CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING

VADE-MECUM

5. COMBUSTION & FUELS

Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 5 – COMBUSTION & FUELS
VADE-MECUM

Table of Contents

1. Fuel Theory.......................................................................................... 5.1

2. Solid Fuel.............................................................................................. 5.2
2.1 Coal ............................................................................................. 5.2
2.2 Coke............................................................................................. 5.4
3. Fuel Oil................................................................................................. 5.4
3.1 Main Characteristics..................................................................... 5.4
3.2 Viscosity ...................................................................................... 5.4
4. Waste Fuel............................................................................................ 5.5
5. Natural Gas.......................................................................................... 5.6
6. Flame Theory ....................................................................................... 5.7
6.1 Definition..................................................................................... 5.7
6.2 Flame Speed................................................................................. 5.7
6.3 Flame Radiation ........................................................................... 5.7
6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature .................................. 5.7
7. Burner Pipes ........................................................................................ 5.8
7.1 Number of Air Circuits................................................................. 5.8
7.2 Primary Air .................................................................................. 5.8
7.3 Transport air................................................................................. 5.9
7.4 Specific Impulse........................................................................... 5.9
7.5 Swirl .......................................................................................... 5.10
7.6 Examples of Burner Tip.............................................................. 5.10
8. Fuel Grinding and Dosing ................................................................. 5.12
8.1 Solid Fuel Grindability ............................................................... 5.12
8.2 Solid Fuel Fineness .................................................................... 5.12
8.3 Dosing........................................................................................ 5.13
8.4 Safety Considerations ................................................................. 5.13
8.5 Fuel Grinders ............................................................................. 5.13

Index - i
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1. Fuel Theory
a) Low Heating Value
• LHV is calculated from the Higher Heating Value (obtained by bomb calorimeter)
• Considering that :
- Water created by the combustion doesn’t condense
- The reaction takes place under constant pressure
LHV = HHV - 567W (at std. Temp = 25oC) in metric units
LHV = HHV – 1020W (std. Temp = 60oF) in english units

- LHV, HHV in kcal/kg (BTU/lb)

- W in kg (lb) water vaporized per kg (lb) or fuel
W= H2O contained in the fuel + H2O created by the combustion
H2O created by the combustion : 2H + ½ O2 -> H2O
W= % (H2O)+ 9*% (H) where % expressed in weight in the fuel

• The difference between the HHV and the LHV will vary with fuel type. The greater the proportion of
hydrogen in a fuel, the lower the resulting LHV:
Fuel %H HHV LHV LHV LHV as a
(Btu/lb) (Btu/lb) (kcal/kg) % of HHV
Coal 5 12,000 11,540 6410 96
Coke 4 14,000 13,630 7570 97
Waste Fuel 10 9,000 8,070 4480 90
Fuel oil 10 19,000 18,070 10040 95
Nat. gas 25 23,000 20,680 11490 90

Rule of thumb:
• One cubic foot of air (+stochiometric amount of NG or oil) releases 100 Btu of heat (for fuel), 1m3 air
releases about 900 kcal.
b) Volatile Matter
• Volatile matter is the loss in weight, corrected for moisture, of a sample heated to 950oC in the absence of
air.

Ignition
Temperature C

300

% VM

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c) Ash
• Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after burning coal heated to 750oC in an oxidizing atmosphere until
there is not weight change. It is composed chiefly (95-99%) of oxides of Si, Al, Fe, and Ca; Mg, Ti, S, Na,
K, and trace elements can also be present.
d) Fixed Carbon
• Fixed carbon is the residue left after the volatile matter is driven off and is calculated as:
F.C. = 100 – (% ash + % moisture + % volatile matter)
e) Flammability
Limit flammability in air Temp auto flame
Inf limit (%) Sup limit (%) in air (°C)
H2 4 75 570
CO 12.5 74 610
CH4 5 15 580
C2H6 3 12.5 490
C3H8 2.2 9.5 480
C4H10 1.7 8.5 420

f) Combustion Reaction Time

Coal Heavy oil Light oil Gas
0.1to 1 second 0.1 0.01 to 0.001 0.001
In second, at atmospheric pressure

