Journal of Electronic Packaging.
Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME
Review of Thermal Packaging Technologies
Traction Purposes
Justin Broughton
G. W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332
Rao R. Tummala
3D Systems Packaging Research Center
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332
ABSTRACT
Due to its superior electrical and thermal characteristics, silicon
carbide power modules will soon replace silicon modules to be mass-
produced and implemented in all-electric and hybrid-electric vehicles.
Redesign of the power modules will be required to take full advantage
of these newer devices. A particular area of interest is high-
temperature power modules, as under-hood temperatures often exceed
maximum silicon device temperatures. This review will examine
thermal packaging options for standard Si power modules and various
power modules in recent all-electric and hybrid-electric vehicles.
Then, thermal packaging options for die-attach, thermal interface
materials (TIM), and liquid cooling are discussed for their feasibility
in next-generation SiC power modules.
1. INTRODUCTION
Worldwide efforts in minimizing CO2 emissions, resulting from
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growing concerns about the effects of greenhouse gases on climate,
have been a major driver in increasing electrification. As societies
gravitate towards a more electricity-based future, power electronics,
which enable the transmission and conversion of electrical energy, will
sc
be used more and more. The majority of electrical energy used has
been through some form of conversion, whether it is AC to DC
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conversion, rectification, or inversion. The U.S. Advanced Research
Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) predicts up to 80% of electrical
energy in the U.S. is estimated to pass through power electronics by
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the year 2030 – more than a 160% increase from 2005 [1]. Increased
popularity and usage of technologies such as alternative energy
sources (fuel cells, wind turbines, and photovoltaics), energy storage,
public transportation, and particularly hybrid and electric vehicles
result largely from this concerted effort and are driving the need for
ed
better power electronics technologies.
pt
ce
Ac
Fig. 1 Visualization of the several power conversion steps present
in electric vehicles (traction inverter highlighted)
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for Automotive Power Electronics for
Vanessa Smet
3D Systems Packaging Research Center
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332
Yogendra K. Joshi
G. W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332
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yogendra.joshi@me.gatech.edu
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Power electronics can be packaged discretely or in modules. As
ed
power levels increase, they are packaged on organic printed circuit
boards (PCB), lead frames, and then electrically insulating ceramic
substrates. These design changes result from thermal management
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requirements that necessitate that high power packages be mounted
directly on heat sinks, which in turn requires improved electrical
isolation. Higher voltage and current levels elevate heat dissipation
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loads, requiring more aggressive cooling solutions. Effective thermal
management is needed to prevent catastrophic failure and to decrease
failures caused by high temperatures and temperature cycling.
Power packaging evolution has been gradual and incremental.
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However, as silicon devices have been nearing their theoretical limit
[2], two high-performance alternatives in the form of gallium nitride
tN
(GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC) have emerged and disrupted the
power packaging landscape, and conventional packaging solutions are
now limiting these devices. These wide bandgap (WBG)
semiconductors require more energy to move electrons from valence
bands to conduction bands, resulting in the enhancement of various
properties as demonstrated in figure 2. WBG devices have much
higher theoretical breakdown voltages, improved efficiencies,
increased switching frequencies, and high-temperature performance
[3]. Increased breakdown voltages allow devices to handle higher
power levels, or result in smaller devices at fixed blocking voltages.
Higher efficiencies will lead to lower energy consumption; mass
implementation of technologies enabled by WBG technologies could
reduce US electricity consumption by over 20% [1]. Faster switching
allows for smaller passives (capacitors, inductors, and transformers)
[4] and smoother output curves. Wide bandgap devices can also allow
for both higher operating temperatures and improved thermal
conductivities compared to Si. Their temperature-robust nature
permits operation in extreme temperature environments (>200 °C),
elimination of liquid cooling under certain conditions, and reduction
of heat sink size due to reduced heat dissipation. Currently, WBG
devices are projected to encroach significantly upon the Si-dominated
power device market by 2023, with GaN superseding low voltage
applications (<600 V) and SiC higher voltage applications (>600 V)
[5]. Both GaN and SiC devices are commercially available, although
vertical GaN devices are not yet available commercially. Lateral
GaN devices are typically in the 600-650 V range, but SiC devices in
the kV range are already commercially available [6].
Despite GaN’s superior performance in all categories except
thermal conductivity, it is held back by its lateral architecture. GaN
devices are usually grown on substrates such as silicon, silicon
carbide, and sapphire, as researchers were initially unable to grow
them on GaN substrates. Currently, the only bulk GaN wafers are
small and prohibitively expensive [7]. Growing on these foreign
substrates causes problems, including high defect densities and
Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME

stresses caused by lattice and coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) performance liquid cooling, are surveyed. We then discuss the
mismatches [8], and it limits these devices to lateral architectures. For thermal management research needs for future power electronics
these lateral devices, device level thermal management becomes a systems.
much more important issue, and issues such as near-junction heat
spreading, thermal boundary resistances, and device-level cooling are 2. CONVENTIONAL SILICON DEVICES POWER
of great interest [9]. Lateral GaN devices also suffer various PACKAGING
reliability issues, such as undesirable breakdown mechanisms that can Beyond performance, the most important factors in power
cause catastrophic damage when exceeding certain voltages [10]. electronics packaging are cost and reliability. Power electronics
Although researchers have recently been able to fabricate GaN-on- package reliability may be improved by decreasing maximum
GaN devices that operate much closer to the theoretical limits than temperatures and temperature swings to mitigate thermally accelerated

