Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Research Publications
NWABUGWU, Chika C.
Author
PG/M.Sc/00/28319
Agricultural Sciences
October, 2005
OCTOBER, 2005
CERTIFICATION
This project report titled "PRODUCTlON AND EVALUATION OF
WEANING FORMULA FROM PIGEON PEA (Cajanus cajan) AND MILLET
SEED (Pennisetum nrnericanum) BLENDS" has becn presented by Nwabugwu,
Chika C. (PG/MSc/00/283 19) of the Department of Food Science and Technology,
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
The work embodied in this project report is original and has not been
submitted in part or in full for any other diploma or degree of this or other
University.
...
111
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to
Almighty God
And
My Mother
IV
The successful accomplishn~entof this work was only possible through the efforts,
goodwill, kindiiess and commitment of several persons whom I musl appreciate.
I sincerely thank my supetvisor; Dr. J. C . Ani (Mrs) for hes dedication, untiring efGorts,
tolerance and guidancc in assuring that this work was successfblly completed. I thank also Prof.
Onwuka, Prof. Ihekuronye, Dr. Uvere and the entire staff of Food Science and Tdmology
Department, U.N. Pa , for their lectures, advice, kindness and support during the period of tlis
study. 1 am lu~hlyindebted to Prof: 1. C.Obizoba of Ijotne Sciehce and Nutrition Department,
U.N.N., who through his fatherly advice and supervision made this work LO progress. I extend
my sincere gratitude to Dr. Ani of Animal Science Dcpartmcnt, U.N.N, for his advice and
direction in support of this work.
I acknowledge tlae support given to me by my colleagues; Chinwe Osuagwu, lfeoma
Pvlbacyi, Chinedu Iloanusi, and Obioha Okolie, I also appreciate my friends; Anwuli Baiden,
C11ima Nwambara, Parker Elijah, Charity Umeano and Presbyter Onono&u for their
encouragement to me during this work.
Finally, my sinccre thanks go to my mother and brother Ejike for their financial support
during this study. 'To thc rest of my brothers and sisters for their support and encouragement
during this study Abovc all, I Lhank God who gave me the ability Lo carry out this research
successfi'uly.
Fer~nented(9hrs)- sprouted (24hrs), steamed (30mins), and dried millet and pigeon pea seeds
were nlilled into llours respectively and used in [he Somulation of weaning formula. The
cornposition and fimctional properties 01the llours were dctennined. Composite blends were
ionnulated with the processed flours to contain 70% crude protein from pigeon pea and 30%
crude prolein froin millet. Casein and a commercial weatling formula served as controls.
Prcfercncc test on the formulated blend was done by ranking and .the preferred products were
subjected to a 35-day animal assay, monitoring growl11 and N balance. Fermentation increased
the crude protein content of pigeon pea by 6.44% and millet by 3.05%. Sprouting increased
protein content of pigeon pea by 13.2% but seduced that of millet by 14.16%. Steaming sprouted
rnillet and pigeon pea reduced the crude protein content to 8.6% and 16.87% while fermented
millct and pigeon pca crude protein were reduced to 7.83% and 18.63% respectively.
Fernlentation reduced the tannin and phytate levels of millet and pigeon pea but increased the
cyanide level. Sprouting caused an increase in the tannin and cyanide level of millet but a
recluction in the tannin, cyanide and phytate level of pigeon pea. Steaming incrc-ascd tannin and
cyanide level of millct but reduced their content in pigcon pea. All treatments increased the water
absorption capacity of millct and pigeon pea flours. The formulated blends showed comparable
crudc protein content will1 the casein diet, 9.53%, and the F A 0 standasd protein value of 10%.
The porridgcs prepared from the formulated blends were generally acceptable organoleptically.
Among the most acceptable blends, \511ich were analysed for nutritional quality through animal
assay, diet IV (SSPF + FSMF, 70:30) had comparable food intake (138.248) and digested N
(0.46g) with casein diet (130.798 and 0.48g). From the result, it was inferred that, a foimulated
dict of Ser-mentcd stcamed millet and sprouted steamed pigeon pea, which showed a high
nutritional quality could be an acceptable formula for infants and growing children in a
developing country like Nigeria.
TABLE OF CON'UPJT
Title Page -- -- -- --
Certification -- -- -- --
Dedication -- -- -- --
Acknowledgemei\l -- -- --
Abstract -- -- -- --
Table of Contents .-- -- --
Lisl OF Figures -- -- --
List of Tables -- -- -- --
Chapter One ---- -- -- --
10 Introduction ---- -- --
1.1 Statement of Research-- --
12 Justification for the Study -- --
Energy and selected nutrients in legumes (composition per 100g edible portion
of dricd mature whole seeds). -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Examples of Antinutritional factors in plant foods. -- -- -- --
Leading Millct Producers, 1990-- -- -- -- -- -- --
Leading Millet Producers, 2001 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Essential amino acid composition ( d g ) and chemical score of millet
and sorghum proteins -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Leading Pea Producers, 2001 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Leading Pulses Producers, 200 1-- -- -- -- -- -- --
Ainino acid con~position( d l 6gN) of the protein of raw legume seeds -- --
Daily Average Energy and Fluid Requirements and Safe level of Protein Intake
lor I n h t s and Children three months to iive years, Sexes combined
(FAO/WHO/IJNU, 1983)- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Proportions of difkrent flour treatrnent in the composite blends -- -- --
Composition on dry weight basis ( d l 00g) of millet, pigeon yea and casein
diets fed to rats -- -- __ .-- -- -- -- -- --
Effect of fermentation time on proximate composition of millet and
pigeon pea flours (% dry weight basis) -- -- -- -- -- --
Effect of sprouting time on proximate composition of millet and
pigeon pea flours (% dry weight basis). -- -- -- -.. -- --
Effect of fermentation on antinutritional content of pigeon pea and millet --
lasting for months until the infant is fully introduced to the family diet (Onofiok and
Nnanyelugo, 1998). On the other hand, it could be abrupt, in which case the infant is introduced
straight into the family menu. Abrupt weaning creates problems, as the child may not be able to
eat enough of the adult diet to meet his or her nutsitional needs.
In most developing countries, about 50% of all pre-school children are chronically
malno~uiished.According to UNICEF's report on "The state of the world's children, 1989",
covering over 60 countries, more than 150 million children under 5 years of age suffer from
n~ainlyof the protein -energy type (PEM). Protein-energy malnutrition stands out
~naln~ltrition,
as the most serious of the nutritional deficiency problem in Nigeria as well as in other
economically developing countries of the world and among low income earners in developed
countries (Ossai and Malomo, 1988). The immediate cause of this high rate of malnutrition is the
combination of various diseases and dietary inadequacies interacting in a mutually reinforcing
menner. Young children remain particularly at risk because of their great energy and nutrient
needs and vulnerability to infection.
Second to protein energy malnutrition is anaemia, which is another common nutritional
problem in many countries of the developing world. The most frequent cause of anaemia is low
iron bioavailability from the predominantly cereal- based diet and/ or blood loss due to parasitic
infestation with hookworms and malaria. The low bioavailability of iron from cereal diets is due
to the presence of different inhibitors such as phytate and tannin (Lorri, 1993).
In Nigeria, as in most developing parts of the world, most people depend on plant for
food supplies. Cereals and legumes play important role in the diets of many people including
children, and are the major sources of proteins, calories, vitamins and minerals. Many countries
have employed cheap locally available plant materials from cereals and legumes for the
development of wearling foods (Nkama el al,, 2001). The use of these plant materials by humans
is very limited mainly because of their lower protein quality when compared with animal
products and the anti~lutritionalfactors which interfere with the utilization of the nutrients
(Onuoha and Obizoba, 200 1).
Cereals are fruits of cultivated grasses also known as caloric or starchy foods, which are
important sources of dietary fibre. Examples include maize, rice, oat, millet and sorghum. Millet
is a small-grained cereal and it forms the third largest group in world cereal food grains (FAO,
1989). It is highly utilized in many developing countries for food, feed and preparation of
alcoholic beverages. The nutritional advantages of millet are it's high fat content and relatively
high lysine content.
In most developing countries, most children, particularly those in low-income class, are
/
1
weaned on cheap, readily available cereal foods (Altapo et a/., 1995). This can be attributed to
several factors including poor nutritional education, decline in household incomes and to a large \
\
extent, the ever increaking cost of commercial formulae. In Nigeria, the usual first weaning food
is pap, referred to as akamu by Igbos, ogi by Yorubas or koko by Hausas. It could be made from
maize p e a mays), millet (Pennisetum an~ericarzum),guinea corn (Sorghum species) or their
combinations (Onofiok and Nnanyelugo, 1998). In Cameroon, millet-based gruels are prepared
for feeding infants.
A major disadvantage of sole cereal gruels is that the starchy nature of these foods makes
them bind so much water, thus yielding a bulky gruel with decreased nutrient content. Increasing
the solids in such gruel to improve nutrient content yields a very thick (viscous) gruel, which
could cause choking in young children (Marero et al., 1988). Besides that, cereals have lower
protein quality compared t o legumes. Numerous studies have indicated that cereal grains are the .
major conlributors of energy and protein to the diet in the developing countries and that these
plant foods are low in essential amino acids (EAA) namely lysine and tryptophan (Birthe and
Egum, 1983). Cereal -grain proteins are low in lysine but have adequate amounts of the sulphur
-amino acids (Bressani, 1973).
Legumes are the species of plant family Leguminosae, which are good sources of dietary
protein. They are consumed directly as mature dry seeds, as immature seeds or even as green
pods with the immature seeds enclosed. Examples are cowpea, soyabean, groundnut, pigeon pea
and bambara groundnut. Pigeon pea has been reported to contain high quality protein and is a
good source of amino acids except methionine (Elegbede, 1998). Supplementation of cereals
with legumes has been suggested as one way of improving the protein quality of cereal -based
gruels (Nkama et al., 1995).
Lectins
Amylase Most legumes, root and tuber Interference with starch digestion.
inhibitors crops
Glycosides
Gynogenic Cassava roots, some legumes, Respiratory failure,
glycosides sorghum goitre.
Oligosaccharides Most legumes Flatulence
Saponins Most legumes and tuber crops Affects intestinal permeability.
Phenolics
Tamins Most legumes, root crops and Interference with mineral
hits. availability.
Gossypol Cotton. hterferes with protein digestion
Miscellaneous
Phylate Most legumes and root crops. Interference with mineral
availability.
Oxalate Vegetables, root and tuber crops. Interference with mincral
availability.
-. Alkaloicls Soine v a n species and kolanuts ~ c ~ ~ sgrowth.
s c d
Soarcc: Liener (1 989). .
household cooking and industrial autoclswing or retorting. Complete detoxification could be
achieved by preliminary soaking, prior to cooking.
iii. Y mylase inhibitors: Amylase inhibitors, found in most legumes, inhibit the action of
prmcseatic and salivary amylases. This results in increased amounts of undigested starch in the
faeces and subsequent decrease in the nutritional value of the foodstuffs. Amylase inhibitors are
readily inactivatcd at 100°C. Pre -incubation of the idlibitor with starch resultcd in complete
abolition of its activity (Osngie, 1998).
iv. Goitrogens: Goitrogenic subslances, which cause enlargement of the thyroid gland, have
been found in legumes such as beans and groundnuts, although these are common in edible
plants of the cabbage family. Consumption of inadepately processed or raw soybeans and
groundnuts is responsible for goiter in solnc infa.ilts fcd soymilk and rats fed imp-opcrly
processed groundnuts. The goitrogenic effect was effectively counteracted by iodine
supplementation rather than heat treatment (Liener, 1975).
v. Cyanugenic glycosides: Some legumes contain cyanogenic glycosides from wlich
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) may be released by hydroloysis. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is very
toxic at low concentrations to humans and other animals. Hydrolysis occurs rapidly when the
ground meal is cooked in water and most of the liberated hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is lost by
volatilization. Soaking of sceds in water for 24hrs led to appreciable losses of hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), whilc boiling for 3111-scaused drastic reduction. After boiling for 3hrs, innocuous
hydrogen cyanide levels were obtained with seeds previously soaked in water for 24hrs and
divested of testa. Thus, soalung of bean seeds in water and subsequent removal of testa prior to
boiling will decrease hydrogen cyanide in bear1 meals (Okolie and Ugochnkwu, 1989).
vi. Flatulence Factors: One of the major constraints to the human consumption of legumes is
their ability to produce gas in the gastrointestinal tract, which is referred to as flatulence. The
flatus gases produced include carbondioxide, hydrogen and to a lesser extent methane. The
production of tlatus by monogastric animals is due to colonic fermentation of carbohydratcs that
cscape breakdown in the stomach and small intestine. Thcse oligosaccharides; rafinose,
stacl~yoscand verbnscose, wllich are currunon in legunme seeds, are thought to be major
producers of flatdence when these foods are consumed. Animals and inan are not able to digest
such oligcsacclia,ridcs because of the absence of a, - 1, 6 -galactosidase in their intcstind
1nucos9. t
Owing to the absence of enzymes in human i~ltestinal mucosa [hat are capable of
hydrolyzi,~~
this li~ka,ne,the intact oligosacchariclcs accur?xdntein the lower intestine where thcy
/
fc'crmentatio~;by anmxobic bacteria and produce the h o v e gases. T l ~ cgases produced
~m!c~-go I
(Davidsoa c/ al., 1975). In both rnls and iiurnans, an induction period of about 4 hours is rcquired
before ilatus gases are passed. This delay corresponds to thc time required for rlze ingested food
to reach the region o r ~ h inleutine
e domiilatetl by anaerubic bacicria.
