Concrete 322

Mohammad Shekarchi, Pouria Ghods, Rouhollah Alizadeh, Mahdi Chini, and Meghdad Hoseini
DURAPGULF, A LOCAL SERVICE LIFE MODEL FOR THE

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN THE SOUTH
OF IRAN
Mohammad Shekarchi *
Assistant Professor, Director of CMI, University of Tehran, Department of Civil
Engineering, Tehran, Iran
Pouria Ghods
PhD Student, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University,
Ottawa, ON, Canada
Rouhollah Alizadeh
PhD Student of Civil Engineering, Institute for Research in Construction, National
Research Council, Canada
Mahdi Chini
PhD Student, Department of Structural Engineering, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
Meghdad Hoseini
PhD Student, Dep. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
:‫اﻟﺨﻼﺻـﺔ‬
‫ ﻟﻜ ﻦ‬.‫ﺗﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻨﻮب إﻳ ﺮان اﻟﻤﻨ ﺸﺂت اﻟﺨﺮﺳ ﺎﻧﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺪﻋﻤ ﺔ ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﺒُﻨ ـَﻰ اﻟﺘﺤﺘﻴ ﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺮاﻓ ﺊ وأﻣ ﺎآﻦ اﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴ ﺐ ﻋ ﻦ اﻟﺒﺘ ﺮول‬
‫ وه ﺬا ﻳﻜﻠ ﻒ ﺳ ﻨﻮﻳًﺎ‬.‫ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﻨﺸﺂت ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻠﻒ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨ ﺎﻃﻖ اﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳ ﺔ ﺑ ﺴﺒﺐ ﺻ ﺪأ ﻗ ﻀﺒﺎن اﻟﺘ ﺴﻠﻴﺢ اﻟﻨ ﺎﺗﺞ ﻋ ﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻮراﻳ ﺪ‬
‫ وﻗ ﺪ أﺟﺮﻳ ﺖ ﻓ ﻲ اﻵوﻧ ﺔ اﻷﺧﻴ ﺮة اﻟﻌﺪﻳ ﺪ ﻣ ﻦ اﻟﺪراﺳ ﺎت ﻟﺘﻘﻴ ﻴﻢ ه ﺬﻩ‬.‫ﻣﺌ ﺎت اﻟﻤﻼﻳ ﻴﻦ ﻣ ﻦ اﻟ ﺪوﻻرات ﻹﺻ ﻼح ه ﺬﻩ اﻷﻋﻄ ﺎل‬
‫ آﻤ ﺎ ﻃ ـُﻮرت اﻟﻌﺪﻳ ﺪ‬، ‫ ودراﺳﺔ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻟﻜﻠﻮراﻳﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﺮﺳﺎﻧﺔ وآﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺑﺪء اﻟﺼﺪأ واﻧﺘ ﺸﺎرﻩ‬. ‫اﻟﻈﺎهﺮة‬
‫( اﻟﺬي ﻃـُﻮر ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ‬DuraPGulf) ‫ وﺳﻮف ﻧﻌﺮض ﻓﻲ هﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ أﻧﻤﻮذج‬.‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻤﺎذج ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ اﻟﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ وﻗﺪ ﻃﺒﻘﻨﺎ هﺬا اﻷﻧﻤﻮذج ﻋﻠ ﻰ ﺣﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻓﺘﺮاﺿ ﻴﺔ وﺗﺤﻘﻘﻨ ﺎ ﻣ ﻦ ذﻟ ﻚ ﺑﻨﺘ ﺎﺋﺞ‬.‫ﺑﺒﺪء اﻟﺼﺪأ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﺮﺳﺎﻧﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﺪَﻋﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻨﻮب إﻳﺮان‬
.‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻨﻮب إﻳﺮان‬
*Address for correspondence:

