Western Mindanao State

University
College of Engineering
Department of Electronics Engineering

Handouts

EE 140/BEE 133
Industrial Electronics

Prepared and compiled by:

Nicholas Marious B. Asilo, ECE, ECT
WESTERN MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
Disclaimer: This learning materials is intended for purely
Instructional use only. All credits given to the authors of
the books used. No part of this material may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
or stored in a database or retrieval system.
CHAPTER 1: THYRISTORS & OTHER DEVICES

1.1. The Basic 4-Layer Device

1.2. The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

1.3. SCR Applications

1.4. The Diac and Triac

1.5. The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)

1.6. The Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

1.7. The Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)

1.8. The IGBT

1.9. The Phototransistor

1.10. The Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)

1.11. Optical Couplers

1.12. Fiber Optics

1.1 THE BASIC 4-LAYER DEVICE The basic thyristor is a 4-layer device
with two terminals, the anode ad the cathode. It is constructed of four semiconductor
layers that form a pnpn structure. The devices acts as a switch and remains off until the
forward voltage reaches a certain value; then it turns on and conducts, Conduction
continues until the current is reduced below a specified value. The basic thyristor is also
known as a silicon unilateral switch (SUS), Shockley diode, or 4-layer diode.

THE 4-LAYER DIODE

The 4-layer diode (also known as

Shockley diode
and SUS) is a type of thyristor, which is a class
of devices
constructed of four semiconductor layers. The
basic
construction of a 4-layer diode and its
schematic symbol
are shown in the figure.

The pnpn structure can be represented by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a pnp transistor and an npn
transistor, as shown in the figure. The upper pnp layers
form ��ଵ and the lower npn layers form ��ଶ.

Shockley Diode vs Normal Diode

The major difference between conventional diode and Shockley diode is, it starts
conducting when the forward voltage exceeds break-over voltage. The figure below
shows the characteristic curve of a normal diode (left) and the Shockley diode (right).
 Shockley diode operates in two states either ON or OFF. Thus, it is used as
switching device. It is called PNPN diode because of its construction and architecture. It
is a two-terminal device that’s why it is categorized as diodes.

The Operation of Shockley Diode

When the diode is in “ON” state, the junctions ��ଵ and ��ଷ are in
forward bias and ��ଶ is in reversed bias. However, when the diode is in
“OFF” state, ��ଵ and ��ଷ are in reversed bias and ��ଶ is in forward
bias.
The Parameters of a 4-Layer Diode using the Characteristic Curve

 Forward current, ��஺, gradually increases. As

Breakover Voltage ��஺ increases, a point is reached where
The operation of the 4-layer diode may ��஺ = ��ௌ, the switching current.
seem unusual because when it is When this happens, the forward voltage
forward-biased, it can act essentially as an drop, ��஺௄, suddenly decreases to a low
open switch. There is a region of forward value, and the 4-layer diode enters the
bias, called the forward-blocking region, in forward conduction region. Now, the device
which the device has a very high forward is in the on state and acts as a closed
resistance (ideally an open) and is in the switch. When the anode current drops back
off state. The forward blocking region exist below the holding value, �� , the device
ு
from ��஺௄ = 0�� up to a value of ��஺௄turns off.
called the Forward-Breakover Voltage. As
��஺௄ is increased from 0, the anode

 Holding Current Once the 4-layer diode is conducting (in the on state), it will
continue to conduct until the anode current is reduce below a
 specified level,
called the holding current, ����.This parameter is also indicated on
the characteristic curve. When ��஺ falls below ��ு, the device rapidly
switches back to the off state and enters the forward-blocking region.

 Switching Current The value of the anode current at the point where the device
switches from forward-blocking region (off) to
forward-conduction region
(on) is called the switching current, ����. This value of current is
always less than the holding current, ��ு

Example 1 A certain 4-layer diode is biased in the forward-blocking region with an

anode to-cathode voltage of 20 V. Under this bias condition, the anode current is 1 µs.
Determine the resistance of the diode in the forward-blocking region.
Solution The resistance is
��஺௄ =��஺௄
��஺=20 ��

1 ���� = ���� ����

Example 2 Determine the value of anode current
when
the device is on. ��஻ோ(ி) = 100
��. Assume
��஻ா = 0.7 �� and ��஼ா(ௌ஺்)
= 0.1 �� for the
internal transistor structure.

Solution The voltage at the anode is

��஺ = ��஻ா + ��஼ா(ௌ஺்) = 0.7 �� + 0.1 �� = 0.8 ��

The voltage across ��ௌ is

��ோௌ = ��஻ூ஺ௌ − ��஺ = 110 �� − 0.8 �� = 109.2 ��

The anode current is

��஺ =��ோೄ
��ௌ=109.2 ��

1.0 ��٠= ������. �� ����

Application of a 4-Layer Diode

Although the 4-layer diode is rarely, if ever, used in new designs, the principles
apply to other thyristors that you will study. The circuit below is a relaxation oscillator.
The operation is as follows. When the switch is closed, the capacitor charges through R
until its voltage reaches the forward-Breakover voltage of the 4-layer diode. At this point,
the diode switches into conduction, and the capacitor rapidly discharges through the
diode. Discharging continues until the current through the diode falls below the holding
value. At this point, the diode switched back to the off state. And the capacitor begins to
charge again. The result of this action is a voltage waveform across C like in the figure
shown.