Flatulence factors arc eliminated by propcr heat treatment, knneiltiliion, gcmnination,
protein isolation m d dehulling. It is known that the 01igasacchu;dcs are concentrated in the bean
h d or testa, :nd are at a low levcl in the cotylcda~s.7'h).ls, their removal during dehulling
significantly reduces their level in the beans and their products. Researchers have cancludecl that
thc use of fermented pulse products may reduce the problem of flatulence experienced by mmly
with the ingestion of legumes (Goel and Verma, 1980).
vii. Saponins: Saponins me steroid or triterpenoid glycosides that are characterized by their
bitter or astringent taste, foaming properties and their hemolytic effect on red blood cells. h n o n g
plants grown for food, the presence of saponins in legumes such as soya and pea is particularly
important. Saponins have been shown to posses both beneficial (cholesterol --lowering) and
deleterious (cytotoxic, permeabilisation of the intestine) properties and to exhibit s w c b e
dcpendcnt biological activities (Price et al., 1987).
Alkaline washing or dry scouring and abrasive dehulling have been suggested as
techniques of reducing saponins in legumes. In general saponins are not destroyed during
cooking or processing.
viii. Tannins: l'annins are phenolic compounds with molecular weight. greater than about 500.
There me the hydrolysable tannins, which could be hydrolysed into a mixture of carbohydrate
and phenols, and the condensed tannins, which are complex ilavonoid polymers.
Polyphenols (as condensed tannins) are predominantly located in the pericarp and /or
I
testa, particularly of pigmented cultivars of legumes and millets (Chavan et al., 1979, Deshpande
er al., 1982). Tannins decrease protein quality by decreasing digestibility md palatability.
Tannins, which are also known as non -specific inhibitors of enzymes, may reduce protein
quality by directly complexing with food proteins (Davis and Hoseney, 1979, Anon, 1983). Elias
et al., (1979), reported that tannin concentnition was high in coloured sced coats ranging fiom 38
-43mg/g and low in white coated beans (1.3mdg). Bressmi md Elias (1980), observed a higher I
protein quality for white beans as compared to pigmented cultivars of dry beans. Tannins
concentration ranged from 0 - 0.7% for cowpea, 0 - 0.2% for pigcon pen, with essentially no
tannins found in chickpea or mung bean. Hoff and Singletons (1977), reported that tannins
\
interfere with digestion process by inactivating enzymes in the alimentary canal and increasing \
fecal nitrogen. Their protein coinplexir~gability renders them astringent in contact with mucous
membranes of the oval cavity and thereby affecting palatability.
Diets high in tannins have been shown to cause interference with paricrealic digestion,
irritation of the intestinal tract and thus give rise to ineihionine deficiency by requiring active
metliyl groups in the detoxification process. High tannins content can also reduce the
bioavailability of iron (FAO, 1989). Other nutritional effects, which have been attributed to
tannins, include damage to the intestinal tract, toxicity of tannins absorbed fiom the gut and
interference with the absorption of iron and a possible carcinogenic effect (Butler, 1989).
People have learnt how to use their own cultivars as sources of digestible food. $ome of
these methods include germination, soaking in water for various length of time and discarding
the soak water, adding alkali such as wood ash, palm bunch as11 (containing potassium
carbonate) or mineral limestone or trona, h i t juices or tamarind pulp, when preparing food.
ix. Phytate: Phytic acid, a hexaphosphate derivative of inositol is an important storage form of
phosphorus in plants. It is insoluble and cannot be absorbed in the human intestines. Phytic acid
has 12 replaceable hydrogen atoms with which it could form insoluble salts with metals such as
calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium. The formation of these insoluble salts renders the metals
unavailable for absorption into the body.
Phytate reduces the bioavailability of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, and zinc, and
may interfere with protein metabolism. It decreases the utilization of protein subjected to
proteolytic digestion and in most cases, protein serves as a bridge between phytate and mineral
interaction (Deshpande et al., 1982). Calcium forms a complex with phytate making it
unavailable for absorption. Phytate also reduces the availability of iron in the body foiming an
insoluble bond in a non -ferric foim, a foim that is more readily absorbed and utilized by the
human body (O'Dell, 1983). Reduction in phytate level in wheat bran improved zinc
bioavailability (Morris and Elis, 1980). Sankaro Rao et al., (1983), observed that malting of the
grain significantly reduced the phytin phosphorus content of both pearl and finger millets. This
decrease was accompanied by significant increases in ionizable iron and soluble zinc, indicating
improve bioavailability of these two elements.
It is therefore important that during processing that the toxic substances be reduced to
levels that pose no threat to health. Processing method may include dehulling, cooking,
germinating, soaking, fermentation among others (Walker and Kocher, 1982). During
germination, phytase activity increases while phytate content decreases (Southgate, 1993).
ii. Tannins: Tannins are polyphenols, which are widely distributed in plants. Some sorghum
varieties contain tannins that are polyphenols. These impart reddish to brownish colour to
sorghum grain and behave as nutritionhl inhibitors because thcy combine with proteins and make
them indigestible and unavailable to the body. Therefore sorghum grains should be properly
processed before being used as food, especially fbr humans because tannins in sorghum are
associated with poor protein utilization. Some varieties of sorghum containing high tannins in the
grains were found to be bird resistant (Burns, 1971, Tipton et al., 1970). Tannins are the most
abundant phenolic coinpounds in brown bird -resistant sorghum. During maturation, the brown-
sorghum develops astringence, which imparts resistance against bird and grain modd attack
(FAO, 1995).
Tannins, while coderring the agronomic advantage of bird resistance, adversely affect
the grains nutritional quality (Salunke et al., 1982). Among millets, finger millet was reported to
contain high amounts of tannins ranging fi-om 0.04 to 3.47% (FAO, 1995). Growth retardation
was observed in chicks fed high -tannin sorghums. Tannins in the grains impart an astringent
taste, which affects palatability; reduce food intake and consequently body growth. Tannins bind
to both exogenous and endogenous proteins including em rnes of the digestive tract, affecting
the utilization of proteins (Asquith and Butler, 1986).
Tannins and associated polyphenols are concentrated in the testa or seed coal and can be
removed by milling. Germination was also found to decrease tannin content in sorghum
(Osuntogun et ul.; 1989) and finger millet (Udayasekhara Rao and Deosthale, 1988). However,
the tannin content of the germinated sorghum rose again significantly upon drying.
iii. Digestive Enzyme Inhibitors: Inhibitors of amylases and proteases have been identified
in sorghum and some millet. It was reported that sorghum had the highest inhibitory activity
against human, bovine and porcine amylases, foxtail millet did not inhibit human pancreatic
amylase, while extracts iiom pearl and finger millets inhibited all a - amylases tested
(Chandrasekher ef al., 1981). Finger millets extracts were found to have highest activity against
bovine trypsin and chymotrypsin. Extracts from sorghum and millets inhibited the proteolytic
cnzyme of both human and bovine pancreatic preparations (FAO, 1995).
Finger millet was found to have inhibitory property against salivary and pancreatic
amylases. The inhibitors iiom sorghum and foxtail millets were more therrnolabile than those
from finger and pearl millet.
iv. Cyanogenic glycosides: Cyanogenic glycosides are a group of 0 -glycosides formed from
decarboxylated amino acids. The cyano group arises from the a--carbon atom and the amino
group. The occurrence of cyanogenic glycosides in crop plants such as cereals is well known.
According to Doggett (1988), cyanogehic glycoside, dhurrin occurs in most sorghum varieties,
although the quality depends on the variety and environmental conditions. The use of sorghum as
human food or for livestock feed is seriously limited by the presence of dhurrin in its seeds,
shoots and roots. The level of this poisonous natural product depends among other factors, on the
sorghum, sprouting and component part of the sorghum sprouts (Ikediobi et ul., 1988).
Evidently, dhut-rin is highly toxic owing to its ability to produce hydrogen cyanide when
hydrolysed.
Some local foods and beverages produced from sprouted sorghum grains contained
negligible or undetectable levels of cyanide. Apparently, sprouting and rubbing off of roots and
shoots coupled with heat or hot water treatment during processing has been used in detoxifying
sorghum -based food and beverage products (Osagie, 1998).
v. Goitrogens: Iodine is an essential micronutrient for all animal species, and iodine deficiency
is among the most widely prevalent nutritional problems in many developing countries
(DeMayer et a/., 1979). Though environmental iodine deficiency is a prerequisite to goiter
formation, the incidence of goitre in animals and humans with normal dietary intake of iodine
,
suggests there are other factors in the aetiology of simple goitre. A large number of foodstuEs
possess antithyroid agents, collectively designated as goitrogens.
Pearl millet is a staple food implicated in the aetiology of goitre. Consumption of pearl
millect is considered one of the factors responsible for the high incidence of goitre in rural
populations.
Iodine supplementation did not alleviate the giotrogenic effect of pearl millet. Tempering
the grain to 26% moisture overnight prior to milling resulted in flour with no goitrogenic activity
(Klopfenstein et al., 199 1).
Dehulling and decrotication are used synonymously in cereal and legume processing for removal
of testa (Enwere, 1998). Dehulling or peeling significantly reduces the levels of poisonous
phytotoxins such as cyanogenic glycosides in tuber crops example, cassava. Alkaloids, tannins
and other polyphenols in pigmented seeds are significantly reduced by dehulling or decortication
treatment (Nout and Ngoddy, 1997). Removal of aleurone layer of the seed bran eliminates
significant levels of phytates, which bind calcium and other minerals. In infant formulas,
decortication reduces the total level of indigestible fibres so that infants are able to handle \
legumes earlier in their diet (Nout and Ngoddy, 1997).
Washing and Soaking: Washing and soaking involve washing and extended steeping in an
excess volume of cold or warm water. Soaking induces the leaching out of water-soluble anti-
nutritional factors. Glycosides, alkaloids, phytates, oligosaccl~arides and tannins are all
significa~itlyreduced. Although leaching also loses water-soluble micronutrients, extended I
soaking has the net effect of enhancing the protein solubility index and the availability of
limiting amino acid of edible grains mout and Ngoddy, 1997).
Sprouting or Germination or Malting: Germination is a natural process in which dormant
but viable seeds are induced to start growing into seedlings. During germination, hormones are
produced and enzymes are mobilized to convert stored foods such as insoluble carbohydrates and
proteins to soluble components that are more easily assimilated.
Germination is known to increase the vitamin C, E and B -complex contents of seeds
(FAO, 1995). Rootlets and sprouts of germinated seeds contain very large amount of cyanogenic
gly-coside, which on hydrolysis produces a potent toxin known as hydrocyanic acid (HCN) and
cyanide (Panasiuk and Bills, 1984). It was shown that the removal of the shoots and roots
reduces the hydrocyanic acid content (FAO, 1995). Germination decreases the antinutrient
content of seeds such as tannins, phytates, lectins and oligosaccharides. Germination of grain is
also reported to change the amino acid composition, convert starch into sugars and improve the
availability of fat, vitamins and minerals (FAO, 1995).
Fermentation: Fermentation is a process of anaerobic or partially anaerobic oxidation of
carbohydrate especially sugars, that have been subjected to the action of microorganisms
(bacteria, filamentous hngi or yeasts) or enzymes to produce desirable biochemical changes
(Enwere, 1998, Ency. MCB, 1992). The microorganisms may be the microflora indigenously
present on vegetable or animal products that serve as the substrates for fermentation or they may
be added starter cultures. During fermentation, all microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts and moulds)
take parL in catabolic processes, which alter the organic components of the food to obtain energy
for their growth. Bacteria are mainly*responsible for the fermentation of cereal and animal
products. The major types of bacteria important in cereal fermentation are those that produce
lactic acid from available sugar.
Fermentation has been reported to enhance nutritional value, texture, shelf life, aroma
and taste of food products (Onuoha and Obizoba, 2001). Fermentation of grains either as
porridge or as slurries of the flour has been reported to significantly improve the protein
digestibility of grain (Mensah et al., 1990). Protein solubility and the availability is enhanced in
some cases by as much as 50%. The micronutrient availability is also enhanced because of
significant reductions in phytates. Tannins are reduced by as much as 50% and oligosaccharides
by as much as 90% in some reported cases (Lorri, 1993). Fermentation to below pH 4 has been
shown to inhibit the proliferation of diarrhea -causing pathogens (Mensah et al., 1990).