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today’s lateral structures [2], GaN device maturity lags behind its SiC failures, or utilizing materials better suited for higher temperature
counterparts. SiC devices have been commercially available since

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operation. Temperature swings cause cyclic stresses between the
2001, whereas vertical GaN devices are still not. In addition to its various layers of the package because of their different coefficients of
maturity, SiC’s lower thermal conductivity and the research into thermal expansion (CTE), which can lead to failure, depending on the

ed
characterizing very high-temperature devices (200 °C has already severity and frequency of these cycles. Ciappa presented a
been characterized with plans for higher temperatures) provide comprehensive overview of power module failure mechanisms, such
attractive qualities for SiC adoption and implementation [6, 7]. This as wire bond-lift off and solder joint or ceramic cracking [13].

py
led to an industry focus on SiC, and companies including Mitsubishi
and Toyota have since tested SiC devices in public transportation and
electric vehicles with significant increases in efficiency [11, 12].

Co
ot
tN
Fig. 3 Typical power electronics packaging scheme
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A typical power electronics package can be seen in figure 3. The

semiconductor devices, which generate the majority of the heat during
conduction and switching, are connected at the top with wires and at
the bottom with a die-attach technology such as a tin-based lead-free
sc

solder. Aluminum is the most common metallization on high power

devices, and because of the difficulties associated with bonding
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aluminum to anything except itself, aluminum wires are commonly

selected. In addition to the ease of bonding, its high electrical
conductivity makes it an obvious choice for topside interconnections
Fig. 2 Comparison of WBG materials’ properties versus silicon [1]
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Wide bandgap devices can be smaller than their silicon
counterparts because of their increased breakdown voltages, which
then decrease the on-resistance. However, the volumetric heat
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[14]. Most power devices are vertical, so the die-attach must be both
an electrical interconnection and thermal path, as opposed to only a
thermal pathway as in microelectronic device packaging. They also
provide a mechanical bond to the substrate. The substrate provides the
electrical insulation necessitated by mounting the devices directly on a

generation may increase despite the increase in efficiency as a result heat sink in case of air cooling or cold plate for liquid cooling.
of the decrease in size and the resulting smaller packages. These
factors combine to create power electronics modules that can see Table 1. Properties of various insulating ceramic materials
pt

higher heat generation per unit volume than Si-based modules. The adapted from [16]
packaging materials that were sufficient for Si devices are no longer
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sufficient for WBG technology. In order to take full advantage of the Thermal CTE Dielectric
Material Density Relative
benefits offered by these newer semiconductor devices, packaging conductivity (ppm/ strength
name (g/cm3) price
materials with improved reliability at higher temperatures, while (W/m-K) ℃) (kV/mm)
Ac

maintaining cost-effectiveness, are required. Al2O3 3.97 24 6.0 1x 12

In this review, we assess the thermal packaging of Si and SiC AlN 3.26 150-180 4.6 4x 15
device based traction inverter power electronics, which can be seen in BeO 3.00 270 7.0 5x 12
Si3N4 2.40 70 3.0 2.5x 10
figure 1 highlighted in red. Current power modules and packaging
materials are discussed in the following section. Hybrid and fully
Ceramics are a natural choice for the substrate because of their
electric vehicle power module evolution over roughly the past decade
simultaneously excellent electrical insulation and high thermal
are subsequently investigated. Options to address gaps in thermal
conductivities. The ceramic is sandwiched between two metal layers –
management of SiC power electronics, particularly high-temperature
the top provides an electrical ground for the semiconductor devices,
die-attach, high-conductivity thermal interface materials, and high-
and the bottom provides additional heat spreading, decreases stresses

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Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME

in the ceramic due to thermal expansion mismatch, and connection to
the baseplate. Copper or aluminum is attached to a ceramic such as
Al2O3 to create a direct bond copper (DBC) or direct bond aluminum
(DBA) substrate, but active metal brazing can also be used to join the
metal and ceramic. Alumina is an often-used ceramic, despite its low
thermal conductivity because of its “low cost and mature mass
production” [15]. Other common ceramics used include beryllia,
aluminum nitride, and Si3N4. AlN is a more promising candidate
because of beryllia’s health and environmental hazards, its own CTE
of 4.6 ppm/°C, and its high thermal conductivity of 150 W/m-K [16].
have allowed tailoring of CTE, while maintaining high thermal
conductivity for improved and more reliable thermal management [18,
19]. Examples of MMCs are presented in table 2. A thermal interface
material (TIM) is applied between the baseplate and the heat sink to
decrease the contact resistance [22]. Solders can also be used as a
thermal interface material. Yet despite their higher thermal
conductivity than TIMs, the latter are typically preferred due to their
better mechanical compliance. This approach can be seen in the
power electronics module of the 2004 Toyota Prius [23].

