UTHD (Unit 1 - Illumination)

Utilization, Traction,
Heating and drives
Lecture notes prepared by:
NIRMALENDU MAJI
BEE, MEE, MIE, Chartered Engineer.
Lecturer (S.G) in Electrical Engineering,
A.P.C. Ray Polytechnic, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032
Department of Technical Education, Training & Skill Development,
Govt. of West Bengal.
Utilization, Traction, Heating and drives Illumination
Unit: 1 Illumination
1.1. Definitions of Terms Used in Illumination:
Light, Luminous Flux, Luminous Intensity, Lumen, Candle Power,

Illumination, Lux or Meter Candle, Mean Horizontal Candle Power
(MHCP), Mean Spherical Candle Power (MSCP), Mean Hemi-
spherical Candle Power (MHSCP), Reduction Factor, Lamp
Efficiency, Specific Consumption, Glare, Space-Height Ratio,
Utilization Factor, Maintenance Factor, Depreciation Factor,
Colour Rendering Index, Waste Light Factor, Absorption Factor,
Reflection Factor, Solid Angle, Beam Angle.
1.2. Laws of Illumination:
1.2.1 Law of Inverse Squares

1.2.2 Lambert's Cosine Law. (No Numerical)
1.3 Types, basic principle, Details Specifications and

application of following sources of light:
1.3.1 Incandescent Lamps.
1.3.2 Halogen Lamps.
1.3.3 Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps (Fluorescent
Tube).
1.3.4 High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps.
1.3.5 Sodium Vapour Lamps.
1.3.6 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (C.F.L.)
1.3.7 Metal Halide Lamps
1.3.8 LED Lamps
1.3.9 Neon Signs.
Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

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1.1 Definitions of Terms Used in Illumination
Light, Luminous Flux, Luminous Intensity, Lumen,

Candle Power, Illumination, Lux or Meter Candle,
Mean Horizontal Candle Power (MHCP), Mean
Spherical Candle Power (MSCP), Mean Hemi-spherical
Candle Power (MHSCP),Reduction Factor, Lamp
Efficiency, Specific Consumption, Glare, Space-Height
Ratio, Utilization Factor, Maintenance Factor,
Depreciation Factor, Colour Rendering Index, Waste
Light Factor, Absorption Factor, Reflection Factor,
Solid Angle, Beam Angle

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1.1 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION
1.1.1 LIGHT
Light is a form of radiant energy that travels in waves made up of vibrating electric and magnetic
fields. These waves have both a frequency and a length, the values of which distinguish light
from other forms of energy on the Electromagnetic Spectrum or Ether Spectrum. Fig.1 shows the
ether spectrum.
The Illuminating Engineering Society defines light as “radiant energy that is capable of exciting
the retina and producing a visual sensation.” Light, therefore, cannot be separately described in
terms of radiant energy or of visual sensation but is a combination of the two.
Light may be thought of as little bundles of waves Light may be thought of as little bundles of
waves emitted in discrete packets called photons.
Fig.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum or Ether Spectrum.
1.1.2 VISIBLE LIGHT OR VISIBLE EMISSION

Visible light is the electromagnetic radiation of a wave length to which eyes are sensitive as can
be seen on the electromagnetic spectrum, represents a narrow band between ultraviolet light
(UV) and infrared energy (heat). It is the radiation characterised by wave lengths of about 0.38
µm to 0.78 µm. These light waves are capable of exciting the eye's retina, which results in a
visual sensation called sight. Fig. 2 shows visible light spectrum and sensitivity.

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1.1.3 LUMINOUS FLUX (Φ)

The total quantity of light emitted per second by a light source is known as the Luminous Flux
i.e. it is the time rate of flow of light. It is measured in lumen (lm).
1.1.4 LUMINOUS INTENSITY (I)

The luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle in any given direction is known as the Luminous
Intensity (I). Its unit is candela (cd).
𝟏𝒄𝒅 = 𝟏𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏 / 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏
A source having an intensity of one candela emits a flux of one lumen per steradian.
1.1.5 LUMEN (lm)

It is the unit of luminous flux and one lumen is equal to the light flux or luminous flux emitted
in a unit solid angle (1 Steradian) by a uniform (in all direction) point source of one candela
placed at the centre of a sphere of one meter radius. It is a measure of lamp output.

