Surveying

Definition of Surveying:
1. Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of points on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of
distance, direction and elevation.
2. Surveying is a technique, profession and science of accurately determining the
three dimensional position of points, the distance and angle between them. These
points are usually on the surface of the earth and they are often used to establish
land maps and boundaries for ownership.
Primary division of survey.
1. Plane Surveying: It is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the
earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected, all the
triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles.
Eg: For 12km arc long line is only 1cm greater than subtended chord.
2. Geodetic surveying: It is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth
is taken into account. All lines laying in the surface are curved lines and the
triangles are spherical triangles.
Classification of Surveying
1. Classification based on the nature of the field survey
* Land surveying
* Topographical surveys
* Cadastral surveys
* City surveying
* Marine or hydrographic surveying
* Astronomical survey
2. Classification based on the object of survey
* Engineering survey
* Military survey
* Mine Survey
* Geological survey
* Archeological survey
3. Classification based on instrument used
* Chain survey
* Theodolite survey
* Traverse survey
* Triangulation survey
* Tachometric survey
* Plane table survey
* Photogrammetric survey
* Aerial survey
Principles of Surveying:
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference:
The relative position of the points to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least 2 points of reference.
The position of which have already been fixed. Let A and B be the reference points
on the ground. The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative
position of A and B can be plotted on the sheet to same scale. The A and B will
survey as reference points for fixing the relative positions of other points. Any
points such as C can be platted as follows.

2. Work from whole to part:

The second principle of surveying is to work from whole to part. It is very essential
to establish first a system of control points and to fix them with higher precision.
Minor central points can then be established by less precise methods and the details
can then be located using these minor central points by running minor traverse etc.
The idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of error and to
control and localize minor error which otherwise, would expand to greater
magnitude. If the reverse process is followed. Thus making me work
uncontrollable at the end.
3. Chain Surveying:
Chain Surveying is that type of survey in which only linear measurement are made
in the field.
This type of surveying is suitable for surveys of small extent.
Principle of Chain Survey:
The principle of chain survey is to provide a skeleton (or) frame work consisting of
a number of connected triangles, as the triangle is the only simple figure that can
be platted from the length of its sides measured in the field.
To get a good result in platting, the framework should consist of triangles which
are as nearly equilateral as possible.
Terms and definitions:
Survey Stations:
A survey station is a prominent points on the chain line and can be either at the
beginning of the chain line or at the end of the chain line. Such station are known
as main station.
Survey lines:
The line joining the main survey station are called main survey lines. The biggest
of the main survey line is called the base line and the various survey station are
platted with reference to base line.
Check lines:
The check lines (or) proof lines are the lines which are run is the field to check the
accuracy of the work.
Offset: It is the lateral distance of an object (or) ground features measured from a
survey line.
By method of offsets the points (or) object is located by measurement of a
distance and angle from a points on the chain line. If the angle of offset is 90 0, it is
called perpendicular offset and if the angle is other than 90 0 it is called an oblique
offset.
Instruments for chaining: 1.Chain or tape, 2. Arrows, 3. Pegs, 4. Ranging rods,
5.Offset rod, 6. plumb bob.

1
Cross staff: The simple instrument used for setting out light angles is a cross staff.
It consist of either a frame (or) box with two points of vertical slits and is mounted
on a pole for fixing in the ground.
Eg: (a) Open cross staff, (b) French cross staff, (c) Adjustable cross staff.

Optical square: Optical square is accurate instrument than the cross staff for
setting out a line at right angle to other line.
It consist of circular box with three slits at E, F and G. In line with the opening E
and G a glass is silvered at the top and un-silvered at the bottom, is fixed facing the
opening E. opposite to the opening F a silver glass is fixed at A making an angle
450 to the previous glass. A ray from the ranging rod at Q passes through the lower
un-silvered portion of the mirror at B and is seen directly by eye at the slit E
another ray from the object at P is received by the mirror at A and is reflected
towards the mirror at B which reflects it towards the eye. Thus the image P and Q
are visible at ‘B’. If both the image are in the same vertical line the line PD and
QD will be at right angle.
Let the ray PA makes an angle α with the mirror at A.
ACB = 450 or ABC = 1800 – (450+ α) = 1350 – α
By law reflection
Ebb1 = ABC = 1350 – α
ABE = 1800 – 2 (1350-α) = 2α-900
DAB = 1800 – 2 α
From ∆le ADB ADB=1800 – (2α - 900) – (1800-2α)
ADB = 180 - 2α + 90 - 1800 + 2α = 900
thus if the image of P and Q lie is the same vertical line, then the line PD and QD
will be at right angle to each other.
Obstacle in chaining:-
Obstacle to chaining prevents chainman from measuring directly between 2 points
and give raise to a set of problems in which distance are found by indirect
measurements.
Obstacle to chaining are of three types
1. Obstacle to ranging but not chaining
This type of obstacle in which the ends are not inter-visible is quite common
except in flat country. There are 2 cases of this obstacle.
 Both ends of the line may be intervisible from intermediate points on
the line.
 Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate points on
the line.

