
b) Current through Voltage sources
c) Total power
Page | 35
(B) DC SWEEP
 The DC analysis causes a dc sweep to be performed. The dc sweep analysis

calculates the circuit’s bias point over a range of values.
 The DC sweep allows you to do various different sweeps of your circuit to see how
it responds to various conditions.
 For all the possible sweeps,
o voltage,
o current,
o temperature, and
o model and global parameter
 You need to specify a start value, an end value, and the number of points you wish
to calculate.
 For example you can sweep your circuit over a voltage range from 0 to 12 volts.
The main two sweeps that will be most important to us at this stage are the voltage
sweep and the current sweep. For these two, you need to indicate to PSpice the
component name you wish to sweep, for example V1 or V2.
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MARKERS
 These are important if you want to trace the voltage at a point or the current going
through that point.
 To add voltage or current Marker, go to the top tool bar and select ‘Voltage/Level
Marker’ or ‘Current Marker’ or press ‘Ctrl+M’. Also you can go to
‘Markers’ on tool bar and select either ‘Mark Voltage Level’ or ‘Mark current into
pin’.
PROBE
(a) BEFORE YOU DO THE PROBE:

 You have to have your circuit properly drawn and saved.
 There must not be any floating parts on your workspace (i.e. unattached devices).
 You should make sure that all parts have the values that you want.
 There are no extra wires.
 It is very important that you have a ground on your circuit.
 Make sure that you have done the Analysis Setup and specify the values you want
enabled.
(b) TO START THE PROBE:

 Click on the Simulate button on the tool bar (or Analysis, Simulate, or F11).
 It will check to make sure you don't have any errors. If you do have errors, correct
them.
 Then a new window will pop up. Here is where you can do your graphs.
Page | 36
(c) ADDING/DELETING TRACES:

 If you’ve placed the voltage/current level markers, PSpice will automatically put
the related traces in. You can change them or add to them.
 Go to ‘Trace’, then ‘Add Trace’ or click on the toolbar. Then select all the
traces you want. Do not forget to add a new Y-axis if the two plots have different
y-axis scaling.
 To delete traces, select them on the bottom of the graph and press ‘Delete’ button
from keyboard.
(d) DOING MATH:

 In Add Traces, there are various mathematical functions that can be performed.
These will add/subtract (or whatever you chose) the traces together.
 Select the first output then click the function that you wish to perform.
 There are many functions here that may or may not be useful. If you want to know
how to use them, you can use PSpice's Help Menu.
(e) LABELING:
 Click on ‘Text Label’ on top tool bar.
 Type in what you want to write.
 Click OK
 You can move this around on your graph by single clicking and dragging.
(f) FINDING POINTS:

 There are Cursor buttons that allow you to find the maximum, minimum or just any
point on the line. These are located on the right side of the toolbar.
 Select which curve you want to look at and then select ‘Toggle Cursor’ .
(g) SAVING:
 To save your probe you need to go into the tools menu and click ‘Window’. Now
click ‘display control’. This will open up a menu, which will allow you to name the
probe file and choose where to save it. You can open previously saved plots from
here as well.
(h) PRINTING:
 Select ‘Print’ in ‘File’ menu or click on the toolbar.
 Print as usual.
Another excellent feature of the DC sweep in PSpice is the ability to do a nested sweep. A
nested sweep allows you to run two simultaneous sweeps to see how changes in two
different DC sources will affect your circuit.
Page | 37
EXAMPLE 1:
For the following circuit (Fig. 18) we will dc sweep the voltage source from 0V to 10V
and observe the trace of VR1 and VR2.
Figure 18
1. Draw the circuit in your schematic workspace.

2. Label the nodes ‘a’ and ‘b’ as shown in the diagram above.
3. Go to ‘Analysis’, then ‘setup’ and select ‘DC Sweep’ from the dialog box.
4. ‘Sweep var. Type’ is set to voltage source by default. We are providing dc sweep
to voltage source so we will not change it.
5. Write the name of voltage source i.e. ‘V1’ in place of ‘Name’.
6. Enter start and end values i.e. 0 and 10 and give any convenient value of increment
e.g. 1.
7. Leave the ‘Sweep Type’ set to its default value i.e. ‘linear’.
8. Place a voltage level marker at node ‘b’.
9. Save and simulate your circuit.
10. A new probe window will open with the trace of voltage across R2.
11. To add the trace of voltage across R1, go to Trace menu and click ’Add Trace’.
12. Enter trace expression ‘V (a) - V (b)’ and enter.
13. You can observe that at each point sum of both voltages is equal to the value of V1.
Hence Kirchhoff’s voltage law is proved.
Also add the trace of current through R1. If the current trace turns out to be zero,
find out the parameter that needs to be adjusted.
EXAMPLE 2:
Prove maximum power transfer theorem using global variable dc sweep for the fig.19.
Figure 19
Page | 38
This circuit models a source (VS, RS) and a load RL. The problem is that the source is given,
and we want to determine the value of RL for which the power absorbed by the load PL =
(VL)2/RL is a maximum.
We will simulate and obtain a graph of PL versus RL, and determine the value of RL at
maximum value of PL
1. Draw the circuit on your schematics workspace.