Fermented foods have been reported to be used for treating diarrhoea and measles in some parts
of the country.
Dry -roasting or toasting: This is a thermal treatment at high temperature, which can be
carried out in simple low -cost mechanical equipment. Problems associated with a high
propensity of wet starches to stick and burn on equipment suifaces during toasting, can be
contained by carehl manipulation of the moisture content and particle size. Because toasting is a
high temperature thermal treatment, it reduces the level of protease inhibitors and lectins. It also
reduces the level of volatile glycosides that may be present. Because of significant degrees of
dextrinization of starches during high -temperature dry -toasting, it has a diminishing effect on
porridge viscosity. However, this is counteracted to some extent by the increased swelling
capacity of cooked, gelatinized starch.
As a conventional thermal process, dry toasting has a severe adverse effect on protein
solubility as weU as the availability of both limiting amino acids and vitamins.
Extrusion Cooking: Extrusion cooking is a high-temperature short-time (HTST) thermal
process, which cooks, dries and restructures the product in one integrated operation. Significant
levels of drying can result from expansion in the product, which occurs at the extruder die.
Extrusion -cooked -products exhibit quality attributes that are generally superior to those heated
by other means as regards protein solubility and fhctionality, the availability of limiting amino
acids and residual levels of anti-nutritional factors achieved (Nout and Ngoddy, 1997).
2.6 .
Use of Cereals and Legumes as Weaning Foods
Cereals are the most widely consumed crops globally. In Nigeria, cereals serve as the
major sources of enerby and protein in the diets of people. Unfortunately, the nutritional quality
of most cereal protein is poor because they contain less of the essential amino acids, particularly 1
\
tryptophan (FAO, 1982a). Therefore, the supplementation of cereal protein with legume protein
would provide an adequate amount of lysine for growth and maintenance. Nkama and Mallesli
(1998), reported increased lysine in a millet -cowpea and rice- millet -cowpea blends. It was
also reported that mixing of two or more sources of dietary protein, results in a better protein
quality than any of the indivi:.!ual sources.
According to Okcke and Obizoba, (1986), better results are achieved by mixing protein
sources with different first limiting amino acids. Maximizing the use of locally available grains
1
and use of cereal--legume combinations to produce high-energy protein formulation have been
suggested as possible solutions to nutritional problenl (Ossai and Maloino, 1988, Nkama and .
Malleshi, 1998).
Millet Utilization
Of the 30 million tonnes of millet produced in the world, about 90% is utilized in
developing countries and only a tiny volume is used in the developed countries outside the
former Soviet Union (FAO, 1995). It was estinlaied that a total of 20 million tonnes are
consumed as food, the best being equally divided between feed and other uses such as seed, the
preparation of alcoholic beverages and waste (FAO, 1995).
Pearl millet suffers less from discases than sorghum, 111aizeor other grains. It has more
oil than maize and is a "high-energy" cercal. It is used mainly as whole, cracked or ground ilour,
dough or a grain like rice. Millet seeds are cooked in the sane way as rice, or ground or pounded
into porridge, couscous, cakes or unliavened bread. Millets are made into unfernlented breads
(roti), fern~entedhods (Kisra and gulletes), thin and thick porridges (toh), steam -cooked dishes,
non -alcoholic beverages and snacks (BOSTID, 1996).
,
A non -alcoholic clrink is made tiom the flour. In Nigeria, pearl millet is fermented, like
maize and sorghum, to produce 'Ogi' - n traditional weaning food. I n West Afica, pearl millet is \
\
snanalted and used for n&ng beer. Whole plants can be used as cash crops and green illamre.
Nutritive Composition of Millet: The chy grain of pearl millet is usually made up of about
70% carbohydrate, which consists mostly of starch. The protein content (1 1.8%) is comparable
to that of wheat and maize (Table 1). Pearl millet contains high levels of fat and crude fibre. One
of the characteristic features of grain composition of millets is their high ash content. They are
aim relatively rich in iron and phosphorus. The whole grain is sul important source of B-
Complex vitamins, which are mainly concentrxtted in the outer 1)rm layers of the grain. Pearl
millct contains a variation of 9 - 13% protcin. The essential amino acid profile shows more
lysinc, threonine, mellzionine and cystine in pearl millet than in sorghum. It also has high .
tryptophan content (Table 6). It contains higher protein and energy levels than maize or sorghum.
Total dietsuy fibre in pearl millet is higher than that in sorghum, wheat and rice. High fibre
content and poor digestibility of nutrients are other characteristic features of millet grain, which
severely influence their consumer acceptability. Mincral content of peal millet is of a wide
variation but was found to be poor in available zinc, iron and manganese when compared with
sorghum. Malting enhanced the ionizable iron content and increased the soluble zinc content of
pearl millet, indicating an improvement in in vitro availability of these two elements (Smkaro
Rao et af., 1983).
It is an erect wljody short pere~ulialshrub, which grows in semi -arid and sub -.humid
tropics, with deep exknsive root systcm. 1.t is a little known crop, which at present in Nigeria, is
cultivated mostly in the Northern States. The Major producers of peas are Canada, 21 96(21%),
France, l680(16%), China, 1100(1I %) and Rusian fed, 1000(10%) (FAO, 2002) (Table 7).
Major producers of pulses are Canada, 3559(7%), Nigeria, 2200(4%), Mexico, 1411(3%) and
USA, 1228(2%) (FAO, 2002). (Table 8).
Pigeon pea Utilization: Pigeon pea is consumed either alone or in combination with starchy
staples (cereals, tubers and roots), after hours of boiling to destroy toxins inherent in most
legumes and to soften the hard seed coat (Obizoba, 1983). 'I'he peas when grccn can bc
consumed as vegetables and as dry beans when dry and mature. In ~ i ~ e i ithe
a , dry matter seeds
are cooked whole until tender.
Adults and older children consume the foods. Infants and weaning children, whose
digestive capacities are limited by age, cannot utilize such foods effectively. It has been shown
that flour rather than whole grains is a better source of good quality protein foods for infants and
small children, as judged by growth, liver weight, liver nitrogen (N) and plasma proteins
(Obizoba, 1983).
Table 8: Leadine Pulses Producers, 2001.
Country Production ( ~ o ~ M T ) % of Total
Canada 3559 6.79
Nigeria 2200 4.20
Mexico 1411 2.70
[JSA 1228 2.34
Ethiopia 1050 2.00
World 52385
Source: FAO, 2002.
Matured seeds are boiled and mashed with cooked potatoes or boiled bananas and eaten
with greens, or boiled and mixed with maize. They are also fried with meat and vegetable to
make stew. In India, the dried seeds are prepared as flour or split as dhal, which is added to soups
or eaten with rice. Often used as food for children. The sprouted seed is popular as a lightly
cooked vegetable.
The immature or green seeds and the pods are used as a vegetable or canned. In Malawi,
the young seeds are removed from the pods and eaten as a snack between meals. l'he tender
leaves are occasionally used as a pot-herb. It is also used as animal feed.
Pigeon pea Nutritive Composition: The fresh immature unripe pigeon pea comprise 45% of
the weight of the whole pod. In this form, they contain about 67.4% water, 7.0% protein, 0.6%
fat, 20.2% carbohydrate, 3.5% crude fibre' and 1.3% ash (Bressani, 1975). When the seeds are
mature and dry, they contain 11.5% water, 20.4% protein, 1.2% fat, 63.4% carbohydrate, 4.4%
crude fibre and 3.8% ash (Table 2) (FAO, 1982b).
The quality of the protein as in other foods is determined by the content of the amino
acids, especially the essential ones. Tryptophan levels are low and may be improved by the
addition of cereal proteins or the pure amino acids. It was reported that the supplementation of
pigeon pea protein with DL - Methionine and DL - Tryptophan improved weight gain and
protein efficiency ratio of diet (Bressani, 1975). The pigeon pea protein is highly comparable
with soybean protein in its content of essential amino acids other than methionine, as presented
in the amino acid profile (Table 9) (Apata and Ologhobo, 1994). Thus, pigeon pea has high
quality protein and is a good source of amino acids except methionine.
Potassium and magnesium are the predominant minerals of pigeon pea and it's mineral
content compares favourably with that of soybean (Osagie, 1998). The seeds are reported to
contain trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors but these are destroyed by thorough cooking (Rachie
and Silvestre, 1977).
Table 10: Daily Averape Energy and Fluid Requirements and Safe level of
Protein Intake for Infants and Children three months to five years, Sexes
combined (FAOIWHOIUNU, 1983).
AGE
MONTHS YEARS
3-6 6-9 9-12 1-2 2-3 3-5
Approx. Weight (kg) 7 8.5 9.5 11 13.5 16.5
Energy Requirement 700 810 950 1150 1350 1550
(Kcall day)
Safe levels of protein 17 19 19 18.5 22 26
(g/day
Water Requirement 900-1100 1050-1250 1 150-1300 1250-1400 - 1650-1 800
Mitzner et al., (1984)
\
therefore the availability of cereal proteins for absorption and meeting individua1 protein needs is
of significant importance. Cereal protein is usually of good nutritive value, especially when
cereals are consumed with legumes in the same meal.
The quality of a protein is primarily a fimctioil of its essential amino acid composition.
Fluctuation in the protein content of the grains are generally accompanies by changes in the
amino acid composition of protein (FAO, 1995). Most cereals, including sorghum, maize and
millets are limiting in essential amino acids like lysine, threonine and tryptophan and this makes w
their protein quality poorer compared with animal irotein (Lorri, 1993).
Apart from a favourable essential amino acid profile, easy digestibility is an important
'
attribute of a good quality protein (FAO, 1995). The protein digestibility of cereal is generally
lower than the digestibility of animal proteins, partly due to the presence of fibres and tannins,
which bind to protein, thus making it indigestible (Graham et nl., 1980). Reduction of the
disulphide bonds increased protein digestibility of sorghum (Hamaker et al., 1986). Cereals like
sorghum have been shown to have low protein digestibility because of increased levels of
disulplude cross linkages in sorghum prolamin proteins (Hamaker et nl., 1986).
In a few studies on humans, mainly children, the apparent protein digestibility was
reported to be 81% for refined wheat flour, 67 - 75% for dehulled rice, 73% for whole maize
kernel and 46 - 55% for whole sorghum grain (Lorri, 1993). It was found that the protein
digestibility of legumes ranges from a low 72% for black beans to a medium 89% for chick peas
and to a high 90 - 98% for soybean products (FAO, 1991). Lactic acid fermentation of whole
grain flour increased the protein digestibility of sorghum to 73% (Lorri, 1993).
reducing dietary bulk problems has been success~llydemonstrated in Tanzania (Mosha and
Svanberg, 1990), India (Gopaldas ef a!., 1988) and Chile (Alvina el a!., 1990). 'The tcchnique of
'
using power flour results in a breakdown of the starch gel network in the porridge prepared from
ungerminated cereal flours. Thus, the addition of germinated flour may allow the amount of flour
of porridge to be increased several times without thickening the consistency.
Fermentation and germination processes may thus be used together to reduce the dietary
bulk of cereal - based gruels.
1
Cleaning
Millet
Flour
Millet \
Flour Sieving
1
Sprouted Millet
Flour
Figure 2: Flow diagram for millet flour production
Pigeon Pea
*I
Cleaning
~ r milling
y /
Sling
y
Fermentation h
n
\ Steepin soaking
Untreated
Pigeon pea
Flour
(24,4 ,72,96hr)
k
Steaming 1
Sprouting
(24, 48, 2, 96hr)
Drying
(1OO°C, 8hrs)
i
Steaming
1
Dry milling
(30rs)
Drying
1
(1OO°C 8hrs)
. Sievmg 1
Devegetation
1 1 /
Fermented
Pigeon pea
Flour
Dry milling
II
S'eving I, \
Sprouted
Pigeon pea
Flour
Figure 3: Flow diagram for Pigeon pea flour production
3.2 Preparation of Blends
The cereal: legume combination was formulated from the pre-treated samples as shown
in Table 11 and Table 12. The nutritional quality of the different flour blends (Table 12) was
evaluated by rat feeding experiments, while other physico-chemical characteristics of flours were
also analyzed.
The dish and contents were dried in an oven for 30minutes at 100°C. Dish plus contents \
\
were removed from oven, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The ether extract was calculated \\
thus:
Calculation:
Crude fat (ether extract)% = (W2 - WL) X 100
S
Where:
W1 - Weight of empty evaporating dish
W2 - Weight of evaporating dish plus contents after drying
S- Sample weight (g).
volumetric flask with several rinsings of distilled water and made up to the mark when the
solution cooled. A 5ml volume of the diluted digest was pipetted and transferred to the
distillation apparatus and distilled for 5 minutes after adding 51111 of 0. IN H2SO4solution with 6
i
,.
\
- 8 drops of mixed methylredlmethylene blue indicator (1 :I) and 5ml of 40% NaOH.