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Si3N4, which is often used for active metal brazed substrates, is 3. EVOLUTION OF THERMAL PACKAGING IN HYBRID
another substrate option that can be used for higher power or extreme

ite
AND FULLY ELECTRIC VEHICLES
temperature swing environments [17]. Relevant properties of these The progress in the hybrid electric vehicle industry shows the
ceramics can be seen in table 1. changes in advanced power electronics packaging and cooling.

ed
Tracking these improvements demonstrates incremental advances in
Table 2. Thermal properties of various metal matrix composite
achieving solutions that simultaneously have low thermal resistance,
materials using copper and aluminum [20, 21]
high reliability, and low cost while increasing power density. This

py
section reviews several hybrid and fully electric vehicles of the last
Thermal conductivity CTE
Density decade and their thermal packaging strategies.
Material (W/m-K) (ppm/
(g/cm3)
In-plane Through ℃)

Co
Copper 8.9 398 398 17
Copper-molybdenum 9.7 193 193 7.5
(30/70)
Copper-molybdenum 9.5 245 245 9.9

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(50/50)
Copper-tungsten (10/90) 17.1 193 193 6.4
Copper-tungsten (15/85) 16.4 210 210 7.3
tN
Copper-tungsten (20/80) 15.5 230 230 8.3
Copper w/ discontinuous 6.8 300 200 6.5-9.5
carbon fibers
Copper w/ SiC particles 6.6 320 320 7.0-
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10.9
Copper w/ carbon foam 5.7 350 350 7.4
Fig. 4 Standard power electronics packaging scheme seen in the
Copper w/ diamond 5.9 600- 600-1200 5.8
2004 Toyota Prius
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particles 1200
Aluminum 2.7 247 247 23
Aluminum w/ SiC 6.6 320 320 7.0- The 2004 Toyota Prius uses conventional power packaging
methods as seen in figure 4 [23]. The most notable difference between
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particles 10.9
Aluminum w/ diamond 5.9 600- 600-1200 5.8 the packaging in figure 3 and the 2004 Prius is the use of aluminum,
particles 1200 which has a superior specific thermal conductivity. Design engineers
Aluminum w/ 6.8 300 200 6.5-9.5 may prefer aluminum’s low density and good thermal conductivity
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discontinuous carbon over copper, particularly in electric vehicle applications, where weight
fibers
can decrease fuel efficiency. The thermal design variation comes in
Aluminum w/ continuous 5.3-8.2 400-420 200 9.5-
carbon fibers 16.0 the selection of the solder, ceramic, and TIM. These are a lead-free
Aluminum w/ silicon 2.5-2.6 126-160 126-160 6.5- solder, AlN, and a ZnO thermal paste, respectively.
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17.0
Aluminum w/ beryllium 2.1 210 210 13.9
Aluminum w/ 2.5 190-230 120-150 3.0-9.5
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discontinuous carbon
fibers
Aluminum w/ continuous 2.5 200-290 120-150 0-16
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carbon fibers
Aluminum w/ graphite 2.3 400-600 80-110 4.5-5.0
flakes
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The substrate is connected to a thick copper or aluminum

baseplate/heat spreader, often with solder. Copper or aluminum are
typically chosen as the baseplate material. CTE mismatch between
the ceramic and baseplate can be mitigated by using metal matrix
composites (MMCs). MMCs are typically made with a base of copper Fig. 5 2008 Lexus LS 600h’s double-sided cooling module
or aluminum because of their excellent thermal conductivity and
aluminum’s superior specific thermal conductivity [18]. Reinforcing Figure 5 illustrates the power electronics packaging used in the
with additives such as SiC, carbon, diamond, and carbon nanotubes 2008 Lexus LS 600h [24]. The 2008 LS 600h implements double

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Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME

sided cooling, which can significantly decrease thermal resistance by replaced by an insulating pad. Thermal grease is applied to both sides
cooling both sides; Liang showed a reduction in thermal resistance by of the pad to decrease contact resistances. The 2012 Leaf decreases
almost 40% compared to a traditional module [25]. This also replaces costs by using an insulating pad instead of a DBC ceramic, but this
the topside interconnections with copper spacers and plates. The increases thermal resistance beyond that of a ceramic-based assembly.
spacers are made to address the varying power device thicknesses. This setup can also improve transient thermal performance.
The typical DBC or DBA ceramic structure is not seen in this LS
600h’s packaging. The emitter and collector copper plates address the
current handling and heat spreading that the topside of the DBC
structure provides in a typical package, while the Si3N4 tile addresses
electrical isolation. Eliminating the metallic ceramic layer decreases

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costs and the failures that come with it (e.g. delamination and cracking
of the ceramic). However, thermal greases come with large thermal

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resistances compared to the rest of the package, which will severely
lessen the increase in thermal performance brought by double-sided

ed
cooling architecture utilization [26]. The 2013 Toyota Camry utilizes
a similar design. Fig. 8 Direct substrate cooling in the 2014 Honda Accord

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Figure 8 demonstrates the packaging used for the 2014 Honda
Accord inverter [29]. The baseplate has been removed from the
package, providing a compromise between the 2010 versus 2004 Prius

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in distance from die to coolant. Similar to the Lexus 2008 LS 600h,
copper is used near the device. A possible explanation for the use of
copper near the device is to increase heat spreading near the device,
where it most impacts thermal resistance. Further away from the