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tehran
Enghelab Ave., Tehran, Iran, PO. Box 11365-4563
Email: shekarch@ut.ac.ir,
Tel: +98-21-88973631 - +98-21-88968111
Fax: +98-21- 88959740
Paper Received 25 February 2006; Revised 24 September 2007; Accepted 28 November 2007
April 2008 The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Volume 33, Number 1B 77
ABSTRACT
Reinforced concrete structures are widely constructed in the south of Iran for the
infrastructures of ports and oil exploration. Unfortunately, the deterioration of con-
crete structures in this marine area, which is mainly due to the chloride-induced cor-
rosion of rebars in concrete, imposes hundreds of million dollars of repair cost every
year.
During the last decades, extensive studies have been conducted to evaluate the ef-
fect of different parameters on chloride diffusion into concrete, corrosion initiation,
and its propagation. In order to predict the time required for various steps of the cor-
rosion phenomena, many numerical models have been developed.
In this paper, the development of DuraPGulf (a service life design model), which
can predict the corrosion initiation of reinforced concrete (RC) structures in the south
of Iran, is described and also the application of this model for service life design of
RC structures is demonstrated in a hypothetical example and verified with other ex-
perimental results in this region.
Key words: durability, service life design, chloride diffusion, corrosion, modeling.
78 The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Volume 33, Number 1B April 2008
DURAPGULF, A LOCAL SERVICE LIFE MODEL FOR THE DURABILITY OF

CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN THE SOUTH OF IRAN
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a popular material for civil engineers, as it is cheap, easily shaped and convenient to use almost every-
where. However, more care is required during its mixing, placing, and curing compared to other materials, which are
usually less variable in quality. Without proper quality control, repair is needed after few years of service in the field.
Moreover, other factors such as improper design, poor material, environmental loads which are not included in the struc-
tural design, or a combination of these factors cause the early age deterioration of RC structures. This problem is much
more severe in marine environments, especially in hot weather areas such as the south of Iran region and it is one of the
challenges for civil engineers in the current decade. A study conducted in this area states that durability-based design
along with perfect workmanship and appropriate execution is the only solution for this problem. In other words, in the
area of the south of Iran every detail from design all the way to the finished structure has to be near-perfect [1].
In many cases in this area, even structures which are designed according to the Iranian concrete code suffer from
early-age corrosion problems. In order to solve this issue, in addition to a change of the current code in respect of dura-
bility requirements, one should introduce methods of durability-based design in order to find the most economical solu-
tion, considering the desired service life of RC structures [2].
During the past decades, many investigations have been conducted to evaluate the chloride diffusion parameters in
concrete and also some mathematical and empirical models have been introduced to estimate the time to corrosion initia-
tion and propagation [3–6]. The first numerical model was developed by Collepardi, which uses Fick’s second law of
diffusion and suggests that the diffusion coefficient is one of the most important parameters in service life prediction [7].
Tutti’s model was one of the first attempts to predict the service life of RC structures. The main idea of this model, as
shown in Figure 1, is dividing the service life of the structure into two life spans: the time to corrosion initiation (tinit);
and the time for corrosion propagation before repair (tprop) [8]. In Europe, a highly developed service life design model,
DuraCrete, has been developed that uses a probabilistic approach for durability-based design [9]. Condur and Stadium
are examples of more sophisticated durability models developed in North America; the former considers the coupling ef-
fect of heat, moisture, and chloride transfer in concrete simultaneously [10] and the latter is based on the ionic interac-
tion of various substances in concrete pore solution and their corresponding effect on chloride penetration through con-
crete [11].
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of Tutti’s model [8]
In this paper, DuraPGulf which is a semi-empirical model is introduced. It is based on a simplified chloride diffusion
equation that is known as the Fick’s second law. In contrast to the other complex and sophisticated models that have
been designed mainly for research purposes, DuraPGulf is intended for civil engineers with a basic knowledge of con-
crete durability. The main application of this model is to provide a practical tool for engineers to evaluate the effect of
various parameters such as mixture proportion, curing regime, exposure condition, temperature, and humidity on the
service life of RC structures. A complete set of experiments was designed and conducted in the south of Iran region to
obtain the local data for preparing a database that has been used in this model. Using the Finite Element (FE) technique,
the model was developed and the associated user-friendly software was programmed for practical engineering applica-
tions. The demonstration of this practical application is also explained through a hypothetical example in this paper. The
model is also verified with the data available from other research projects in this area.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
In view of the fact that there were few experimental data on concrete durability in the south of Iran region, specially
regarding chloride diffusion, a complete set of field experiments were conducted in order to investigate the effect of dif-
ferent parameters on chloride diffusion, such as water to cement ratio, silica fume content, curing condition and duration,
exposure condition, environment temperature, surface coating, and humidity. These experiments were carried out as the
main part of a national project on the durability of concrete in Iran [12].
Figure 2. Bandar-Abbas exposure site on the southern Iranian coast (tidal and submerged zones)
In this regard, 120 concrete prism specimens measuring 15×15×60 cm were exposed to the marine environment of
Bandar Abbas city in the south of Iran (Figure 2). All concrete specimens were made with 400 kg/m3 Portland cement
type II and crushed coarse aggregate (maximum size of 18 mm). Among the variables, five different coatings (cement-
based coating, cement-based modified with bitumen, bitumen–lastic emulsion, polyurethane, and aliphatic–acrylic), six
curing regimes (1, 3, 7, and 28 days of moist curing, without curing and applying petro-resin based curing compound),
five exposure conditions (atmosphere, soil, tidal zone, submerged, and splash zone) (See Figure 3), four percentages of
cement replacement with silica fume (5, 7.5, 10, and 12.5%), and four water to cement ratios (0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50)
were investigated [12,13].
The data for the chloride diffusion coefficient for the ages of 3, 9, and 36 months were obtained. At each age, a 10
cm part of the specimens was cut for measuring the chloride ion content at different depths from the surface (Figure 4)
and thereby obtain the associated chloride profile on the top and bottom surfaces of the specimen.
Figure 3. Schematic description of five different exposure conditions
Figure 4. Concrete prism specimens (15×15×60) exposed to marine environment for long term durability studies
The chloride penetration rate as a function of depth from the concrete surface and time can reasonably be represented
by Fick’s second law of diffusion, according to the following expression [14]:
δC δ 2C
= DC . (1)
δt δx 2
Considering the following boundary conditions:

