TROPICS Vol.
15 (3)
Hydrology and peat-land development in Indonesia
Nyoman SUMAWIJAYA
Research and Development Center for Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bandung, Indonesia
E-mail : nyomans@geotek.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT  Indonesia peat is a tropical peat,
which is deferent from the temperate and cold
climate peat. Water logged and oxygen deficient
condition ar e the main factors deter mining
the for mation of peat in tropical areas. So the
sustainability of peat and its function in the area is
determined by the status of biology (organic input)
and hydrology, of which hydrology is the most
important. Peat hydrology and thickness determine
the forest type and hydrology controls the peat
decomposition process.
There are many options for peat utilization,
either extractive or non-extractive uses. The
local community of Central Kalimantan and Riau
(Sumatra) have been developing and utilizing peat
land for a long period of time. And the government
program of peat land development began in the
early 1950s, mostly for agricultural purposes. In
th
this last decade of the 20 centur y many types of
land uses have been also developed in peat land
areas, such as palm oil plantation, plantation forest,
and peat use for energy.
Key wor ds: hydr ology, subsidence, tr opical
peatland, development, water
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the many factors determining the use and
conservation of peat land. Water logging and very acidic
water are common problems for inland tropical peat
land. Peat has high capacity of holding water, its water
content could be more than 900% to 2000% compared to
its dry weight. So peat is a natural hydrologic buffer to its
surroundings, especially the down stream area. However
this high water bearing capacity of peat can become
reverse if the peat is over drained. Controlling the water
content is of primary important for peatland management.
Controlling of water in peat is also required to maintain
the peat itself. If the water content of peat drops below
Issued June 30, 2006
a certain level, aerobic condition will occur. In aerobic
conditions, decomposition progress which can result in
the disappearance of peat. Another unique property of
peat in relation to water is that, it will shrink when drains
are constructed.
Some studies about hydrology and peat land
development show that water content and peat drainage
are very important. Reclamation of peat in Pulau Peatk
(South Kalimantan) initiated physical ripening and
oxidation processes of pyrite, leading to acidification (Wijk
& Wijaya-Adhi, 1990). Aeration of peat which causes
acidification may also lead to the production of ferrous
iron and aluminum up to a toxic level for plants (Aribawa
et al., 1990).
Hydraulic characteristics of peat are related to its
type of plant origin, degree of decomposition and the
presence of mineral matters (clay). There can be a big
variation in hydraulic characteristics of peat in a small
area. This very high permeability is probably associated
with soil cracks and root hole. Drainage design become
difficult and rather complicated. This paper discusses
some hydrological aspects of peatland development in
Indonesia.
PEAT LAND IN INDONESIA
Indonesian peat is tropical peat. The dominant factors
controlling the formation of tropical peat, such as in
Indonesia are water logged condition, minimum nutrients,
oxygen deficiency, and unusually low pH conditions.
The rate of decomposition is much slower than the rate
of accumulating plant debris. A feature differentiating
tropical peat from old climate peat is plant origin. Cold
climate peat mostly originate from Sphagnum moss, while
tropical peat mostly originated from tropical forest tree
(Polak, 1950, as cited by Notohadiprawiro, 1997).
Peat deposits in Indonesia mainly exist along the
lowland of easter n Sumatra, along the Souther n to
Southeast coastal lowlands of Kalimantan and Central
Kalimantan and Southern coastal lowland of Papua (Fig.
280
Source : modified from Coal and Peat Resources of Indonesia,
by : Directorate of Mineral Resources, Mining and Energy Department, 1990
Fig. 1. Peat land distribution in Indonesia
1). Some small areas of peat deposits are also found in
South Sulawesi, Central and West Java and Maluku. The
total estimated area of peat land in Indonesia is 16 million
ha to 27 million ha, depend on the depth criteria used.
HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEAT
Hydraulic characteristics of natural peat depend on the
degree of decomposition, type of plant origin and content
of mineral soil (clay). The presence of cracks and root
hole influences permeability. Human activities can also
make big changes in peat hydraulic characteristics.
Natural peat contains 900% to 2000% water compared
to its dr y weight. Peat with high water content has
an extremely low bearing capacity. Road and other
construction face big problems and are expensive. The
other engineering problem in developing peat land is
its high shrinkage potential. The peat will shrink when
under load or drained. Peat level can drop up to 30 cm
in the first year of drainage and the rate subsidence
or shrinkage decrease with time and become stable
after about 5 to 8 years, depending on the type of peat
and type of utilization. Quoting Dradjat et al (1986),
Notohadiprawiro (1997) reporting an average subsidence
rate of 0.36 cm per month on sapric peat deposit of 45
– 63 cm thick at Barambai (South Kalimantan) 12 – 21
Nyoman SUMAWIJAYA
months after development. At Talio (Central Kalimantan),
the rate of subsidence of the 179 – 236 cm sapric peat
even much faster; 0.9 cm per month. Aribawa et al (1990)
reporting that draining has resulted the disappearance of
the shallow peat in Pulau Petak (South Kalimantan).
Water logging in peat has also become problem for
agricultural development. Only limited crops can survive
in a water logged condition due to oxygen deficiency.
Water saturation of the rooting zone for periods of more
than 48 hours leads to anoxia for many crops (Nugroho
et al., 1997). Lowering the groundwater level can improve
aeration in the rooting zone, however shrinkage and
subsidence will follow.
Hydraulic Conductivity and Drainage System
Permeability is the most impor tant characteristic of
peat in the peat land development project. Permeability
is related to the peat’
s water holding capacity and rate
of consolidation. Controlling the moisture content is
very important for the sustainable development of peat
land; since moisture content influences other physical
characteristics of peat such as pore geometry, hydraulic
conductivity, degree of subsidence, and load bearing
capacity. When water content of water-logged peat is
reduce, the peat will shrink and a reduction of porosity
and permeability will follow, but the load suppor ting
capacity may increase.
Hydrology and Peat-land Development in Indonesia 281