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device – particularly the heat sink, where the cold plate is often
integrated into the housing – aluminum is usually used. A moderate
source of thermal resistance was, as expected, the ceramic, which
tN
Fig. 6 Power electronics packaging scheme in the 2010 Toyota despite the use of Si3N4, will generally underperform with respect to
Prius most metals used for heat transfer applications. However, the
convective resistance was found to be the highest thermal bottleneck
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The 2010 Toyota Prius modified the 2004 design by decreasing with the elimination of the TIM.
the distance between device and coolant nearly 60% from 9.0 mm to
3.8 mm [23]. The modified packaging can be seen in figure 6. The
sc

thermal interface material and the base plate were removed to decrease
package thickness. Elimination of these will have clear improvements
in thermal performance, as interfaces materials (particularly greases or
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other standard TIMs) have high thermal resistances, but the decrease
in lateral heat spreading can also increase the hotspot intensity. 3 mm
holes can be seen in the aluminum layer below the ceramic, which
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were introduced for stress relaxation caused by CTE mismatch

between aluminum and AlN [27].
ed
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Fig. 9 2016 Chevrolet Volt’s double-sided cooling approach

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The 2nd generation Chevrolet Volt was introduced by General

Motors in 2016, which utilized a double-sided cooling approach seen
in figure 9 [30]. Similar to the 2008 Lexus LS 600h module and the
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plug-in hybrid Cadillac CT6, the power electronics module uses

Fig. 7 Power electronics module in the 2012 Nissan Leaf
Nissan’s fully electric 2012 Leaf utilized an inexpensive package
seen in figure 7 [28]. A copper-molybdenum buffer plate is attached
to the device using a lead-free solder. This is to grade the coefficients
of thermal expansion more gradually and relax the resultant stresses
that the device sees. The buffer plate is mounted on a copper plate,
which serves as the bottom electrical pathway. The ceramic has been
double-sided cooling [31]. However, unlike either of these modules,
the Volt uses ceramics for electrical isolation instead of an isolating
pad. Note that although no spacers were illustrated [30], it is likely
that they were utilized to address IGBT/diode height discrepancies.
Another large change from other HEV/EV models is the heat sink.
Most prior heat sinks examined (when available) used straight
aluminum channels. However, the 2016 Volt used a copper cold plate
with staggered semi-cylindrical protrusions so that the liquid pathway

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Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME

resembles a continuous “s.” A possible reason is that the prior cold
plates were often integrated into the surrounding aluminum housing,
whereas the Volt’s cold plate appears to be separate. Therefore, it is
likely that the use of copper can be justified as it will not increase the
weight as drastically as when used in the Volt.
The cooling enhancements are (when available) usually
longitudinal fins although the Chevy Volt has meandering fins. These
fins were also manufactured using different methods, including
machining, brazing, and casting. The coolant was water/ethylene
glycol mixture to allow operation in ambient temperature range up to
reduction in their power conversion unit utilizing SiC devices [33]),
previous thermal management solutions will not be sufficient to
maintain operable device temperatures. Three areas have seen
significant advancements as power electronics packaging evolves to
provide proper thermal management to silicon carbide device based
packages – die-attach, TIMs, and heat rejection technologies.
Promising solutions for each are discussed and examined for their
performance and practicality with respect to high-temperature, high-
power packaging, with specific considerations for automotive
applications.

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105 °C. (H)EV modules are gradually evolving towards thinner
single-sided cooling modules and/or high-performance double-sided

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4.1 Die-attach
cooling. But the implementation of SiC devices will require adjusting Alternatives for industry standard tin-based solders are needed as
or reimagining thermal packaging approaches from die-attach to the they have poor high-temperature performance above IGBT

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entire cooling system. temperatures of around 125 °C. These alternatives need to consider
melting temperature and wettability for manufacturability, and thermal
fatigue resistance and CTE mismatch with the terminal, die, and

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substrate for reliability. Figure 11 shows the melting temperature and
CTE of various die-attach materials, which can serve as benchmarks
for feasibility and reliability for new high-temperature die-attach

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materials. Note that CTE and melting temperature are not the only
metrics for the reliability of a die-attach. Mechanical properties such
as the modulus of elasticity, ductility, and yield strength also influence
reliability. Other features such as porosity can impact properties such

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as density and elastic modulus [34], which in turn impact reliability.
Additional important characteristics of die-attach materials are the
electrical and thermal conductivity [35]. Khazaka et al. discussed
tN
various options including high-Pb solder alloys, lead-free solders,
transient liquid-phase bonding, and nanosilver paste sintering [36].
rip
sc

Fig. 10 Illustrations of the Nissan Leaf’s inverter integrated into

the housing, the “snaking” fins in the Chevy Volt, and the Honda
Accord’s machined fins (from left to right)
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Despite the lag between R&D and mass production, examining

the power modules of recent (H)EVs can provide insight into the
direction the industry is headed. Each power module uses (when
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specified) tin-based and lead-free solders. Additionally, thermal

grease use is pervasive in double-sided modules. Thermal greases are
cheaper and not mechanically constraining, which may increase
reliability. In these modules, the thermal resistance is already
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dramatically decreased, so the penalty of using greases is lessened.

There is a general trend towards double-sided modules, seen in
Toyota’s 4th generation power conversion resulting in smaller form
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factor, decreased thermal resistance, and improved efficiencies [32].

