energies
Article
Diagnostics of PID Early Stage in PV Systems
Tomáš Finsterle * , Ladislava Černá






Citation: Finsterle, T.; Černá, L.;
Hrzina, P.; Rokusek, D.; Benda, V.
Diagnostics of PID Early Stage in PV
Systems. Energies 2021, 14, 2155.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082155
Academic Editor: Ali Bidram
Received: 5 February 2021
Accepted: 8 April 2021
Published: 13 April 2021
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 2155. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082155
, Pavel Hrzina , David Rokusek and Vítězslav Benda
Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague,
Technicka 2, 166 27 Prague, Czech Republic; turczlad@fel.cvut.cz (L.Č.); hrzinap@fel.cvut.cz (P.H.);
david.rokusek@gmail.com (D.R.); benda@fel.cvut.cz (V.B.)
* Correspondence: finsttom@fel.cvut.cz; Tel.: +420-224-352-090
Abstract: Potential induced degradation (PID) is a serious threat for the photovoltaic (PV) industry.
The risk of PID may increase with increasing operating voltage of PV systems. Although PID tests
are currently standard tests, the expansion of floating PV power plants and installation in humid
climates show that PID-free modules are still sensitive to this type of degradation. Therefore, a
method that can detect PID in the initial phase before standard tests reveal it, is necessary to increase
the reliability of PV systems and maintain their lifetime. One possible tool for revealing early-stage
PID manifestations is impedance spectroscopy and I-V dark curves measurements. Both IS and
dark current measurement methods are sensitive to cell shunt resistance (RSH ), which is strongly
influenced by PID before significant power loss and can act as an early stage PID detection mechanism.
The paper describes the differences of the common P-type PV module parameters both during the
degradation process and also during the regeneration process when diagnosed by conventional and
IS and dark current measurement methods.
Keywords: potential-induced degradation; impedance characteristics; diagnostics of photovoltaic
module defects
1. Introduction
The potential induced degradation (PID) is one serious problem of present PV plants.
The impact of the PID on the power plant can be very significant, because PV modules
can lose up to 70% of their original performance in real conditions due to PID. The basic
prerequisite for the progression of PID is a high potential difference between the module
and the ground. PID depends on many different factors [1].
The existence of high voltage stress on modules was first raised in 1978 by Hoffman
and Ross of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in a study on real-life testing [2].
The performance of PV modules decreases rapidly during laboratory testing, due to
the use of accelerated conditions such as higher voltage or humidity. On the other hand, if
PV modules work in the field and are subject to PID, their performance may deteriorate
slowly and over a long period (more than a year) and the degradation process may remain
undetected for a long time. Conventional methods for detecting field energy losses have
combined measurement uncertainties greater than 5%, which complicates PID detection [3].
Failure detection based on long-term analysis is possible, but not applicable for early
detection of PID (without a significant decrease in performance) [3]. Some methods try
to use leakage current, but detecting PID using leakage current has proven to be not
entirely accurate because leakage current has been shown not to be directly related to PID
progression [4].
The first solution to the PID problem is the modification of production technology and
components that will eliminate the sensitivity of the module to high voltages. Production
companies and research institutes have done many experiments that have lead to such
modifications, e.g., by modifying the composition of the anti-reflective layer and the
laminating material, a significant reduction in the rate of PID degradation was achieved
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 2 of 15

in conventional P-type based PV modules, where the back of the module is covered
with a Tedlar foil [5]. In the case of N-type based modules, namely Sunpower, where
PID was first widely observed, research on the glass composition revealed that the PID
sensitivity is connected with tin content (floated glass is made using molten tin) [6]. Another
critical component is the lamination foil, usually EVA (ethyl-vinyl-acetate), whose ionic
conductivity is essential for PID to affect development.
Currently, the possibility of installing floating PV modules on water surfaces, which
represents an increased risk of PID degradation [7], is much discussed. Current tests of
PID-free modules are in accordance with IEC 62804, where 85% humidity [8] during the
tests may not be sufficient, and sensitivity to PID may not be fully detected. Materials
that allow the production of PID-free modules may not be as effective in poor conditions.
Regeneration of PID deteriorated modules using application voltages with opposite polarity
is possible [9], but may not lead to perfect regeneration. Currently, there are many devices
that attempt to regenerate a degraded module by reversing the polarity of the voltage
and at least partially reversing the PID, but the problem is that very often, there is a need
to install a relatively large number of these devices, usually one on several strings, or to
regularly move around the power plant. Both of these methods are relatively expensive or
require rapid diagnosis of the initial phase of degradation.
PID reduces the efficiency of PV modules, and therefore, in principle, electricity
generation monitoring could be used to detect it. However, there are several other factors
(irradiance, ambient temperature, wind speed, etc.) that affect energy production, so
fluctuations in operating conditions may mask the incipient PID and the effect becomes
apparent when a significant degree of degradation occurs. For diagnostics, it is possible to
use the measurement of I-V characteristics using a solar simulator or detection of damage
by electroluminescence, but this requires disassembly of modules and measurements in
a specialized laboratory or special equipment for outdoor measurements. In the outdoor
environment, the PID detection method mostly uses thermal imaging devices, but it can
only be used with crystalline silicon modules only under specific conditions (clear sky,
sufficient irradiance). PID diagnostics using a thermal imager is relatively insensitive
and changes can only be seen when the module is already severely affected. However,
for the diagnosis of large photovoltaic arrays, the only option is to use thermography in
combination with a drone to at least briefly identify the defective modules. As follows
from [10–13], in addition to the above methods, it is also possible to detect PID by changes
in the dark I–V curves of the modulus, also called forward DC resistance (FDCR), or
by impedance spectroscopy [14–16]. These methods require relatively less expensive
equipment and can be used in situ.
This paper focuses on the comparison of the sensitivity of PID detection using several
diagnostic methods (flash simulator, electroluminescence, impedance spectroscopy, and
FDCR) during the process of parameter degradation and subsequent regeneration using
the opposite polarization of the applied voltage. Finding the most PID-sensitive diagnostic
method that can be easily applied may be very important for the detection of the early
stage PID in PV plants.