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1.1.6 CANDLE POWER

OR CANDELA (cd) [formally known as candle-power]
It is the unit of power or intensity of a source of light i.e. luminous intensity. A source of one
candle power emits a total of 12.57 or 4π lumen.
1.1.7 ILLUMINATION (E)

Illumination (E) is the luminous
flux density incident on a surface
and measured by the ratio of flux to
area of illuminated surface (Fig. 3).
Its unit is lux (lx).
𝟏𝒍𝒎
𝟏𝒍𝒖𝒙 = 𝒎𝟐
Bigger unit of Illumination is

Phot. 𝟏𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒍𝒖𝒙.
1.1.8 LUX OR METER CANDLE

The lux (symbol: lx) Also called meter-candle is equal to the illumination produced by
luminous flux of one lumen falling perpendicularly on a surface of one meter square and is
equivalent to 0.0929 foot-candle.
1.1.9 MEAN SPHERICAL CANDLE POWER (MSCP)

Mean Spherical Candle Power (MSCP) is the average candle power of a lamp in all directions, or
the candle power of a uniform source given the same total flux of light. It is directly proportional
to the total light given by the lamp and is measured by taking intensity reading in all directions.
It is obtained by flux (in lumen) emitted in all the directions in all planes divided by 4π.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏
𝑴𝑺𝑪𝑷 =
𝟒𝝅

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1.1.10 MEAN HORIZONTAL CANDLE POWER (MHCP)

Mean Horizontal Candle Power (MHCP) is the average candle power of lamp in all directions in
a horizontal plane passing through the centre of the source and is usually obtained by rotating,
the lamp about a vertical axis.
1.1.11 MEAN HEMI-SPHERICAL CANDLE POWER (MHSCP)

It is the mean hemispherical candle power in all directions above or below the horizontal plane
passing through the source of light. It is given by the total flux emitted in a hemisphere (usually
the lower one) divided by the solid angle subtended at the point source by the hemisphere.
𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝑴𝑯𝑺𝑪𝑷 =
𝟐𝝅
1.1.12 REDUCTION FACTOR

Reduction factor of a source of light is defined as the de ratio of its mean spherical candle power
to its mean horizontal candle power.
𝑴. 𝑺. 𝑪. 𝑷
𝑹𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓(𝒓) =
𝑴𝑯𝑪𝑷
1.1.13 LAMP EFFICIENCY

Lamp efficacy is 'The ratio of the light output from a light source to the power consumed;
measured in lumens per Watt (lm/W). The higher the efficacy value of a lamp or lighting system,
the more energy-efficient it is.
𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒎
=
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
It is quite different from fixture Efficiency and fixture efficacy, which is calculated by taking the
total lumens released from the fixture by the total wattage consumed by the light fixture.

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Efficacy example: Downlight (Fig. 4)

𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔
𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔
𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟔𝟎𝒍𝒎/𝑾
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
(𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏/ 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏)×𝟏𝟎𝟎
= (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝟒𝟎𝟎) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 %
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒄𝒚 = 400/100
= 𝟑𝟎 𝒍𝒎/𝑾
1.1.14 SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION

It is the ratio of power input (P) to the source of light to its luminous intensity (I).
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =
𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰
Its unit is Watts per Candela.
Example: 1.1.1
A 200-V lamp takes a current of 1.2 A, it produces a total flux of 2,800 lumens. Calculate:
1. The MSCP of the lamp and
2. The efficiency of the lamp.
Solution:
Given, 𝑉 = 200 𝑉, 𝐼 = 1.2 𝐴, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥(∅) = 2,800 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 2800
1. 𝑀𝑆𝐶𝑃𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 = = = 𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟑
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑂⁄𝑃 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑚 2800

2. Efficiency of the lamp == = =11.67
𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 200×1.2

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1.1.15 GLARE
Glare is the excessive brightness from a direct light source that makes it difficult to see. A bright
object in front of a dark background usually causes glare. Bright lights reflecting off a television
or computer screen or even a printed page produces glare. Intense light sources—such as bright
incandescent lamps—are likely to produce more direct glare than large fluorescent lamps.
However, glare is primarily the result of relative placement of light sources and the objects being
viewed.
Glare is the term used for the feeling of discomfort produce by an object of excessive
luminance. It is also caused by excessive lighting contrast in the field of vision.
Glare must be limited to avoid errors, fatigue and accidents. Glare can be experienced as either:
i. Discomfort Glare- Glare which causes discomfort.

