CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING

VADE-MECUM

8. FLUID FLOW

Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM

Table of Contents

1. General Formulas - Definition.............................................................. 8.1

1.1 Basics........................................................................................... 8.1
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses.................................................................. 8.1
2. Pitot Measurement ............................................................................... 8.3
3. Fans ...................................................................................................... 8.5
3.1 Power ........................................................................................... 8.5
3.2 Fan Laws...................................................................................... 8.6

Index - i
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
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1. General Formulas - Definition

1.1 Basics
Avogadro Law
• Equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain the same number of molecules.
• Avogadro’s number N: The number of molecules in one gram-mole of a gas, N = 6.023 x 1023.
Ideal Gas Law
• PV = nRT:
- P: Absolute pressure (Pa ) - R: Universal Gas Constant = 8.31434
- V: Volume J/gmole.ºK
- n: Number of moles in V (m3 ) - T: Absolute Temperature (K )
• In metric units:
1 gmole of any ideal gas at normal conditions (0ºC, 1 atm) occupies a volume of 22.414 litres.
• In US units:
1 lbmole of any ideal gas at normal conditions (32ºF, 1 atm) occupies a volume of 359.05 ft3.
Bernoulli
• For a steady, one-dimensional incompressible flow without losses:
ν2
P + ρgz + ρ = Cst
2
where:
- P: static pressure in N/m2 (=Pa) - z : the elevation in m
- ρ : density in kg/m3 - v: the fluid velocity in m/s
- g : 9.81m/s2

1.2 Piping Pressure Losses

a. Generality
Formula
• Circular pipe, constant area. The pressure drop is:
λ v2
∆P = ρ ∆Χ
D 2
with:
- ∆P The pressure drop (Pa) - ρ Fluid density (kg/m3)
- λ Coefficient of pressure drop - v Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- D The diameter of the pipe (m) - ∆x Distance (m)

Coefficient of Pressure Drop

64
• Laminar flow (Re < 2000), λ = , Re = Reynolds Number
Re
1
• Turbulent flow (Re > 4000), for a smooth pipe, λ =
(1.8 log Re− 1.64 )2

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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
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Reynolds Number
v ∗ D ρ * v* D
• Re = = unit: dimension less
ν µ
with:
- ν the kinematic viscosity (m2/s), v: Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- D the diameter of the pipe (for a rectangular pipe 2 * a * b )
a+b
- µ the absolute viscosity (Pa.s)
Roughness
• Roughness (E): the mean distance between high and low points of the surface, measured in meter (m).
• Galvanized iron duct: E# 0.005’.
Kinematic Viscosity of Air
ν ft2/s mm2/s *105
°C @ 1 atm @ 100 PSI @ 1 atm @ 100 PSI
-10 0.00013 0.000016 1.208 0.149
0 0.00014 0.000018 1.300 0.167
10 0.00015 0.000020 1.339 0.185
20 0.00016 0.000022 1.449 0.204
50 0.00018 0.000025 1.672 0.232
100 0.00025 0.000033 2.322 0.307
200 0.00037 0.000050 3.437 0.464
500 0.00080 0.000100 7.43 0.929
Average velocity in industrial design
Cold air (higher for larger size) 30 to 50 feet/s
Hot air 60 to 75 fps
NG 30 (3/4inch pipe) to 100fps (4 inch pipe)
Water 1/e ft of head per 100 ft pipe
Water general services 4 to 10 fps
Viscous oil 1 to 2 on pump suction and 3 to 5fps on discharge
Slurries 5 to 7 fps for 20 to 200 micron particles
b. Piping Pressure Losses
Piping pressure losses for oils in laminar flow
• ∆p = 0.00000454 * L * cS * spgr * gph / D4
where (see section combustion and fuel for data):
- L is the length of the pipe in feet, D the internal diameter in feet, cS the kinematic viscosity in centistokes,
spgr is the specific gravity of oil relative to water at 60F and gph is oil rate in gallon per hour.
Piping pressure losses for water at 60F per 100 feet of pipe
Water gpm 2 6 6 10 20 30 30 60 60 100 100 500
Pipe D in inch ½ ½ ¾ ¾ 1 1 2 2 4 2 4 4
∆P in PSI 2.3 18.5 4.3 10.5 11.1 23.9 0.8 2.96 0.11 7.51 .28 5.73
Water gpm 1000 500 1000 2000 1000 2000 3000
Pipe D in inch 4 6 6 6 8 8 8
∆P in PSI 21.9 .74 2.63 10.1 0.64 2.41 5.32

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Piping pressure losses for low pressure air (stp) per 100ft or 30m
Air m3/h 3 10 20 50 50 100 200 200 500 500 800
Pipe D in inch ½ ½ 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
∆P in mmH2O 88 808 200 723 92 144 523 71 404 103 245
- Losses may be 3 to 8% higher for clean galvanized pipe, up to 30% higher for heavy riveted or refractory-lined pipe.