C(x > 0, t = 0) = 0
C(x = 0, t > 0) = Cs
C(x = ∞, t > 0) = 0.
The solution for this differential equation is:
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
C ( x , t ) = C s ⎢1 − erf ⎜ ⎟⎥ .
x
⎜2
(2)
⎢
⎝ D C t ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where x is the distance from concrete surface [m]; t is time [s]; DC is the apparent diffusion coefficient [m2/s]; Cs is the
equilibrium chloride concentration on the concrete surface [% weight of concrete]; C(x,t) is the chloride concentration [%
weight of concrete] at the depth of x from the surface after time t [s]; and erf is the error function.
Using computer statistical analysis software, the non linear regression was carried out on the gathered data (i.e.
Equation 2 was fitted to the data) and therefore the corresponding values of DC and Cs were determined. It should be
noted that DC and Cs might not necessarily represent intrinsic chloride diffusion coefficient and surface chloride concen-
tration respectively, but simply represent the regression coefficients of a penetration profile [15]. The average values of
two sides of the specimen were used for subsequent calculations. Those calculated data were used to prepare an empiri-
cal database for the DuraPGulf model.
3. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
DuraPGulf is a service life design model that uses the finite element technique and also its database includes the local
gathered data from southern Iran. Every model has its own limitations that arise from the assumptions that are made to
simplify the problem. Accordingly, some simplifying assumptions are also made for developing the DuraPGulf model
that may cause some limiting applications as follows:
- The ionic diffusion is the only mechanism of chloride penetration into concrete.
- The concrete is a homogenous material without any cracking; i.e. the simple Fick’s second law is applicable.
- The concrete diffusion coefficient is uniform through the problem domain.
- The effect of binding chloride on the penetration of chloride ion into concrete is considered implicitly through the
apparent Diffusion Coefficient (Dc) and equilibrium Surface Chloride content (Cs).
- The chloride concentration required for corrosion initiation (i.e. chloride threshold (Ct) is defined as a total chlo-
ride, instead of free chloride.
After finishing the experiments as explained in Section 2, the obtained results (i.e. diffusion coefficients and surface
chloride contents) are defined into the model database. The model employs advanced mathematical method for predict-
ing the Dc from the experimental database. Moving Least Squares (MLS) method was used for data evaluation. Accord-
ing to this method, for finding the value of each point (xk) in the n-dimensional domain of variables, a dynamic regres-
sion is conducted so that the nearby data have the highest effect on the final output ( û ) (i.e. in this problem; diffusion
coefficient). For instance, according to Figure 5, in the MLS approach the weighting function ( φ ) is defined in shape
and size, and is translated over the domain so that it takes the maximum value over the point k identified by the coordi-
nate xk where the unknown function ( û ) is to be evaluated. The weight factor in this regard, which influences the effec-
tive width, can be calibrated after few trial and errors for new set of experiments. The final weight function is used in the
MLS to estimate the chloride diffusion for any defined case accordingly. The detailed explanations of this method can be
found in [16].
Figure 5. Shematic illustration of moving least squares (MLS) method
After estimating the diffusion coefficient, the structural element is discredited and the differential equation of the
chloride diffusion into concrete (i.e. Fick’s second law, Equation 1) is solved using FE technique with the estimated Dc
and Cs taken from the empirical database.
During solving the problem with FE technique, Dc is updated for each month of the year in order to account the in-
fluence of temperature, humidity, and age of concrete on the concrete diffusivity by the following expression:
Du = Dc f (T) f (h) f (t) (3)
where Du is the updated diffusion coefficient [m2/s], Dc is the reference diffusion coefficient obtained from the empiri-
cal database and f is the function that would be individually introduced for each parameter (temperature, humidity, and
age) as follows.
The effect of temperature is applied on the diffusion coefficient through the Arrhenius equation [17]:
⎡U ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
f ( T ) = exp ⎢ × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ⎥ (4)
⎣⎢ R ⎝ 0
T T ⎠ ⎦⎥
where T is the average temperature of each month [K] and T0 is the reference temperature [K], R is the universal gas