2. PV Module PID
The basic blocks of PV installation are photovoltaic modules that are complete and
environmentally protected assemblies of interconnected photovoltaic cells. PV modules
usually consist of a number (m) in-series connected PV cells, as indicated in Figure 1a
using the basic model of PV cells [17]. The current I through uniformly irradiated in-series
connected cells will be limited by the minimum ISC of all cells connected in the string. For
the serial connection, the cells should ideally have the same characteristics. In simplified
approximation, marked in Figure 1b, the module can be represented by one value of series
resistance RS ’ and shunt resistance RSH ’. I–V curve of the module (m serially connected
cells) than have analogical to the basic PV cell I-V curve
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 3 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

e(V + IR0s ) e(V + IR0s ) V + IR0s

       
I = IPV − ID − IRSH = IPV − I01 exp − 1 − I02 exp −1 − 0 (1)
m∗𝑒 n𝑉1+
kT𝐼𝑅 ’ 𝑒m𝑉+∗n
𝐼𝑅2 kT
´ 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅R´SH
𝐼=𝐼 −𝐼 −𝐼 =𝐼 −𝐼 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1 −𝐼 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1 − (1)
𝑚 ∗ 𝑛 𝑘𝑇 generated current,
where IPV is the photovoltaic 𝑚 ∗ 𝑛 𝑘𝑇 𝑅 ´

Figure1.
Figure 1. (a)
(a)Equivalent
Equivalentcircuit
circuitofofserially connected
serially PVPV
connected cells intointo
cells the module. (b) Simplified
the module. equiv-
(b) Simplified
alent circuit of m serially connected PV cells.
equivalent circuit of m serially connected PV cells.

where IPV is theflowing

ID current photovoltaic
through generated current,
the PN junction,
IIRSH
D current
currentflowing
flowingthrough
throughthe thePN junction,
shunt resistance
RIRSH current flowing
SH equivalent shuntthrough
resistance,the shunt resistance
RRs SHseries resistance
equivalent shunt resistance,
IRuseful
s seriescurrent that the PV cell can deliver to the external circuit,
resistance
II01useful
diffusion component
current that the of PVthe
cellreverse current,
can deliver to the external circuit,
II0201 generation-recombination
diffusion component of thecomponent of the reverse current,
reverse current,
n2 diode (ideality) factors, component of the reverse current,
nI102, generation-recombination
knBoltzmann’s constant,
1, n2 diode (ideality) factors,
ekelectron
Boltzmann’selementary
constant, charge,
Te thermodynamic
electron elementary temperature
charge,
VT voltage at the PVtemperature
thermodynamic cell terminal, module output voltage
mV number
voltage at of the
in-series
PV cellconnected
terminal,cells
module output voltage
Changes in parameters
m number of in-series connected of individual cells result in changes in the module parameters.
cells
The covering soda-lime glass contains 13% to 14% Na2 O. When the crystalline silicon
P-typeChanges
moduleinisparameters
exposed to ofaindividual
high negative potential
cells result between
in changes cells
in the and the
module module
parameters.
frame, positivesoda-lime
The covering sodium ions glass coming
containsfrom13%thetoglass
14%toNa the EVA migrate to the cell surface,
2O. When the crystalline silicon P-
contributing to the module leakage current
type module is exposed to a high negative potential between [18]. Positively charged
cellsions
and accumulate
the moduleon the
frame,
antireflection coating (ARC) surface. The light-generated electrons
positive sodium ions coming from the glass to the EVA migrate to the cell surface, con- are attracted to the front
surface
tributing of the cellmodule
to the by a positive
leakage charge in the
current ARPositively
[18]. coating, where theyions
charged recombine, decreasing
accumulate on the
the generated current
antireflection coatingPV I . Soda-lime glass, involved in module-level PID-s
(ARC) surface. The light-generated electrons are attracted to the development as
the predominant charge carrier contributing to the leakage currents
front surface of the cell by a positive charge in the AR coating, where they recombine, necessary for any PID-s
development. The PID can be detected from changes in the parameters of the I-V curve.
decreasing the generated current IPV. Soda-lime glass, involved in module-level PID-s de-
The situation on the surface of the anti-reflective layer is shown in Figure 2. This
velopment as the predominant charge carrier contributing to the leakage currents neces-
results in a significant increase in surface recombination rate, resulting in a decrease of
sary for any PID-s development. The PID can be detected from changes in the parameters
generated current IPV and, consequently, in a decrease of the open-circuit voltage Voc and
of the I-V curve.
the short-circuit current ISC [4].
The situation on the surface of the anti-reflective layer is shown in Figure 2. This re-
sults in a significant increase in surface recombination rate, resulting in a decrease of gen-
erated current IPV and, consequently, in a decrease of the open-circuit voltage Voc and the
short-circuit current ISC [4].
 Energies 2021, 14, 2155 4 of 15
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Energies PEER14,REVIEW
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15 4 of 15

Figure 2. PID Figure

polarization
2. PIDscheme.
Figure 2. PID
polarization polarization scheme.
scheme.