In single-sided cooling modules, there appears to be a migration away
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from modules using TIMs with the combination of elimination of

various layers. When TIMs are absent, the largest bottleneck is the
convective resistance. Fig. 11 CTE versus Tm for various high-temperature die-attach
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technologies [36, 39]

4. ADVANCED PACKAGING OPTIONS FOR SILICON
CARBIDE
SiC devices display stable operation at much higher temperatures
than Si devices. Therefore, as SiC devices see operational
temperatures exceeding 200 °C and accompanying increased
temperature swings, next generation modules will require materials
with better high-temperature performance and reliability. And as
package sizes decrease (Toyota has demonstrated an 80% size
High-Pb solder alloys have excellent wettability, high ductility,
melting points up to 300 °C, and excellent reliability – all desirable
characteristics for a solder. Overall reliability results partly from their
high melting temperatures (Tm), but also from their resistance to
thermal fatigue, electromigration, and the formation of intermetallic
compounds [36]. Note that although Tm is not the definitive measure
of reliability, using solders under 0.3-0.5Tm will generally prevent

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Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME
rapid creep [34, 37]. In addition to these characteristics, when
legislation began phasing out high-Pb solders, other high-temperature
alternatives did not have sufficient long-term field data to confirm
long-term reliability. However, health hazards of lead [38] resulted in
phasing out its use in consumer electronic and electrical equipment.
High-Pb solders are still used in certain areas such as military and
aerospace applications, but health concerns prevent these die-attach
options from being widely used.
Lead-free solders present an alternative for high-temperature die-
attach. Gold-based alloys, including AuSn, AuGe, and AuSi, have
gained momentum due to their eutectic melting points of 280 °C, 356
°C, and 363 °C respectively. Although they are also suitable from an
engineering perspective, gold-based solders are cost-prohibitive and
therefore not an acceptable choice for use in mass production. They
could be employed in niche applications where cost is not a limiting
factor [36]. These solders are also very stiff, which can transfer
stresses to the device and cause die cracking. Other alloys, including
zinc and bismuth, have been studied for their potential as well [39,
40], but they come with issues including high processing temperatures
during application, and poor thermal and electrical conductivity.
Furthermore, lead-free solder options can see excessive intermetallic
formation, which can decrease joint strength. An and Qin looked into
the effect of intermetallics on solder joint microcracking both
experimentally and with micromechanical finite element models [41].
Transient liquid-phase (TLP) bonding uses a low melting point
metal, either placed or allowed to flow between two higher melting
point metals. A typically large, constant pressure (ranging from ~1
tN
kPa to ~100 MPa) is applied to ensure contact, accommodate non-co-
planarity, and promote bonding. As the temperature exceeds the
intermediate layer’s melting temperature, the thin layer of
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intermediate metal liquefies. The liquid phase promotes high diffusion
rates, and the die-attach subsequently solidifies then homogenizes.
The end result is an alloy with a melting temperature much higher than
sc
the interlayer metal’s melting temperature, which can even exceed
1,000 °C in some cases. Significant advantages are the low bonding
temperatures and mechanical strength similar or higher than the
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substrate materials. Cook and Sorenson listed disadvantages
including its time-consuming nature and the specialized equipment
this method requires [42], although there has been research into high-
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ed
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ce
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throughput solutions. TLP bonding also causes intermetallic
formations which lower bond strength and ductility, and continued
phase evolution can be accompanied by voiding.
The final die-attach technology examined is silver sintering.
Silver has excellent thermal and electrical properties, but its melting
point is too high (961 °C) to use without risking damage to electronic
components. Silver based solders take advantage of these excellent
properties. Sintering further improves silver’s performance as a die-
attach because it takes advantage of silver’s thermal and electrical
conductivity, as well as its high melting temperature, while not
d
exposing electronics to these high temperatures normally needed to
melt the die-attach. The process uses silver pastes which are
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pressurized up to 40 MPa and heated to sinter the silver particles
together [34]. Using microscale or smaller particles decreases the
ed
temperature to which the die-attach needs to be heated to 0.2-0.4 times
silver’s melting point, after which the melting point of the die-attach
rises to the melting point of bulk silver [43]. Nanocopper sintering has
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also recently been explored for power electronics packaging [44, 45].
Its use can overcome the barriers of high cost and electrochemical
migration, both of which are seen in silver sintered joints. However,
Co
the technology is not as mature as silver and requires more
investigation. One of the factors preventing mass implementation of
silver sintering is the need for specialized pressure sintering
equipment. Two developments that have improved the high pressure
ot
requirements needed – nanosilver particle sintering and “pressureless”
sintering. Nanosilver sintering (where particles are typically smaller
than 100 nm) decrease the pressure needed to 1MPa or less.
“Pressureless” sintering does not require any pressure, but comes at
the cost of decreased reliability when compared to pressurized
processes. Silver sintering has been shown to have better long-term
reliability compared to leaded or lead-free solders with respect to die