ii. Disability Glare - Glare which impairs or prevent vision. A popular example is holding a
glossy magazine at a certain angle; a veiling reflection results, impairing our reading of the page.
If the limits of discomfort glare are met, disability glare is not usually a problem. The glare
rating for a scheme should be calculated using the Unified Glare Rating (UGR) tabular method
and must be below the rating listed for the application. Minimum shielding angles for bright light
sources are specified.
Glare can be described as direct or indirect or reflected glare, which can then result in discomfort
or disability.
a) Direct Glare:
Glare produced by a direct view of light sources. Often the result is insufficiently shielded light
sources.
b) Indirect or Reflected Glare:
Glare produced from a reflective surface or Reflected glare shows up on the task itself, such as a
computer screen.
The UGR (Unified Glare Rating) index for discomfort glare is ranked on a scale, which in
practice runs from 13 to 28 where the higher the glare index, higher the level of glare. The
smallest change in the glare index denoting a significant difference is 3.
1.1.16 GLARE INDEX

A quantification of discomfort glare in an installation. The glare index generally express in six
classes D0 (High Glare) to D6 (Very Low Glare). High Glare means a very small visible area
and/or high luminous intensity. This unpleasantness can comparable with driving along a dark
road. Very low glare (D6) means a large area and/or a lower intensity. Table below shows the
Glare Index Classes:

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Class D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Maximum Glare Index - 7000 5500 4000 2000 1000 500
1.1.17 SPACE-HEIGHT(S/H) RATIO

In order to avoid the feeling of discomfort and disability that is experienced if light sources are
mounted too close to eye level particularly in case of direct type fittings. Also the distribution of
light sources in a room has a great importance for quality of lighting.
Space-height ratio is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the
height of their mountings.
𝑺
𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 − 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 ( )
𝑯
𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔.
=
𝑴𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
For Direct and Semi-direct Illumination – Spacing ‘s’ should be equal to or less than 1.5 h.
1.1.18 UTILISATION FACTOR (U.F)

The distribution of light flux in a room is in
Fig.5. From these it is seen that whole light
flux (F) radiated by the light source does not
reach the working plane which is assumed 0.85
m above the floor. The luminous flux incident
on the working area is called effective
luminous flux (Fe). The rest is used for lighting
the walls and ceilings and partly absorbed by
the fittings etc.
Utilisation Factor is defined as the ratio of
total number of lumens reaching the working
plane to the total number of lumens emitting
from source.
Its value is always less than 1.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒔𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 (𝑭𝒆)
𝑼. 𝑭 = =<1
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑳𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒔𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 (𝑭)
The Utilisation Factor is depends on the following condition of:

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i) The lighting System and Direct Ratio (D.R),

ii) The light output ratio of the luminaries (u)
iii) The reflection Factor of ceiling (rc) and Walls (rw),
iv) The Room Index (Kr),
v) The distribution of light sources in the room.
1.1.19 MAINTENANCE FACTOR (M.F.)

Due to aging effect of lamps and soiling of luminaries, lamps, ceilings, walls etc the efficiency of
lighting installation is affected adversely. All there are taken into account by including the
maintenance factor.
The Maintenance Factor is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working
conditions to the illumination when everything is clean oraverage illumination given by a new
installation. It is always less than 1.
𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

𝑴. 𝑭. = =< 1
𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐧
1.1.20 DEPRECIATION FACTOR

Some Portion of the initial light which can be assumed after lamps have deteriorated and fittings
become dirty.
The Depreciation Factor is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate
maintained illumination on the working plane.
Therefore, it is the reciprocal of Maintenance Factor and obviously its value is greater than
unity. It May about 1.3 for a clean situation, and 1.63 for bad conditions.
𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝟏

𝑫. 𝑭. = = =>1
𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝑴. 𝑭.
1.1.21 COLOUR TEMPARATURE