1.2 THE SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER What is a Thyristor?

The Thyristor is a four-layered, three-junction semiconductor switching device. It
has three terminals anode, cathode, and gate. Thyristor is also a unidirectional device
like a diode, which means it flows current only in one direction. It consists of three PN
junction in series as it is of four layers. *This is not the basic thyristor which has four
layers, three junctions and two terminals.
Types of Thyristors

 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

 Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)
 Gate Turn-Off Switch (GTO)
 Light-Activate SCR (LASCR)

SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Like the 4-layer diode, the SCR has two possible state of operation. In the off
state, it acts ideally as an open circuit between the anode and the cathode; actually,
rather than an open, there is a very high resistance. In the on state, the SCR acts ideally
as a short from the anode to the cathode; actually, there is a small on (forward)
resistance. The SCR is used in many applications, including motor control, time-delay
circuits, heater controls, phase control, and relay controls, to name a few.

An SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier) is a 4-layer pnpn device similar to the 4-layer

diode except with three terminals: anode, cathode, and gate. The basic structure of an
SCR is shown in the second figure above, and the schematic symbol is shown in the
first figure above. Typical SCR packages are shown in the figure below.
SCR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Like the 4-layer diode operations, the
SCR operation
can best be understood by thinking of its
internal pnpn
structure as a two-transistor arrangement, as
shown in the
figure. This structure is like that of the 4-layer
diode
except for the gate connection. The upper pnp layers act as
a transistor, ��ଵ, and the lower npn layers act as a
transistor, ��ଶ. Again, notice that the two middle layers are
“shared”.

SCR TURNING ON METHODS (SCR TRIGGERING)

increased with the load current.
Forward Voltage Triggering Temperature Triggering
By increasing the forward anode to The reverse leakage current depends on
cathode voltage. At this stage SCR turns the temperature. If the temperature is
into conduction mode and hence a large increased to a certain value, the number of
current flow through it with a low voltage hole-pairs also increases. This causes to
drop across it. During the turn ON state the increase the leakage current and further it
forward voltage drop across the SCR is in increases the current gains of the SCR.
the range of 1 to 1.5 volts and this may be

dV/dt Triggering In forward blocking state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and
J2 is reverse biased. So the junction J2 behaves as a capacitor
due to the
space charges in the depletion region. The charging current of the
capacitor is given as
����
�� = �� ����
Light Triggering An SCR turned ON by light radiation is also called as Light Activated
SCR (LASCR). This type of triggering is employed for phase
controlled
converters in HVDC transmission systems. In this method, light rays
with appropriate wavelength and intensity are allowed to strike
the junction J2.
Gate Triggering This is most common and efficient method to turn ON the SCR. When
the SCR is forward biased, a sufficient voltage at the gate
terminal injects some electrons into the junction J2. This result to
increase reverse
leakage current and hence the breakdown of junction J2 even at the
voltage lower than the VBO.

 DC Gate triggering In this triggering, a sufficient DC voltage is

applied between the gate and cathode terminals
in such a way that the gate is made positive
 with respect to the cathode. The gate current
drives the SCR into conduction mode. In this,
a continuous gate signal is applied at the gate
and hence causes the internal power
dissipation (or more power loss).
 AC Gate Triggering This is the most commonly used method for
AC applications where the SCR is employed
for such applications as a switching device.
With the proper isolation between the power
and control circuit, the SCR is triggered by the
phase-shift AC voltage derived from the main
supply. The firing angle is controlled by
changing the phase angle of the gate signal.
 Pulse Triggering The main advantage of this method is that gate
drive is discontinuous or doesn’t need
continuous pulses to turn the SCR and hence
gate losses are reduced in greater amount by
applying single or periodically appearing
pulses. For isolating the gate drive from the
main supply, a pulse transformer is used.

SCR TURNING OFF METHODS

This method basically requires momentarily
Anode Current Interruption forcing current through the SCR in the
In this method, a parallel or series switch is direction opposite to the forward
used to turn off the SCR by turning off the conduction so that the net forward current
switch. is reduced below the holding value. In this
 Series method, a reversed polarity battery is
 Shunt connected, so the current through the SCR
Forced is reduced and resulting to the turning off
Commutation of the SCR

SCR CHARACTERISTICS & RATINGS

Several of the most important SCR characteristics and ratings are defined as
follows. Use the curve below for reference

Forward Breakover Voltage above which the SCR enters the

(��������) conduction region.
Forward Breakover voltage is that voltage

Holding Current (����) Holding current is that value of current below which the
SCR switches from the conduction state to the forward
blocking
region under stated conditions.
Forward and Reverse Blocking Regions
Reverse Breakdown Voltage
Forward and reverse blocking regions are
the regions corresponding to the open
circuit condition for the controlled rectifier
which block the flow of charge (current)
from anode to cathode.
Reverse breakdown voltage is equivalent
to the Zener or avalanche region of the
fundamental two-layer semiconductor
diode.