A field permeability test made in Kalampangan peat colloidally, and osmostically

shows a wide range of hydraulic conductivity (5x10−7 cm
s−1 to 3.6 x 10−4 cm s−1) in a relatively small area. However,
the laboratory permeability test for the same peat found a
much lower value. A permeability test conducted in Pulau
Petak, South Kalimantan, Hamming et al. (1990) found
permeability values range from 40 m/day to 870 m/day
(1.007 cm s−1) for the brown upper layer; while for the
Tabuanga and Barambai areas permeability value ranged
between 90 m/day (0.104 cm s ) and 250 m/day (0.289
−1
cm s−1).
Only water in stage a) is able to flow by gravity
drainage. Water in stage b) can only be extracted by
consolidation, and water in stage c) can be extracted only
by oven drying at 105̊C.
For filed water handling only water in stage a) and
stage b) are under consideration; and mainly water in
stage a). Water in stage b) can be drained where heavy
loading occur such as when heavy equipment (tractor and
bulldozer) are under operation.

Hydrology of Peat land. PEAT LAND DEVELOPEMNT IN

As mentioned above, one of the factors determining the INDONESIA
formation of peat in tropical areas; such as Indonesia, is Peatland utilization is either non-extractive or extractive.
water-logging. From map of peat distribution in Fig 1, we Non-extractive use includes peat land that has been
can see that most Indonesian peat exist in the lowland cultivated and forested for long time in Indonesia.
(wetland) areas. There is only small hydraulic head Traditionally, peoples of Eastern Sumatra (Riau) and
potential available for draining water from these peat Central and South Kalimantan have been doing living in
lands. Flooding is ver y common in peat land areas of peat land areas for hundreds of years. Banjarese people in
Indonesia. Water circulation is poor, therefore any toxic South Kalimantan may be the earliest community utilizing
material present in peat water will exist for a long time. peat to fulfill their food supply by conver ting coastal
So drainage is the big problem that should be anticipated swamp land to paddy field (Notohadiprawiro, 1997).
in peat land development programs. Government program for peat land development began
Water management is also one of the aspects of in the early 60s as part of the transmigration program.
hydrology that should be addressed in a peat land There are several main reasons for developing peat in
development program. Failure to
manage water leads to failure in peat
Table 1. Alternatives of peat and peat land utilization
land development. One million hectare
Peat land (non − extractive)
project in Central Kalimantan that has
Ecological function
been ceased is one example of the
fail project related to failure in water Recreation
Natural peat land
management. Changes of land use Education and research
will be followed by changes in water Aesthetic and heritage
consumption, infiltration capacity and Forestry
evapotranspiration, leading to changes Agriculture
in the water balance of the area. Other plant harvest (food, fiber, medicine)
In the water management Modified/managed peatlands
Fishing
program, it should be keep in mind Waste disposal and treatment
the characteristic of water in a peat
Residential and industrial area
layer. According to Dalton (1954) and
Peat (extractive use)
MacFarlane and Radforth (1964) as
Energy/peat fuel
referred to in Hobbs (1986), water in
Horticulture
peat is retained in three stages:
a) Free water in large cavities of Soil improvement material
the peat Fertilizer base
b) C a p i l l a r y w a t e r i n t h e Industrial peat (chemical extraction)
narrower cavities Growing media (nursery)
c) Wa t e r b o u n d p h y s i c a l l y Insulation and packaging material
( a b s o r b e d ) , c h e m i c a l l y, Source : Radjagukguk (1997), with some modification
282 Nyoman SUMAWIJAYA

made to determine the conser vation and development

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��������� of the peat land area. After that a development scenario
is made by applying land suitability criteria. Then, best
������������ development option can be determined for peat land
�����������������
under consideration. For example, the critical limit of
IDENTIFIED PEAT LAND AREA
peat thickness for agriculture development is 150 cm
(Quantity and quality data, hydrology,
and biodiversity data) (Notohadiprawiro, 1997). He fur ther suggests that
ombrogenous and deep topogenous peat should not be
����������
Protected pet land used for agriculture and other development scenario.
criteria
So, the important environmental function of peatland
for water regulation and biodiversity conser vation can
��������� �������������
������������
be preserved. Davis (1997) comprehensively discusses
����������
a quantitative method for evaluating peatlands for
protection as natural areas.