PID shunting PID(PID-s)

PID shunting
shuntingis another
(PID-s)
(PID-s) mechanism
is anotherof
is another PID. This is
mechanism
mechanism ofaPID.
of more
PID. advanced
This
This isisaamore stage
more of
advanced
advanced stage
stage of
PID-p. It arises
of after
PID-p. a long-term
It arises effect
after a of potential
long-term on
effect the
of module.
potential This
on degradation
the module.
PID-p. It arises after a long-term effect of potential on the module. This degradation cre- cre-
This degradation
ates a conductive
ates aconnection
creates a conductive
conductive across the cell
connection
connection structure.
across
across thethe Conventional
cell
cell structure.
structure. crystalline
Conventional
Conventional silicon PV silicon
crystalline
crystalline silicon
PV
modules of PV the P-type
modules are
of most
the often
P-type affected
are most by
often PID-shunting.
affected by PID-s has
PID-shunting.
modules of the P-type are most often affected by PID-shunting. PID-s has a significant a significant
PID-s has a significant
effect on RSHeffect
and dark
effect onRRSH
on saturation
and darkcurrent [4] (effect
saturation current of[4]
PID on RSH
(effect
SH and dark saturation current [4] (effect of PID on R
of).PID
Theon
occurrence
RSH ). Theof these
occurrence of these
SH). The occurrence of these
micro-shunts
micro-shuntsmicro-shunts
across the PN across the
junction
across PN
the PN junction
results results
in significant
junction in significant
results inohmic ohmic
changes
significant in PV
ohmic changes in
in PV cellsand
cells and
changes PV cells and
reduces theirreduces their
efficiency. efficiency.
The loss of The loss
efficiency of efficiency
caused by caused
PID is by
more PID is more
pronounced
reduces their efficiency. The loss of efficiency caused by PID is more pronounced at low pronounced
at low at low
irradiation
irradiation levels compared
irradiation levels
levelstocompared
the loss atto
compared the
theloss
standard
to lossat atstandard
testing testing
conditions
standard conditions
testing(STC). (STC).
(STC).The
The principle
conditions Theprinciple
principle
of this
of this degradation degradation
is illustrated isinillustrated
Figure 3.
of this degradation is illustrated in Figure 3.in Figure 3.

Figure 3. PID Figure

shunting PID
scheme.
Figure 3.3.PID shuntingscheme.
shunting scheme.

The last PIDThe mechanism

lastPID is electrochemical
PIDmechanism
mechanism corrosion, which occurswhich
due to leakage
The last isiselectrochemical
electrochemical corrosion,
corrosion, occurs
which occurs dueto
due toleakage
leakage
currents, especially
currents, in thin-film
especially photovoltaic
in thin-film modules.
photovoltaic In crystalline
modules. Insilicon modules,
crystalline elec-
silicon
currents, especially in thin-film photovoltaic modules. In crystalline silicon modules, elec- modules, elec-
trochemical trochemical
corrosion is a minor
trochemicalcorrosion problem,
corrosionisisaaminor most often
minorproblem, on
problem,most soldered
mostoften joints.
oftenon Electrochemical
onsoldered
solderedjoints.
joints.Electrochemical
Electrochemical
corrosion incorrosion
modules in
corrosion fabricated
modulesfrom
inmodules P-typefrom
fabricated
fabricated silicon
from wafers
P-type
P-type mainly
silicon
silicon affects
wafers
wafers the soldering
mainly
mainly affectsthe
affects thesoldering
soldering
points between thebetween
points
points bus bar the
between and
thebusthe bar
bus fingers,
barand and
andthe can be easily
thefingers,
fingers, andcan
and detected
can beeasily
be due
easily to increasing
detected
detected duetotoincreasing
due increasing
series resistance Rresistance
series
series S.
resistanceRRS.. S

2.1. PID Diagnostic

2.1.
2.1. PID
PIDMethods
Diagnostic
DiagnosticMethods
Methods
A total of four methods
AAtotal
total were
ofoffour
four used were
methods
methods inwere
ourused
experiments
inin
used our to study measurement
experiments
our experimentsto study meth- methods
measurement
to study measurement meth-
ods suitablesuitable
for the diagnosis
for the of PID,
diagnosis namely
of PID, the
namelymeasurement
the of
measurementI–V curves,
of I–V electrolu-
curves, electrolumines-
ods suitable for the diagnosis of PID, namely the measurement of I–V curves, electrolu-
minescence,cence,
dark I–V
darkcurve
minescence, I–V
dark measurement,
curve and impedance
I–Vmeasurement, and spectroscopy.
and impedance
curve measurement, OnlyOnly
spectroscopy.
impedance the the
spectroscopy.first
first two
Only are
the first
two are usually used
usually in
used diagnostics.
in diagnostics.
two are usually used in diagnostics.
2.2.Measurements
2.2. I–V Curve I–V Curve Measurements
2.2. I–V Curve Measurements
As mentioned Asabove,
mentioned above, determining
determining the PV moduletheparameters
PV module parameters comes from the mea-
As mentioned above, determining the PV modulecomes from the
parameters meas-
comes from the meas-
surement
urement of I–V curves.of I–V curves. The most often used equipment is a flash tester [19], which is
urement ofThe
I–V most
curves.often
Theused
mostequipment
often usedisequipment
a flash tester
is a[19],
flashwhich
testeris[19],
usu- which is usu-
usually
ally also a part of also
the a part
production of the production
line. In our line. In
experiment, our
theexperiment,
PASAN Sun the PASAN
Simulator Sun
IIIc Simulator
ally also a part of the production line. In our experiment, the PASAN Sun Simulator IIIc
IIIc
was used forwas was
I–V usedused
curvefor for I–V
measurement. curve measurement.
I–V curve measurement.
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 5 of 15

The method using the derivation of the equation at the extreme points VA of the
characteristic determines the series and parallel resistance RS and RSH as the direction of
the tangents. By extreme points it is meant that on the current axis, it is the ISC point (V = 0),
short-circuit current. On the voltage axis, it is the point V = VOC (I = 0), the voltage of the
open circuit. This method is also used by the Pasan SunSim IIIc solar simulator, at low
irradiance, the method is burdened with a systematic error and therefore the estimated
value of resistance is referred to as RS * and RSH *.

dV 
RS ∗ ≈ − (2)
dI V =VOC

and at I = ISC
dI 1
≈− (3)
dV RSH ∗
The parameters RS *. and RSH * determined by Equations (2) and (3) generally depend
on the irradiance, which is more evident at low irradiance levels, although RS and RSH are
usually considered to be constant. A more detailed analysis of the issue can be found, for
example, in [20].