shear strength, thermal/electrical conductivity, and cycles until failure.
The prominent thermal fatigue failure mechanism results from the
merging of microcavities at grain boundaries. Its porous nature leads
to creep at elevated temperatures as the microstructure continues to
evolve and coarsen. Furthermore, similar to gold solders, silver’s
stiffness may limit die size because of the risk of cracking. Despite
these problems, companies such as Infineon Technologies and
Semikron Eletronik have begun using sintered silver joints as part of
Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME
their products [34].
4.2 Thermal interface materials (TIM)
The largest thermal management barriers in traditional power
electronics modules were the TIM and ambient heat rejection via air
cooling. With the incorporation of liquid cold plates and high heat
flux removal techniques, TIMs have become the largest bottleneck to
thermal management [26]. Narumanchi et al. simulated a Toyota Prius
inverter to show the effect of thermal interface material conductivity
[22]. Their baseline case showed 23˚C temperature rise across the
TIM for a heat flux of 95 to 120 W/cm2 and show that the rise across
the interface can become an order of magnitude smaller with
significant TIM improvements. Mahajan et al. reviewed the design
characteristics of TIMs and some commonly used materials [46]. In
order to increase both performance and reliability, a TIM’s effective
thermal conductivity should be maximized via reduction of contact
and bulk resistances, and its reliability should be ensured via testing
and understanding of failure mechanisms. It is also important to
consider a variety of factors including surface finish, thermal
performance, long term reliability, and cost.
Commonly used materials include greases, phase change
materials, and gels [46]. Thermal greases are made of a polymer base
with a ceramic or metallic filler. They do not cure, have high bulk
thermal conductivity, and cost less than other options. Disadvantages
include pump-out and spillage during applications. Pump-out occurs
when the thermal expansion pushes the grease out of the interface.
Application can be messy, with the possibility of spillage on other
tN
potentially sensitive components. Phase change materials (PCMs)
mitigate the problems with thermal greases discussed earlier. PCMs
melt at some temperature below the device temperature, which
rip
mitigate the temperature rise due to transient heat fluxes [47], while
increasing thermal conductivity as the molten PCM fills microscopic
voids. They are easier to apply than greases because they are solid as
sc
opposed to a viscous paste, and require no cure. Gels are typically
silicone with embedded ceramic or metallic particles. Their thermal
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac
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conductivity is typically lower than that of thermal greases. They
require curing, after which they do not suffer pump-out or similar
effects. Alternatives for popular, typically tin-based solders are
needed as they have poor high-temperature temperature, high-power
packaging, with specific considerations for automotive applications.
Several examples of commercial TIMs are given in table 3.
TIM research has focused on three primary areas to enhance
performance: using novel high-performance fillers, studying TIMs on
the micro and nanoscale, and developing TIMs based on carbon
allotropes [48-55]. Fillers such as aluminum nitride, silver nanowires,
d
carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and alumina micro particles can be seen.
Some TIMs utilize a combination of micro and nano fillers to form
ite
percolating networks such as Sanada et al. and Zhang et al. [51, 52].
The latter obtained thermal conductivities up to 140 W/m-K –
ed
comparable to high-end solders. The use of various carbon allotropes
such as graphene, graphite, and carbon nanotubes are discussed in [51,
53-55]. Carbon nanotubes are the most promising of all the carbon
py
allotropes and have emerged at the forefront of TIM research. Their
axial thermal conductivity reaches theoretical values of 6,600 W/m-K,
making vertically aligned (VA) CNTs a promising option [56]. They
Co
are mechanically compliant (which decreases stresses caused by CTE
mismatch) and are chemically stable over a wide range of
temperatures. There has also been some work with randomly
distributed nanotubes [51].
ot
Cola [56] discusses the three most promising CNT arrays: one-
sided interfaces, two-sided interfaces, and CNT-coated foil interfaces.
The first type is grown on a substrate, and the ends of the CNTs are in
contact with but not bonded to the opposite surface. The second type
has two arrays grown on both sides of the substrate, after which the
two substrates are pressed together and the nanotubes entangle in each
other. The last type is grown on both sides of a foil, which allows high
quality CNT growth at around 700˚C without other components seeing
these extreme temperatures. Experimental values of 7 mm2K/W, 4
mm2K/W, and 8 mm2K/W for each of these respectively have been
reported. It is concluded that further improvements, such as
Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME
maximizing CNT-surface contact and decreasing interfacial resistances
between the CNT arrays and the substrate, could potentially help
achieve the theoretical resistance limit of approximately 0.1 mm2K/W
(approximately two orders of magnitude better than high end
conventional thermal greases [22]). Several experimental TIM
research results demonstrating the enhancements mentioned are
summarized in table 4.
Fig. 12 a) One-sided CNT arrays b) two-sided arrays c) CNT-coated
foil array [56]
4.3 High heat flux cooling
Early High-power power electronics deal with high voltages and
currents, and the large amounts of power result in elevated heat
generation and the necessity for efficient cooling. For example, the
2010 Prius can supply 60 kW of power to the motor, and the 2800 LS
tN
600h’s motor is rated for 110 kW. Even at higher efficiencies of 96%,
these modules will generate 2.4 and 4.4 kW of waste heat respectively
[23]. Device-level heat fluxes are currently 100-150 W/cm2 and are
rip
projected to rise to 500 W/cm2 with next-gen devices [58]. Air
cooling can be used as seen in BMW’s Mini E [59], but higher power
densities typically require the enhanced performance of liquid cooling.