Restriction, elbow...
Length of straight pipe (of same size) that would produce the same pressure drop as the fitting, elbow… expressed
in L/D
Nominal pipe size (D) 1/2” 1” 2” 5”
90 elbow r/D=8 1.24 2.10 4.13 10.1
Nominal pipe size 1” 6” 14” 30”
90 elbow r/D=1 2.1 10.1 22.5 49
Mitered 45 ell 1.4 7.58 16.9 36.7
Pipe exit 3.8 33.7 86.5 213
Pipe entrance 3.04 27 69.2 170
Enlargement 0.5 2.13 18.9 48.5 119
Contraction 0.5 1.33 11.8 30.3 74.5
r= pipe radius, D=inside pipe diameter(see NA combustion hand book, p179)
Equivalent Orifice
v2 q v2
• ∆P = ξ * ρ * = ξ *ρ * = k qV2 1
2 2* S
Examples
• Airflow through a liquid pool: ∆p = cte ,
• Airflow through filter bag: ∆p = hv , v is the velocity
• Airflow through a fan system: ∆pP = hv 2 , airflow through a grain bin: ∆p = hv 1.5

2. Pitot Measurement
a. Formula
2.∆p where:
V =k - V = Gas velocity in m/s
ρ - k = Pitot tube correction factor (eg. “S” tube = 0.85)
- ∆p = Average velocity (dynamic) pressure in Pa
- ρ = density in kg/m3
b. Density Correction
Temperature and Pressure
273.15 101325 + Ps - Ps = Static pressure (Pa WG)
• ρ = ρo .
( )
273.15 + T C )o
.
101325 - ρ o (air ) = 1.293 kg.Nm −3

Water and Chemistry: example

• Gas: CO 2 = 20% , H 2 O = 10% , O2 = 15% , N 2 = 100 − (20 + 10 + 15 ) = 55%

x 0.55  = 1.375kg .m −3
 44   18   32   28 
• ρ = x 0.2  +  x 0.55  +  x 0.15  + 
 22.4   22.4   22.4   22.4 

! : Usually, gas composition is on dry gas.

1
k is a constant if r is constant and the circuit geometry constant

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Dust
• The formula does work only for clean gas. Thus, for dusty gas, density in [kg/m3] of gas has to take into
account the amount of dust:
ρ = ρgas + dust concentration (in kg/m3)
• In the previous example dust concentration =0.3kg/m3, then ρ =1.375+0.3=1675 kg/m3 (assuming dust does
not take room in the airstream).
• In case of dusty gas, Straucheib tube is used instead of L-Tube (see coefficient correction below).
Effect of Elevation
−5
pressure elevation ( −1.6196 +10 x)
• = 10 where: x = elevation in feet
pressure sea level
c. Measurement Locations (See AMCA 203-90)
• The idea is to have the same surface area for each measurement. Methods include Centroid and Log-linear.
(Centroid method) Total traverse points per diameter
# point 4 6 8 10 12 14 20 22
#1 .062 .044 .033 .025 .021 .018 .013 .011
#2 .250 .147 .105 .082 .067 .057 .039 .035
#3 .750 .295 .194 .146 .118 .099 .067 .060
#4 .938 .705 .323 .226 .177 .146 .097 .087
#5 .853 .677 .342 .250 .201 .129 .116
#6 .956 .806 .658 .355 .269 .165 .146
#7 .895 .774 .645 .366 .204 .180
#8 .967 .854 .750 .634 .250 .218
#9 .918 .823 .731 .306 .261
#10 .975 .882 .799 .388 .315
#11 .933 .854 .612 .393
#12 .979 .901 .694 .607
#13 .943 .750 .685
#14 .982 .796 .739
#15 .835 .782
#16 .871 .820
#17 .903 .854
#18 .933 .884
#19 .961 .913
#20 .987 .940
#21 .965
#22 .989
Averaging the dynamic pressure:
2

∑(
 
 pv ) 
 
 N 
• ∆p = where p v = traverse readings
N
Correction coefficient
• If any, the corrective coefficient for the pitot tube (for instance k=0.84) is applied directly on the velocity as
calculated.

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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
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d. Standard Pressure Conditions

• Standard day sea level pressure :
- 760mm Hg 29.92 in. Hg 10332 mm WG
- 101.325 kPa 14.696 psi (lb/in ) 2 406.8 in. WG
• Normal Conditions : Standard sea level pressure 0oC.