The distillate was titrated against 0,.02N NaOH solution to a permanent green end-point.
A blank titration was carried out by titrating 5ml of 0.IN H2S04 with 0.02N NaOfI. The protein
content was calculated thus.
Calculation:
Total Nitrogen % = (B-S) X 1.4007 X N X 20
Sample Weight (g)
Where:
B = Vol (ml) of NaOH solution used for blank
S = Vol (ml) of NaOH solution used for sample
N = Normality of NaOH
1.4007 = m.eq wt. of nitrogen (includes factors of 100 for %).
20 = Dilution factor (5ml of digest used out of 100ml).
True protein % = Total Nitrogen % X 6.25.
descending order. The upper sieve was provided with a cover and the bottom sieve with a
receiver. A 50g sample of the product was put in the top sieve, covcred with the lid and the nest
of sieves placed in a suitable mechanical sieve shaker. The material was sieved continuously for
5minutes and stopped. The nest was removed and the residue on each sieve transferred to a
tarred weighed dish using a brush. Each dish was weighed and the percentage of product retained
on each sieve was calculated as:
Mass of material retained on specific sieve x 100
Total mass of sample
3.3.3.2. Viscosity
The viscosity of porridges from sample flour was determined according to the method
described by Sathe and Salunkhe (1981), using the Gallenkamp Universal Torsion Viscometer.
The viscometer is composed of a vertical torsion wire, a flywheel mounted above a graduated
scale and a cylinder suspended below the scale. Each sample was prepared at concentration of
2,4,6 and 10% ("/,). A 5ml of sample solution was poured into the viscometer cup. The flywheel
was rotated through 360" and then released. The damping effect of sample on the overswing of
the cylinder gave a measure of its viscosity. Porridges were kept in thermoflask to maintain the
serving temperature (40°C) during the determination. Viscosity was calculated relative to
distilled water as follows:
Where:
V1 = Viscosity of water at room temperature
VZ= Viscosity of sample to be determined.
dl = Density of water at room temperature.
d2 = Density of sample at room temperature.
tl = Flow rate of water at room tkmperature.
t2 = Flow rate of sample at room temperature.
3.3.3.2. Viscosity
The viscosity of porridges from sample flour was determined according to the method
described by Sathe and Salunkhe (1981), using the Gallenkamp Universal Torsion Viscometer.
The viscometer is composed of a vertical torsion wire, a flywheel mounted above a graduated
scale and a cylinder suspended below the scale. Each sample was prepared at concentration of
2,4,6 and 10% ("I,). A 5ml of sample solution was poured into the viscometer cup. The flywheel
was rotated through 360" and then released. The damping effect of sample on the overswing of
the cylinder gave a measure of its viscosity. Porridges were kept in thermoflask to maintain the
serving temperature (40°C) during the determination. Viscosity was calculated relative to
distilled water as follows:
Where:
V1 = Viscosity of water at room temperature.
VZ= Viscosity of sample to be determined.
dl = Density of water at room temperature.
d2 = Density of sample at room temperature.
tl = Flow rate of water at room timperature.
tz = Flow rate of sample at room temperature.
\
absorption index. A 1.0g weight of sample was placed in a centrifbge tube and lOml distilled
water was added. After standing for 15mins with intermittent shaking (5mins), sample solution
was centrifbged for 15rninutes at 1000 x g. Supernatant was decanted and the weight gain in gel
noted. Water Absorption Index was calculated as the weight gain of the gel dry weight.
Calculation:
WAI (Water Absorption Index) = W2- W1
Where:
W1 = Original weight of dry sample
W2 = Weight of sample after absorbing water.
Where:
W1 = Weight of original sample
W2 = Weight of dry matter
down or slip.
Casein - - - - - 302.88
Comrn. Diet - - - - - -
Oil 126 126 126 126 126 126
Mineral 88.2 88.2 88.2 88.2 88.2 88.2
Vitamin 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2
Fibre 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2
Corn Starch 3 15.755 352.17 .272.035 374.6 294.465 976.26
Sucrose 315.755 352.17 272.035 374.6 294.465 976.26
Total 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520 2520
Key:
UPF: - Untreated Pigeon pea flour
UMF: - Untreated Millet Flour
FSPF: - Fermented Steamed Pigeon pea I%x~r
SSPF: - Sprouted Steamed Pigeon pea flour
FSMF: - Fermented Steamed Millet Flour
SSMF: - Sprouted Steamed Millet Flour
Comm. Diet: - Commercial Diet
Casein: - Casein control.
At the end of the feeding experiment, N balance, body weight, protein efficiency ratio
(PER), N retention, net protein utilization (NPU) and biological value (BV) were assayed using
the method described by Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, (1 985).
i
increased. The observed decrease could most likely be due to the activities of lipolytic enzymes,
which hydrolyzed, fat to glycerol and fatty acids, which form esters with other products of
\
hydrolysis bringing about a decrease. Previous study by Onimawo and Asugo (2004), also \
reported a decrease in the fat content of germinated pigeon pea. The fat content of millet
sprouted for 48hr (0.9%) was significantly (P<0.05) lower than the fat content of other san~ples
3.1% (24hr), 2.3% (72hr) and 2.1% (96hr). The increase in fat content after 48hr sprouting was
attributed to the synthesis of new lipids by microflora during metabolic activities (Nnam, 2001).
This observed increase in fat content compares well with the result of Obizoba and Atii (1991),
who reported an increase in fat content of sorghum due to germination. The crude fibre of 1
content sprouted millet varied from 1.8% to 3.2% while that of sprouted pigeon pea varied fioin
Table 14: Effect of sprout in^ time on proximate composition of millet and pipeon pea flours (% dry w e i ~ h t
basis).
Sam~les Crude Protein Crude fat Crude fibre Moisture content Ash Nitropen Free Extract Enerw
UMF 9.18 1.5 3.0 6.8 3.7 75.82 353.2
SMF24 7.88 3.1 3.2 8.2 3.7 73.88 353.3
SMF48 7.45 0.9 3.1 10.1 2.8 75.62 340.4
sW72 7.59 2.3 1.8 10.2 3.3 74.84 350.7
SMF96 7.88 2.7 2.6 6.8 3.9 76.62 357.2
UPF 22.04 2.7 2.2 9.7 1.3 62.06 360.4
SPF24 24.85 1.8 2.3 10.5 2.6 57.85 347.1
SPF48 , 18.10 1.2 2.1 11.1 1.1 66.37 349.0
SPFn 21.16 1.1 1.7 9.6 2.1 64.24 351.8
SPF96 20.14 0.2 2.2 12.5 1.2 63.79 337.2
LSD (0.05) 1.204 0.1 1 0.17 0.17 0.32 1.193 1.86
Mean values of triplicate determinations
UMF -Unfermented Millet Flour UPF - Unsprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF24- 24hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPF24- 24hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF48- 48hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPF48- 48hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF72- 72hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPF72- 72hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
ShfFg6- 96hr Sprouted millet Flour - 96hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
1.7% to 2.3%. The moisture content of the 96hr-sprouted millet (6.8%) was lower than the
'
24hr(8.2%), 48hr(lO. 1%) and 72hr(10.2%). Likewise, the moisture content of pigeon pea
sprouted for 72hr(9.6%) was also lower than those sprouted for 24hr(10.5%), 48hr(11 .I%) and
96hr(12.5%). Different factors affect moisture content of food products. The variation in
moisture content might be attributed to treatments, which caused changes in other nutrient
contents. The ash content varied amongst the samples. The carbohydrate value of pigeon pea was
increased by sprouting except for the 24hr-sprouted pigeon pea, which was significantly
(Pc0.05) low (57.85%), while the sprouted millet samples had comparable (P>0.05)
carbohydrate content with the unsprouted millet. The change in carbohydrate content was
attributed to the metabolic activities of the hydrolytic enzymes within the seeds during sprouting
(Nnam 2001).
2.80mglg. Sprouting significantly (P<0.05) increased the tannin level of millet sprouted for
different periods except for the millet sprouted for 24hr which showed no significant (P>0.05)
difference from the unsprouted millet. The tannin level for unsprouted pigeon pea was 2.7mglg
and the tannin levels for the sprouted pigeon pea were 2.38mg/g (24hr), 3.07mgJg (48hr),
2.7mg/g (72hr) and 2.82mg/g (96hr). The increase in tannin level was attributed to reduced
elimination of the released tannin, which then formed new complexes with protein, therefore
resulting in an increase (Chavan et al., 1981). The decrease in tannin level of the 24hr sprouted
pigeon pea could be attributed to the hydrolytic activity of enzymes inherent in the sprouting
seeds. The enzymes hydrolyzed the tannin -protein and tannin -enzyme complexes to remove
tannins. The free tannins was leached out (Farhangi and Valadon, 1981). It has also been
Table 16: Effect of sprouting on antinutritional content of millet and ~ i ~ e o n
unsprouted pigeon pea was 0.1177mglg. Sprouting caused a significant (W0.05) decrease in the
phytate content of millet and pigeon pea. The decrease was attributed to the breakdown of
phytate complexes by phytase, releasing phytate which was then leached out, resulting in a
decrease. Singh (1991) also noted that sprouting can reduce or eliminate appreciable amounts of
phytic acid in legumes and hence improve mineral bioavailability. Similarly, decrease in phytate
level have been reported in germinated Faba beans (Youssef et al., 1987) and germinated soybean
*r
and African breadfiuit (Ariahu et a!., 1999). Sprouted pigeon pea and millet had higher cyanide
'
level than the unsprouted pigeon pea and millet. The cyanide level in the sprouted millet ranged
fiom 5.3mg/g to 7.3mg/g while in the unsprouted millet, the level was 4.9mdg. Sprouting
significantly (P<0.05) increased the cyanide level of millet sprouted for different periods except
for 24hr sprouted millet which showed no significant (P>0.05) increase when compared to the
unsprouted millet. The cyanide level of the sprouted pigeon pea ranged fiom 4.7mg/g to 5.3mg/g
while in the unsprouted pigeon pea, the level was 4.7mg/g. Sprouting, significantly (P<0.05)
increased the cyanide level of 96hr sprouted pigeon pea while there was no significant (P>0.05)
increase in cyanide content of samples from the other sprouting periods. The increases observed
in the cyanide content of sprouted samples could be due to the increased activity of the enzyme
inherent in the developing embryo. Sprouting activates the enzymes in these seeds to hydrolyze
cyanogens to hydrogen cyanide (HCN) (Obizoba and Atii, 1994).
Germination and fermentation could be beneficially used to improve the nutritional
quality of cereals and legumes by reducing the antinutritional level of the grains (Egbekun,
1998).
Based on the antinutrient content and the proximate composition of the sprouted and
fermented millet and pigeon pea, samples SMF24,FMF72, SPF24 and FPF72 were selected for
hrther studies and for product formulation.
The calcium content of sprouted and fermented pigeon pea was 5.00mglg and 4.70mglg
respectively. Unlike in millet, steaming significantly (Pc0.05) decreased the calcium content of
both fermented and sprouted pigeon pea by 54.37% and 51.46% respectively, Onuoha and
Obizoba (2001), observed similar decrease in calcium content of fermented lima beans. There
was a significant (Pc0.05) decrease in the iron content of both fermented and sprouted steamed
millet. In contrast, there was significant (Pc0.05) incrcase in the iron contcnt of both fcrmcnted
and sprouted steamed pigeon pea. Similar increase has been made in germinated fenugrcck seed
by El Mahdy el al., (1982) and fermented soybeans by Van der Riet et a1.,(1987). Zinc contcnt of
sprouted and fermented millet and pigeon pea was significantly (P<0.05) increased by steaming.
This increase could probably be due to the removal of antinutrients that might have formed
complexes with zinc. Obizoba and Atii (1994) reported a similar incrcase in the zinc content of
cooked fermented and sprouted millet.
'Table 19. Effect of steaming on antinutritional content of fermented and
sprouted pigeon pea and millet
Samples Tannin Phvtate Cvanide
I [MF 2.80 0.01 17 4.9
SSMF 2.84 0.0075 4.9
FSMF 3.20 0.0030 4.5
(JPF 2.70 0.1 177 4.7 .
SSPF 4.62 0.0150 4.0
FSPF 4.50 0.0250 3.8
LSD (0.05) 0.546 0.00593 0.42
Mean values of triplicate determinations
I JMF - Untreated Millet Flour
SSMF - Sprouted Steamed Millet Flour
FSMF - Fermented Steamed Millet Flour
(JPF - Untreated Pigeon pea Flour
SSPF - Sprouted Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
FSPF - Fermented Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
steamed (0.025mglg) and sprouted steamed (0.015mg'/g) pigeon pea. Steaming caused a
significant (P<O.O5) reduction in the phytate level of the fermented steamed millet (0.003mglg)
and sprouted steamed millet (0.0075mg/g), when compared to the untreated millet (0.012mg/g).