sc
All of the EV power electronics modules explicitly reviewed above
utilized single-phase liquid cooling, so as package volumes decrease
sharply as a result of SiC device implementation [36], compact and
nu
high-performance cooling options beyond single-phase cooling must
be investigated. Efficient cooling can increase device and package
lifespan.
Ma
High-performance cooling can also improve output power
ratings, as shown by Bhunia et al., who demonstrated the performance
increase of a 1200 V/150 A IGBT inverter when cooling with jet
impingement compared to conventional air cooling [58].
ed
Simultaneously, it is important to consider weight, volume, reliability,
and cost tradeoffs that accompany high heat flux cooling technologies.
The higher heat removal capabilities of liquids, which can be
pt
augmented by porous media [60], enhanced coolants [61], or micro
fins [62], come at the cost of an added coolant loop that brings
complexities such as sealing and added weight/volume to the design.
ce
High performance cooling methods can be combined with proper fluid
distribution design to appropriately target hotspots [63, 64].
Ac
Commonly researched high heat flux cooling methods for power
electronics are jet impingement cooling, spray cooling, and mini or
microchannels. Each of these can also be used with two-phase flow.
Sharar reviewed the benefits of two-phase flow, first and foremost
among them the increased heat transport ability because of latent heat
of vaporization. Another advantage mentioned is that flow boiling
requires lower pumping power because of its improved thermal
performance and resulting lower required flowrate [65]. Wang et al.
simulated single-phase and two-phase cooling of a Toyota Prius motor
inverter and showed that the two-phase cooling resulted in decreasing
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the maximum temperature difference from 32 ˚C to 3.9 ˚C degrees,
exhibiting the ability of two-phase flow’s ability to reduce temperature
gradients [58]. Despite the obvious advantages, problems
accompanying two-phase flows, such as critical heat flux (CHF) and
flow instabilities have prevented widespread adoption. The three
aforementioned methods have each demonstrated heat flux removal
capabilities of approximately 1,000 W/cm2 or more [66]. There has
also been work on combining multiple types of cooling schemes. For
example, Ditri et al. used impinging jets to cool 4 GaN HEMTs and
then directed the fluid through microchannels towards the exit. Sung
d
and Mudawar directed slot jets into microchannels. Coursey et al.
used spray cooling on open microchannels [67-69]. All of the
ite
aforementioned strategies are attractive options for high heat flux
cooling, and each of these methods is accompanied by different
ed
advantages and disadvantages.
Jet impingement directs jets towards the surface that needs to be
cooled as seen in figure 13a. Multiple jets can be used to improve
py
temperature uniformity. The high heat transfer capability is due to the
thin boundary layer formed near the hot surface. The cons of this
method include difficulties with fluid removal, uneven cooling due to
Co
boundary layer thickness increase, and its aggressive nature, which
may result in surface erosion over extended periods [65]. There are
further subtypes of jet impingement – submerged, where the jet is
surrounded by a liquid, and free jet, where the jet is surrounded by air.
ot
Increasing system turbulence by surface enhancements or by
increasing the jet’s turbulence have been used to increase heat transfer
performance [70]. Two-phase jet impingement has been investigated,
and several conclusions run contrary to expectations, including
improved temperature uniformity with a single-jet configuration
instead of multi-jet array and an almost negligible effect on pressure-
drop [71].
Spray cooling (figure 13b) directs a spray of droplets towards the
heated surface. The droplets impinge on the surface, where they can
agitate the liquid film formed, or evaporate. Structured surfaces are
the primary enhancement method for sprays [70]. Sprays can provide
more uniform cooling than jet impingement, but they come with
downsides including difficulties with fluid removal and management,
inherently high driving pressure requirements to generate a spray,
nozzle clogging, and extensive parameters to control for in design
[65]. Mudawar [72] mentioned the unpredictability of spray nozzles,
noting that nozzles would often have different spray patterns despite
being produced in the same manner. Two-phase spray cooling lacks
complete models that are both accurate and widely applicable. Also,
these models do not take into account coupled effects such as substrate
heat conduction. And the impact of variables on CHF such as
dissolved gases and spray angles needs further investigation [73].
Mini and microchannels (figure 13c) can be arbitrarily defined as
having hydraulic diameters of 200 µm – 3 mm and 10 – 200 µm
respectively [74]. Since the convective heat transfer coefficient is
inversely related to channel width, microchannels can obtain
extremely high heat fluxes [75]. This type of cooling is generally
more compact than jet impingement or spray cooling – Mandel et al.
were able to obtain heat densities approaching 490 W/cm3 with
bonded SiC microchannel test chips [76]. However, they can have
significant temperature gradients, stresses from the high driving
pressures necessary to pump the coolant through the small channels,
and fouling (which causes increased thermal resistance and may lead
to clogging and system failure) [65]. Major barriers to implementing
two-phase microchannels are twofold: instabilities and critical heat
flux. Instabilities are caused by rapid bubble growth, and the resulting
temperature and pressure variations can be both high-frequency, large-
Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME
magnitude changes as seen in [77]. Instabilities can be minimized
with modifications like inlet restrictions or expanding microchannels.
Dryout can be delayed with artificial nucleation sites [78]. The
research into the transient behavior of boiling flows in microchannels
is scarce, although researchers such as Huang et al. have conducted
experiments characterizing the transient thermal behavior of
microchannel evaporators [79]. The lack of information on transient
behavior is another barrier as practical loads are typically not steady