2. Obstacle to chaining but not ranging:

There are 2 cases of this obstacle
 When it is possible to chain round the obstacle ie. pond.
Methods (a): select 2 points A and B on either side. Set out equal
perpendicular AC and BD. Measure CD then CD= AB
Methods (b): set out perpendicular to the chain line measure AC and BC the
length of AB is calculated from the relation AB = √ BC 2−¿ AC 2 ¿
Methods (c): By optical square (or) cross staff find a point which subtends
900 with A and B. measure AC and BC. Then the length of AB is
AB = √ AC 2−¿ BC 2 ¿
Methods (d): Select 2 points C and D to both side of ‘A’ and is the same
line measure. AC, AD, BC and BD, let angle BCD be θ from ∆le BCD.
BD2 = BC2 + CD2 – 2BC x CD Cos θ
2 2 2
BC +CD −2 BD
Cos θ = ……………..1
2 BC x CD
Similarly from ∆le BCA
2 2 2
BC + AC −AB
Cos θ = ……………….2
2 BC x AC
Equating equation 1 and 2 we get
( BC ¿¿ 2 x AD)+ ( BD x AC )
2
AB =Sqrt[ ¿ – (AC x AD)]
CD
Method (e): Select any point ‘E’ and base ‘C’ is line with ‘AE’ making
AE=EC range ‘D’ in line with BE making BE=ED measure CD; then
AB=CD
Method (f): select any suitable point ‘E’ and measure AE and BE mark ‘E’
and D on AE and BE such that
AE AE
CE = n and DF = n

Measure CD; then

AB = n x CD.
  When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle eg. River.
Method (a): select point ‘B’ on one side and A and C on the other side.
erect AD and CE as perpendicular to ‘AB’ and range B, D and E in one line.
Measure AC, AD and CE. If a line DF is drawn parallel to AB and AB,
cutting CE in F perpendicularly. Then the ∆le ABD and FDE will be similar.
AB DF
=
AD FE

FE = CE - CF = CE – AD and DF = AC
AB AC
=
AD CE− AD
AC x AD
AB = CE− AD

Method (b): erect perpendicular AC and bisect it at D. erect perpendicular CE

at ‘C’ and Range ‘E’ in line with BD measure CE then AB = CE
Method (c ) : erect a perpendicular AC at A and choose any convenient point
‘C’ with the help of an optical square, fix a point ‘D’ on a chain line in such a
way that BCD is a right angle. Measure AC and AD. ∆le ABC and DAC are
2
AB AC AC
similar hence AC
= AD ; AB =
AD
Method (d): fix point ‘C’ in such a way that it subtends 90 0 with AB. Range
‘D’ in line with AC and make AD=AC. At ‘D’ erect a perpendicular DE to cut
the line in ‘E’ then AB = AE
 3. Obstacle to both ranging and chaining.

Choose 2 points A and B to one side and erect perpendicular AC and BD of equal
length join CD and Prolong it pass the obstacle. Choose two points E and F on
‘CD’ and erect perpendicular EG and FH equal to that of AC. Join GH and prolong
it measure DE evidently BG= DE.
Problems:
1. A chain line ABC crosses a river, B and C being on the near and distant
bank respectively. The respective bearing of C and A taken at ‘D’, a point
45m measured at right angles to AB from B are 3000 and 2100, AB being
24m find the width of the river.
Bearing of DC = 3000
Bearing of DA = 210
BD = 45m, AB = 24m
ADC = Bearing of DC – Bearing DA
ADC = 300 – 210
ADC= 900
24
BDA = 45