It is the temperature of a black body whose radiation has the same visible colour as that of a
given non-black body radiator. It is express in Kelvin (K) (formally °K)
If a piece of metal (or a theoretical black body) is heated up, it changes colour from red to yellow
to white to blue-white. The colour at any point can be described in terms of the absolute
temperature of the metal measured in Kelvin (K). This progression of colour change is plotted on
the C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram (Fig.6) and is called the Black Body Locus. The colour can now
be specified in either x, y coordinates or more simply in Kelvin on the Black Body Locus. Thus

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Colour Temperature of a light source defines its “whiteness”, its yellowness or blueness, its
warmth or coolness.
The colour temperature is a specification of the colour appearance of a light source. By

convention, yellow-red colours (like the flames of a fire) are considered warm, and blue-green
colours (like light from an overcast sky) are considered cool. Color temperature is measured in
Kelvin (K) temperature. Confusingly, higher Kelvin temperatures (3600–5500 K) are what we
consider cool and lower colour temperatures (2700–3500 K) are considered warm. Cool light is
preferred for visual tasks because it produces higher contrast than warm light. Warm light is
preferred for living spaces because it is more flattering to skin tones and clothing. A colour
temperature of (2700–3600 K) is generally recommended for most indoor general and Task
Lighting applications.
Colour Temperature Table
Colour
Kelvin Code Types of lamps and normal indoor uses
Temperature
Very Warm Traditional Filament Bulbs. Warm white CFL's and
2700K 827
White LED's for ambient interiors
Halogen Lamps and warm white CFL's and LEDs for
Warm White 3000K 837
interior spaces
Fluorescent tubes and white CFL's and LEDs for work
White 3500K 835
areas
Fluorescent tubes and cool white CFLs/LEDs made for
Cool White 4000K 840
work environments
Fluorescent tubes and natural white CFLs/LEDs made
Natural White 4500K 840
for clinical and high technology work environments
Fluorescent tubes and daylight CFLs/LEDs for
Daylight 6000K 860
environments requiring high visual clarity

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1.1.22 COLOUR RENDERING INDEX (CRI)
The Colour Rendering Index is a measure of the quality of the light from the perspective of how
faithfully it will illuminate objects showing their true colours. It is measured as a percentage with
100% for a light source which illuminates objects so they can be seen with their true colours.
The Color Rendition Index (CRI) is a 1–100 scale that measures a light source's ability to render
colours the same way sunlight does and Color Rendition Index indicating a lamps ability to
render an objects colour accurately. Therefore, it is an indicator of the relative colour rendering
ability of a source and should only be used as such 100 is the best rating. The top value of the
CRI scale (100) is based on illumination by a 100-watt incandescent light bulb. A light source
with a CRI of 80 or higher is considered acceptable for most indoor residential applications.
However, as a general rule “The Higher the Better”; light sources with high (80-100) CRI’s tend
to make people and things look better than light sources with lower CRI’s.
 Fluorescent lamps are available in 50, 60, 70, 80, & 90 CRI.
 Incandescent and Incandescent Halogen lamps are 99 CRI.
The CRI is then combined with the colour temperature of the light source to produce a 3 digit
code which is often used by manufacturers to classify their lamps. The first digit is the CRI with
8 representing 80% and 6 representing 60% etc. The last 2 digits are the colour temperature in
hundreds of Kelvin so 6000K would be represented by 60. So for example 840 means the lamp
has a CRI of 80% and a colour temperature of 4000K
1.1.23 WASTE LIGHT FACTOR OR LIGHT LOSS FACTOR
When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the sources of light, there is certain
amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves; the wastage of light is taken into
account depending upon the type of area to be illuminated. Its value for rectangular area is
1.2 and for irregular area is 1.5 and objects such as statues, monuments, etc.
Light loss factors (LLF) are the factors that need to be considered when calculating the Lumen
Method. The most important factors to be considered are:
 NON-RECOVERABLE LIGHT LOSS FACTORS
Some light loss factors are called "non-recoverable" because preventative maintenance generally
does not affect the extent of the light loss. These include ballast factor, ambient fixture
temperature, supply voltage variation, optical factor and fixture surface depreciation.
 SHAPE OF ILLUMINATING OBJET OR AREA
Light loss in regular area or object is less than loss in irregular area or object like statues or
monuments.