2. From ‘Get New Part’ place ‘PARAM’ anywhere on your workspace.
3. Double click on the part PARAM after placing on the schematic workspace and set
‘NAME1’ to ‘RL_val’ and ‘VALUE 1’ to be equal to’1’.
4. Go to ANALYSIS and then SETUP and click on DC SWEEP.
5. In the SWEPT VARIABLE TYPE select GLOBAL PARAMETER.
6. Write the NAME as RL_val. This will be the swept variable.
7. Set the SWEEP TYPE to OCTAVE.
8. Set START VALUE to 10, END VALUE to 100k and INCREMENT to 10.
9. Save and simulate.
10. Do not forget to change the attribute value of RL to RL_val enclosed in curly
brackets.
11. On the display window, go to TRACE and then ADD TRACE.
12. In the ADD TRACE window, enter the following expression (-VL x I(RL)).
13. Find out the value of RL for which the power is maximum. Also find out the value
of the maximum PL that is transferred.
14. This must verify the maximum power transfer theorem, which states that maximum
power is transferred from source to load when RL = RS
Page | 39
EXERCISE - 1:
For the given circuit(Fig.20) trace the voltage across R2 by sweeping dc current
source from 0 to 10 Amp. Also on the probe mark points at VR2 for I1=5 Amp.
Figure 20
(C) TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
 In transient analysis, we determine voltages and currents as function of time.

Typically time dependence is demonstrated by plotting the waveforms using time
as independent variable.
 Two very important parameters in the transient analysis are:
o PRINT STEP: It specifies time interval used for printing and plotting the
results of transient analysis. It refers only to results written to output file. It
has no effect on probe data file.
o FINAL TIME: This specifies ending time for which the circuit’s behavior is
calculated.
EXAMPLE - 3:
Draw the following circuit(Fig.21) in PSpice:
Figure 21
1. Open the attribute window for the capacitor and set IC=0. Don’t forget to save the
attributes after changing them.
2. Place a Voltage Marker at node vout to find out the voltage across it.
3. Run the probe.
4. Add the trace for Vout i.e. the voltage across the capacitor.
5. Replace VDC with VPULSE or DIGITAL CLOCK and simulate the circuit
Page | 40
EXERCISE - 2:
 Trace the current through the capacitor in the above circuit.
 Observe the behavior of inductors for dc circuits by setting the IC for inductor
equal to 0A.
Figure 22
(D) AC SWEEP
 Ac steady state analysis is facilitated by the use of phasors. PSpice can perform ac
steady state simulation, outputting magnitude and phase data for any voltage or
current of interest at any frequency.
 Additionally PSpice can perform an ac sweep in which the frequency of sinusoidal
sources is varied over a user-defined range. In this case simulation results are the
magnitude and phase of every node voltage and branch current as a function of
frequency.
 In the AC sweep menu you have the choice of three AC sweep types:
o Linear,
o Octave and
o Decade.
 These three choices describe the x-axis scaling of the trace. For example, if you
choose decade then the scale of x-axis will be logarithmic i.e. 10Hz, 1 kHz, 100
kHz, 10 MHz, etc. Decade option is used to see the behavior of any circuit over
large range of frequencies.
 You now have to specify at how many points you want PSpice to calculate results,
and what the start and end frequency will be. That is, you choose range of
frequencies to simulate your circuit.
 In the AC sweep you also have the option of Noise enable in which PSpice will
simulate noise for you either on the output or the input of the circuit. These noise
calculations are performed at each frequency step and can be plotted in probe.
Page | 41
EXAMPLE - 4:
 Simulate the given circuit (Fig. 23) at a frequency of 60 Hz.
Figure 23
SINGLE FREQUENCY AC SIMULATION:
 Draw the circuit in your schematics workspace. The AC source, VAC, is in the
source library.
 To set up the AC source for simulation, double click on the source symbol and open
its ATTRIBUTES box.
 The DC attribute is the dc value of the source for dc analyses. The ACMAG and
ACPHASE attributes set the magnitude and phase of the phasor representing Vin
for ac analysis.
 To specify the frequency for simulation, select Setup from the Analysis menu and
go to AC sweep.
 Set all fields for 60-Hz simulation as shown in the fig. 24:
Figure 24
 Since simulation is performed at only on frequency, 60 Hz, graphing the simulation

results is not a very attractive option. So to write the magnitude and phase of the
phasor Vout to output file, use VPRINT1 part from SPECIAL library as shown
below (Fig. 25):
Page | 42
Figure 25
 After placing VPRINT1 part and set its attributes. The VPRINT1 part can be
configured to meter the node voltage in any kind of simulation: dc, ac, or transient.
Since an ac analysis is specified in the setup, the values of AC, MAG, and PHASE
attributes are set to Y, where Y stands for yes.
 When an AC sweep is performed, PSpice, unless instructed otherwise will attempt
to plot the results using the probe plotting program. To turn off this feature, select
Probe Setup in the Analysis menu and select Do Not Auto-Run Probe.
 Simulate the circuit and select ‘Examine Output’ from the ‘Analysis’ menu to view
the data. At the bottom of the file we will find the desired results.
EXERCISE -3:
Simulate the circuit in fig. 25 at a frequency of 50 Hz to find the current through the
circuit using IPRINT part and display the results in the output file.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY AC SIMULATION:
 To sweep the frequency over a range, 1 Hz to 10 MHz, for example, return to AC