This reduction in the phytate level was due to heat treatment and the activity of the enzynics
which brokedown phytate-complexes to release phytate. The phpate was then leached out. 'l'he
cyanide levels of the untreated pigeon pea was 4.7mg/g and fbr the fermented steamed pigcon
pea was 3.8mg/g while for the sprouted steamed pigeon pea, it was 4.0mg/g. The cyanide level
of the untreated millet was 4.9mg/g and the fermented steamed millet was 4.5mdg while
sprouted steamed millet was 4.9mglg. From Table 19, it was evident that steaming significantly
(P<0.05) reduced the cyanide level of treated pigeon pea but not the cyanide level of treated
millet. This could be attributed to the fact that heat removes most HCN (Obizoba and Atii,
1994).
/
There was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in the viscosity of fermented millet. This reduction is i
probably due to the activities of amylase that break starch down into simpler sugars, thus
\
\
reducing viscosity (Mensah el al., 1991). This reduction in viscosity duc to fermentation would
produce thin porridges, which would be good for infant formula. A similar reduction in viscosity
of fermented maize was observed by Mensah et al., (1991). The viscosity of unfermented pigeon
pea was 233cp while the fermented samples showed viscosities of 225cp(24hr), 228cp(48hr),
236.0cp(72hr) and 229.0cp(96hr). From the Table, it could be
Table 20: Effect of fermentation on functional properties of millet and pipeon pea flours
Functional Properties
Samples Viscosity Water Absorution Water Solubilitv Least Gelation Bulk Density Reconstitution
icp) Index (mug) Index (%) Concentration i%) idml) Timeis)
UMF 238.0 1.65 288.70 4.0 0.768 75.0
UPF 233.0 1.42
LSD (0.05) 11.16 0.264 11.393 1.20 0.0396 6.09
Mean values of triplicate determinations
UMF -Unfermented Millet Flour UPF - Unfermented Pigeon pea Flour
FMF24- 24hr Fermented Millet Flour FPF24- 24hr Fermented Pigeon pea Flour
FMF48 - 48hr Fermented Millet Flour FPF48 - 48hr Fermented Pigeon pea Flour
FMF72- 72hr Fermented Millet Flour FPF72 - 72hr Fermented Pigeon pea Flour
FMFg6- 96hr Fermented millet Flour FPFg6- 96hr Fermented Pigeon pea Flour
deduced that fermentation showed no significant effect on the viscosity of the fermented pigeon
pea.
Water Absorption Index:
The water absorption index of the fermented millet compared with that of the
unfermented millet. Fermentation had no significant effect on the water absorption index of the
fermented millet. The water absorption index of the fermented pigeon pea ranged from 1.741nllg
to 2.19mllg. In contrast, fermentation caused a significant increase (P<0.05) in the water
absorption index of fermented pigeon pea. The increase was attributed to the fact that
fermentation enhanced the hydrolysis of starch, which invariably increased the water absorption
index of the samples (Onwulata et al., 1998).
Water Solubility Index:
The water solubility index of the fermented millet samples were 325.9% (24hr), 326.5%
(48hr), 328.9% (72hr) and 331.9% (96hr) respectively. The unfermented millet had a water
solubility value of 288.7%. Fermentation significantly (P<0.05) increased the water solubility
index of millet. The increase in water solubility index was attributed to possible
depolymerisation of the inherent starch and hence to a reduction in the molecular length of
amylose and amylopectin chains, giving rise to the observed incrcase in solubility (Onwulata et
al., 1998). The water solubility index of unfermented pigeon pea was 361.55%. Unlike millet,
there was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in the water solubility index of fermented pigeon pea.
The water solubility index of fermented pigeon pea ranged from 228.8%(24hr), 281.5%(48hr),
28 1.3%(72hr) to 28 1.5%(96hr) (Fig 4).
Least Gelation Concentration :
The least gelation concentration was determined as that concentration of a sample, which
did not fall down or slip on inversion cif the test tubes. The unfermented millet had a comparable
value of 4% with the fermented millet. This shows that fermentation had no significant (P0.05)
effect on the ability of millet to form stable gel. Fermentation of pigeon pea at different hours
caused a change in the least gelation concentration. The least gelation concentration was
observed to be same for both the unfermented and 24hr fermented pigeon pea (4%) but increased
significantly (W0.05) from this 4% to 6% (48hr), to 8% (72hr) and to 10% (96hr). This increase
in the least gelation concentration of fermented pigeon pea suggests that there is a decreased
ability of the fermented pigeon pea flour to form a stable gel. This observation was also noted by
Ihekoronye (1 986).
Bulk Density:
t
The bulk density of the unfermented millet was 0.768g/ml while that of the fermented
millet were 0.802g/ml (24hr), 0.801g/ml (48hr), 0.796g/ml (72hr) and 0.832g/m1 (96hr). The
bulk density of the unfermented pigeon pea was 0.877g/ml while that of the fermented pigeon
pea were 0.977g/ml (24hr), 0.947glml (48hr), 0.915g/ml (72hr) and 0.914g/ml (96hr). It was
observed that the bulk density of the unfermented pigeon pea and millet did not differ
significantly from that of the fermented pigeon pea and millet. Therefore, the comparable values
of the bulk density of both unfermented and fermented pigeon pea and millet could be attributed
probably to treatment.
Reconstitution Time:
All the samples reconstituted well in water. The rate of reconstitution of the unfermented
samples (pigeon pea and millet) was higher (66s and 75s respectively) than that of the fermented
samples. There was significant (P<0.05) difference in the reconstitutability of the fermented
sample compared to the reconstitutability of the unfermented samples, but there was no
significant difference between the reconstitution values of the fermented samples.
\
The viscosity of 6% concentration of sprouted millet varied from 221 Scp (24hr), 2 2 8 . 5 ~ ~
(48hr), 2 2 4 . 5 ~(72hr)
~ to 2 2 5 . 5 ~(96hr),
~ Sprouting significantly (P<0.05) reduced the
viscosity of millet flours. The reduction in viscosity in sprouted millet flours was as a result of
starch degradation caused by the action of alpha - and beta - amylases, that developed during the
germination process (Mosha and Svanberg, 1983). Marero et al., (1988) reported similar
decrease in viscosity of rice and corn due to germination. In contrast, sprouting of pigeon pea did
1
not show any such decrease in apparent viscosity except for the 96hr-sprouted pigeon pea that
Table 21: Effect of sprouting on the functional properties of sprouted millet and pigeon pea flours
Functional Properties
Samples Viscositv Water Absomtion Water Solubility Least Gelation Bulk Density Reconstitution
(CD) Index (mug) Index (Oh) Concentration (%) (dm11 Time(s1
UMF 238.0 1.65 288.70 4.0 0.768 75.0
sm48 228.5 1.68 293.20 4.0 0.676 5 1.O
SMF72 224.5 1.55 205.00 4.0 0.649 44.7
sm96 225.5 2.78 21Q.00 4.0 0.659 57.0
UPF 233.0 1.42 361.55 4.0 0.877 66.0
SPF24 233.5 1.78 376.70 6.0 0.943 63.O
SPF48 , 233.5 1.83 307.00 6.0 0.975 57.0
SPF72 233.0 1.99 313.70 8.0 0.987 51.0
SPF96 212.0 2.05 277.60 6.0 0.975 54.0
LSD (0.051 7.48 0.298 4.299 1.42 0.0536 5.55
Mean values of triplicate determinations
UMF -Unsprouted Millet Flour UPF - Unsprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF24- 24hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPF24- 24hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF48- 48hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPF48 - 48hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF12 - 72hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPF12 - 72hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
SMF96- 96hr Sprouted Millet Flour SPFg6- 96hr Sprouted Pigeon pea Flour
exhibited reduced (I+-0.05)viscosity. However, this result agrees with the result of Marero et ul.,
(1988), who observed a reduction in the viscosity of germinated mungbean and cowpea after
48hr.
Water Absorption Index:
,
The water absorption index of sprouted millet ranged from 1.55mllg to 2.78mllg while
that of unsprouted millet was 1.65mllg. Also, the water absorption index of sprouted pigeon pea
ranged from 1.78mVg to 2.05mllg while that of the unsprouted pigeon pea was 1.42mllg. The
water absorption index of sprouted pigeon pea increased as the hours of sprouting increased.
However, sprouting showed no significant (P>0.05) effect on the water absorption index of
millet except for 96hr-sprouted millet in which there was significant (Pc0.05) increase.
Furthermore, sprouting significantly (P<0.05) increased the water absorption index of pigeon
pea. Onimawo and Asugo (2004) reported a similar increase in the water absorption index of
pigeon pea due to germination. The high water absorption index could be attributed to either high
protein content or more of hydrophilic polysaccharides during the course of sprouting.
Furthermore, the high water absorption index indicates that the sprouted seed flour could be
useful in food systems, which require hydration to improve handling characteristics and to
maintain freshness.
Water Solubility Index:
The water solubility index for sprouted millet was varied. The water solubility index of
unsprouted millet was 288.7%while that of the sprouted millet varied from 315.6% (24hr),
293.2% (48hr), 205.0% (72hr) to 210.0% (96hr). Sprouting significantly (P<0.05)
increased the water solubility index of 24hr and 48hr sprouted millet. However, a significant
(P<0.05) decrease was observed as sprouting time extended beyond 48hr. This decrease could be
as a result of degradation of starch during sprouting. Gujska and Khan (1991), observed similar
decrease in water solubility index of extruded pinto bean flour. Furthermore, the water solubility
i
\
index of pigeon pea showed a similar trend as that of millet. The water solubility index of the
unsprouted pigeon pea was 361.5394, which was significantly (Pr-0.05) increased at 24hr
sprouting and this could as well be attributed to starch degradation during sprouting.
Least Gelation Concentration:
Gel formation is primarily related to the concentration of amylose in the flour starch.
Sprouting did not cause any significant change in the least gelation concentration of millet. The
t
least gelation concentration of unsprouted and sprouted millet was 4%. Sprouting caused an
increase in the least gelation concentration of pigeon pea. Unsprouted pigeon pea had a least
gelation concentration of 4% while the least gelation concentration of sprouted pigeon pea
increased to 8%. The increase in the least gelation concentration implies a decreased ability of
the pigeon pea flour to form stable gels. Onimawo and Asugo (2004), reported a similar increase
in the least gelation concentration of germinated pigeon pea of 10%. However, concluded that
the variation in the gelling properties of different legume flours in associated with the relative
ratios of different constituents such as protein, carbohydrate and lipids.
Bulk Density:
Bulk density is a reflection of the load the sample can carry if allowed to rest directly on
another. The bulk density values of both sprouted millet and pigeon pea is shown in Table 21.
The bulk density of the unsprouted millet flour was 0.768gml. Sprouting caused a significant
decrease (P<0.05) in the bulk density of millet except for millet sprouted for 24hr which had a
comparable value of 0.760glml. The decrease in bulk density could be attributed to the
processing method of sprouting. Balandran - Quintana et a1.,(1998) reported a decrease in the
bulk density of extruded whole pinto bean. However, sprouting significantly (P<0.05) increased
the bulk density of pigeon pea, when compared to the unsprouted pigeon pea, whose bulk density
value was 0.877glml. Onimawo and Asugo (2004), reported similar observation of increase in
bulk density of germinated pigeon pea, while, on the contrary, Akubor and Chukwu (1999),
observed a decrease in bulk density in African oil bean when fermented.
Reconstitution Time: '.
The reconstitution time for both sprouted pigeon pea and millet reduced when compared
to the unsprouted pigeon pea and millet. It could therefore, be said that sprouted samples
reconstituted well in water.
Table 22: Effect of steaming on functional properties of fermented steamed and sprouted steamed millet and
pipeon pea flours
Functional Pro~erties
Sam~les Viscosity Water ~bsorption Water Solubilitv Least Gelation Bulk Densitv Reconstitution
(CD) Index (mug) Index (%) Concentration (%) (dml) Tirne(s1
UMF 238.0
SSMF 220.0
FSMF 215.0
UPF 233.0
SSPF 228.0
FSPF 223 .O 1.65 3 17.40 10.0 0.789 60.0
LSD (0.05) 8.95 0.299 4.272 2.62 0.0238 4.42
Mean values of triplicate determinations
UMF -Untreated Millet Flour UPF - Untreated Pigeon pea Flour
SSMF - Sprouted Steamed Millet Flour SSPF -Sprouted Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
FSMF - Fermented Steamed Millet Flour FSPF -Fermented Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
4.2.3 Effect of steaming on functional properties of fermented and
sprouted pigeon pea and millet flour:
Table 22 shows the hnctional properties of fermented steamed and sprouted steamed
pigeon pea and millet flours.