2.3. Electroluminescence
Electroluminescence (EL) in PV cells is the result of radiative recombination of electron–
hole pairs generated in a cell material, usually a semiconductor, by solar radiation or
passage of current. The energy of photons emitted by inter-band radiative recombination
is very close to the bandgap of the cell material. EL as a diagnostic tool for the analysis of
defects on PV cells and modules is widely used. The c-Si cells emanate near-infrared light
and the wavelength range is from 1000 to 1200 nm [21]. We can find out cracks and other
damages because the intensity of emitted radiation is proportional to minority carriers’
concentration in the PV cell structure. For detection, a silicon charged-coupled device
(CCD) camera or InGaAs camera is used. EL is a fast optical and electrical technique for
detecting the defects which the human eye cannot see.

2.4. Forward DC Resistance (FDCR)

Dark curves are a way to estimate the RSH . The mathematical relation of the dark
I–V curve for a module (consisting of m in-series connected cells) considering the series
resistance and the shunt resistance is given by the equation
h  e  i (V − IR )
s
I = I0 exp (V − IRs ) − 1 + , (4)
mnkT RSH

where e is the electronic charge, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature.
I0 is the diode saturation current, n is the diode quality factor, RS is the series resistance
and RSH is the shunt resistance. Over the years, several methods have been suggested for
extracting these parameters from the dark I–V curve [22].
If we consider a voltage V < mkT e , we can simplify the relationship for calculating RSH
from the dark I–V curve to:
V
RSH ≈ (5)
I
Although this approximation is relatively inaccurate, it is sufficient for PID analysis.

2.5. Impedance Spectroscopy

Impedance spectroscopy (IS) has been widely applied over the last decades to study
electrochemical systems and solid-state devices.
The impedance spectroscopy (IS) is characterized by the measurement and analysis
of some or all impedance related functions of an electronic device. In IS, the complex
impedance Z(ω) = R(ω) + jX(ω) of a device is measured directly within a large range of
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, 2155 6 of 15

The impedance spectroscopy (IS) is characterized by the measurement and analysis
of some or all impedance related functions of an electronic device. In IS, the complex im-
pedance Z(ω) = R(ω) + jX(ω) of a device is measured directly within a large range of fre-
frequencies
quencies using
using an an
LCR LCR meter.
meter. A purely
A purely sinusoidal
sinusoidal voltage
voltage withwith varying
varying frequency
frequency is
is ap-
applied to the terminals of the device under test and the phase shift and
plied to the terminals of the device under test and the phase shift and amplitude of the amplitude of
the voltage
voltage andand current
current signals
signals are measured.
are measured. TheThe
ratioratio between
between the the applied
applied voltage
voltage andandthe
the resultant current is calculated and this gives the impedance Z(ω) of
resultant current is calculated and this gives the impedance Z(ω) of the device under the device under
test.
test. plotting
The The plotting of R(ω)
of R(ω) and X(ω)
and X(ω) on a on a complex
complex plane,plane,
in thein function
the function of varying
of the the varying
fre-
quency, gives the impedance spectrum of the device. This graph is the special case of
frequency, gives the impedance spectrum of the device. This graph is the special case of
Nyquist diagram
Nyquist diagramcalled
calledCole–Cole
Cole–Colediagram.
diagram.TheTheconstruction
construction of Cole–Cole
of Cole–Colediagram allows
diagram al-
simple
lows evaluation
simple of parameters
evaluation and also
of parameters andthe quality
also of the tested
the quality of the device. Figure Figure
tested device. 4a shows 4a
a typical Cole-Cole diagram for a capacitor.
shows a typical Cole-Cole diagram for a capacitor.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Cole-Cole diagram of PV cell (module). (b) Dynamic model of the PV cell.