constant (~ 8.314 [J/mol.K]), and U is the activation energy of the diffusion process [J/mol]. A value of 2948 for U/R
was used in this model based on the results of the conducted experiment [18].
Similar to the temperature, the effect of humidity on the diffusion coefficient is considered through the model pro-
posed by Bazant and Najar [19]:
h 4 −1
f (h )=[1 + 256(1 − ) ] (5)
100
where h is the humidity of environment [%].
The aging effect is applied to the diffusivity of concrete by the simple equation which is generally suggested by dif-
ferent researchers [20]:
t
f (t )= ( 0 ) m (6)
t
where t is the age of concrete [month], t0 is the reference age [month] (3 months in this model), and m is the constant
factor that depends on the mixture proportion of concrete. This factor also obtained from the results of the local experi-
ments corresponding to the age of 3, 9, and 36 months.
It should be noted that FE method was implemented so that the enhancements in the model for various purposes such
as taking the effect of surface coatings would be easily possible in next versions.
The time, at which the chloride concentration on the reinforcement surface reaches the chloride threshold value, is
considered as the corrosion initiation time. In the first version of DuraPGulf, 0.05% of total concrete weight is simply
taken as the chloride threshold value which is the average value in the literature. It is acknowledged by authors that the
free chloride can cause the initiation of corrosion, not total chloride; however since in the south of Iran region there is
neither a simple model nor enough experimental data to account the relation of free and total chloride, this simplification
is accepted as a conservative limiting assumption in the first version of the DuraPGulf model [21].
For data regression and analysis according to the mathematical methods mentioned earlier, the main part of the
DuraPGulf software was coded using FORTRAN. Finite Element calculations are also carried out in this part. For the
other part, in order to have a user-friendly software, the graphical user interface (GUI) of DuraPGulf was written by
Visual Basic, through which all input and output data are transmitted to and from the basic part.
4. VERIFICATION
Ramezanianpour et al. studied the influence of various pozzolans on the penetration of chloride into concrete in the
southern Iran area [22]. Their data are used to verify the developed model. Two types of concrete mixtures are chosen
for the verification; plain concrete and silica fume concrete. The concrete specimens were prepared with water to cement
ratio of 0.4. The cement content of the plain concrete is 400 kg/m3, and in the other mixture 7 percent of this amount is
replaced by silica fume. The specimens were exposed to seawater on the coast of southern Iran at the tidal zone.
Figure 6. Comparison of the results of experiment by Ramezanianpour et al. [22] with the results predicted by DuraPGulf
model; (a) Plain concrete; (b) Silica Fume concrete
The chloride profiles obtained after 2 years of exposure are presented in Figures 6(a) and 6(b) for the plain and the
silica fume concrete, respectively. Figure 6 compares the results predicted by the DuraPGulf model with the data ob-
tained from the experiment. Although some differences are observed between the results, the predicted chloride profiles
are generally in agreement with the experimental results. Also, as it is expected, the depth of chloride penetration for sil-
ica fume concrete which is around 30 mm is smaller than the one for plain concrete (See Figure 6) silica fume reduces
the porosity of concrete and accordingly the chloride diffusion coefficient which is directly dependent on the concrete
porosity. This shows that the model is able to capture the effect of silica fume on the reduction of chloride penetration
into concrete.
5. EXAMPLE
A typical reinforced concrete structure such as a marine wall is assumed to be built in Bandar Abbas city near the
coast of southern Iran. The concrete design specifications are given in Table 1. The thickness of rebar concrete cover of
the RC wall, which is in the tidal zone, is assumed to be 5 cm. A temperature diagram for Bandar Abbas is also shown in
Figure 7. The concrete wall is to be cured for 3 days after demolding in January.
These parameters, corresponding to the main Choice in Table 1, were used as inputs to the program. After running
DuraPGulf, the calculated diffusion coefficient and surface chloride content are 9.03×10-12 m2/s and 0.8% wt of con-
crete, respectively. The corrosion initiation time is also calculated to be 1.4 years, which is very low and shows the se-
verity of this area. A typical graphical user interface (GUI) of DuraPGulf is shown in Figures 8 and 9.
Table 1. Concrete Design Specifications for Different Choices