3. Fans
3.1 Power
a. Useful Power
Total
Pressure • Wu = ∆Pt * qv
- Wu: Useful power (Watt)
- ∆Pt : Total (Fan) pressures (Pascal)
∆Pt
- q v : Volume flow (m3/s)
Wu

qv Flow (m3/s)

Total
b. Power Efficiencies Pressure
• Fan power ∆Pt
- The actual power transmitted to the fluid and Turbine
power
the turbine power are different because of skin
friction, fluid turbulences... Wt

- Usually, the supplier gives that power vs. flow:

qv Flow (m3/s)

• The ratio Total

Wu ∆Pt * qv η
Pressure

= = h
Wt Wt ∆ Pt
Fan
efficiency
is the hydraulic efficiency of the fan at a given
point.
η
h

qv 3
Flow (m /s)

Power at fan shaft Electrical power at motor

• 1.02 * W t ≤ W fs ≤ 1.05 * W t • 1.05 * W ms ≤ W em ≤ 1.3 * W ms
Power at motor shaft Substation power
• 1.05 * W fs ≤ W ms ≤ 1.15 * W fs for belt drive • 1.01* W em ≤ W sp ≤ 1.03 * W em

c. Fan part impact

(see Cantagalo plant)

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• Straight radial fan: 60-75% efficiency (fan shaft) • Airfoil: up to 85% (clean gas).
max. • Cone condition: up to 3-4%, Inlet duct flow
• Curved radial: up to 82 % (for dusty gas). guide: up to 2%.

3.2 Fan Laws

a. Influence of Density on Curve
(Fans are constant volume machines)
• Related to:
- Chemical composition, water, combustion gases
- Temperature
- Absolute static pressure: P = Pa + Ps, where:
Pa: atmospheric pressure
Ps: relative static pressure
Density Variation in the Circuit and in the Fan
(ρ 1 → ρ 2 )
ρ
• ∆Pt = f 1 (q ) → ∆Pt = f 2 (q ) with f 2 ( q ) = 2 f 1 ( q )
ρ1
ρ
• Equivalent orifice curve: k 2 = k 1 2
ρ1
• Operating point (∆H 2 , ∆P2 ) is such as: ∆H 2 = ∆P2
ρ2 2 ρ 2 k 1 q12 = f 1 (q1 ) (operating point ∆P1 , q1 at
f 1 (q )
-
- ∆H 2 = k 1 q =
ρ1 2 ρ 1 ρ1 )
- k 1 q 22 = f 1 (q 2 ) - q 2 = q1 ⇒ No change in the flow expressed in
m3 / s

Total Fan power

∆H = k * q v 2
Pressure

Fan
A ∆Pt efficiency
∆Pt = f(qv)
A
A' A'
η
A = η A'

qv Flow (m3/s)
Flow (m3/s)

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Equivalent orifice
b. Influence of the Fan Speed parabola cst
• Fan speed goes from N rpm to N1 rpm , air density ( ρ ) ∆Pt

and circuit remain unchanged.

• What would be the variation of [A] if the fan rpm goes ∆PtA'
A'

from N to N1. ∆PtA

N' rpm

• Only the fan curve is modified.

A h ( qv) g (qv)

∆Pt = h( qv ) → ∆Pt = g( qv )

N rpm
m3/s
qvA qvA'
qv

Operating point A → A1
qv A1 N1
• Volume is directly proportional to fan speed: = .
qv A N
2
∆Pt A1  N 1 
• Pressure is proportional to the square of the fan speed: =  .
∆Pt A  N 

• Circuit equation: ∆H A = k qv2 → ∆H 1 = k qv2 .

A
1 3
N 
• Fan power: WA → WA1 = WA   .
N 
• Efficiency Power
No change for [A1] but the curve does change:
2 Efficiency
N'  N'
qv A .∆Pt A   WA'
q .∆P q 1 .∆Pt A1 N N
η A = v A t A → η A1 = v A = 3
= ηA ηA' = ηA WA
WrA WrA  N '
WrA  
N
• Mass flow: qm A = ρqvA → q 1 = ρq 1
mA vA
 N1 
therefore: q =  q qvA qvA'
mA1  N  mA
m3/s
 

c. Fan Law Summary

↓ Is Proportional to → RPM Eq orifice Density ρ Width
at power :
qυ 1 3 0 1
∆Pt 2 2 1 0
W 3 5 1 1

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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
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d. Comparative Fan Efficiency

100

90

80

70
Inlet d am pe r
O utle t
60
% Power

d am pe r
Inle t va nes
50

40

30
V ariab le
20
sp ee d
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

% F lo w

e. Others
Inleakage through round orifice
• For low pressure air and at 60F
Pressure drop (mmH2O) 2 2 2 2 2 10 10 10 10 10 50 50 50 50
Orifice dia. inch 1/4 1/2 1 2 5 1/4 1/2 1 2 5 1/4 1/2 1 2
cfm 2 7.5 31 115 750 4.5 17 70 260 1600 10 38 180 600
Sound pressure level
• Induced draft fan
- At 3 ft below the air cooler bundles
- dBa = 63 + 30logV + 10logHp+ 20logD
• Forced draft replace 63 with 66

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