PN junction properties under low bias signal may be modeled as a capacitance of the
depletion layer at the junction, using an equivalent circuit as indicated in Figure 4b. In a
similar equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuitaaPVPVmodule
moduleconsisting
consistingfrom
froma number
a number of in-series connected
of in-series connectedPV
cellscells
PV cancanalsoalso
be transformed.
be transformed.
thickness of the space charge region at the PN junction (and therefore also the
The thickness
PN junction
junction capacitance)
capacitance)depends
dependsstrongly
stronglyononthe
theapplied
appliedvoltage.
voltage. If If
youyou apply
apply voltage
voltage in
in the reverse direction (positive potential to N), the space charge
the reverse direction (positive potential to N), the space charge region expands; if itregion expands; if is
it
is polarized in the forward direction (negative potential to N), the space
polarized in the forward direction (negative potential to N), the space charge region nar- charge region
narrows.
rows. Using Using
an an
ACAC signal
signal forfor
thethe measurement,then
measurement, thenatatone
onehalf-period
half-period of of the
the applied
applied
voltage the
voltage the capacitance
capacitance decreases;
decreases; at at the
the second
second half-period
half-period itit increases.
increases. Therefore,
Therefore, ACAC
power voltage value (measuring signal) should be very small (in a range of millivolts) to
power voltage value (measuring signal) should be very small (in a range of millivolts) to
have no
have no significant
significant effect
effect on
on the
the measured
measured values.
values.
The measured
The measured values
values can
can bebe significantly
significantly influenced
influenced by by aa DC
DC bias
bias that
that can
can change
change
the operational point of the cell (or module) and thus influence the measured Cole-Cole
the operational point of the cell (or module) and thus influence the measured Cole-Cole
diagram and
diagram and parameters
parametersto tobe
beextracted
extracted[23–26].
[23–26].Irradiation
Irradiationcauses
causes undesirable
undesirable DCDCbiasing
bias-
and it is recommended to perform the AC measurement in dark conditions.
ing and it is recommended to perform the AC measurement in dark conditions. Applica- Application
of reverse
tion cell polarization
of reverse is limited
cell polarization in PV modules
is limited by the threshold
in PV modules voltage ofvoltage
by the threshold Schottkyof
bypass diodes.
Schottky bypass diodes.
In our measurements, PV modules were measured in the dark without DC bias using
In our measurements, PV modules were measured in the dark without DC bias using
AC signal of about 100 mV that corresponds to the AC signal of the amplitude of a few
AC signal of about 100 mV that corresponds to the AC signal of the amplitude of a few
millivolts over individual cells in-series connected in the measured module.
millivolts over individual cells in-series connected in the measured module.
3. Experiment
3. Experiment
To better understand the PID process, an experiment was prepared to monitor changes
To betterparameters
in individual understand the PID
of cells and process,
modules an experiment
during was stress.
high-voltage prepared to monitor
changes in individual parameters of cells and modules during high-voltage
The measurements were performed on a standard photovoltaic module (type stress.SST250-
The measurements were performed on a standard photovoltaic module
60M with a peak power of 250 W), which had previously been operated in a power plant (type
SST250-60M with a peak power of 250 W), which had previously been operated in
(and exposed to weather conditions) for about 5 years. The module was modified so that it a power
plant
is also(and exposed
possible to weather
to measure conditions)
changes for about 5 years.
in the parameters of oneThe module
selected cell.was
Themodified so
rear cover
foil of the module was removed locally using a grinding wheel and the copper contact
was soldered to the bus bars of the selected cell to allow a four-point measurement. A
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, 2155 7 of 15

that it is also possible to measure changes in the parameters of one selected cell. The rear
cover foil of the module was removed locally using a grinding wheel and the copper con-
tact was soldered to the bus bars of the selected cell to allow a four-point measurement.
modification
A modification of the module
of the is shown
module in in
is shown Figure 5. 5.
Figure Selected
Selectedcells
cellsare
arenear
nearthe
theframe
framesosoaa
higher electric field between the glass and cells in this area and a higher possibility of
higher electric field between the glass and cells in this area and a higher possibility of
moisture penetration was the reason for choosing this location.
moisture penetration was the reason for choosing this location.

Figure
Figure 5. 5.Modification
Modificationofof module
module forfor measuring
measuring individual
individual cells.
cells.

Theexperiment
The experiment was was performed
performed in in aa laboratory
laboratoryat atroom
roomtemperature
temperatureand andhumidity
humidityof
about
of about 30%.
30%. Degradation
Degradation was performed
was performed using a high
using voltage
a high source,
voltage voltage
source, (715(715
voltage V) was
V)
applied
was to the
applied to module
the module so that the positive
so that polepole
the positive was was
connected to thetoframe
connected and the
the frame andnega-
the
tive polepole
negative to thetocontacts of theof
the contacts module. To accelerate
the module. degradation
To accelerate or regeneration,
degradation the glass
or regeneration,
of the
the front
glass module
of the frontwas covered
module waswith aluminum
covered foil, whichfoil,
with aluminum waswhich
held onwas theheld
module due
on the
to electrostatic force. After the selected time, the module was
module due to electrostatic force. After the selected time, the module was disconnecteddisconnected from the
source,
from thethe aluminum
source, foil was foil
the aluminum removed from thefrom
was removed front,the
and afterand
front, twoafterhourstwoof hours
stabiliza-
of
tion, electroluminescence
stabilization, measurements
electroluminescence measurementswere performed. Then the
were performed. Then characteristics of the
the characteristics
ofmodule and the
the module andselected cells cells
the selected werewere
measured
measuredusing a Pasan
using III flash
a Pasan tester,
III flash andand
tester, then the
then
the
I–VI–V
darkdark characteristics
characteristics werewere measured
measured andandthethe measurements
measurements werewere performed
performed using
using im-
impedance spectroscopy.These
pedance spectroscopy. Thesemeasurements
measurements were were performed both both onon the
thewhole
wholemodule
module
and on selected cells.
and on selected cells.
After
After the
the measurement, degeneration continued
measurement, degeneration continuedininthe thesame
sameexperimental
experimental setup
setup for
for another
another selected
selected time.
time. After
After a total
a total timetime of 344
of 344 h ofhdegeneration,
of degeneration, regeneration
regeneration waswas
per-
performed
formed in the in the
same same experimental
experimental setup,setup, withthe
with only only the polarization
polarization of the reversed.
of the module module
reversed.
At certainAtintervals,
certain intervals, the regeneration
the regeneration was interrupted
was interrupted and all theand all the measurements
measurements were per-
were
formedperformed
in the samein the same
way way as the
as during during the degeneration
degeneration process.process.

4.4.Results
Results
Electroluminescent
Electroluminescentimages
imagestaken
takenafter
afterthe
theindividual
individualdegradation
degradationsteps
stepsare
areshown
showninin
Figure 6. In the images, cells with individually drawn contacts are marked in red. Due to the
Figure 6. In the images, cells with individually drawn contacts are marked in red. Due to
small distance from the frame, these links are quite significantly affected by PID. Changes
the small distance from the frame, these links are quite significantly affected by PID.
in EL images will only take effect with stronger PID exposure. For these reasons (and also
Changes in EL images will only take effect with stronger PID exposure. For these reasons
due to complications with the use of this method in the field), electroluminescence does not
(and also due to complications with the use of this method in the field), electrolumines-
appear to be suitable for the early diagnosis of PID. Quantification of electroluminescent
cence does not appear to be suitable for the early diagnosis of PID. Quantification of elec-
images is also complicated [27].
troluminescent images is also complicated [27].
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 8 of 15
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

Figure6.6.Electroluminescent
Figure Electroluminescentimages
imagesduring
duringdegradation.
degradation.