Choice # Main 1 2 3 4 5
110
Gravel (kg/m3) 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100
0
Sand (kg/m3) 740 740 740 740 740 740
Cement (kg/m3) 400 400 370 400 370 370

Water (kg/m3) 160 120 160 160 140 140
W/C (%) 40 30 40 40 35 35
Silica Fume (kg/m3) 0 0 30 0 30 30
W/(C+SF) (%) 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 7.5 7.5
Curing (day) 3 3 3 3 7 7
Cover (cm) 5 5 5 7 7 10
40
35
30
Temperature ( C)
o
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month
Figure 7. Annual temperature diagram of Bandar Abbas
Figure 8. Typical GUI for input of the parameters into the model
Figure 9. Typical GUI for calculating time to corrosion initiation
The owner of this structure requires at least 20 years of service without any need for repair and maintenance. In this
regard, the software can be run several times for the new introduced choices such as 7 days of curing, water to cement
ratio of 0.30 and 0.35, 7.5% of silica fume, and 7 and 10 cm of rebars concrete cover (See Choices 1 to 5 in Table 1).
After changing these parameters, DuraPGulf calculates a new value for the diffusion coefficient and then predicts the
service life to corrosion initiation. The obtained results are presented in Table 2. Based on the results, according to the
desired service life, the owner or the consultant engineer now can decide on the most economical choice for design of
this structure.
For this case, only the fifth choice meets the service life requirements if the 10 cm of cover could be applicable from
the structural point of view. However, if the corrosion propagation time before the first repair is assumed to be 6 years,
the fourth choice could also be accepted as it could result in almost 20 years of service life without need to repair.
Table 2. Results Predicted by the Model
Choice # Main 1 2 3 4 5
-12
Diffusion Coefficient, Dc x10
(m2/s) 9.03 6.21 3.56 9.03 2.61 2.61
Surface Chloride, Cs
(% weight of concrete) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Time to corrosion initiation

(year) 1.4 2.1 4.1 3.0 13.6 33.8
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Durability-based design of reinforced concrete structures has received a great deal of concern in the recent decades.
In Iran, a model for service life design of concrete structures is greatly needed, especially for the southern Iranian region.
To fulfill this demand, DuraPGulf has been developed. The use of the local data obtained form this environment is the
most important advantage of this model. It can also take into the account the influence of curing regime as well as the
exposure condition on the service life of RC structures. These inclusive capabilities make this model prominent among
the other existing models. It is expected that this model would directly help engineers design RC structures with a better
view and understanding of the durability performance in the studied environment.
For the next version of the DuraPGulf software, it is planned to include three other important parameters: load-
environment combination; chloride threshold value; and propagation time. Incidentally, a probabilistic approach in the
whole procedure would be taken into the account.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are deeply indebted to Professor M. Ghalibafian for his continuous support and discussions. The finan-
cial support of Management and Planning Organization of Iran and Barco Company and the technical assistance of Mr.
F. Mahmoudzadeh, H. Taghaddos, and M. Samadzadeh in programming the DuraPGulf software are gratefully acknowl-
edged.
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Mohammad Shekarchi, Pouria Ghods, Rouhollah Alizadeh, Mahdi Chini, and Meghdad Hoseini

DURAPGULF, A LOCAL SERVICE LIFE MODEL FOR THE

*Address for correspondence:

DURAPGULF, A LOCAL SERVICE LIFE MODEL FOR THE DURABILITY OF

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of Tutti’s model [8]

Figure 3. Schematic description of five different exposure conditions

Considering the following boundary conditions:

Figure 5. Shematic illustration of moving least squares (MLS) method

Table 1. Concrete Design Specifications for Different Choices

Cement (kg/m3) 400 400 370 400 370 370

Figure 9. Typical GUI for calculating time to corrosion initiation

Time to corrosion initiation

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