BDA = 280 A1
BDC = 900 – 280 A1 = 610551
 From ∆ BDC
BC = BD --- (BDC) = 45 – (610551)
BC = 84.375
Assessment
1. In passing an obstacle is the form of a pond stations A and D, on the main
line, were taken on the posit sides of the pond. On the left of AD, a line AB
225m long was laid down and a second line AC. 275m long, was longed on
the right of AD, the points B, D and ‘C’ being in the same slight line. BD
and DC were than chained and found to be 125 m and 137.5m resp. find the
length AD
Ans:212.9m
Error due to incorrect chain:
If the length of the chain used in measuring length of the line is not equal to the
true length, the measured length of the line will not be correct and suitable
correction will have to be applied. If the chain is too long, the measured distance.
Will be less. The error will be negative and the correction is positive.
Similarly if it is too short, the measured distance will be more, the error will be
positive and correction is negative.
Let L = true length of the chain (or) tape
L1=Incorrect length of the chain (or) tape.
1. Correction to measured length
l1 = measured length of the line
l = actual length of the line
L1
True length of line = measured length of line x
L
L1
l = l1 ( )
L
2. Correction to Area
 A1= measured (or) computed area of the ground
A = actual (or) true area of the ground
Then true area = measured area x ¿
A = A1¿
1
l L+ ∆ L ∆L
= =1+
L L L

∆L= error in length of chain

∆L
Let L = e

(l + e) 2 = l + 2e + e2 = l + 2e (if e is small)
A = (1 + 2c) A1

3. Correction to volume:
V1 = measured (or) computed volume
V= actual (or) true volume
Then, true volume = measured volume x ¿
V = V1 ¿
1
L L+ ∆ L ∆L
= =1+
L L L
∆L
=e
L
V =¿ x V = (1 + e) 3 V

(1+e)3= 1+e3+3e2+3e2+3e= (1+3e)

V = (1+3 e ) v if e is small

Problem:
1. The length of a line measure with a 20m chain was found to be 250m.
Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10 cm too long.
 10
In correct --- of the chain = L1 = 20 + 100 = 20.1m

Measured length = l1 = 250m

L1 20.1
Hence =length of the line = l = 250 ( 20 ) = 251.25m
1
L
2. The length of the survey line was measured with a 20m chain and was fond to
be equal to 1200m. As a check the length was again measured with a 25m
chain and was fond to be 1212m. On comparing the 20m chain with the test
gauge. It was found to be 1 decimates too long. Find the actual length of the
25m chain used.
Sol with 20m chain = L1 = 20 + 0.10 = 20.1m
1
L 20.1
L = l1 = 1200 x 20 = 1026m (true length of line)
L
L1
With 25m chain= l= x l1
L
L1
1026 = 1212
25
1206 x 25
L1 = 1212
= 24.88m

Thus the 25m chain was 12 cm too short.

Error in chaining:
A cumulative error is that which occur in the same direction and tends to
accumulate.
A compensating error may occur is either direction and hence tends to
compensate.
Error Type Sign

1. Incorrect length of tape cumulative + (or) –

2. Bad ranging cumulative +
3. Tape not stretched tight and straight, but both
ends in line.
 4. Tape not stretched horizontally cumulative +
5. Error due to temperature cumulative +
6. Variation in pull cumulative + (or) –
7. Error due to sag compensating ±
8. Error is marking tape length cumulative +
9. Disturbing arrows after they are set. compensating ±

10.Error in reading the tape Blunder

11.Incorrect counting of chain length Mistake
Blunder

Tape correction:
We have seen the different sources of errors in line or measurement. In most of
the error, proper correction can be applied. Since in most of the cases a tape is
used for precise work the correction are sometimes called tape correction.
After having measured length, the correct length of the base is calculated by
applying the following correction.
1. Correction for absolute length:
It is the usual practice to express the absolute length of a tape as its nominal
or designated length plus (or) minus a correction. The correction for the
measured length is
L. C
Ca = l

Where Ca = correction for absolute length

L = measured length of a line (m)
C = correction per tape length
l = designated length of the tape (m)
The sign of correction (Ca) will be the same as that of ‘C’,

2. Correction for temperature:

 If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the tape
was standardized, the length of the tape increases, measured distance
become less and the correction is therefore additive. Similarly if the
temperature is less the length of the tape decreases, measured distance
become more and the correction is negative. the temperature correction is
given by
Ct = α(Tm – To) L
Where:
α = Co-efficient of thermal expansion
Tm = Mean temperature is the field during measurement
To = Temperature during standardization of the tape
L = measured length (tape length)

3. Correction for pull (or) tension:

If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the
tape was standardize, the length of the tape increases, measured distance
become less and the correction is positive. Similarly if the pull in less, the
length of the tape decreases. The measured distance become more and the
correction is negative
If Cp is the correction for pull we have
( Pm−P0 ) L
Cp =
AE
Pm = pull applied during measurement (N)
Po = standard pull (N)
L = measured length (m)
A = C/s area of the tape (cm2)
F = young’s modulus of elasticity (N/cm2)
 4. Correction for sag:
When the tape is stretched on supports between two points. It takes the
form of a horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be less than the
distance along curve. The difference between horizontal distance and the
measured length along catenary is called the sag correction.
l1 = length of the tape (in meter) suspended between A and B
Cs1=sag correction in m
w= weight of the tape in kg/m
p= pull applied in kg
wl1= weight of the tape suspended between the support
The relation between curved length (l1) and the chord length (d1) of a very
flat parabola is given by
8 h
l1 = d1 [ 1+ 3 [ d ] 2]
1

−8 h2
Cs1 = d1 - l1 = 3 d
1

Note: sag correction in always negative

Correction for slope or vertical alignment
The distance measured along the slop is always greater than the horizontal distance
and hence the correction is negative
AB = L = inclined length measured
AB1 = horizontal distance
h = difference is elevation between the ends
Cv = slop correction
2
h
Cv =
2L
Problems:
1. A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30m long at 180C
and found to be 452.343m the temperature during measurement was 32 0C.
Find the true length of the line. Take the co-efficient of expansion of the tape
per 0C = 0.0000035
Solution
Given: Temperature correction per tape length Ct = α(Tm – To) l
l = 30m, To = 180C, Tm=320C
α = 0.0000035
Ct = 0.0000035 x [32-18] x 30=0.00147m
Hence the length of the tape at 320c = 30+Ct = 30.00149m
1
L
Now true length of a line = measured length x
L
L = 30m, L1 = 30.00147m,
aMeasured length = 452.343m
30.00147
True Length = 30
x 452.343 = 452.365m

2. A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30m at 18 oC and a
pull of 5 kg and the measured length was 459.242m. Temperature during
measurement was 280c and pull applied was 10kg the tape was uniformly
supported during the measurement. Find the true length of the line. if the
cross sectional area of the tape was 0.02cm2 the co-efficient of expression
per 10C=0.0000035 and the E = 2.1 x 106 kg / cm2
Solution:
Correction for temperature per tape length= α(Tm-To)L
= 0.0000035 (28-18) x 30
= 0.00105 (+ve)
sag correction per tape length = 0
 ( Pm−P0 ) L
Correction for pull per tape length =
AE
(10−5)x 30
=
0.02 x 2.1 x 106
= 0.00357m (+ve)
Total correction = 0.00105 + 0.00357 = 0.00462m
True length of the tape = 30.00462m
30.00462
True length of the line = 30
x 459.242 = 459.949, 459.313

3. A 50m tape is suspended between the ends under pull of 15 kg. The weight
of the tape is 1.5kg find the corrected length of the tape between its ends.
Solution:
l1 w 2 p
Correction for sag = Cs =
24 p2
l1 = 50m, w = 1.5kg, p=15kg
2
50 x 1.5
Cs = 2 = 0.0208m
24 x 15
Corrected length of the tape = l-Cs = 50-0.0208 = 49.9792m
4. A steel tape 20m long standardized at 550F with a pull of 10kg was used for
measuring a base line. Find the correction per tape length. If the temperature
at the time of measurement was 80 0F and the pull exerted was 16kg. Weight
of 1 cubic cm of steel = 7.86g. weight of tape =0.8kg, and E = 2.109 x 10 6
kg / cm2, Co- efficient of expansion of tape per 10F = 6.2x 10-6
Solution:
Correction for temperature = 20x6.2 x 10-6 (80-55)
= 0.0031m (additive)
( p ¿ ¿ m− p o) x L
Correction for pull = ¿
AE
Weight of tape = A (20x100) (7.86x10-3) kg = 0.8kg
 0.8
A = 7.86 x 2 = 0.051cm2

(16−10 ) 20
Cp = 6 = 0.00112 (additive)
0.051 x 2.109 x 10
2
20(0.8)
Correction for sag = l1 ¿¿¿ ¿ = 2 = 0.00208m (Subtractive)
24 x 16
Total correction = 0.0031 + 0.00112 – 0.00208 = 0.00214m

5. A steel tape is 30m long at a temperature of 65 oF when laying horizontally

on the ground its sectional area is 0.082cm2, its weight 2kg and the co-
efficient of expansion 65 x 10-7 per 10F. The tape is stretched over three
equal span. Calculate the actual length between the end gradations under the
following condition; temperature = 850F, pull = 18kg, take E = 2x106 kg /
cm2
Ans: 30.005m
(Assignment)