4.1.Process
4.1. ProcessofofDegradation
Degradation
The
Thecharacteristics obtainedduring
characteristics obtained duringthe the degradation
degradation of the
of the module module are shown
are shown in
in Figure
Figure 7. Figure
7. Figure 7a shows
7a shows the changes
the changes of the of
I-Vthe I-V characteristics
characteristics obtainedobtained by measurement
by measurement with a
with
flashatester.
flash It
tester.
can beItseen
can that
be seen that the
the whole whole
module module
loses output loses
power output
duringpower during
degradation,
degradation, which also reduces the voltage V and
which also reduces the voltage VOC and currentOCISC. Changes in SC current I . Changes in Cole-Cole
Cole-Cole diagrams meas-
diagrams measured by
ured by impedance impedanceare
spectroscopy spectroscopy are shown
shown in Figure in Figure
7b whilst Figure 7b 7c
whilst
shows Figure 7c
changes
shows
in the changes
dark I-Vin the dark I-V characteristics
characteristics during degradation.
during degradation.
Results
Resultsofofthe
themeasurement
measurementperformed
performedon onone
oneselected
selectedcell
cellofofthe
theexamined
examinedmodule
module
are
areshown
shownininFigure 8. In
Figure thethe
8. In case of ISof(Figure
case 8b), only
IS (Figure threethree
8b), only curves couldcould
curves be recorded from
be recorded
the measurements performed on the selected cell because, as the degradation
from the measurements performed on the selected cell because, as the degradation con- continued,
the cell completely
tinued, lost its capacitive
the cell completely character. However,
lost its capacitive character. the photovoltaic
However, cell continued
the photovoltaic cell
tocontinued
degrade forto degrade for another nearly 200 h. It turned out that the IS is very and
another nearly 200 h. It turned out that the IS is very sensitive the
sensitive
degradation proceeded
and the degradation very quickly,
proceeded very which
quicklyis, also
whichreflected
is also in the electroluminescence
reflected in the electrolumi-
results (Figure 6) and in I-V curve changes (Figure 8a). If the
nescence results (Figure 6) and in I-V curve changes (Figure 8a). If the cellscells had beenhad
selected
been in
se-
the middle of the module, there would have been no loss of capacitive character and it
lected in the middle of the module, there would have been no loss of capacitive character
would have been possible to observe a slower course represented by a larger number of
and it would have been possible to observe a slower course represented by a larger num-
Cole-Cole curves.
ber of Cole-Cole curves.
Energies 2021,
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15
Energies 9 of

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 7. (a)
7.(a)
Figure7. I-V
(a)I-V curves
I-Vcurves during
curvesduring degradation
duringdegradation for
degradationfor PV
forPV module.
PVmodule. (b)
module. (b) Cole-Cole
(b)Cole-Cole curve
Cole-Colecurve during
curveduring degradation
duringdegradation for
degradation for PV
for PV module.
module. (c)
PVmodule. (c)
(c)
Dark I-V
DarkI-V
Dark curve
I-Vcurve during
curveduring degradation
duringdegradation for
degradationfor PV
forPV module.
PVmodule.
module.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 8. Cont.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 10 of 15

(c)
Figure 8. (a) I-V curves during degradation for PV cell. (b) Cole-Cole curve during degradation for PV cell. (c) Dark I-V
curve during degradation for PV cell.

4.2. The Regeneration Process

The method of PID regeneration was chosen according to [28,29]. The regeneration
process was started by applying inverse voltage in the same experimental setup. The neg-
ative pole was attached to the frame. At selected time intervals, regeneration was inter-
(c)
rupted and measurements were performed in the same way as during the degeneration
Figure
Figure8.8.(a)
(a)I-V
I-Vcurves
curvesduring degradation
process.
during for
forPV
PVcell.
Characteristics
degradation (b)
(b)Cole-Cole
obtained
cell. curve
during
Cole-Cole during
module
curve during degradation
degradationfor
regeneration forPV
are cell.
cell.(c)
shown
PV inDark
(c) Dark I-V
Figure I-V9 and
curve during degradation forFigure
PV cell.10. The reason for regeneration was the effort to move between different states of
curve during degradation for PV cell.
degradation and evaluate changes RSH.
4.2.
4.2.The
It Regeneration
The be seen Process
Regeneration
can Process
that the PID regeneration proceeded very quickly and the last two
measured characteristicsregeneration
The
The method
method of PID
of PID overlap withwas
regeneration the chosen
was chosenaccording
baseline according toto[28,29].
characteristics. [28,29]. The
In the The regeneration
case regeneration
of the mod-
process
process
ule, even was
was started
started
higher byapplying
by applying
performance inverse
inverse
was voltage
voltage
achieved inthe
in
than thesame
sameexperimental
module experimental setup. The
setup.
had in its original The
state nega-
neg-
be-
tive pole
ative
fore polewaswasattached
degradation. attached totothe
However, frame.
theit frame.AtAt
is also selected
selected
important time intervals,
totime
note regeneration
intervals,
that some regeneration
parameterswas interrupted
was
did notinter-
re-
and measurements
rupted
turn toand
their originalwere
measurements value, performed
were in the
performed
especially the shunt
same
in theway
Rsame asway
during the
as during
SH resistance. degeneration
Similar the process.
degeneration
results were also
Characteristics
process.
measured obtained
Characteristics
for individual during
obtained
cell module
during
(Figure regeneration
10),module are were
regeneration
even though we shown are in Figures
shown
unable to in 9 and100%
Figure
achieve 10. The
9 and of
reason
Figure for
the original regeneration
10. The was the
reason for regeneration
performance. effort
The Cole-Cole to
wasmove between
the effort
curve of oneto different
move
cell states
between
(Figure of degradation
different
10b) shows afterand
thatstates of
the
evaluate
first 24 h changes
degradation of and RSH . changes
evaluate
regeneration, RSH.
the cell regained capacitive character.
It can be seen that the PID regeneration proceeded very quickly and the last two
measured characteristics overlap with the baseline characteristics. In the case of the mod-
ule, even higher performance was achieved than the module had in its original state be-
fore degradation. However, it is also important to note that some parameters did not re-
turn to their original value, especially the shunt RSH resistance. Similar results were also
measured for individual cell (Figure 10), even though we were unable to achieve 100% of
the original performance. The Cole-Cole curve of one cell (Figure 10b) shows that after the
first 24 h of regeneration, the cell regained capacitive character.