SWEEP AND NOISE ANALYSIS box. Change the fields to the desired values as
shown below (Fig.26):
Figure 26
Page | 43
 Since the frequency range is so large, choose a log axis for frequency with 50 data
points in each decade
 We can now plot the data using probe utility. This procedure requires two steps.
First, remove VPRINT1 part. Second, return to PROBE SETUP window and select
‘Automatically Run Probe After Simulation’.
 Save and simulate the circuit.
 To plot magnitude and phase of Vout on the probe window, select Add from the
trace menu. For magnitude of Vout, select V (Vout) and click OK.
 Before plotting phase, select Add Y axis from Plot menu. Now go to add traces and
add the expression P (Vout). Click OK.
EXERCISE - 4:
Plot the magnitude and phase of current through the capacitor in the above circuit
(Fig.25) over a frequency range of 100 Hz to 600 kHz.
(E) PARAMETRIC SWEEP
 One of the more useful aspects of PSPICE is the ability to run a number of
variations on a basic circuit and compare the results by plotting them on the same
graph.
 For our example it might be interesting to see how changing the resistor value
affects the frequency response and make comparison with the first simulation.
 A hard-nosed way of doing that might be to select the circuit, make a copy, start a
new project with all of the same settings, paste the circuit into the new project,
make the desired parameter changes, run the simulation, and then add the new trace
to the old graph.
 Instead, you can use the parameter sweep feature of PSPICE. A parameter sweep
allows you to specify a number of values for a particular parameter and then
perform a complete analysis for each value.
EXAMPLE – 5:
Draw the following circuit (Fig. 27):
Figure 27
Page | 44
 Double-click on the resistor value and change its value from 10k to {RA}. (Make
sure that you are changing the value and not the name.) The curly brackets are
important.
 Go to the ANALYSIS menu and choose SETUP.
 Now choose PARAMETRIC.
 In the new window, under the SWEPT Var. TYPE, select GLOBAL PARAMETER
and in the “Parameter name” entry box type in RA
 In the “Sweep Type” section, you could enter start, stop, and increment values for
R1.
 Since we want only a few values, we will use a VALUE LIST option on the LHS
menu.
 Click the button next to “Value List” and enter 1k 10k 100k (no commas separating
the values).
 Thus, we are planning to run the simulation 3 times with those three values for R1.
 Click OK.
 We need to add one more part to the schematic so that PSPICE can handle the
parameter sweep properly.
 Go to GET PART and select the part named PARAM. Place it any where on the
schematic workspace.
 Double-click on the “Parameters:” part to bring up the “Property Editor” window.
 Type RA for NAME 1 and 1k for VALUE 1.This shows that 1k will be the first
value used in the parameter sweep.
 Finally, click on CHANGE DISPLAY and select BOTH NAME and VALUE. You
should see the schematic workspace that is something like the one below (Fig. 28):
Figure 28
 Set the AC sweep settings over a range of frequencies 10 Hz to 100 kHz and
10pts/decade (Don’t forget to select decade in the ac sweep type). Now Simulate
your circuit.
 Assuming there are no errors, when the simulation is finished, you should see a
message saying that three separate files are available. You can choose any or all of
them for plotting. In this case choose “All” and click OK.
 From the TRACE menu choose ADD TRACE in the dialog, choose “DB( )” from
the math function list and then choose V(Vout) from the circuit variables list.
 Click OK and a graph will appear, showing three different frequency responses for
the three different values of resistor.
Page | 45
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
Simulate the given circuit (Fig. 29) for frequencies from 1Hz to 10 MHz. Use decade
scale (50 pts/dec). Plot graph of magnitude and phase of v(t) and i(t).
Figure 29
Page | 46
EXPERIMENT 10
Determination of an Unknown Component in a Circuit
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the nature (L or C) and value of the unknown component P
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Oscilloscope and Probes
Function Generator
Components
Black Box
Resistor
THEORY:
Use knowledge of previous labs.
R1=
+
Vs(t) P ? R2=
-
Figure 30
PROCEDURE:
An unknown component, P, is provided to you. Using P, build the circuit as shown in
Fig.30.
Using an AC input source (peak voltage=5V), determine the nature (L or C) and value of
the unknown component P.
Follow the following steps in achieving your goal:
1) Connect probes of an oscilloscope across the input source and the P. Vary the
frequency of the source. The voltage behavior as a function of frequency across the
P will tell its nature (L or C). Fill table 20. And justify your answer.
2) The nature of P will also tell that whether voltage across it leads or lags with respect
to the input source, Vs (t). For this connect oscilloscope probes across the
component P on one channel and across input voltage on other channel. Find phase
shift between the two and fill Table 21.
3) In your built circuit, apply a peak input voltage of 5V. Then quickly change the
frequency in the range 0-1000kHz and select a frequency where voltage magnitude
across P is maximum (Vmax).
Page | 47
4) Now experimentally find the frequency where the voltage across P = 0.5Vmax.
Update Table 22.
5) Using the input frequency from the step 4 and peak input voltage of 5V, measure
magnitude and angle (with correct sign) of voltage across P.
6) Now using the given information and measurements determine value of P using
any AC steady state circuit analysis technique. Fill Table 23.
Table 20 (Behavior of the voltage across P as a function of frequency):