state.
tN
rip
sc
nu
Fig. 13 Representative schematics of inverters being cooled by a)
jet impingement b) spray cooling c) microchannels
Ma
While typical power electronic packages are cooled as seen in
figure 3, there has been focus on decreasing package device-to-coolant
resistance. This decrease in overall resistance can be achieved in two
manners – by selecting materials with increased thermal conductivity
ed
or by eliminating some of the package layers. Removal or
combination of layers can decrease resistance by eliminating contact
resistances and decreasing total thickness. Bennion et al. eliminated
pt
the TIM by combining the baseplate and the heat sink and removing
the baseplate [80]. Kelly et al. and the 2010 Toyota Prius cooled the
ce
ceramic substrate directly [23, 81]. Yin et al. examined using
minichannels to cool the electrically insulating ceramic [15]. Lee et
al. modeled single and two-phase liquid cooling using microchannels
Ac
of the silicon carbide substrate of a GaN-on-SiC HEMT [82].
Recently, embedded cooling has also been researched for vertical
power devices, potentially by using microchannels etched into the
semiconductor [83, 84] or incorporating microchannels into the
electrode, or by integrating a silicon cooling structure at the device
level [85]. Electrical simulations have shown no negative side effects
with respect to electrical performance [83], although
manufacturability, modularity, and cost are potential barriers to
adoption despite its excellent heat transfer performance. It is
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important to remember that one of the functions of power electronics
packaging is to spread heat. Removal of layers decreases overall
thermal resistance, but may decrease heat spreading, requiring even
higher heat flux removal methods. The aforementioned papers utilized
increasingly aggressive cooling as the spreading layers decreased,
going from large channels to jet impingement, minichannels, and then
microchannels. Additional thermal resistances between the coolant
and the chip can be eliminated by directly cooling the chip. Direct or
immersion cooling is where the coolant liquid is in direct contact with
the semiconductor device. An overview of direct-immersion cooling
d
techniques can be seen in [86]. While immersion cooling decreases
the overall thermal resistance, problems such as coolant leakage and
ite
compatibility requirements make for noteworthy shortcomings,
resulting in a preference towards indirect cooling.
ed
5. NEEDS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR THERMAL
PACKAGING OF POWER ELECTRONICS
py
As hybrids and fully electric vehicles gain popularity, SiC will
move from testing and development to mass production and
implementation. Its high operating temperature and high frequency
Co
properties will require redesign of the package, including the use of
high-temperature materials, smaller passives for high-frequency
operation, and minimized system parasitics [4]. SiC devices, which
can withstand temperatures in excess of 200 °C, will enable an often-
ot
stated goal of combining vehicle cooling loops into one coolant loop
with an inlet temperature of 105 °C, which will yield significant space
and cost savings [87]. This can be taken another step by combining all
EV coolant loops [88]. But the combination of fluid loops means that
the packaging will see minimum temperatures of 105 °C and up to or
exceeding 200 °C, whereas the maximum junction temperature of
silicon-based units is 125 °C. Power cycling will then cause even
larger temperature swings, requiring more reliable packaging materials
that can function at ever-increasing maximum temperatures. Three
critical components were identified in technological gaps for next-gen
power modules: die attach materials, thermal interfaces, and high heat
flux cooling techniques. Currently, there is no obvious solution for
each of these discussed packaging alternatives.
As temperatures exceed reliable operating temperatures of tin-
based solders, there is still no drop-in solution for reliable high-
temperature die-attach except high-lead solders. Silver sintering is the
current frontrunner, especially as ambient temperatures continue to
increase. Other options may have more desirable mechanical qualities
than silver sintering, but their melting temperatures will be approached
or exceeded as automotive applications continue to see higher
temperatures [46]. Even at 200 °C, the majority of high-temperature
solders will not reliably function. But lack of equipment for applying
simultaneous high temperatures and pressures and failure caused by
microstructure evolution must first be addressed before silver sintering
can become the new standard die-attach. Further research into
pressureless sintering and delaying or preventing microstructure
evolution might push silver sintering into this position.
TIMs are still the bottleneck in further reduction of thermal
resistance in most power electronics packages. Reducing the use of
TIMs is attractive from a thermal perspective, but complete
elimination will not be possible. Minimizing usage when possible is
an attractive strategy, as demonstrated by the direct substrate cooled
packages. High thermal conductivity fillers and carbon based
materials should be further investigated as both an enhancement and a
basis for TIMs.
Double-sided cooling architectures appear adequate to provide
the cooling capability for SiC modules for the current generation,
Journal of Electronic Packaging. Received December 11, 2017;
Accepted manuscript posted July 12, 2018. doi:10.1115/1.4040828
Copyright (c) 2018 by ASME
although high heat flux removal technologies should be investigated
for next-generation modules. Two-phase cooling methods should be
further investigated, especially from the standpoint of having a single
coolant loop. However, industry adoption of these technologies will
require demonstration and understanding of their long term reliability.
New liquid coolants suitable for reliable operation temperatures in the
range 150 °C – 250 °C can significantly advance thermal packaging
for future automotive applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is supported by the members of the High-Power,
High-Temperature Electronics for Electric Cars Consortium of the 3D
Systems Packaging Research Center at the Georgia Institute of
Technology.
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