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Cont.

(a) (b)
Energies Energies
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Energies 2021, 14, 2155 11 of 15

(c) (c)
Figure
Figure 9. 9. curves
(a) I-V
Figure 9. (a) I-V
(a) I-V curves
curves during
during during regeneration
regeneration for PV
PV module.
for PV module.
regeneration for module. (b) Cole-Cole
Cole-Cole
(b) Cole-Cole
(b) curve during
curve during
curve during regeneration
regeneration for PV module.
for PV module.
regeneration for PV module.
(c) (c)
(c)
Dark
Dark I-V I-Vduring
curve curve regeneration
during regeneration for PV module.
for PV module.
Dark I-V curve during regeneration for PV module.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

(c) (c)
Figure
Figure 10. 10.curves
(a) I-V (a) I-V during
curves regeneration
during regeneration for PV
for PV cell. (b)cell. (b) Cole-Cole
Cole-Cole curve regeneration
curve during during regeneration for PV
for PV cell. (c) cell.
Dark(c) Dark I-V
I-V
Figure 10. (a) I-V curves during regeneration for PV cell. (b) Cole-Cole curve during regeneration for PV cell. (c) Dark I-V
curve regeneration
curve during during regeneration for PV cell.
for PV cell.
curve during regeneration for PV cell.
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 12 of 15

It can be seen that the PID regeneration proceeded very quickly and the last two
measured characteristics overlap with the baseline characteristics. In the case of the
module, even higher performance was achieved than the module had in its original state
before degradation. However, it is also important to note that some parameters did not
return to their original value, especially the shunt RSH resistance. Similar results were also
measured for individual cell (Figure 10), even though we were unable to achieve 100%
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW of
12 of 15
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
the original performance. The Cole-Cole curve of one cell (Figure 10b) shows that after the
first 24 h of regeneration, the cell regained capacitive character.
5. Results and Discussion
5.5.Results
ResultsandandDiscussion
Discussion
PID is most
PIDisismost often
mostoften evaluated
oftenevaluated due
evaluateddue
duetoto
toaaadecrease
decrease
decreaseinin output
inoutput power.
outputpower. The
power. The dependence
Thedependence of
dependenceof
of
the PID
output power on the degradation time is shown in Figure 11.
the output power on the degradation time is shown in Figure
the output power on the degradation time is shown in Figure 11. 11.

Figure 11. Change of power of PV module due to PID.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Change
Changeofofpower
powerofofPV
PVmodule
moduledue
duetotoPID.
PID.
The shunt resistance of RSH is relatively sensitive to degenerative changes. The
The
changes shunt
Theinshunt resistance
resistance of
RSH determined of R
RSH
from isis relatively
SHthe relatively sensitive
measurement of I-Vtocharacteristics,
sensitive degenerative by changes. The
The
impedance
changes
changes in
in R
RSH determined
spectroscopy SH determined from
from the
the measurement
measurement of
ofI-V
I-V characteristics,
characteristics,
and by the measurement of dark current I-V are shown in Figure 12. by
by impedance
impedance
spectroscopy
spectroscopyand
andby bythe
themeasurement
measurementof ofdark
darkcurrent
currentI-V
I-Vare
are shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 12.
12.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Change
Changemeasured
measured RRSH
SHofofPV
PVmodule
moduledue
duetotoPID.
PID.
Figure 12. Change measured RSH of PV module due to PID.
The dependence
The dependence of of the
the output
output power
power on on the
the degradation
degradation time
time shows
shows thatthat in
in less
less than
than
one The dependence
hundred hours of
of the output
degradation power
there on
is the degradation
virtually no time shows
significant
one hundred hours of degradation there is virtually no significant change, while in less change,that in less
while inthan
less
one hundred
than 50
than hours of degradation
50 h a significant reduction
reductionin there
inthe
theshunt is virtually
shuntresistance no
resistancecan significant change,
canbebeobserved.
observed.TheThe while
tested
tested in less
module
mod-
than
ule 50 hshowed
already
already a significant
showed reduction
significant
significantchangesin the
in shunt
changes the resistance
inshunt
the canRbe
resistance
shunt observed.
SH after
resistance 47.5 The
RSH after of tested
h47.5 mod-
degradation.
h of degra-
ule already
dation.The dark showed significant
I-V curve method changes
proved in the
to beshunt resistance
the most RSH after
sensitive, the 47.5
IS andh ofthe
degra-
flash
dation.
tester are comparable in terms of determining the shunt resistance.
The dark I-V curve method proved to be the most sensitive, the IS and the flash tester The estimated shunt
are The dark
resistance
comparable I-Vwhen
value curve
in terms method
usingof the proved to be
flash tester
determining the
and
the mostresistance.
Equation
shunt sensitive, the
TheISestimated
(4), decreased and
by the
27%flash
in tester
the
shunt first
re-
are
47.5comparable
h, in the in
case terms
of IS by of
30%determining
and in the the
case shunt
of the resistance.
dark I-V The
curve
sistance value when using the flash tester and Equation (4), decreased by 27% in the first estimated
and Equation shunt
(5) re-
even
sistance
47.5 h, invalue when
the case using
of IS by 30%the flash
and in tester and of
the case Equation
the dark(4),
I-Vdecreased
curve andby 27% in the
Equation first
(5) even
47.5 h, in the case of IS by 30% and in the case of the dark I-V curve
by 57%. In the first tens of hours of degradation, the dependence of the resistance RSH on and Equation (5) even
by
the57%. In the first
degradation tens
time of hours
appears to ofbedegradation,
linear and graduallythe dependence
changesoftothe
theresistance RSH on
power function.
the
Thedegradation
relative changestime of appears to be linear
the individual and gradually
parameters changes to the
of the photovoltaic power measured
module, function.
The relative changes of the individual parameters of the photovoltaic module, measured
 Energies 2021, 14, 2155 13 of 15
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