Nature of the Component Justification
(L OR C)
Table 21
Voltage angle across P +θ or –θ Justification
( Leading or Lagging )
Table 22
Frequency for Frequency for 0.5Vmax Voltage across P at 0.5Vmax
Vmax
Table 23
Experimental Actual Component value Comments
Component value
Page | 48
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. If P is a resistor, voltage angle across R1: lead or lag or in phase and why?
2. If P is an inductor, voltage angle across R1: lead or lag or in phase and why?
3. If P is a capacitor, voltage angle across R1: lead or lag or in phase and why?
a. For the following questions assume your determined P
4. If the input frequency is 0 Hz, what voltage will you observe across R1 and why?
5. If the input frequency is ∞ Hz, what voltage will you observe across R1 and why?
Page | 49
EXPERIMENT 11
Passive Low Pass Filter
OBJECTIVE:
Design and implement a Passive-RC and RL first order low pass filter.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments
Oscilloscope
Function Generator
Components
Resistor: To be decided later by calculations
Capacitor: 10nF
Inductor: 150mH
THEORY:
An electrical filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all unwanted
frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only those signals wanted by the
circuit designer. In other words, they “filter out” unwanted signals. An ideal filter will
separate and pass sinusoidal input signals based upon their frequency.
RC LOW PASS FILTER:
If a filter passes low frequencies and rejects high frequencies, then it is a low-pass filter. A
simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by connecting together a
single resistor in series with a single capacitor as shown in Figure-31. In this type of filter
arrangement, the input signal (Vin) is applied to the series combination (both the resistor
and capacitor together) but the output signal is taken across the capacitor only. This type
of filter is known generally as a “first-order filter” or “one-pole filter.
Figure-31
Signals at low frequencies will be passed because the capacitor acts as an open circuit, and
the input signal will appear across the capacitor as output voltage. For high frequencies, on
Page | 50
the other hand, the capacitor can be considered a short circuit. Thus the output will be zero
and high frequency signals will be blocked.
The corner (cutoff) frequency for a passive RC filter is given by the expression:
1
=
2 RC
RL LOW PASS FILTER:
A simple passive RL Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by connecting together
a single resistor in series with an inductor as shown in Figure-32. In this type of filter,
output ( Vout ) is taken across the resistor.
Figure-32
At low frequencies; the inductor appears as a short circuit and there is no change in
magnitude from input to output. As the frequency increases, the inductor impedance
increases so at high frequencies; the inductor appears as an open circuit. Thus the
magnitude of the output is zero and high frequencies are blocked.
The cutoff frequency of RL filter is as follows:

=
2 L
PRE LAB:
Determine theoretical values in the respective columns of given data tables. Show all
your work.
Page | 51
PROCEDURE:
1. Design a passive-RC and RL low pass filter for a cutoff frequency of 5 kHz.
2. Build the RC low pass filter circuit. Use appropriate values of resistor and capacitor.
3. Measure actual values of the resistor and the capacitor using the LCR meter and
record them in Table-24.Calculate the cutoff frequency.
5. Connect the function generator at input. Adjust the function generator to produce 1
Vp-p sine wave at a frequency of 100 Hz. Increase the frequency from function
generator until the output voltage, Vout, is equal to 0.707 times the input voltage.
The frequency where this occurs is the cutoff frequency of the filter. Measure and
record this frequency in Table-24.
6. Set the frequencies to the values given in Table-25, measure and record input,
output voltage (magnitude plus phase) and gain. Complete Table-25.
7. Repeat steps 2 – 7 for the RL low pass filter circuit as shown in Figure-32 using
appropriate values of R and L. Record the corresponding readings in Table-26 and
Table-27.
Table 24
Resistor
Capacitor
Cutoff frequency
(calculated)
Cutoff frequency
(measured)
Page | 52
Table 25
Theoretical Measured
Frequency
(Hz) Vin
|Vout| θ Av |Vout| Θ Av
100
500
1000
3000
5000
8000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
Table 26
Resistor
Inductor
Cutoff frequency
(calculated)
Cutoff frequency
(measured)
Page | 53
Table 27
Frequency
(Hz) Vin
|Vout| θ Av |Vout| Θ Av
100
500
1000
3000
5000
8000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Plot calculated and measured Vout and Av as a function of frequency. Provide three graphs
showing calculated and measured results for (i) |Vout|, (ii) θ, and (iii) Av.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Comment on physical interpretation of the plots. Justify shapes of the plots from
your theoretical knowledge.
Page | 54
EXPERIMENT 12
Passive High Pass Filter
OBJECTIVE:
Design and implement passive-RC and RL first order high pass Filter.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments:
Function generator with probe
Components:
Resistor: To be designed later
Capacitor: 10nF
Inductor: 150mH
THEORY:
A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that of the previously seen Low Pass
filter circuit, as now the two components have been interchanged with the output signal
( Vout ) being taken from across the resistor and inductor in RC and RL filters respectively.
Low pass filter only allowed signals that were below its cut-off frequency point, ƒc, to pass.
The passive high pass filter circuit, as its name implies, only passes signals above the
selected cut-off point, ƒc, eliminating any low frequency signals from the waveform.
Consider the circuit below.
RC HIGH PASS FILTER:
Figure 33
In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies
so the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals until the cut-off
frequency point (ƒc) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the
capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing the entire
input signal to pass directly to the output.
Page | 55
The cut-off frequency for RC filter is as follows:
1
=
2 RC
RL HIGH PASS FILTER:
Figure 34
The output of this circuit is across the inductor. At = 0 the inductor acts as a short circuit,
thus there is no voltage across the inductor. As the frequency increases, the inductor’s
impedance increases, so the magnitude of the output also increases. At = ∞ the inductor
acts as an open circuit, which means at high frequency magnitude of input and output
Becomes same.
The cut-off frequency for RL filter is as follows:
=
2 L
PRE LAB:
your work.
PROCEDURE:
1. Build the RC High pass filter circuit for a cutoff frequency of 5 kHz. Use
appropriate value of resistor and capacitor.
2. Measure actual values of the resistance and the capacitor using the LCR meter and
record them in Table-28. Calculate the cutoff frequency.
4. Connect the function generator at input. Adjust the function generator to produce
1Vp-p sine wave. Increase the frequency from function generator until the output
voltage Vout is equal to 0.707 times the input voltage. The frequency where this
occurs is the cutoff frequency of the filter. Measure and record this frequency in
Table-28.
Page | 56
5. Set the frequencies to the values given in Table-29, measure and record input,
output voltage (magnitude plus phase) and gain. Complete Table-29.
6. Repeat steps 2 – 6 for the RL high pass filter circuit using appropriate values of R
and L. Record the corresponding readings in Table-30 and Table-31.
Table 28
Resistor
Capacitor
Cutoff frequency
(calculated)
Cutoff frequency
(measured)
Table 29
Frequency Theoretical Measured

