Cells of the Nervous System

● Structure and Maintenance of Neurons

○ I. The nervous system is divided into two parts. The central nervous system
(CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the PNS consists of
nerves outside of the CNS.
○ II. The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell, or neuron.
○ III. The cell body and dendrites receive information from other neurons.
○ IV. The axon, which may be covered with sections of myelin separated
○ by nodes of Ranvier, transmits information to other neurons or effector
cells.
● Functional Classes of Neurons
○ I. Neurons are classified in three ways:
■ a. Afferent neurons transmit information into the CNS from
■ receptors at their peripheral endings.
■ b. Efferent neurons transmit information out of the CNS to
■ effector cells.
■ c. Interneurons lie entirely within the CNS and form circuits with
○ other interneurons or connect afferent and efferent neurons.
○ II. Neurotransmitters, which are released by a presynaptic neuron and
combine with protein receptors on a postsynaptic neuron, transmit
information across a synapse.
● Glial cells
○ I. The CNS also contains glial cells, which help regulate the extracellular
fluid composition, sustain the neurons metabolically, form myelin and the
blood–brain barrier, serve as guides for developing neurons, provide
immune functions, and regulate cerebrospinal fluid.
● Neural Growth and Regeneration
○ I. Neurons develop from stem cells, migrate to their final locations, and
send out processes to their target cells.
○ II. Cell division to form new neurons and the plasticity to remodel after
injury markedly decrease between birth and adulthood.
○ III. After degeneration of a severed axon, damaged peripheral neurons may
regrow the axon to their target organ. Functional regeneration of severed
CNS axons does not usually occur.

Membrane Potentials
● Basic Principles of Electricity
○ I. Separated electrical charges create the potential to do work, as occurs
when charged particles produce an electrical current as they flow down a
potential gradient. The lipid barrier of the plasma membrane is a
high-resistance insulator that keeps charged ions separated, whereas ionic
current flows readily in the aqueous intracellular and extracellular fluids.
● The Resting Membrane Potential
○ I. Membrane potentials are generated mainly by the diffusion of ions and
 are determined by both the ionic concentration differences across the
membrane and the membrane’s relative permeability to different ions. + +
■ a. Plasma membrane Na /K -ATPase pumps maintain low
intracellular Na+ concentration and high intracellular K+
concentration.
■ b. In almost all resting cells, the plasma membrane is much more
permeable to K+ than to Na+, so the membrane potential is close to
the K+ equilibrium potential—that is, the inside is negative relative
to the outside.
■ c. The Na+/K+-ATPase pumps directly contribute a small
component of the potential because they are electrogenic.
● Graded Potentials and Action Potentials
○ I. Neurons signal information by graded potentials and action potentials
(APs).
○ II. Graded potentials are local potentials whose magnitude can vary and
that die out within 1 or 2 mm of their site of origin.
○ III. An AP is a rapid change in the membrane potential during which the
membrane rapidly depolarizes and repolarizes. At the peak, the potential
reverses and the membrane becomes positive inside. APs provide
long-distance transmission of information through the nervous system.
■ a. APs occur in excitable membranes because these membranes
contain many voltage-gated Na+ channels. These channels open as
the membrane depolarizes, causing a positive feedback opening of
more voltage-gated Na+ channels and moving the membrane
potential toward the Na+ equilibrium potential.
■ b. The AP ends as the Na+ channels inactivate and K+ channels
open, restoring resting conditions.
■ c. Depolarization of excitable membranes triggers an AP only when
the membrane potential exceeds a threshold potential.
■ d. Regardless of the size of the stimulus, if the membrane reaches
threshold, the AP generated is the same size.
■ e. A membrane is refractory for a brief time following an AP.
■ f. APs are propagated without any change in size from one site to
■ another along a membrane.
■ g. In myelinated nerve fibers, APs are regenerated at the nodes of
■ Ranvier in saltatory conduction.
■ h. APs can be triggered by depolarizing graded potentials in
sensory neurons, at synapses, or in some cells by pacemaker
potentials.