2. Solid Fuel
2.1 Coal
a) Main Coal Characteristics
Approximate Analysis and bulk density for Various Coals
Group Fixed carbon (%) Volatile matter (%) Heat value (Btu/lb.) Kg/m3
≥ than < than > than < than ≥ than
Anthracite 800-930
Meta anthracite 98 2
Anthracite 92 98 2 8
Semi anthracite 86 92 8 14
Bituminous 670-910
Low-vol 78 86 14 22
Med volatile 69 78 22 31
High vol A 69 31
High vol B 13,000
High vol C 11,500
Subbituminous
A 10,500
B 9,500
C 8,300
Lignitic 640-860
A 6,300
B

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b) Combustion Calculation for Coal

Proximate Analysis Ultimate Analysis (Dry Basis)
% weight nb moles/kg
Volatile 22.19 % dry Carbon 74.87 C: 62.33
Free carbon 64.29 % dry Hydrogen 3.78 H2: 18.75
Moisture 6.5 % Sulfur 2.24 S: 0.70
Ash 12.5 % dry Nitrogen 1.93 N2: 0.69
HHV 7.259 kcal/kg coal dry Chlorine 0.08 Cl:
LHV = HHV – 5218 H (kcal/kg) @ 25° C, Oxygen 3.53 O2: 1.10
or Ash 13.57
LHV = HHV – 93.9196*H (Btu/lb)
Where: H is the mass fraction of hydrogen in the fuel.
Combustion Equations
• C + O2 → CO2 + 7 ,829 kcal / kg C • S + O 2 → SO2 + 2 ,213 kcal / kg S
1
• H 2 + O2 → H 2 O + 2 ,8641 kcal / kg H
2
- the oxydation of coal is very quick: 0.1 to 0.3 seconds
Heat Value Calculation
• If (x) is the ponderal % of x, the heat value can be calculated with the following formula:
- LHV (kcal/kg) = 80.8(C ) + 22.45(S ) + 287 * (H ) −
 (O )  − 6W , where W is H O content of the fuel
8 
2

- HHV = 80.8(C ) + 22.45(S ) + 339.4(H ) − 35.9(O )
Neutral Combustion Air for Coal
22.4  (C ) (S ) + (H ) − (O ) 
• Input in mass % V= * +
21 12.01 32.06 4 *1.01 2 *15.99 
Rule of thumb
• 7.6 Nm3/kg of dry coal
Neutral Combustion Products
Nm3/kg Kg/kg %vol %weight
Combustion CO2 1.306 2.564 17.4 25.3
H2O 0.393 0.316 5.2 3.1
SO2 0.015 0.042 0.2 0.4
N2 5.721 7.152 76.1 70.5
Moisture H2O 0.081 0.065 1.1 0.7
Total 7.515 10.138

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2.2 Coke

• Coke is the solid, cellular, infusible material Delayed Coke Fluid Coke
remaining after carbonization of coal, pitch, LHV MJ/t 34,300 31,000
petroleum residue and other carbonaceous %C 88 – 90 87 – 88
materials. Thus, its oxydation takes more %H 3.9 – 4.5 2–3
C/H Ratio 21 35
time: 1 to 2 seconds.
%S 2–6 5–8
ASH content (%) 0.5 – 1.5 2–8
Volatile matter (%) 10 – 15 5 – 10
Granulometry (mm) 0 – 50 0–8
Moisture content (%) 7 – 10 5 – 10
Ignition Temperature 220 - 250 230 – 250
Hard Grove (HGI) 90 – 100 10 - 30