(Hz)
Vin Vout Θ Av Vout θ Av
100
500
1000
3000
5000
8000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
Page | 57
Table 30
Resistor
Inductor
Cutoff frequency
(calculated)
Cutoff frequency
(measured)
Table 31
Frequency
(Hz)
Vin Vout Θ Av Vout θ Av
100
500
1000
3000
5000
8000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
Page | 58
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Plot calculated and measured Vout and Av as a function of frequency. Provide three graphs
showing calculated and measured results for (i) |Vout|, (ii) θ, and (iii) Av.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
Page | 59
EXPERIMENT 13
Resonance in RLC circuit
OBJECTIVE:
Observe the behavior of a resonant tuned circuit
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments:
Function generator with probes
Components:
Inductor: 10mH
Capacitor: 1nF
Resistor: 100 kΩ
THEORY:
Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used in electrical and electronic
circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and
also in radio and television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the
receiving of the different frequency channels.
In a parallel RLC Circuit, when the frequency of the A.C. source is tuned to a certain value,
the impedance (Z) of the circuit reaches a maximum. The parallel RLC Circuit is at
resonance and the frequency is called resonant frequency.
1
=
2 √
At resonance, current through capacitor and inductor are equal in magnitude but 180 degree
out of phase.
Figure 35
The Parallel RLC circuit shown in Figure-35 has high impedance at the resonant frequency.
Note that as applied frequency increases, XL also increases, but XC decreases. This means
Page | 60
that a low impedance path to the ground exists through C. The opposite is true if the applied
frequency is lower than f . Only when XL is equal to XC there is high impedance.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE: It is a plot of the magnitude of output voltage of a resonance

circuit as a function of frequency. The response starts at zero, reaches a maximum value in
the vicinity of the natural resonant frequency, and then drops again to zero as ω becomes
infinite. The frequency response is shown in Figure-36.
Figure 36
Two additional frequencies f1 and f2 are also indicated, which are called the half-power
frequencies. These frequencies locate those points on the curve at which the voltage
response is 1/√2 or 0.707 times the maximum value. They are used to measure the band-
width of the response curve. This is called bandwidth of the resonant circuit and is
defined as:
f=f f
The quality factor of a resonant system is a measure of how sharp the resonance is. It is
an important property of a system because it depends upon how quickly the system loses
stored energy.
f
Q=
f
PRE LAB:
your work.
Page | 61
PROCEDURE:
1. Build Parallel RLC resonance circuit shown in Figure-35.