Viscosity:
Result of the viscosity measurements of the fermented steamed and sprouted steamed
pigeon pea and millet is shown in Table 22. The viscosity of the.untreated millet was 238cp
while that of untreated pigeon pea was 233cp. The viscosities of the fermented steamed and
sprouted steamed millet were 215cp and 220cp respectively, while the viscosities of the
fermented steamed and sprouted steamed pigeon pea were 223cp and 228cp respectively. The
result showed that steaming significantly (PC0.05) reduced the viscosity of fermented and
sprouted millet and pigeon pea. Mercier et al., (1975) observed similar decrease in viscosity of
corn and rice due to extrusion cooking. The reduction in viscosity could be attributed to the
degradation of starch due to steaming.
Water Absorption Index:
Among the fhctional properties, water absorption index is irnportant because of the
hydrogen bonds formed between water and polar residues of protein molecules. Significant
increases (P<0.05) were observed in water absorption index of fermented steamed and sprouted
steamed millet and pigeon pea. Balandra-Quintana et a1.(1998) observed a similar increase in
water absorption index of extruded pinto bean. The increase was attributed to the increase in
temperature, which caused amylose and amylopectin separation, forming an expansible matrix,
which result in a higher water absorption index.
Water Solubility Index:
The water solubility index for the untreated millet was 288.7% while for the ferrnentcd
steamed and sprouted steamed millet was 368.2% and 366.5% respectively. Significant (P<0.05)
increase was observed in the water solubility index of fermented steamed and sprouted steamed
millet. This increase could be attributed to starch depolymerization at higher temperaturcs,
reducing molecular length of amylose and amylopectin chains. This result confirmed those of
Anderson (1982) who had extruded corn and sorghum. The water solubility index of untreated
pigeon pea was 361.55%. Steaming caused a significant increase (K0.05) in the water solubility r
index of sprouted pigeon pea. However, a significant decrease (K0.05) was observed in the
water solubility of fermented steamed pigeon pea. The observed reduction in the water solubility
index of fermented steamed pigeon pea, could probably be attributed to the denaturation and .
aggregation of protein due to steaming. Gujska and Khan (1991) observed a similar decrease in
water solubility index of extruded pinto bean flour. On the other hand, the observed increase in
water solubility index for sprouted steamed pigeon pea, could probably be attributed to minimal
denaturation of protein during processing. Balandran- Quintana el al. (1998), observed similar
increase in water solubility index for extruded whole pinto bean.
Least Gela tion Concentration:
The effect of steaming on the least gelation concentration of untreated, sprouted and
fermented millet and pigeon pea flours is shown in Table 22. The least gelation concentration of
untreated pigeon pea and millet was 4%. Steaming caused a significant (Pc0.05) increase in the
least gelation concentration of sprouted and fermented millet and pigeon pea, when compared to
the untreated millet and pigeon pea. Least gelation concentration was observed to increase from
4% for the untreated pigeon pea to 10% for both fermented and sprouted pigeon pea. It was also
observed to increase from 4% for the untreated millet to 10% for sprouted millet and 8% for
fermented millet. However, the increase in least gelation concentration by steaming could
probably lead to a decrease in the ability of samples to form gel. This decease in ability to form
gel, could be attributed to heat denaturation.
Bulk Density:
Steaming caused a decrease in the bulk density of both sprouted and fermented pigeon
pea. The bulk density of untreated pigeon pea was 0.877gIrnl while for the sprouted steamed
pigeon pea it was 0.794g/rnl and 0.789g/ml for fermented steamed pigeon pea. This decrease
could be due to starch degradation resulting in less expansion due to high temperature effect.
Steaming caused a decrease in the bulk density of fermented steamed millet, whose value was
0.735gIml but an increase in the bulk density of the sprouted steamed millet, 0.777g/ml when
compared to the untreated millet, 0.768glml.
Reconstitution Time:
'
All samples reconstituted well in water. There was a reduction in the reconstitution time
of the fermented steamed and sprouted steamed millet and pigeon pea when compared to the
, untreated samples.
4.3 Sensory Evaluation:
The mean sensory scores of the infant food formulations, casein and commercial diet are
shown in Table 23.
Colour:
Colour scores ranged fiom 6.8 to 5.1. The commercial diet had colour score of 6.8 which
was significantly (Pc0.05) higher than those of the formulated and casein diets. Casein diet had
comparable (P>0.05) colour score of 5.8 with diets B (untreated pigeon pea flour + fermented
steamed millet flour) and C (untreated pigeon pea flour + sprouted steamed millet flour) (5.4) but
significantly (P<0.05) differed fiom the rest. Furthermore, among the formulated diets, there was
no significant (P>0.05) difference in terms of colour score.
Flavour:
Flavour scores ranged fiom 5.9 to 4.0. The commercial diet had the highest flavour score
of 5.9 while diet B (untreated pigeon pea flour + fermented steamed millet flour) had the lowest
flavour score of 4.0. However, the flavour score of the commercial diet did not differ (P>0.05)
fiom the flavour score of diets H (sprouted steamed pigeon pea flour + fermented steamed millet
flour) (5.8), F (fermented steamed pigeon pea flour + sprouted steamed millet flour) (5.7), I
(sprouted steamed pigeon pea flour + sprouted steamed millet flour) (5.9, E (fermented steamed
pigeon pea flour + fermented steamed millet flour) (5.2) and casein (5.6).
Consistency:
The commercial diet had significantly (P<0.05) higher consistency score compared to the
formulated and casein diets. On the other hand, casein diet had the lowest consistency score of
3.7. Diets A(4.4), B(4.4), C(4.1) and D (4.0) had comparable consistency score with casein.
Furthermore, diets E(5.5), F(5.2) and l(5.3) had comparable consistency score.
Reconstitution Time:
All samples reconstituted well in water. There was a reduction in the reconstitution time
of the fermented steamed and sprouted steamed millet and pigeon pea when compared to the
, untreated samples.
4.3 Sensory Evaluation:
The mean sensory scores of the infant food formulations, casein and commercial diet are
shown in Table 23.
Colour:
Colour scores ranged fiom 6.8 to 5.1. The commercial diet had colour score of 6.8 which
was significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of the formulated and casein diets. Casein diet had
comparable (P>0.05) colour score of 5.8 with diets B (untreated pigeon pea flour + fermented
steamed millet flour) and C (untreated pigeon pea flour + sprouted steamed millet flour) (5.4) but
significantly (P<0.05) differed fiom the rest. Furthermore, among the formulated diets, there was
no significant (P>0.05) difference in terms of colour score.
Flavour:
Flavour scores ranged fiom 5.9 to 4.0. The commercial diet had the highest flavour score
of 5.9 while diet B (untreated pigeon pea flour + fermented steamed millet flour) had the lowest
flavour score of 4.0. However, the flavour score of the commercial diet did not differ (P>0.05)
fiom the flavour score of diets H (sprouted steamed pigeon pea flour + fermented steamed millet
flour) (5.8), F (fermented steamed pigeon pea flour + sprouted steamed millet flour) (5.7), I
(sprouted steamed pigeon pea flour + sprouted steamed millet flour) (5.9, E (fermented steamed
pigeon pea flour + fermented steamed millet flour) (5.2) and casein (5.6).
Consistency:
The commercial diet had significantly (Pc0.05) higher consistency score compared to the
formulated and casein diets. On the other hand, casein diet had the lowest consistency score of
3.7. Diets A(4.4), B(4.4), C(4.1) and D (4.0) had comparable consistency score with casein.
Furthermore, diets E(5.9, F(5.2) and l(5.3) had comparable consistency score.
Table 23: Sensory evaluation scores of the formulated products, commercial
diet and casein diet
Quality Attributes
Samples Colour Flavour Consistency Mouth Taste After- Overall
feel taste Acceptability
A 5.2 5.0 4.4 3.9 4.3 3.8 4.5
B 5.4 4.0 4.4 3.8 4.2 3.6 4.6
C 5.4 4.9 4.1 3.8 4.9 3.9 4.7
D 5.3 4.9 4.0 3.9 4.9 3.8 5.0
E 5.1 5.2 5.5 3.5 5.9 3.7 5.6
F 5.3 5.7 5.2 4.0 5.9 3.6 5.7
G 5.2 5.1 4.6 4.1 4.0 4.1 4.8
H 5.3 5.8 5.8 3.7 5.5 3.6 5.4
I 5.1 5.5 5.3 3.8 6.0 3.9 5.5
J 6.8 5.9 6.6 6.4 6.4 4.3 6.8
K 5.8 5.6 3.7 5.7 6.0 3.9 5.8
LSD (0.05) 0.42 0.73 0.76 0.79 0.62 0.92 0.72
Mean of 30 replicates
A-UPF+UMF . J - Commercial Diet
B - UPF + FSMF K - Casein Diet
C - UPF + SSMF UPF -Untreated Pigeon pea Flour
D - FSPF + UMF UMF - Untreated Millet Flour
E - FSPF + FSMF FSMF - Fermented Steamed Millet Flour
F - FSPF +-SSMF SSMF - Sprouted Steamed Millet Flour
G - SSPF + UMF SSPF - Sprouted Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
H - SSPF -t FSMF FSPF - Fermented Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
I - SSPF + SSMF
Mouth feel:
Commercial diet had comparable (P>0.05) mouth feel score of 6.4 with those of casein
diet (5.7). On the contrary, commercial diet had significantly (W0.05) highcr mouth fccl score
than the formulated diets. Furthermore, there was no significant (PB0.05) difference among the
mouth feel scores of formulated diets.
Taste:
The taste score ranged from 6.4 to 4.0. Commercial diet had the highest taste score of 6.4.
Furthermore, commercial diet had comparable (P>0.05) taste score with casein (6.0), diets I(6.0),
E(5.9) and F(5.9) but was significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of other formulated diets. Diet
G(4.0) had the lowest taste score which was comparable to the taste. score of diets A(4.3) and
B(4.2).
Aftertaste
The aftertaste score ranged from 4.3 to 3.6. Commercial diet had the highest aftertaste
score (4.3) while diets B, F and H had the lowest level of 3.6. There was no significant (PB0.05)
difference in the aftertaste score of commercial, casein and formulated diets.
Overall Acceptability:
The overall acceptability of the diets were influenced by the organoleptic attributes of
colour, flavour, taste, mouthfeel etc. The overall acceptability score ranged from 6.8 to 4.5.
Commercial diet had the highest overall acceptability score of 6.8. There was significant
(P<0.05) difference in the overall acceptability score of the commercial diet to those of casein
(5.8) and formulated diets. On the contrary, there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in the
overall acceptability score between the casein diet (5.8) and those of diets F (5.7), E (5.6), I(5.5)
and H (5.4). Diet A had the lowest overall acceptability score of 4.5, which was comparable to
the overall acceptability scores of diets B(4.6), C(4.7), and D(5.0).
The preference for the commercial diet was not surprising. The panelists were familiar
with the organoleptic properties of gruels from commercial diet (Cerelac) which is popularly
used as complementary food in Nigeria, and is vade from only maize. Promotion will be \
required to popularize the composites from other sources of cereals and legumes which have a
lot of nutritional benefits over cereal complementary diet alone (Nnarn, 2001). Some of the
organoleptic properties of the infant food formulation can be improved by addition of edible
flavouring and colouring materials (Nwanekezi, 200 1).
Based on the organoleptic qualities-colour, flavour, mouthfeel and overall acceptability
of diets studied, samples A for negative control, E, F, H, I, J and K, were chosen for fkrther
w
studies. These samples were analysed for hnctional properties and subsequently used for animal
bioassay. For the animal bioassay diets A, E, F, H, 1, J and K were designated, 1, 11, 111, 1V, V, VI
and VII respectively.
.
cowpea and groundnut. The zinc content of composite flours ranged from 46.30mg/g (diet I), to
45.67mdg (diet III), to 45.00mg/g (diet V), to 43.33mg/g (diet 1V) to 29.00mglg (diet 11). Diets
I, 111 and V had comparable zinc content which were significantly (Pc0.05) higher than those of
casein and commercial diets (41.33mg/g and 40.0mglg respectively). Diet I1 had the lowest zinc
content, though it had the highest iron content. The increase in the zinc content of the formulated
diet could be compared to the increase observed by Nkama and Malleshi (1998) in zinc content
of formulated rice-cowpea and rice -cowpea - groundnut.
I,
\
Table 25: Mineral Composition of diets used for animal bioassay
Samples Calcium (mglpr) Iron (mglg) Zinc (mglg)
1 6.63 6.66 46.30
I1 4.80 7.10 29.00
111 5.07 6.98 45.67
IV 4.97 5.00 43.33
V 1.03 4.68 45.00
VI 4.58 6.98 40.00
VII 4.63 4.76 41.33
LSD (0.05) 0.189 0.3 16 1.610
Mean values of triplicate determinations
I - UMF + UPF UMF - Untreated Millet Flour
I1 - FSPF + FSMF UPF - Untreated Pigeon pea Flour
111- FSPF + SSMF FSPF - Fermented Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
IV - SSPF + FSMF SSPF - Sprouted Steamed Pigeon pea Flour
V - SSPF + SSMF FSMF - Fermented Steamed Millet Flour
VII - Commercial Diet SSMF - Sprouted Steamed Millet Flour
VII - Casein Diet
190cp. The viscosities of the diets were significantly (P<0.05) lower than those of the
commercial diet and they ranged fiom 201cp (diet IV), 205cp (diet I), 207cp (diet II), 209cp (diet
V) and 210cp (diet 111). The viscosity of the composite blends was higher than casein diet but
lower than the commercial diet. Diet IV had the lowest viscosity amongst the composite blends.