3. Fuel Oil
3.1 Main Characteristics
Comp Nº1 Nº2 Nº4 Nº6 FO Nº6
C 86.4 87.3 86.47 87.26 84.67
H 13.6 12.6 11.65 10.49 11.02
O 0.01 0.04 0.27 0.64 0.38
N 0.003 0.006 0.24 0.28 0.18
S 0.09 0.22 1.35 0.84 3.97
Ash <0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.04 0.02
C/H ratio 6.35 6.93 7.42 8.31 7.62
Specific Gravity 0.849 0.902 0.965

− 131.5 ( for SG < 1)

141.5
• Api Gravity =
Specific Gravity

3.2 Viscosity
Theory
• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is the opposite of fluidity.
- abs visc is absolute viscosity, µ measured in cp (centipoise);
- kin visc is kinematic viscosity, C measured in cs or cSt (centistokes)
- abs visc in cp = kin visc cs * specific gravity
1 poise = 100 cp = 1 dyne.s/cm2+ = 1 g/s*cm, 1 stoke = 100 cs = 0.000 1 m2/s
Viscosity - temperature information for selected fuel oils
• The far right-hand columns list temperatures required to reduce the oil viscosity to levels often required for
easy pumping (440cSt) and for atomization (20.7cSt).
• Required:
- Viscosity: 20-25cSt, filtration<125µm (abrasion and clogging: 3-stage filtration at 35, 60 and 120#)
- Variation at the pump should not be higher than 5cSt

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Type of oil Viscosity (ν) at 38C (cs) Oil temperature (in C)

required for
pumping Atomisation
#6 max 2200 59 129
#6 min 220 28 91
#5 max 165 22 83
#5 min 32.1 -7 50
#4 max 20.7 -17 38
#4 min 6.9 -59 -3
#2 max 3.5 -17
Other Viscosities
At ºC Water Air Natural gas
µ (cp) 1.124 0.0180 0.011
ν (cs) 1.130 14.69 14.92
• Approximate viscosity of water at 21C is 1 cp and 1 cs

4. Waste Fuel
a) Waste Fuel Specification
Heat Content < 23 GJ/T (9900 Btu/lb) ASTM D-240-76 range 28-32 GJ/T (12000-13800
Btu/lb)
Ash content < 7%
Specific gravity < 1.2 kg/L
Suspended solids < 30% (after being screened through a 30 mesh sieve)
Water < 1% (as separated phase)
Total halogens < 2%
Sulphur < 3%
Nitrogen < 1%
Inorganic acids and bases Extractable pH of 4 of 11
Barium < 3000 ppm
Chromium < 300 ppm
Lead < 3000 ppm
Zinc < 3000 ppm
Vanadium < 200 ppm
PCB and PBB < 50 ppm
Benzene < 0.5%
Odor Characteristic of solvents as per ASTM 1296-69

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b) Approximate Properties of some By-product and Waste Fuels

• Different moisture contents may change these values considerably.
% Ash / Density Gross Heat Value
By Product or Waste Moisture Lb/ft3 Kg/m3 Btu/lb Kcal/kg
Animal fats 50-60 801-961 17,000 9,445
Brown paper 1.0/5 7 112 7,250 4,028
Corn cobs 3/5 10-15 160-240 8,000 4,445
Paint 8,000 4,445
Rubber waste 20/30 62-125 993-2000 10,000 5,556
Waste, type 0, trash 5/10 8-10 128-160 8,500 4,723
Waste, type 1, rubbish 10/25 8-10 128-160 6,500 3,611
Waste, type 2, refuse 5/70 15-20 240-320 4,300 2,389
Waste, type 3, garbage 5/70 30-35 481-561 2,500 1,389
Waste, type 4, pathological 5/85 45-55 721-881 1,000 556
Waste, type 6, compact 35-50 561-801 7,500 4,167
Wood 3/10 20 320 9,000 5,000
• Tires are usually high volatile content and high S and Fe/Zn content (if steel belts are not removed).
• Biomass fuels contain usually high level of moisture and O2 and may have a higher char reactivity than coal.

5. Natural Gas
a) Gas Characteristics
Typical example Content (%) LHV (Kcal/Nm3) Sp weight (kg/Nm3)
CH4 93.93 8,556 0.7143
C2H6 2.42 15,223 1.3393
C3H8 0.26 21,795 1.9643
C4H10 (ISO+N) 0.002 28,336 2.589
C5H10 (ISO+N) 0 32,123 3.2143
S 0
CO2 0.34 1.9643
N2 3.05 1.2500
H2 0 0.0893
He 0 0.1339
O2 0 1.4286
Total 8462 0.7533
b) Combustion
Combustion Equations for Natural Gas
• CH 4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H 2 O • C 5 H 12 + 8 O2 → 5 CO2 + 6 H 2 O
7 1
• C 2 H 6 + O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H 2 O • H 2 + O2 → H 2 O
2 2
• C 3 H 8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H 2 O • S + O2 → SO2
13
• C 4 H 10 + O 2 → 4 CO2 + 5 H 2 O
2

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Neutral Combustion Air for natural gas

• If [x] is the volume fraction of x, the neutral combustion air is:
*  2 * [CH 4 ] + * [C 2 H 6 ] + 5 * [C 3 H 8 ] + * [C 4 H 10 ] + 8 * [C 5 H 12 ] + * [H 2 ] + 1 * [S ] − [O2 ]
1  7 13 1 
0.21  2 2 2 

Rule of thumb
• 9.412 Nm3/Nm3gas (for the example)
Neutral Combustion Products for natural gas
Nm3/Nm3 gas kg/Nm3 gas % volume % weight
CO2 0.999 1.962 9.58% 15.25%
SO2 0.000 0.000 0.00% 0.00%
H2O 1.962 1.576 18.81% 12.25%
N2 7.466 9.332 71.60% 72.51%
Total: 10.426 12.871
Natural Gas Heat Value
• kcal / m 3 = 90.3 [CH 4 ] + 159.2 [C 2 H 6 ] + 229 [C 3 H 8 ] .

6. Flame Theory
6.1 Definition
• The oxidation reaction is an exothermic reaction, which can be developed either slowly or quickly: The fast
reaction leads to the flame.
6.2 Flame Speed
• In stable burner flames, the flame front appears to be stationary because the flame is moving toward the
burner at the same speed that the fuel air mixture is coming out of the burner.
• Thus risk of blow off if mixture speed>flame speed.
• Natural gas flame speed in air: 0.3m/s and in Oxygen: 4 to 5m/s.
6.3 Flame Radiation
• R = σ ε T4 - ε: flame intensity:
- σ = Boltsman constant ≈ 1 solid fuel
- T = Flame temperature ≈ 0.8 – 0.95 heavy oil
≈ 0.25 – 0.70 gas
6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature
( net heat value of the fuel ) − ( effect of disssociation )
• T=
( weight of comb product ) * ( specific heat of comb prodct )
• An increase of flame temperature can be obtained by:
- Increasing combustion air temperature (ex: air temp: (200, 500, 900F) gives flame temp (3510, 3630,
3800)
- Decreasing inerts:
⇒ Avoid high excess air
⇒ O2 enrichment (ex: % O2 (21, 25, 29) gives flame temp (3650, 3900, 4150) in case of coal, air
preheated at 510F)

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- Completeness of combustion (full low heat value to be obtained):

⇒ Optimum excess air
⇒ High rate of mixing fuel and combustion air
• Water vapor in the flame decreases the flame temperature.
• Flue Gas.
Fuel Requirements Temperature Impact
• To provide 1 000 000 Btu of available
heat (fuel is CH4 and excess air=2%)

Fuel Requirement, Million Btu hhv

then for instance with air (21% O2) it

% 02preheat temperature, F
requires 4.6/2.3=2 times as much fuel
when preheat temp=500F as when
preheat is 1500F when flue gas
temperature is 3000F

7. Burner Pipes
• The flame should be centered along the kiln axis.
7.1 Number of Air Circuits
• For solid fuels, the number of air circuits determines the degree of control on the flame shape.
Single Circuit Burner Pipe
• Minimal control.
• The solid fuel has to be carried with the air.
• High velocities: Higher fan pressure requirement, higher wear in the circuit.
• Required burner tip velocity is of the order of 80 m/s.
Two-circuit Burner
• Swirl + high velocity transport air.
• Additional control due to swirl but the problems of high pressure fan and high wear rate remain.
Three-circuit Burner
• (swirl + high velocity axial + low velocity transport air).
• The most versatile one. The solid fuel does not have to be brought at a high velocity.
• Clearance of top guide vanes is critical since it will control eccentricity of flame.
7.2 Primary Air
Indirect System
• The primary air is usually controlled at below 12 % of the total combustion air.
Direct system
• No recirculation of mill exit air, the primary air can be as high as 30 to 35 % of total combustion air. All of
the air exiting the mill system enters the pyro-process.

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Semi-direct system
• Primary air quantity varies (usually 18 to 25 %), depending upon the incoming fuel moisture.
• To keep a constant flow (10 to 15 % of total combustion air), it is possible to send the "overflow" to the kiln
hood (for the direct or semi-direct system).
Primary air impact on heat consumption
Indirect Semi-direct Direct
Primary air 12% 20-25% 30-35%
kcal/kg 4-5 20-25 50
Tip velocity:
axial air swirl air transport air gas
80 to 250 m/s 50 to 250 m/s 20 to 40 m/s 200 m/s
Pressure drop within burner pipe:
For a three-circuit burner: Blower Design Pressure
• 700 to 1000 mm H2O for axial air; 3000 - 7000
• 150 to 600 mm H2O for swirl air; 200 - 2000
• 600 to 1000 mm H2O for transport air (up to 1200 mm 2000 - 3500
H2O for a modified three-circuit burner).

7.3 Transport air

Velocity
• The steadiest possible (25-35 m/s).
• Sufficient to prevent pulsations: 3-5 kg of coal/Nm3 air, up to 7 kg/m3.
Geometry
• Rising parts vertical and not diagonal.
• As short as possible.
Liquid fuel injection: use of injectors :
• MY type: 40 bars: when operation is stable.
• ZV2 (assisted pulverization): between 2 and 20 bars: when wide range of flow variation.
7.4 Specific Impulse
• Is = Characterizes approximately the primary/secondary air ratio irrespective of the kiln. Usually two thirds
or more of the primary air (non included transport air).
• Momentum impulse:
M *V where:
Is =
Q - Q = ki ln ( heat power )inGJ .h −1
- M = primary airflow ( in the axe ) in kg .s −1
- V = Air Speed in m.s −1
Rules of thumb
Specific impulse Long Kilns Short Kilns
Fuel Oil 1,2 N.h.GJ-1 1,2 N.h.GJ-1
Coal 1,5 N.h.GJ-1 1,5 N.h.GJ-1
Coke 1,8 N.h.GJ-1 1,8 N.h.GJ-1

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7.5 Swirl
• Swirl is the ratio of the tangential component produced by the rotational air to the sum of the axial
components Ix produced by the various primary air and gas circuits.
• It improves the stability by forming toroidal recirculation zones that recirculate heat and species (when
Sw>0.3).
Rotational moment / axial moment ratio
where:
Vry
- I θr = I xr t g α
Rot. circ. velocity: Vr
- Iθ : tangential impulsion
Vrx
- I xr : rotational circuit axial impulsion
Iθ r r g α : swirl angle (usually between 20 and 35
rg SW = -
I x . De degree: smaller for long dry kiln)
where: I θ r = Qmr . Vry • The gyration radius defines, on the basis of the
Ix = Σ I respective radius of the rotational circuit at the
i xi
burner pipe tip.
- rg = 2/3 (re3 – ri3) / (re2 – ri2)
- re = external radius
- ri = internal radius
• The equivalent diameter of the flow is given by: where:
2Qm - Qm = The total mass flowrate of the air injected
De = Ιχ - ρ m = The average specific gravity of the air
Πρ mΙχ
- Ιχ = The total axial impulse
Rules of thumb
swirl Long Kilns Short Kilns
Fuel, coal, coke 0,02 to 0.08 0,12 to 0.15
Gas 0,05 0,05
7.6 Examples of Burner Tip
air gun
Pillard Standard
Axial
Transport axial air holes
Swirl
Gas Tip velocity 100 m/s rotational circuit
10% of primary air 2 expansion seals

Lafarge Burner coal conveying

circuit
Axial
Transpor
t
Swirl central air
Gas Axial Tip velocity: 250 m/s (flame catcher)
< 12% primary air

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Burner Calculation (LAFARGE)

SWIRL AND MOMENTUM DETERMINATION Version 2.2
Original: CLV / S.THIERS Apr-95 PLANT :
Update: CTS / W.Oliveira Sep-99 Date : 24/02/2000
(Inputs are in bold characters) Name
COMMENTS :

TIP CROSS SECTION AREAS Diameters : % cross section reduction Dext : 355.6
(mm) thk : 9.525
AXIAL AIR 320.7 2667 mmWG
Holes 1, Vanes 2 : 1 218 m/s 291.7 71.6% 23 m/s 2360 Nm³/h
3963 mm² Dext : 273.1
247.7 thk : 12.7
TRANSPORT AIR 36 m/s 223.1 31 m/s Dext : 219.1
9096 mm² thk : 8.179
196.7 2500 mmWG
SWIRL AIR 212 m/s 172.8 56.2% 26 m/s 1437 Nm³/h
2491 mm² Dext : 141.3
thk : 6.553

DETAILS OF THE TIP Swirler Number slots groove width radial gap radius
angle (o) of vanes width(mm) (mm) vanes(mm) raccord.
Swirl 35 20 12.0 9.800 0.5 1
Axial (if vanes) -

Axial (if holes) Number of holes : 24 Diameter : 14.50

GENERAL DATA
Kiln TYPE : AS PRODUCTION (T CK /d ) : 2630.00

NP : no preca, AT : air through, AS : air seperat. Specific heat consumpt.kJ/kg CK : 3486.00

FUEL ANALYSIS , AS FIRED (DRY BASIS) Swirl Air: F=Fan; B=Blower B

%C 70.26 %O 5.43 Percent of heat at back- end : 65.00

%S 2.03 NCA
%H 3.09 Nm³/kg fuel 6.96 Shell internal diameter (m ) : 4.14

Total combust. air ( Nm³/hr) : 99400.21

SPECIFIC HEAT CONSUMPTION Throughput L.H.V. Therm.power
AT THE BLAST PIPE kg/h KJ/kg GJ/h
COKE/COAL 25/75 4760 28087 133.70
0.00
0.00
0.00 Recalculated SHC :

Total (GJ/h ) : 133.70 3486 kJ/kg CK

GAS FLOW MEASUREMENTS Axial Swirl Transport

Static pressure in the tip (mm WG) 2667 2500 -
Temperature in the pipe ( deg C) 100 100 100
Theoretical flow rate ( Nm³/h) 2360 1437 - Fuel to air ratio:
Bias coefficient : 1.00 1.00
Accepted flowrate ( Nm³/h) 2360 1437 860 4.05 kg coal/m³

Axial / Swirl distribution 62% 38%

RESULTS
FLOW VELOCITIES Axial Swirl Transport Is Swirl
Nature of flow subsonic subsonic velocity N.h/GJ
Release tip velocity (m/s) 218 212 36 2.14 0.18

Primary air rate, axial 6.78% Targets: Fuel-Oil 1.2 0.15

: swirl : 4.13% Coal 1.5 0.15
transport : 2.47% Coke 1.8 0.15
Axial + Transport: 9.26%
Primary air rate 13.39% THERMAL LOAD (MW/m² ) : 3.16

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8. Fuel Grinding and Dosing

8.1 Solid Fuel Grindability
• The Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) indicates the ease of grinding solid fuel.
• A standard coal in the cement industry has a HGI of 65 or 76.
• HGImix = x * HGI coal + y * HGI coke.
Bowl Mill (Raymond) Capacity
100

80
Fuel Grindability (Hardgrove)

60

Passing 75um (#200)

40
90% Raymond
85% Raymond
80% Raymond
75% Raymond
20
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Mill Capacity Factor

• 0.10 mill capacity factor for 5 HGI

8.2 Solid Fuel Fineness
Fineness S / A < 1.2 S /A > 1.2
70 Mesh >99% >99.9%
200 Mesh 98 – 0.7 * % VM 98 – 0.6 * % VM
• S/A (molar ratio) =%SO3/80*(1/(%Na2O/62+%K2O/94))
where: % are expressed in weight, VM = Volatile Matter, S = Sulfur, A = Alkali Equivalent (in the mix and
fuel ashes).
• When S/A (molar ratio) > 1.2, risk of volatilization: need better combustion.
Rules of thumb
• 5% more passing at 200# yields to 15-20% less mill capacity.
• Addition of HES: 5% production increase at constant fineness.
Relationship: Burning Time & Particle Size
10
Burning Time (seconds)

Combustion Temp.
= 900°C

Combustion Temp.
= 1500°C

.1
.01 .1 1
Diameter of coal particle (mm)

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8.3 Dosing
• Dosing should insure a regular and steady feeding of the burner. The targeted precision should be in the
range of 1% (see Les Cahiers Techniques Combustion). Coal concentration up to 7kg/m3 of air.
8.4 Safety Considerations
• Process has to deal with safety.
Recommendations
(to be adjusted plant by plant)
Sensor Threshold Sensor Threshold
Storage temperature, external, unpacted 50C Filter outlet temp (coke) 105C
Raw silo (lower base) 50C Temp difference (outlet-inlet) 10C
Raw silo (top) CO 1500 ppm Temp difference variation 10C
Grinding mill outlet temp (coke) 120C Filter outlet CO 2000ppm
Grinding mill outlet temp (Coal) 65C Filter hopper temp (coke) 85C
Mill inlet temp: (High VM : 40%) 200C Pulverized hopper CO 1000ppm
Mill inlet temp: (Low VM : 20%) 360C Pulverized hopper temp 85C
Filter outlet O2 (coke) 15% Fired fuel into the kiln (%H2O) 0.5-1.5%
Filter outlet (coal) 13% Transport air (non inert/inert) temp (Coal) 65/85C
(sources: PyroI, modified 2000, RdeB)
8.5 Fuel Grinders
• Feed size: 0-50mm, moisture content: 10-15%, exhaust gases dust load: 500-600g/m3.
• Hot gases temperature 250-400C, dew point: 20-70C, exhaust gases temperature: 80-100C.
• Moisture content in the blasted fuel below 1%.
Type of grinder Hammer mill Tube mill Roller mill Ring ball mill (Babcock)
kWh/t 20-30 25-30 10-13
Lifetime wear part 500-1000h Liners: 25-40000h 3-5000 h 9-12000h
Drying capacity 0-15% H2O 0-15% H2O 0-20% H2O
Tube mill Wear rate (g/t) Life (h) Rollermill Wear rate (g/t) Life (h)
Balls 80-200 Roller liners 5-20 4-9000
Liners 8-20 25-40000 Table liners 4-10 4-12000
Diaphragms 8-20 10-20000 Casting liners 3-5 2-12000
Rules of thumb:
• Mill sweep : 1.7 to 2.2 Nm3/kg fuel
• Drying efficiency : average 1200kcal/kgH2O for a residual moisture of 0.5 to 1.5%

5.13