2. Measure the actual values of resistances, inductance and capacitance using DMM
and LCR Meter and record them in Table 32. Calculate the resonance frequency
and record it in Table-32.
3. Connect the function generator at input. Adjust the function generator to produce a
5 Vpeak square wave at 500 Hz frequency.
4. Damped Response:
Sketch the output waveform on Figure-37 as seen from the oscilloscope. Observe
that the output voltage rings or oscillates after the abrupt input voltage change
which occurs at each square wave edge. This ringing is a damped resonance which
occurs whenever there is an abrupt change in the state of a resonant system i.e from
positive peak to negative peak of input voltage. The time taken to settle down
depends upon the amount of damping which, here depends upon the resistance R,
in the circuit. Note the frequency of the ringing does not depend upon the input
square wave frequency. Use the oscilloscope to estimate the resonant frequency, ƒR
and record in Table-32.
5. Now switch the signal to sine wave. Observe that the ratio Vout/Vin depends upon
the sine wave frequency.
6. Vary the frequency using function generator and find out the frequency ƒo where
Vout/Vin is a maximum. Record this frequency in Table 33.
7. Find out the frequencies ƒ1 and ƒ2 where Vout falls to 1/√2 of its peak value.
8. Set the frequency to the values in Table-34, measure and record input and output
voltages.
9. Calculate the bandwidth of the resonant circuit and record the value in Table 33.
10. Calculate quality factor Q. Note it in Table-33.
11. Measure Vout for a range of frequencies from ƒo/3 to 3ƒo and record in Table-34.
Table 32
Resistor R1
Resistor R2
Capacitor
Inductor
Resonance frequency (calculated)
Resonance frequency (measured)
Page | 62
Table 33
ƒo ( where Vout/Vin is maximum)
ƒ1
ƒ2
Bandwidth
Quality (Q)
Figure 37
Table 34
Frequencies
Vin
( kHz)
Vout Av Vout Av
ƒo/3
ƒo/2
ƒo/1.5
ƒo
1.5 ƒo
2 ƒo
3 ƒo
Page | 63
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Plot calculated and measured (i) Vout and (ii) Av as a function of frequency.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
3. Design a series RLC resonance circuit for the resonant frequency of 50 kHz and
bandwidth 10 kHz.
4. What is the impedance of a circuit in case of series resonance circuit and parallel
resonance circuit?
Page | 64
EXPERIMENT 14
Active Low Pass and High Pass Filter
OBJECTIVE:
Design and implement active Low and High pass filter.
EQUIPMENT:
Instruments:
Oscilloscope
Function Generator
Components:
Resistors: To be decided later by calculations
Capacitors: 10 nF
741-OpAmp
THEORY:
Filters are frequency selective networks which allow certain frequencies to pass through
them freely and attenuate all the other undesired frequencies. We have already discussed
passive filters. Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors.
Active filter consists of active components such as Op-amp, transistors with passive
elements.
In passive filter circuits there is a small error in the pass band, while the transition from the
pass band to the stop-band is not abrupt. The sharpness of the transition from stop band to
pass band can be controlled to some degree with a good design of an active filter.
LOW PASS FILTER:

The simplest form of the active low pass filter is shown in Figure-38.
Figure 38
This filter uses a capacitor and a resistor connected in parallel in the feedback path of an
inverting amplifier. When the frequency is low, the reactance of the capacitor is very large;
so the gain is approximately unity (when R1 is equal to R2). At high frequencies, however,
Page | 65
the reactance is small, and the feedback impedance is small. This causes a small gain. This
filter is a single pole filter because there is only one pole in the transfer function of the
filter, which is created by the RC pair.
The cutoff frequency of the filter is given by:

1
=
2 RC
Since the cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency where the gain is .707 (-3dB) for R1
equal to R2, the reactance of the capacitor must be equal to the value of the resistor.
HIGH PASS FILTER:

The high pass filter attenuates the low frequencies and passes the high frequencies above
the cutoff frequency. The formula for cutoff frequency is the same as given for the low
pass filter.
Figure 39
This filter uses a capacitor and a resistor connected in series at the inverting pin of
amplifier. When the frequency is low, the reactance of the capacitor is very large; so the
gain is approximately zero. At high frequencies, however, the reactance is small, and
impedance at inverting pin is just resistance so gain is just unity (when R2 is equal to R1).
PRE LAB:
your work.
PROCEDURE:
1. Design an active-RC low pass and high pass filter for unity gain and cutoff
frequency of 5 kHz.
2. Build the low pass filter circuit. Use appropriate values of resistors and capacitor.
Page | 66
3. Measure the actual values of resistances and capacitor using the LCR meter and
record them in Table-35.Using the measured value of each resistor in Table-35,
calculate the cutoff frequency.
4. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure-38. The pin configuration of 741 OP-AMP
IC is given below:
Figure 40
5. Connect the function generator at input. Adjust the function generator to produce 1
Vp-p sine wave at a frequency of 100 Hz.
6. Increase the frequency from function generator until the output voltage Vout is equal
to 0.707 times the input voltage. The frequency where this occurs is the cutoff
frequency of the filter. Measure and record this frequency Table-35.
7. Set the frequency to the value in Table-36, measure and record input and output
voltage (magnitude). Complete Table-36.
8. Repeat steps 2-7 for the high pass filter circuit shown in Figure-39 using appropriate
values of resistors and capacitor. Record your readings in Table-37 and Table-38.