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��������� ����������� � ����������

PROBLEMS FOR SUSTAINABLE

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Fig. 2. Peatland Management Scenario
Indonesia: food sufficiency, population redistribution and
regional development.
As an extractive material, peat can be used as source
of energy (high carbon content, industrial materials
(extracting humic acid), used as growing media, fertilizer
base, and soil conditioner. Radjagukguk (1997) has
identified several use options of peat land as shown in
Table 1.
To implement the above peatland utilization
options (Table 1) for optimal and sustainable
peatland management, a peatland management
scenario is proposed (Fig. 2). With this scenario,
peatland development can be commenced only after
comprehensive data from intensive exploration are
available.
In the exploration stage, data of physical and
chemical characteristics, including hydrology, should be
collected. During this exploration, biodiversity and socio-
economic data must also be collected.
W ith comprehensive data available, applying
conser vation and preser vation criteria (for example
President Decree No. 32/1990, regarding the
management of conservation area) and evaluation can be
PEATLAND MANAGEMENT
Preser ving peatland areas
In terms of maintaining the environment, the best policy
in peatland management may be the preservation of all
peatland areas. The government can make this policy,
but it needs big amount of money to implement this
policy (controlling). For developed (industrial) countries
this may not be a very big problem, but for developing
counties like Indonesia, with a large population, it is a big
challenge.
Developing peatland
As can be seen in Table 1, there are many options for
peatland development. Even in peatland development
policies, conser vation should also be considered. Any
alternative chosen has benefits and risks.
a. Annual cropland
The problem facing annual cropland development are:
sustainability of crop production, conser vation of the
fragile peat layer and low fertility. Biotechnology could
improve low fertility, however Indonesian farmer has
not familiar with biotechnology. Some crops grow well in
peatland area. Paddy grows well in the coastal peatland.
Pineapple and various vegetables also successfully grown
on peatland around Palangkaraya and Sampit in Central
Kalimantan and Bangkinang, Riau, Sumatra.
b. Plantation forest
Plantation forests are made by cutting down all the
natural trees and planting it with commercial plantation
trees. Accacia crassicarpa and Accacia mangium have
been successfully planted in Perawang (Riau). These
Hydrology and Peat-land Development in Indonesia
plantation forests are associated with paper factories.
c. Estate crops
Coconut, palm oil and rubber trees are the most common
estate crops cultivated in peatland areas. Yields are quite
promising if good water management is applied. The
problems faced are usually associated with high water
content (low bearing capacity. Toppling of plantation due
to weak land. Soil compaction is usually done to improve
the land’
s load-supporting capacity, so toppling can be
minimize. Cost for land preparation and cropping is
higher than that for mineral soil.
d. Extractive use
Extractive uses for peat are mostly seedling media,
fertilizer base, soil conditioner, and sources for energy.
Extractive uses of peat have been practiced in several
countries such as Finland, Ireland, Rusia and Canada. In
Indonesia extractive use of peat has been practiced only
for energy sources. One company, PT Arara Abadi has
been doing peat mining in Riau (Sumatra) since 1992. PT
Arara Abadi got mining permit from government for peat
mining in a 2000 ha peatland area. Peat is used for energy
source and seedling media.
Government policy in using peat as energy sources
(extracted use) base on the result of a pilot project
in Kalampangan, Central Kalimantan. In 1985, in
cooperation with Finland government, the Directorate
of Coal, Ministry of Mine and Energy conducted a pilot
project in using peat as energy sources (Prasodjo and
Mukar woto, 1997). This experiment concluded that
Indonesian peat can be used as energy source with
following characteristics:
• Calorific value : 4,200 – 5,920 kcal kg−1
• Sulfur content : 0.15 – 0.90%
• Ash content : 0.5 – 4.0%
Extracti ve use of peatland has the most impact on the
environment. This should be the last choice of peat
utilization, and if it is applied, special management should
be practiced.
CONCLUSION REMARK
Peatland is a significant resource in Indonesia. In order
to fulfill the ever increasing nation’
s needs of land for
agriculture and other development peatland has been
considered as alternative. There are several alternatives
to utilizing peatland. Some problems related to water
and peat characteristics have developed following
development, such as acidification, subsidence,
283
shrinkage, erosion and decomposition leading to peat
disappearance. Draining peatland areas increases
oxidation potential and therefore decomposition.
Several research topics in relation to water and
peatland development are hydraulic characteristics of
peat, drainage design of peatland and foundation design
for soft ground peat.
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Received 02nd Mar. 2006
Accepted 16th Mar. 2006