The viscosity of the composite blends (Table 26) was lower (P<-0.05) when compared to the
viscosity of the fermented steamed and sprouted steamed flours. Nnam (2001) observed similar
*
lower viscosity in porridges f?om composite flours when compared to the control, fermented
sorghum flour. This low viscosity is a significant property in weaning formula because ,it
facilitates easier consumption, digestion and greater nutrient intake.
Water Absorption Index:
The ability to absorb water by the blends varied. The water absorption index of
commercial diet was low, 1.40mVg. Diet I11 had a high water absorption index of 1.83 mllg. Diet
I, 11, IV and V had a comparable water absorption index with casein diet of 1.57mllg. The water
absorption ability of the fermented steamed and sprouted steamed pigeon pea and millet flours
(Table 22) was higher than the water absorption ability of the composite blends (Table 26). This
reduction in the water absorption index of diets could be attributed to the complementing effects
of the proteins in the diets.
Water Solubility Index:
Commercial diet had significantly (P<0.05) higher water solubility index of 428.0% than
those of casein diet (369.5%). Casein diet had comparable (P>0.05) water solubility index with
diets I and V (370.5% and 376.0% respectively). Diet 11 and IV had comparable water solubility
index which are significantly (P<0.05) lower than those of the casein diet. Diet 111 had the lowest
water solubility index of 306.9%. The reduced water solubility index of formulated diets (JI, 111,
IV) indicates that the diets have easier digestibility when consumed.
Least Gelation Concentration:
The least gelation concentration of composite blend varied. The variation in least gelation
concentration of composite flours was from 4% (diet V), 6% (diet I), 8% (diets 1JI and IV) to
10% (diet 11). Commercial diet had a high least gelation concentration value of 12%. This
implies that its ability to form stable gel is low. Casein did not form gel up to 20%(w/v)
concentration range. This result suggests that gelation is not only the function of quantity of \
protein but also the type of protein(s) and the non-protein components as well.
Bulk Density Determination:
The bulk density of the composite blends varied. Commercial diet had the lowest bulk
density value of 0.641g/ml. Casein diet had comparable bulk density level with diets 111 and V,
0.828g/ml and 0.807dml respectively. Similarly, diet I and IV had comparable bulk density
level. Among the composite blends, diet IT had the lowest bulk density level of 0.773gIm1, but
which was significantly higher than that of the ~ommercialdiet.
Reconstitution Time:
All composite blends reconstituted well in water. Comn~ercialdiet had the longest
reconstitution time of 78s that was comparable to that of diet I11 (72s). However, diets 1, 1V and
V had lower reconstitution time of 63s, 69s and 69s respectively which compared with the
reconstitution time of casein (66s). Diet I1 had the lowest reconstitution time of 54s. The low
reconstitution time suggests that diet I1 was very dispersible, highly solublc and easily
rehydrated.
Obizoba, 2001). The digested N value (0.4931g) of casein which was cdmparable (P>0.05) to
that of diet IV indicated that diet IV provided protein with desirable essential amino acids which \
\
were equal to that of casein and were equally digestible (Onuoha and Obizoba, 2001). The higher
digested N value of commercial diet (0.72718) indicated superiority over the lower digested N
values of diets I11 (0.3689g), I1 (0.3525g), V (0.34588) and I (0.304g) (Obizoba,1986). The
urinary N excretion for all groups of rats varied and might be due to biological variation of the
animals and protein quality (Obizoba, 1986). The groups of rats fed commercial diet had high
urinary N excretion of 0.13838, which adversely affected their retained N, biological value (BV)
and net protein utilization (NPU). However, the groups of rats fed commercial diet that had 1.
higher digested N and higher urinary N, also had higher N retention but reduced biological value
(BV) and net protein utilization (NPU), when compared to the group of rats fed casein diet.
Casein diet had high digested N but low urinary N, which resulted in high retained N, biological
value and subsequently net protein utilization (NPU). The retained N of the group of rats fed
formulated diets ranged from 0.1957g to 0.3512g. Diet IV had significantly (P<0.05) higher
retained N (0.35 12g) than those of other formulated diets, which resulted in high biological value
and net protein utilization. The groups of rats fed diets 11, 111 and V had comparable retained N
values of 0.2455g, 0.2609g and 0.2373g respectively. The retained N value, however, was a
hnction of food intake, N intake, feacal N and urinary N. The trend towards high net protein
utilization for group of rats fed diets 111, IV, commercial diet and casein diet suggests that the
protein source was of good quality. Similarly, it suggests that the diet combinations provided a
good pattern of essential amino acids, which the rats used for body tissue synthesis. As judged by
net protein utilization (NPU), diets IV and 111 were superior to others.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusions, Recommendations and Suggestions for Further
Studies
5.1 Conclusions
The result of this study shows the formulation complementary (weaning) formula. The
production of this complementary formula was through simple but adequate processing methods
that can easily be adopted by many families. The findings of this study could be summarized as
follows:
Fermentation increased the protein content of pigeon pea from 22.04% to 23.46% and
millet fiom 9.18% to 9.46%. Sprouting also increased the protein content of pigeon pea from
22.04% to 24.85% but reduced that of millet fiom 9.18% to 7.88%. Fermentation reduced the
antinutrients-tannin (2.7mdg to 2.26mg/g), phytate (0.117mglg to 0.0018mglg) and cyanide
(4.9mg/g to 4.5mgJg) levels of millet and pigeon pea. There was a variation, however, in the
antinutrient level of sprouted samples. Steaming reduced the protein, calcium, phytate and
cyanide content of the fermented and sprouted pigeon pea and millet samples, but increased the
zinc, iron and tannin content. The protein content of the formulated products was comparable to
the protein content of casein diet (9.53%) and the FA0 standard protein value of 10%. Among
the most acceptable formulation (E, F, H and I which were designated as 11, 111, 1V and V
respectively) used for animal assay, group' of rats fed diet lV, had food intake (123.42g), digested
N (0.4609g) and net protein utilization (74.57), which were comparable with those of casein diet
(1 30.7913, 0.493 1g and 80.66 respectively).
It is evident fiom the results that the blending of fermented millet and sprouted pigcon
pea in the proportion used in the present study provides a formulation that compares favourably
with casein.
5.2 Recommendations
From the conclusion made in this research work we recommend the following:
Raw materials for food, especially, weaning food should be fermented or germinated and
steamed before formulation. This increases the nutritive quality.
A 72-hour fermentation period and a 24hr-sprouting period for millet arid pigeon pea may
be recommended for production of flour with high nutritive content.
Formulation of weaning formula from cereals like millet and legume like pigeon pea is
recommended to improve the protein quality of the cereals.
The diet IV fiom millet and pigeon pea blended in the ratio of 70:30 as shown in the
result of the animal bioassay is therefore recommended for use as weaning food for infants
particularly for the low income earners who can not afford commercial weaning foods.
Akubor, P. I. and Chukwu, I.K. (1999). Proximate composition and Selected Functioi~al
Properties of Fermented and Unfermented African oil bean (Pentacletlzra
macrophylla) seed flour. Plant Food. Hum. Nutr. 54: 277 - 238.
Alvina, M., Vera, G., Pak, N. and Araya, H. (1990).Effect of the addition of malt flour to
extruded pea rice preparations on food energy intake by Preschool. .Ecol. Food
Nuir. 24: 189 -193.
\
Anderson, R. A. (1982). Water Absorption and Solubility and Amylograph
Characteristics on roll-cooked small grain products. Cereal G e m . 59: 265 - 269.
Birthe, P. and Eggurn, B. 0 . (1983). The influence of the Nutritive value of flour from
cereal grains, maize. Qual. Plant Food Hum, Nulr. 23: 299 -3 11.
BOSTID, (1996). Lost crops of Africa, Volume 1 - Grains. Board on Science and
Technology for International Development (BOSTID), National Academy Press,
Washington D. C. pp 8 1 -95.
Bressani, F. (1975). Legumes in Human diet and how they might be improved. hl
Nutritional Improvement of Food Legumes by reedi ink. A Wiley Interscience
Publication. John Willey and Sons, New York. pp 15 -42.
Bressani, R. (2002). Hunger, Technology and Society effect of Chemical changes during
Storage and Processing on the Nutritional quality of Common beans.
http://~~~.unu,edu/Unu~ress/food/8F05Ie/8F05IE06.htmbe~.
Burns, R. E. (1971). Method for Estimation of Tannin in gain sorghum. Agron. .J. 63:
511 -512.
Chandrasekher, G., Raju, D. S. and Yattabiraman, 7'. N. (198 1). Natural Plant Enzyme
Inhibitors. a-amylase inhibitors in Millets .J. Sci. FoodAgric.32: 9 - 16.
Chavan, J. K., Kadam, S. S., Ghonsikar, C. P. and Salunkhe, D.K. (1979). Removal of
tannins and Improvement of in vitro protein digestibility of sorghum seed by
soaking in alkaline. J. Food Sci. 42: 1319 - 1321.
Chavan, J. K., Kadam, S.S. and Salunkhe, D.K. (1981). Changes in Tannin, fi-ee fatty v
acids, reducing sugar and starch during Seed Germination of low and high tannin
Cultivars of Sorghum. J. Food Sci 46: 638 2 3 9 .
Chima, N. A. R. (1998). Chemical and Organoleptic Evaluation of Porridges from
Sprouted and Fermented sorghum, bambara -groundnut and sweet potato. B. Sc.
Thesis. Department of Home Science and Nutrition, U.N .N.
Davidson, S., Passmore, R., Brock, J. F. and Truswell, A. S. (1975). Human Nutrition
and Dietetics. 61h Churchill Livingstone ed. Edinburgh, London and New York. pp
16 -80.
Deshpande, S. S., Sathe, S. K., Salunkhe, D.K. and Cornforth, D. D. (1982). Effect of
Dehulling on phytic acid, polyphenols and enzymatic inhibitors of dry beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) J. Food. Sci. 47: 1846 - 1849.
Elias, L. G., DeFernandez, D. G. and Bressani, R. (1979). Possible eEects of seed coat
Polyphenols on the Nutritional Quality of bean protein. 3: Food. Sci. 44: 524 -527.
Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (1 993). Millcts. Macrae,
R., Robinson, R. K. and Sadler, M. J. eds. Vol. 5. Acadcmic IJrcss Inc., New York,
p. 3092.
Enwerc, N. J (1998). Food of Plant Origin. Ah-Orbis Publication Ltd, Nsukka. pp. 24 -
150.
FA0 (1982a). Legumes in Human Nutrition. FA0 Food and Nutrition series. No 20.
Rome.
FA0 (1989). Utilization of Tropical foods: Cereals. FA0 Food and Nutrition paper. No
47/1 Rome.
FA0 (1991). FA0 Production Year book, 1990. Vol. 44 FA0 Statistics Scries. No. 99.
Rome.
FA0 (1995). Sorghum and Millets in Human Nutrition. F A 0 Food and Nutrition series.
No 27. Rome.
v
FA0 (2002). F A 0 Production Year book, 200 1 . Vol. 55. FA0 Statistics series. No 106.
Rome.
FAO/WHO/UNU. (1983). Energy and Protein Requirements. Expert Committee on
Protein-energy Requirements. WHO. Geneva. pp 45 - 80.
Fashakin, J. B. (1980). Nutrition Problems during the Weaning period, the utilization of
Local foods. Nutri. Food. Sci. 13: 637 - 645.
Goel, R. and Verma, J. (1980). Removal of Flatulence factor of some pulses by Microbial
Fermentation. Ind J. Nutr. Diet. 18: 2 15 - 2 18.
Gopaldas, T., Mehta, P., and John, C. (1988). Bulk reduction of Traditional Indian
Weaning gruels. In Improving young child feeding in Eastern and Southein
Afiica: Household -level Food Technology Proceedings of a workshop held in
Nairobi, Kenya. October 1987, IDRC - 265e, Ottawa, Canada. p. 330 - 339.
Graham, G. G., Glover, D.V., Lopez de Romana, G., Morales, E. and Macleon, W. C. Jr.
(1980). Nutritional value of normal Opaque and Sugary -2 Opaque Maize Hybrids
for Infants and Children. 1. Digestibility and Utilization. J. Nutr. 110: 1061 -
1069.
Gujska, E. and Khan, K. (1991). Feed moisture effects on Functional properties , Trypsin
inhibitor and Hemagglutinating activities of extruded bean high starch fractions. J.
Food. Sci. 56: 443 -447.