Table 35
Resistor R1
Resistor R2
Capacitor
Cutoff frequency
(calculated)
Cutoff frequency
(measured)
Page | 67
Table 36
Frequency
(Hz)
Vin Vout Av Vout Av
100
500
1000
3000
5000
8000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
Table 37
Resistor R1
Resistor R2
Capacitor
Cutoff frequency
(calculated)
Cutoff frequency
(measured)
Page | 68
Table 38
Frequency
(Hz)
Vin Vout Av Vout Av
100
500
1000
3000
5000
8000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:
Plot calculated and measured Vout and Av as a function of frequency.
POST LAB QUESTIONS:
Page | 69
Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs with projects
1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 15%
3. Final evaluation 35%
a. Project Implementation 60%
b. Project report and quiz 40%
Labs without projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 20%
3. Final Evaluation 30%
i. Experiment 60%
ii. Lab report, pre and post
experiment quiz 40%
Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of
copying may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be
reported to DC. This may result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.
Page | 70
Appendix B: Safety around Electricity

In all the Electrical Engineering (EE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents
during conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall
be adopted:
 Remember that the voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in
EE labs has enough power to cause death/injury by electrocution. It is around
50V/10 mA that the “cannot let go” level is reached. “The key to survival is to
decrease our exposure to energized circuits.”
 If a person touches an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded,
electricity will instantly pass through the body to the ground, causing a harmful,
potentially fatal, shock.
 Each circuit must be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker that will blow or “trip”
when its safe carrying capacity is surpassed. If a fuse blows or circuit breaker trips
repeatedly while in normal use (not overloaded), check for shorts and other faults
in the line or devices. Do not resume use until the trouble is fixed.
 It is hazardous to overload electrical circuits by using extension cords and multi-
plug outlets. Use extension cords only when necessary and make sure they are
heavy enough for the job. Avoid creating an “octopus” by inserting several plugs
into a multi-plug outlet connected to a single wall outlet. Extension cords should
ONLY be used on a temporary basis in situations where fixed wiring is not feasible.
 Dimmed lights, reduced output from heaters and poor monitor pictures are all
symptoms of an overloaded circuit. Keep the total load at any one time safely below
maximum capacity.
 If wires are exposed, they may cause a shock to a person who comes into contact
with them. Cords should not be hung on nails, run over or wrapped around objects,
knotted or twisted. This may break the wire or insulation. Short circuits are usually
caused by bare wires touching due to breakdown of insulation. Electrical tape or
any other kind of tape is not adequate for insulation!
 Electrical cords should be examined visually before use for external defects such
as: Fraying (worn out) and exposed wiring, loose parts, deformed or missing parts,
damage to outer jacket or insulation, evidence of internal damage such as pinched
or crushed outer jacket. If any defects are found the electric cords should be
removed from service immediately.
 Pull the plug not the cord. Pulling the cord could break a wire, causing a short
circuit.
 Plug your heavy current consuming or any other large appliances into an outlet that
is not shared with other appliances. Do not tamper with fuses as this is a potential
fire hazard. Do not overload circuits as this may cause the wires to heat and ignite
insulation or other combustibles.
 Keep lab equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
 Ensure lamps are free from contact with flammable material. Always use lights
bulbs with the recommended wattage for your lamp and equipment.
 Be aware of the odor of burning plastic or wire.
Page | 71
 ALWAYS follow the manufacturer recommendations when using or installing new

lab equipment. Wiring installations should always be made by a licensed electrician
or other qualified person. All electrical lab equipment should have the label of a
testing laboratory.
 Be aware of missing ground prong and outlet cover, pinched wires, damaged
casings on electrical outlets.
 Inform Lab engineer / Lab assistant of any failure of safety preventive measures
and safe practices as soon you notice it. Be alert and proceed with caution at all
times in the laboratory.
 Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the EE Labs.
 Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a
direction or part of a procedure, ASK YOUR LAB ENGINEER / LAB
ASSISTANT BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.
 Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in EE Labs without the
presence of the Lab engineer / Lab assistant.
 Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all
instructions, both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
 Be prepared for your work in the EE Labs. Read all procedures thoroughly before
entering the laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical
jokes, and pranks are dangerous and prohibited.
 Always work in a well-ventilated area.
 Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy
at all times.
 Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. Do not wander around the
room, distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the laboratory
experiments of others.
 Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose
or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back, and
dangling jewelry and baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely
cover the foot.
 Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including fire
extinguisher. Know what to do if there is a fire during a lab period; “Turn off
equipment, if possible and exit EE lab immediately.”
Page | 72
Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports

Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He will write a report for
each experiment he performs in his notebook according to the following format.
Lab Report Format
Your report must include following:
1. Introduction: Introduce area explored in the experiment.

2. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?
3. Measurements: In your own words write how the experiment is performed (Do
not copy/paste the procedure).
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the
experiment and how they were resolved?
b. Graphs, if any
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real world application where this experiment may apply.
6. Answers to post lab questions (if any)
Sample Lab Report
Introduction
An RC circuit is a first order circuit that utilizes a capacitor as an energy storage element
whereas a resistor as an energy wastage element. RC circuits are building blocks of
electronic devices and their thorough understanding is important in comprehending
advance engineering systems such as transistors and transmission lines.
An RC circuit can be operated with both DC and AC sources. In this lab we study transient
response of RC circuits with a square wave as a DC source. During the DC operation of an
RC circuit the voltage across the capacitor or the resistor show energy storing (capacitor
charging) and dissipating (capacitor discharging via resistor) mechanisms of the circuit.
The capacitor charging or discharging curves then lead to determine time constant of the
circuit where the time constant signifies time required by the RC circuit to store or waste
energy.
Objective:
To study transient response of a series RC circuit
Page | 73
Measurements:
The circuit used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 1. Both input (a square wave) and
output (voltage across capacitor) waveforms are monitored on an oscilloscope. The
capacitor charging is observed during "on" part of the square waveform whereas the
capacitor discharging is observed during "off" part of the square waveform (Fig. 2). We
measure the time constant from the capacitor charging or discharging curve. While
keeping the capacitor value constant, we also measure time constants with various resistor
values (Table 1).
Fig.1. Circuit used in the experiment
Issues:
Mention any issue(s) you encountered during the experiment and how they were resolved
Conclusions:
From the measurements following conclusions can be drawn:
a) The capacitor charging and discharging curves are exponential.
b) The time constant is directly proportional to the resistor value.
Both of the above conclusions are also easily verifiable by solving differential equation
for the RC circuit.
Applications:
An RC circuit can be employed for a camera flash. The capacitor discharges through the
flash light during a picture taking event.
Page | 74
INPUT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE ACROSS A

CAPACITOR
Fig. 2. Input and Output waveforms
TABLE I. Time constant as a function of the resistor values
Resistance
270 Ω 330 Ω 470 Ω 1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
(Nominal)
Resistance
(Measured)
Time constant
(Calculated)
Time constant
(Measured)
Capacitance
(Measured)
Page | 75
Appendix D: Plotting in MATLAB

In many lab reports it is required to plot graphs of various measured parameters. In this
appendix we will provide basic commands to make such plots.
For example, if one needs to plot theoretical and measured phase as a function of frequency
for a certain circuit then in the MATLAB command window do the following:
Define vector of frequency points as:

f=[100,500,1000,3000,5000,8000,10000,15000,20000,25000];
Then theoretical and measured phase values as:
phase_the=[1,5,10,30,45,55,63,70,80,85];
phase_exp=[0.6,3,8,26,40,50,60,67,77,82];
Then execute the following command:
semilogx(f,phase_the,'--',f,phase_exp), xlabel('Frequency (Hz)'), ylabel('Output
Phase (deg.)'), legend ('Theoretical', 'Experimental')
A graphical window with the required plot will be displayed. In that window go to “File-
>Save As” and save the file with a name and format such as png. Output graph will be
like this:
For graphs with y as the log axis, we will use the command “semilogy” instead of
“semilogx”. For graphs with all linear axes, we can use the command “plot” and for log-
log graphs we can use the command “loglog”
Page | 76

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EL228 - Electrical Network Analysis

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

Created by: Beenish Fatima & Tooba Javed

Date: 17thMay, 2014

Last Updated: Mr. Yousuf Rehman

Date: 17th April, 2019

Approved by the HoD: Dr. S.M. Sajid

2 Experiment No.1, Oscilloscope and Function Generator 5

3 Experiment No.2, Transient Response of a series RC Circuit 8

4 Experiment No.3, Transient Response of a series RL Circuit 12

5 Experiment No.4, Phasors 16

6 Experiment No.5, Series-Parallel R, L, C Circuits 20

7 Experiment No.6, AC Thevenin’s Theorem 24

8 Experiment No.7, AC Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 28

9 Experiment No.8, Power factor improvement 31

10 Experiment No.9, AC Analysis and Transient Analysis using PSPICE 35

13 Experiment No.12, Passive High pass Filter 55

14 Experiment No.13, Resonance in RLC Circuit 60

15 Experiment No.14, Active Low Pass and High pass Filter 65

16 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 71

17 Appendix B: Safety around Electricity 72

18 Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports 74

19 Appendix D: Plotting in MATLAB 77

5 Capacitors, Resistors, Inductors, Transformer

Generate following signals using function generator and oscilloscope:

a) A triangular signal of frequency 1 KHz, and 10 Vp

Generate following square wave signal:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Briefly explain the functionality of oscilloscope and function generator knobs as

Capacitance (measured) = Time Constant (measured) / R (measured)

DATA FOR EXPERIMENT:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. The resistance of a capacitor for dc should yield a resistance close to

b. Parallel with the first resistor

TIME CONSTANT (Τ):

Inductance (measured) = Time Constant (measured) * R (measured)

DATA FOR EXPERIMENT:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Why the voltage waveform across the resistor makes sense?

MEASURE PHASE ANGLE USING OSCILLOSCOPE

The phase angle (in radians) is then calculated as:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure-9.

2. Set the source voltage and frequency at 4 Vp and 100Hz, respectively.

DATA FOR EXPERIMENT:

Frequency (kHz) 0.1 0.5 1 5 10

Phase θ1˚ (Calculated)

Phase θ1˚ (Measured)

Frequency (kHz) 0.1 0.5 1 5 10

Phase θ2˚ (Measured)

Frequency (kHz) 0.1 0.5 1 5 10

|θ1| + | θ2| (Calculated)

|θ1| + | θ2| (Measured)

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

Figure 10: RLC Circuit – 1

PROCEDURE FOR RLC CIRCUIT – 1:

1. Connect the circuit of Figure-10 on breadboard.

DATA FOR EXPERIMENT:

Figure 11: RLC Circuit - 2

PROCEDURE FOR RLC CIRCUIT - 2:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Is the phase relationship between circuit voltages or currents in a series-parallel AC

DATA FOR EXPERIMENT:

Table 12 (Original Circuit)

Table 13 (Thevenin Parameters)