inbyVOC
57%. In the
occur first
only at tens of hoursadvanced
a relatively of degradation, the
stage of dependenceThe
degradation. of the RSH on
resistancepower,
parameters
the degradation time appears to be linear and gradually changes to the power
Voc, Isc, RS* returned to their original values after 360 h of regeneration, only RSH* shows function.
The relative
some changes
hysteresis and did of not
the return
individual
to theparameters of the
original value. photovoltaic
However, module, measured
this degradation of the
by PASAN IIIc, during degradation and subsequent regeneration
RSH* value has not yet affected the performance of the module, but shows someare shown inirreversi-
Figure 13.
Individual
bility parameters measured using Pasan IIIb are listed in Table 1
of the PID.

Figure
Figure13.
13.Photovoltaic
Photovoltaicmodule
moduleparameters
parametersduring
duringdegradation
degradationand
andregeneration.
regeneration.

Table 1. Module parameters measured with Pasan SunSim IIIc during degradation.
Table 1. Module parameters measured with Pasan SunSim IIIc during degradation.
Time of Degrada-
PMAX RTime
SH* (Ω)
of RS* (Ω) η FF (%) VOC (V) ISC (A)
tion (Hour)
0 205.6 Degradation
146.5 P0.68
MAX RSH * (Ω)
12.56 RS * (Ω) 66.35η FF (%)36.8 VOC (V) ISC (A)
8.3
47.5 203.3 (Hour)
106.3 0.68 12.66 66.40 36.9 8.3
119.5 182.9 36.1
0 0.73
205.6 11.28
146.5 0.68 60.09
12.56 66.35 36.6 36.8 8.2 8.3
167.5 152.9 20.0 0.95 9.43 51.47 36.1 8.2
47.5 203.3 106.3 0.68 12.66 66.40 36.9 8.3
242 109.4 10.5 1.51 6.75 41.74 32.4 8.0
344 70.7 119.5
5.9 182.9
1.88 36.14.63 0.73 11.28
34.39 60.09 26.2 36.6 7.8 8.2
167.5 152.9 20.0 0.95 9.43 51.47 36.1 8.2
All parameters obtained from the flash test measurements somehow correspond to
242 109.4 10.5 1.51 6.75 41.74 32.4 8.0
the increasing rate of PID, as can be seen in (Figure 13). The results show the importance
344 70.7 5.9 1.88 4.63
of RSH measurements, mainly due to significant changes in34.39 26.2
this parameter 7.8
in the initial
stage of PID. All other monitored parameters showed a change only with more intense
PID. It is clear from the parameter changes that the PID first leads to a reduction in RSH *,
then to a reduction in performance. The increase in series resistance RS * and the decrease in
6.VConclusions
OC occur only at a relatively advanced stage of degradation. The parameters power, Voc,
Isc, Based
RS * returned
on the to their originalofvalues
measurement after 360
PV module datah of regeneration,
during PID andonly RSH * shows
subsequent some
regener-
hysteresis and did not return to the original value. However, this degradation
ation, it was found that the shunt resistance RSH is most sensitive to the incipient PID. of the RSH
A*
value has not
significant yet affected
decrease the performance
of the shunt resistance R ofSHthe module, but
, compared shows
to the somevalue,
original irreversibility
is observ-of
the PID.
able before the power drops to 99% of the original value.
RAll parameters obtained from the flash test measurements somehow correspond to
SH monitoring makes it possible to detect the initial phases of PID using simple

methods such asrate

the increasing of PID, as
measuring canI-V
dark be seen in (Figureor
characteristics 13). The results
impedance show the importance of
spectroscopy.
RSHThemeasurements,
required measuring technique is relatively inexpensive and there in
mainly due to significant changes in this parameter theneed
is no initial
tostage
dis-
of PID. All other monitored parameters showed a change only with more
assemble the modules from the structures and transport them to the laboratory, as is usual intense PID.
when using electroluminescence or measuring I-V characteristics using a solar simulator.
Energies 2021, 14, 2155 14 of 15

6. Conclusions
Based on the measurement of PV module data during PID and subsequent regen-
eration, it was found that the shunt resistance RSH is most sensitive to the incipient PID.
A significant decrease of the shunt resistance RSH , compared to the original value, is
observable before the power drops to 99% of the original value.
RSH monitoring makes it possible to detect the initial phases of PID using simple
methods such as measuring dark I-V characteristics or impedance spectroscopy.
The required measuring technique is relatively inexpensive and there is no need to dis-
assemble the modules from the structures and transport them to the laboratory, as is usual
when using electroluminescence or measuring I-V characteristics using a solar simulator.

Author Contributions: T.F.; writing—original draft preparation, L.Č.; measurement of I–V curve,
P.H.; preparation of an aging and healing experiment, D.R.; data analysis, V.B.; supervision. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Development Fund-Project “CENTRE OF ADVANCED
PHOTOVOLTAICS” grant number (No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/15_003/0000464).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to that data are part of a wider study.
Conflicts of Interest: The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses,
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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