Synapses
● Activation of the Postsynaptic Cell
○ An excitatory synapse brings the membrane of the postsynaptic cell
closer to threshold
○ An inhibitory synapse prevents the postsynaptic cell from approaching
threshold by hyperpolarizing or stabilizing the membrane potential.
○ Whether a postsynaptic cell fires action potentials depends on the number
of synapses that are active and whether they are excitatory or inhibitory.
○ Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that pass from one neuron to
 another and modify the electrical or metabolic function of the recipient cell.
● Functional Anatomy of Synapses
○ Electrical synapses consist of gap junctions that allow current to flow
between adjacent cells.
○ In chemical synapses, neurotransmitter molecules are stored in synaptic
vesicles in the presynaptic axon terminal, and when released transmit the
signal from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron.
● Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release
○ Depolarization of the axon terminal increases the Ca2+ concentration within
the terminal, which causes the release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
○ The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to
receptors on the postsynaptic cell; the activated receptors usually open ion
channels.
● Activation of the Postsynaptic Cell
○ At an excitatory synapse, the electrical response in the postsynaptic cell is
called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
○ At inhibitory synapses, it is either an inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP) or a stabilization of the membrane potential near resting levels.
○ Usually at an excitatory synapse, nonspecific cation channels in the
postsynaptic cell open, but Na+ flux dominates, because it has the largest
electrochemical gradient. At inhibitory synapses, channels to Cl− or K+
open.
● Synaptic Integration
○ The postsynaptic cell’s membrane potential is the result of temporal and
spatial summation of the EPSPs and IPSPs at the many active excitatory
and inhibitory synapses on the cell.
○ IAction potentials are generally initiated by the temporal and spatial
summation of many EPSPs.
● Synaptic Strength
○ Synaptic strength is modified by presynaptic and postsynaptic events,
drugs, and diseases (see Table 6.5).

○
● Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
○ In general, neurotransmitters cause EPSPs and IPSPs
 ○ Neuromodulators cause, via second messengers, more complex metabolic
effects in the postsynaptic cell.
○ The actions of neurotransmitters are usually faster than those of
neuromodulators.
○ A substance can act as a neurotransmitter at one type of receptor and as a
neuromodulator at another.
○ The major classes of known or suspected neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators are listed in Table 6.6.

■
● Neuroeffector Communication
○ Neuroeffector junction: the synapse between a neuron and an effector
cell is called a
○ The events at a neuroeffector junction (release of neurotransmitter into an
extracellular space, diffusion of neurotransmitter to the effector cell, and
binding with a receptor on the effector cell) are similar to those at synapses
between neurons.

Structure of the Nervous System

● Central Nervous System: Brain
○ I. The brain consists of the cerebrum, diencephalon, midbrain, pons,
medulla oblongata, and cerebellum.
○ FOREBRAIN: The cerebrum, made up of right and left cerebral
hemispheres, and the diencephalon together form the forebrain.
○ The cerebral cortex forms the outer shell of the cerebrum and is divided
into the parietal, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
○ The diencephalon contains the thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus.
○ The limbic system is a set of deep forebrain structures associated with
learning and emotion; it is considered part of the cerebrum but includes
parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
 ○ The cerebellum functions in posture, movement, and some kinds of
memory.
○ The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata form the brainstem, which
contains the reticular formation.
● Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord
○ I. The spinal cord is divided into two areas: central gray matter, which
contains nerve cell bodies and dendrites; and white matter, which
surrounds the gray matter and contains myelinated axons organized into
ascending or descending tracts.
○ II. The axons of the afferent and efferent neurons form the spinal nerves.
● Peripheral Nervous System
○ I. The PNS consists of 43 paired nerves—12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31
pairs of spinal nerves, as well as neurons found in the gastrointestinal tract
wall. Most nerves contain the axons of both afferent and efferent neurons.
○ II. The efferent division of the PNS is divided into somatic and autonomic
parts. The somatic fibers innervate skeletal muscle cells and release the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
● Autonomic Nervous System
○ I. The autonomic nervous system innervates cardiac and smooth muscle,
glands, gastrointestinal tract neurons, and other tissue cells. Each
autonomic pathway consists of a preganglionic neuron with its cell body in
the CNS and a postganglionic neuron with its cell body in an autonomic
ganglion outside the CNS.
○ II. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and
parasympathetic components. Enteric neurons within the walls
○ of the GI tract are also sometimes considered as a separate subcategory of
the autonomic system. Preganglionic neurons in both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions release acetylcholine; the postganglionic
parasympathetic neurons release mainly acetylcholine; and the
postganglionic sympathetic neurons release mainly norepinephrine.
○ III. The adrenal medulla is a hormone-secreting part of the sympathetic
nervous system and secretes mainly epinephrine.
○ IV. Many effector organs that the autonomic nervous system innervates
receive dual innervation from the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
● Protective Elements Associated with the Brain
○ I. Inside the skull and vertebral column, the brain and spinal cord are
enclosed in and protected by the meninges.
○ II. Brain tissue depends on a continuous supply of glucose and oxygen for
metabolism.
○ III. The brain ventricles and the space within the meninges are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid, which is formed in the ventricles.
○ IV. The blood–brain barrier closely regulates the chemical composition of
the extracellular fluid of the CNS.