Hamaker, B. R., Mertz, E. T., Kirleis, A. W. and Axtell, J. D. (1986). Effect of Cooking
on the Protein profiles and Pepsin digestibility of Sorghum and Maize. J. Agric \
Kent, N.L. (1975). Technology of Cereal. 2nded. Pergarnon Press. New York. pp 306 -
307.
Land, D. G. and Shepherd, R. (1984). Scaling and Ranking Methods. In Sensory Analysis
, of Foods. Piggott, J. R. ed. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. London. pp 157 -
163.
Liener, I. E. (1989). Antinutritional factors in Legume seeds: State of the Art: Recent
advances of Research in Antinutritional factors in Legume Seeds. Huisman, J. ed.
Pudoc. Wageningen. p. 6 - 13.
Ljungqvist, B., Mellander, 0 , and Svanberg, U. (1981). Dietary bulk as a limiting factor
for nutrient intake in pre-school children. 1. A Problem description. J. 7 h p . l'ed
27: 68 - 73.
Lorri, W. S. M. (1993). Nutritimmf and Mimbiologkd Evaluation of Fermented Cereal
Weaning Foods. Ph.D. Thesis. Chalmers Ut~iversityof Technoloby, Goteherg, Sweden.
p 1-50.
Marero, L. M., Payumo, E. M., Librando, E. C., Lainez, W.N., Gopez, M. D. and Hornma, S.
(1988). Technology of Weatling food formulations prepared fiom Germinated cereals
and legumes. J. Food. Sci. 53: 1391 - 1 395.
McDonald, P., Edwards, R. A. and Greenkalgh, J. F. D. (1973). The Evaluation of food In:
Anirnd Nutrition. 2" ed. Oliver and Boyd. Edinburgh. pp 243 - 245.
Mensah, P., Drasrix, R. S., Harrison, T. J. and Tomkins, A. M. (1991). Fermented cereal gruels:
Towards a solution of the Weanling's dilemma (WNN). f i n d Nutr. RuM 13: 50 - 5G.
Mitma-, K., Scrimshaw, N. and Morgan, R, (1984). Improving the Nutritional status of
children during the Weaning period. A Manual for Policy makers, Program phmers m d
Field workers. pp 6- 8 1.
Morris, E. and Ellis, R. (1980). Effect of Dietary Pkytate/Zinc molar ratio on Growth and Bone
zinc response of rats fed Semi-prifid diets. J. N~cir,110: 2000 - 20 10.
Mosha, A. C. and Svanberg, U. (1983). Preparation of Weaning foods into Ffigh Nutrient
density using flour of Germinated cereals. UNU. Food, Ntitr. Brsll. 5: 10 -14.
Mosha, A. C. and Svanberg, U. (1990). The Acceptance and Tntakc of bulk -reduced Weaning
foods. The Luganga village study (UNU). FtmdNttfr. Hull. 12: 69 -74.
Nkama, I. and Malleshi, N.G . (1998). Production and Nlitritional quality of traditional
Nigerian Masa from mixtures uf rice, pearl millet, cowpea and groundnut. Fucd Nu/,:
Hull. 19: 366 - 373.
Nkama, I., Dagwanna, F. N., and Ndahi, W.B. (2001). Production, Proximate
composition and Consumer acceptability of Weaning foods from mixtures of pearl
millet, cowpea and groundnut. J. Arid Agric. 1 1 : 165 - 169.
Nkama, I., Iliyas, A. and Jato, A. (1995). Studies on the Preparation and Nutrient
composition of Kunun gyada, a traditional Nigeria groundnut -cereal -based
Weaning food. Food. Nutr. Bull. 16: 23 8 - 240.
Obizoba, I. C. (1985). Protein quality of Diets based on tuber, legume and cereal in
Weanling rats. Qual Plant Plant Food. Hum. Nutr. 35: 35 - 4 1 .
Obizoba, I. C. (1988). Nutritive value of malted, dry or wet-milled sorghum and corn.
Cereal. Chem.. 65: 447449.
07Dell, B. I,. (1983). Rioavailability of Essential and Toxic trace element. J. Nutr. 102:
653-660.
Ogundide, A.O. (1991). Some Sensory and Chemical characteristics of Weaning food
formulation based on cowpea, maize and cassava flours. B.Sc. Thesis. Department
of Food Science and Technology, U . N. N.
Okeke, E. C. and Obizoba, I. C. (1986). Thc Nutritive value of all Vegetable protein diets
based on Iegume, cereal and tuber in Weanling rats. Qual. Plant. Plant Food Hum.
Nutr. 36: 2 13-222.
Okoh, P. N. (1998). Cereals. In: Nutritional quality of Plant foods. Osagie, A. U. and
Eka, 0 . U. eds. Published by Post-harvest Research Unit, Departincnt of
Biochemistry, University of Benin, Nigeria. pp 32-52.
Okoh, P. N., Nwasike, C. C. and Ikediobi, C.O. (1985). Studies on seed proteins of
millets. 1 . Amino acid composition of Protein fractions of Early and Late maturing
varieties. Agric Food. Chem. 33: 55-57.
Onimawo, I. A. and Asugo, S. (2004). EfIects of Germination on thc nutrient content andc
Functional ~rouertiesof uieeon uea flour. J. Food Sci. Tech. 41: 170 -174.
Onofiok, N.O. and Nnanyelugo, D. 0. (1998). Weaning foods in West Africa. Nutritional
Problems and Possible Solutions. 1;'clad Nutr: Rrtll. 19: 2'7-3 I .
Onwulata, C. I., Konstmce, R. P., Smith, P. W., and Holsinger, V. 14. (1998). Physical
properties of Extruded products as affected by cheese whey. J. F m d Sci. 63: 814-
818
Osho, S. M. (1989). Soybean Processing for Household use. In: Food Crops Production,
Utilization and Nutrition. Mbah, B. N. and Nnanyelugo, D. 0. eds. Dotan PuM.
Ltd. Ibadan. pp 68-78.
Panasiuk, 0. and Bills, D. D. (1984). Cyanide content of Sorghum Sprouts. J. Food Sci:
4979 1-793,
\
significance rrf Saponins in Foods and Feeding stufis. CRCl Crilicai Reviota iu
Food Science and Nuirilion. 26: 27- 135.
Rachie, K. 0. and Silvestre, P. (1977). Grain legume In: Food crops of the L,owland
9
Tropics. Oxford University press. pp 27-40.
Salami, L. 1. (1991). The Effect of Sprouting on the Nutritive qualities of millet
(Penniselum americanum) and cowpea (Vigna unpiculata) flours and their
blends, Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Home Science and Nutrition, U.N.N.
Salunke, D. K., Jadjar, S. J., Kadam, S.S., and Chavan, J. K. (1982). Chemical,
Biochemical and Biological significance of Polyphenols in cereals and legumes.
CRC Critical Reviews qfFood Science and Nutrition, 17: 277.
Sankaro Rao, D. S. and Deosthale, Y. G. (1983). Mineral composition, Ionizable iron and
Soluble zinc in Malted grains of pearl millet and ragi. Food (Jhem. 11: 2 17 -223.
Sathe, S. K. and Salunkhe, D. K. (1981). Functional properties of the great Northern been
(I'haseolus vzdgaris L.) proteins: Emulsion, Foaming, Viscosity and Gelation
properties. J. Food. Sci. 46: 71 -74.
Singh, U. (1991). 'The Role of Pigeon pea in Human Nutrition. Patancheru. A. P. 502 324 India:
I(7lUSAII: No. 628 p. 129 -135.
Southgate, D. A. T (1993). Cereal and Cereal products In: Human Nutrition and
Dietetics. 9' ed. Churchill Livingstone, New York. pp. 276 - 277.
Svanberg, U. (1987). Dietary bulk in Weaning foods. Ph.D. Thesis. Chalrners University
of Technology. Goteberg, Sweden. p. 10 -50.
Tipton, K. W., Floyd, E. M., Marsball, J. G. and McDevitt, J.B. (1970). Resistmceto
certain grain sorghum hybrids to bird damage in Louisiana. Agron. ,/. 62: 21 1 -
2 13.
Udayasekhara Rao, P. and Deosthale, Y. G. (1 988). In Yitro availability of iron and zinc
in white and coloured ragi (Eleusine coracana): Role of Tannin and Phytate.
Plant Food. Hum. Nutr. 38: 35 - 4 1.
UNICEF. (1989). The State of the World's Children. Oxford TJniversity Press.
i
\
\
Uvere, P. 0. (2002). Effect of Fermentation and Malting on the Rheoloby and Acceptability of
Complementary Foods for Infants. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Van der Riet, W. B., Wight, A. W., Cillers, J. J. L., Datel, J. M. (1987). Food Chemical
Analysis of Tempeh prepared from African grown soybeans. kbod ('hem. 25:
s
197 - 206.
Walker, A. F. and Kocher, N. (1 982). Effect of Processing including domestic cooking on
Nutritional quality of legumes. Proc. Nu& Soc. 41: 41 -5 1 .
Widdowson, E. M. (1987). Atwater: A personal tribute fiom the OK. Am. .I Clin. Ntrtr. 45: 898.
Youssef, M. M., Abd EI-Aal, M. H., Shekib, L. A. E. and Ziena, H. M. (1987). Effects of
Dehulling, Soaking and Germination on Chemical composition, Mineral elements
and Protein patterns of Faba beans (Yiciufuba L.). Food. Chem. 23: 129 - 138.
APPENDIX A
C
'G 15
4-8
2
:1 -- -
Crude protein (millet)
a
a
u
, 10
3
0'5
a C ~ u d eprotein (P. pea)
0 24 48 72 96
Fermentation time (hour)
0
- .-
24
~ ,. ....-- .-
...
48
...- ..
r~ .~
72
..-T --- ... ~ ...
96
- 1
~ r u d fat
e (millet)
3.5
3
-- -- ---. -.--- --
L1
2 &Crude fibre (millet)
IE
a 1.5
TJ
.-a-Crude fibre (P. pea)
3
G 1
0.5
0 I I 1
0 24 48 72 96
Sprouting time (hour)
Figure 2: Effect of Sprouting on (A) crude protein, (B) crude fat and (C)
crude fibre content of millet and pigeon pea. ,
1 -+Tannin (millet) I
I -+Phytate (millet) I
~
0 24 48 72 96
Fermentation time (hour)
1% cyanide (millet) 1
Cyanide (P. pea) 1
1--t .. . -.
Figure 3: Effect of Fermentation time on (A) Tannin, (B) Phytate qnd (C)
Cyanide content of millet and pigeon pea. ,rl
Sprouting time (hour)
0.14
0.12
h
P 0.1
-
E' 0.08 I-+ Phytate (millet)
I
..
Figure 4: Effect of Sprouting time on (A) Tannin, (B) Phytate and (C)
Cyanide content of millet and pigeon pea.
+Viscosity (Millet)
.-
Viscosity
--m- -- --.
(P. pea) -
+WAI (Millet)
*-WAI (P. pea)
.. 1
0 1 I I I I I
0 24 48 72 96
Fermentation time (hour)
1+WSI (Millet)
+WSI (P.pea)
I I I I I
0 24 48 72 96
Sprouting time (hour)
Protein Content:
Crude protein content of UPF = 22.04% @.in5
To calculate the quantity of UPF that will give 7% protein, this expression used:
22.04 = - 7
100 X
22.04~ = 700
x = -700
22.04
= 31.76
If 3 1.76 is equivalent to 7% protein level,
To calculate the weight of UPF from the Total weight:
31.76 x 2520
100
= 800.35 g/g sample
- 100
302.88 g/g sample
Fat content = 5%
To calculate the 5% weight of fat from the Total weight
.: 0.05 x 2520
= 126
Mineralcontent = 3.5%
To calculate the 3.5% weight of mineral fiom the Total weight
.: 0.035 x 2520
= 88.2
Vitamin content = I %
To calculate the 1% weight of vitamin from the Total weight
.: 0.01 x 2520
= 25.2
Fibre content = 1%
'To calculate the 1% weight of fibre fiom the Total weight
.: 0.01 x 2520
= 25.2
Extremely weak 1
I Anv other comment: I
iii. FLAVOUR A B c D E F G J K -
Extremely thick 7
Moderately thick 6
Slightly thick 5
Neither thick nor thin 4
Slightly thin 3
Moderately thin 2
Extremely thin 1
I Anv other comment: 1
1V. MOUTH FEEL A B C D E F G H I J K
y<tremely smooth 7
Moderately smooth 6
Slightly smooth 5 -
Neither smooth nor gritty 4
Slightly gritty 3
Moderately gritty 2
Extremely gritty 1
other comment:
V. TASTE A B C D E F G H I J K
Extremely tasty 7
Moderately tasty 6
Slightly tasty 5
Neither tasty nor tasteless 4
Slightly tasteless 3
-Moderately tasteless 2
Extremely tasteless 1
LAny other comment:
Siightly acceptable 5
Neither acceptable nor unacceptable 4 -
Slightly unacceptable
/:I
3
Moderately unacceptable 2
Extremely unacceptable 1
l ~ n other
y comment: