CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING

VADE-MECUM

9. PROCESS CONTROL

Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM

Table of Contents

1. Process Characteristics ........................................................................ 9.1

1.1 Definitions.................................................................................... 9.1
1.2 Order............................................................................................ 9.1
1.3 Lag Time...................................................................................... 9.1
1.4 Static Gain ................................................................................... 9.2

2. Basic Control Loops............................................................................. 9.2

2.1 Open Loop.................................................................................... 9.2
2.2 Feed Forward Control................................................................... 9.2
2.3 Feed Back Control ........................................................................ 9.2

3. Feed Back Controller, PID................................................................... 9.3

3.1 General......................................................................................... 9.3
3.2 Description of PID Function ......................................................... 9.3
3.3 Tuning.......................................................................................... 9.6

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1. Process Characteristics
x1(t) y1(t)
1.1 Definitions x2(t) System y2(t)
• A process, a system can be considered as a x3(t) y3(t)
black box, which transforms manipulative Transfer function yp(t)
xn(t)
variables (input variables which can be
modified by the operator) into output
variables.
• The dynamics of a process is the time
p1(t) p2(t) pm(t)
dependent behavior of the process.
• Processes and their dynamics can be
characterized by different properties.
• Stable: variables converge to some steady state when disturbed.
• Unstable: disturbances cause the variables to go to infinity.

1.2 Order
• If the system is described by an ordinary differential equation (one input, one output) with derivatives of order
N, the system is called Nth order:
d n y( t ) d n −1 y( t ) dy( t )
x( t ) = a n + a n −1 + ... + a1 + a0 y( t )
n n −1 dt
dt dt

dy( t )
- First order system: x( t ) = T + y( t )
dt
d 2 y( t ) dy( t )
- Second order: x( t ) = T 2 + 2ξT + y( t )
dt 2 dt
• With such a mathematical description of the system, it is possible to assess the dynamic response of the
system.

1.3 Lag Time

• The lag time is the period of time that elapses 1.6

between the moment a change is introduced 1.4

PU of
into an input of the system and the output response 1.2
begins to change. 1.0

• The following is the response of a first order 0.8

system with a lag time to a step change in 0.6

input. 0.4
0.2
0.0
lag T
-0.2
-1 0 10 20 30 40
time

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1.4 Static Gain

• The gain is the ratio between the change in unit's output and input.
∆ output
Gain =
∆ input

2. Basic Control Loops

• A regulator is expected to make the system operate at the set point requested by the production in the face of
load disturbances.There are also different ways of control:

2.1 Open Loop

• Based on experience, the inputs are set to achieve the good target on output.
• This kind of control does not react towards the perturbations that can happen in the inputs or in the process.
Example
In a mill open circuit, the quantity of feed to give the good cement fineness.

2.2 Feed Forward Control

• A measurement of the inputs is made
and, with abacus, rules of thumb,
modeling, ... changes are made on the Disturbances
Feed forward
actuators to obtain the good target of the
controller
output. Manipulative Controlled
• It does not take into account the unmeasured variable
Process
variable
perturbations.
Examples
Water injection quantity in the first compartment based on the clinker temperature.
Gypsum addition based on SO3 in Gypsum and clinker.

2.3 Feed Back Control

• A measurement of the variable to be Disturbances
controlled (output) is made and
compared with a set point. If a difference Manipulative Controlled
exists between the measured and the Process
variable variable
setpoint value, corrections are made on
the inputs to get the correct value.
Feedback Output
controller setpoint
Examples
Water injection controlling the mill discharge temperature.
Feed rate controlling the circulating load.

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3. Feed Back Controller, PID

3.1 General
• The job of the controller (usually PID controller) is to compare the process output (from a transmitter) with
the set point and to send the appropriate input to the system to meet the output target.

Perturbations
Definitions:
• Overshoot: The amount of swing past the set point
• Rise time (speed of response): The time it takes the
Input Output process to come up from 10 to 90% the new set
Process
(to control)
(To be point.
controlled) • Decay ratio: the ratio of maximum amplitudes of
successive oscillations.
• Setting time: the time it takes the amplitude of the
Regulator
oscillation to decay to some fraction (0.05) of the
change in set point.

• Different responses of output to a change 2

(step) in setpoint are represented in the
PU of step response

following graph (at right).

1
Overshoot 00 0 0

00 0
.9

.1 Rise time
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time

3.2 Description of PID Function

a. Proportional function
• This function is a simple multiplication.
• The output (Y) is "proportional" to the input (X)
X Y
K • The normal proportional action is: Y = Kp * X
p
Kp is called the gain of the controller.
• This adjustment can also be called "proportional
y = Kp * x band" (PB) which is defined by the following
100
relationship: =Kp
PB

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P controller
• X the value to be controlled, S the set point, Y the new value for the process input, Kp is the gain and is
normally adjustable on the controller.
Measurement to be
controlled
X X-S +
+
- Kp + Y = Y0 + Yi
S ( X - S) * Kp = Yi Y0
Setpoint
• The X-Y values are NOT proportional: the proportional-only feedback controller changes its output signal in
direct proportion to the error signal.
• The gain of the controller can be positive or negative (switch on the controller or direction plate).
• The proportional-only controller is very rarely used. The output of such a controller changes only if the error
signal changes: they are not able to bring the variable to control back to the set point. They leave what is called
a steady state error: Offset.
b. Integral function
t2
• The integral action moves the controller based on the time integral ∫ x dt of input signal.
t1
x (%) 2 6
S1 = ∫ x dt = 10 %min, S2 = ∫ x dt = 20 %min
10 X 1 4
S1 S2

t (min)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• The basic purpose of the integral action (reset action) is to drive the process back to its set point.
• The longer and the bigger the error, the bigger the action.

PI Controller
Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ∫ ( X − S ) dt
Ti
• The term Ti increases or decreases the influence of the integral. It is expressed in min and is called the integral
or reset time.
• Most controllers are calibrated in minutes/repeat, a term which comes from the time to ramp up the controller
output (gain taken into account) for a step change (1 unit) in set point.
• The PI controller is more commonly used in plants.
• The integral action eliminates the Offset and brings the system to its set point.
• The smaller the reset time ( Ti ), the faster the correction of error (if too small, the loop can give overshoot or
become unstable).

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c. Derivative function
• The derivative is the slope of the tangent of the curve (x vs. t). It occurs whenever the measurement signal
changes.A derivative-only controller would have the following definition:
dX
Y = Y0 + Td , Td is the rate action (min)
dt
• The purpose of the derivative action (rate X
action) is to try to anticipate the control S
action by looking at the time rate of the error
change (the derivative). Y
Y0

Time

PID controller
Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ( X − S ) dt ± K p Td dX
∫
Ti dt
• In theory, the derivative action should always X

000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
improve the system response. But, it is
necessary to give a particular attention to this S
term because there is not perfect derivative
action, and if the signal is very noisy, the 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Derivative
action Yo

derivative action amplifies the noise,

producing fluctuation in the control.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Proportional
action
Resulting Y
Integral
action action
Time

d. Sampled-data system
• In a sampled system, the signals are non-
continuous or discrete. The process variable is
sampled every scanning cycle and the value is
kept constant between two cycles. Sampled
• A typical example of this kind of system is the signal
Field
Direct Digital Control: all the control signal
calculations are done in a digital computer,
which directly commands the actuators in the
field. Sampler
• The control function of a DDC loop consists of
calculating the new value of the actuator Time
through an equation (algorithm) which
describes the three functions of the analogic
(continuous PID controller).
e. Continuous controller

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Kp d(X − W )
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − W ) ± ∫ X dt ± K p Td
Ti dt
f. Incremental DDC controller
( X t +1 − W )* ∆t ± K p * Td ∆( ∆x )
Kp
Yt +1 = Yt ± K p [( X t +1 − Wt +1 ) − ( X t − Wt )] ±
Ti ∆t

3.3 Tuning
On-line trial error
• Proportional action:
- Set integral and derivative action at O action (maximum Ti , minimum Td ).
- Set K p at a low value (.5).
- Put the controller in auto.
- With a small change in set point, the controller reaction will be very sluggish.
- Double the proportional coefficient until the loop becomes oscillatory.
- After reaching this ultimate gain, set the K p half of the ultimate K p .
• Integral action:
- With the controller in auto and the proportional band fixed, start to reduce Ti by factor 2, with small
changes in set point after each step.
- Find the value of Ti that makes the system oscillatory, underdamped and set Ti double of that.
• Derivative action:
- Increase the derivative term until the system noise starts to appear on the controller output.
- Set the Td at half of this maximum value.
Ziegler-Nichols Method
• The basis of this method is to find the ultimate value of K p ( K u ) and to assess the corresponding period of
oscillation of the signal ( Tu ).
• The Ziegler-Nichols controller settings are given in the following table:

P PI PID
Kp Ku Ku Ku
2 2.2 1. 7
Ti Tu Tu
1. 2 2
Td Tu
8
• The Ziegler-Nichols coefficient should be considered as a reasonable first estimate of the controller coefficient,
which could have to be adjusted.

• Due to the similarity between the DDC algorithm and the continuous function, tuning procedures for DDC
loops are the same as for the continuous loops.

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9.7
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