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 AMOUNT OF OVERLAP OF LIGHT FLUX

Loss due to overlap of light waves depends on no of lamps used for area illumination like area
lighting, stadium lighting, stack yard lighting etc.
1.1.24 ABSORPTION FACTOR

In foggy and dust polluted atmosphere, not all the light will reach the working plane, as a portion
of it is absorbed on way. Allowance for this factor should be made by a factor known as
absorption factor. The luminous may be increase by about 25 % to make allowance for it where
applicable.
1.1.25 REFLECTION
There are three general types of reflection: specular, spread, and diffuse, as shown in Figure 7
specular reflection, such as what you see in a mirror or a polished surface, occurs when light is
reflected away from the surface at the same angle as the incoming light’s angle. A spread
reflection occurs when an uneven surface reflects light at more than one angle, but the reflected
angles are all more or less the same as the incident angle. A diffuse reflection, sometimes called
Lambertian scattering or diffusion, occurs when a rough or matte surface reflects the light at
many different angles.

Page 14
1.1.26 REFLECTION FACTOR

When light rays impinge on a surface, it is reflected from the surface at an angle of
incidence shown in Fig. 7 portion of incident light is absorbed by the surface. Reflected
ray The ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on it is
known as reflection factor.
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 =
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙
1.1.27 SOLID ANGLE

Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle enclosed
in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the point
(Fig. 8). It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in steradian.
“The solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere

by an area on its surface numerically equal to the
square of the radius.”The largest solid angle
subtended at the center of a sphere:
A three-dimensional analogue of an angle, such as
that subtended by a cone or formed by planes meeting
at a point.
1.1.28 BEAM ANGLE

Any directional lamp emits light energy in the shape
of a cone. As you might expect, the Candle Power
intensity is the greatest at the center of the cone and it
diminishes the closer it gets to the edge of the cone;

Page 15
eventually, in theory, to zero. The usable portion of the cone is defined at the point where the
Candle Power falls to 50% of the Candle Power at the center (Fig. 9). Our eyes perceive this
portion of the lamps cone as an intensity of light even though, at its edges, the intensity has
dropped to half. This portion of the total cone of light is termed the Beam Angle.
1.1.29 BEAM FACTOR (B.F.)

It is defined as the ratio of ‘lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by
lamps’. Its value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into account for the
absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp.
lumens in the beam of a projector
𝐵. 𝐹. =
lumens given out by lamps

Page 16
1.2
Laws of Illumination
1.2.1 Law of Inverse Squares
1.2.2 Lambert's Cosine Law. (No

Numerical)

Page 17
1.2 LAWS OF ILLUMINATION

Mainly there are two laws of illumination.
1. 2.1 INVERSE SQUARE LAW.

This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and a point source’.
That means the illumination at a point in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the luminous
intensity is equal to the luminous intensity in that direction divided by the square of the distance
from the light source to the point.
Proof:
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux emitting
from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1, A2, and A3 square meters,
which are separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d meter from the point source
respectively as shown in Fig.10.
For area, A1 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝜔) = 𝐴1 /𝑑 2

Luminous flux reachingthe area
𝐴1 = 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝐼 × 𝜔 = 𝐼 × (𝐴1 /𝑑 2 )
∴ Illumination ‘E1’ on the surface area 'A1 ' is:
𝐼𝐴 1
𝐸1 = (𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) = ( 𝑑21 × 𝐴 )
1
So, 𝐸1 = 𝐼/𝑑 2lux .... (1)

Similarly, illumination, 𝐸2 on the surface area A2 is:
𝐸2 = 𝐼/2𝑑 2 lux .... (2)
And illumination ‘𝐸3 ’ on the surface area A3 is:
𝐸3 = 𝐼/3𝑑 2 lux .... (3)

Page 18
From Equations (1), (2), and (3)

𝑰 𝑰 𝑰
𝑬𝟏 :𝑬𝟐 :𝑬𝟑 = 𝒅𝟐 :𝟐𝒅𝟐 : 𝟑𝒅𝟐 .... (4)
Hence, from Equation (4), illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the
square of distance between the surface and the source.
1.2.2 LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW

This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional to
the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at
an angle ‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown in Fig. 11.
Let PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis. RS
= The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the source ‘O’.
Therefore, from Fig. 11:

PQ = RS cosθ
∴ The illumination of the surface PQ,𝐸𝑃𝑄 = (𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑄) = (𝐼 × 𝜔/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑄)=
[(𝐼/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑄) × (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑄/𝐷2 )] as 𝜔 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎/(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)2
∴ The illumination of the surface RS,
𝐸𝑅𝑆 = (𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑅𝑆) = [𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑄/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)] (As PQ = RScosθ)
= (𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃/ 𝐷2 ) .... (5)

Page 19
From Fig. 11 (b):

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ℎ/𝑑
or, 𝑑 = (ℎ/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Substituting ‘d’from above equation in equation (5):
𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸𝑅𝑆 =[(h/cosθ)2 ] = (𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃/ℎ2 ) .... (6)
∴ 𝑬𝑹𝑺 = (𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽/ 𝑫𝟐 ) =(𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝜽/𝒉𝟐 ) .... (7)
where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of
source from the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela. Hence, Equation
(7) is also known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the ‘illumination at any point on
a surface is dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle between line of flux and
normal at that point’.
Note:
1. The above laws are applicable to point sources where there is no reflecting surfaces and
generally used for outdoor lighting.
2. From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is
only applicable for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's
cosine law is applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the
line of flux.
Example 1.2.1
A point light source has an intensity of 1,000 candela and the light falls perpendicularly on a
surface. Calculate the illuminance on the surface if its distance from the surface is:
Two meters, (ii) four meters and (iii) six meters.
Solution:
𝐼 1000
i) 𝐸 = = = 250 𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑑2 22
𝐼 1000
ii) E= = = 62.5 lux
𝑑2 42
𝐼 1000
iii) E= = = 27.8 lux
𝑑2 62

Page 20
Example: 1.2.2
The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is to be 60
lumens/m2. The lamp gives 130 CP uniformly below the horizontal plane.
Determine:
1. The height at which lamp is suspended.
2. The illumination at a point on the working plane 2.8 m away from the vertical axis of
the lamp.
Solution:
Given data: Candle power of the lamp = 130 CP.
The illumination just below the lamp, E = 60 lumen/m2.
1. From the Fig. 12, the illumination just below the lamp, i.e., at point A:
𝑬𝑨 = 𝐼/ℎ2
∴ ℎ = √(𝐼/𝐸𝐴 )
= √(130/60)
= 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝟏𝒎.
2. The illumination at point B :
𝑬𝑩 = (𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃/ℎ2 )
130 2.8
= [ 2× ]
2.8 √(2.82 + 1.4712 )3
= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟒𝒍𝒖𝒙
Example: 1.2.3
A lamp having a candle power of 300 in all directions is provided with a reflector that
directs 70% of total light uniformly on a circular area 40-m diameter. The lamp is hung at
15 m above the area.
1. Calculate the illumination.
2. Also calculate the illumination at the center.
3. The illumination at the edge of the surface without reflector.
Solution:
Given data: Candle power of the lamp = 300 CP.
Circular area diameter (D) = 40 m.
Height of mounting, h = 15 m.

Page 21
1. The illumination on the circular area (Fig.13):
𝐸 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝐶𝑃 × 𝜔)/𝐴
𝜋𝐷2 402
Here, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = = 𝜋× = 400𝜋 𝑚2 .
4 4
Solid angle, 𝜔 = 2𝜋(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
= 2𝜋 [1 − {15/√(152 + 202 )}]
= 0.8𝜋 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛.
∴ 𝐸 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
(𝐶𝑃 × 𝜔)
= [ ]
𝐴
(300 𝑥 0.8𝜋)
= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒍𝒖𝒙.
400𝜋
2. The illumination at the center with reflector 70 %:
𝑬 = (𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) 𝑥 0.7
= (𝐶𝑃 × 𝜔) × 0.7/𝐴
= (300 × 4𝜋 × 0.7)/400𝜋 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝒍𝒖𝒙.
3. The illumination at the edge without reflector:
𝑬 = (𝐶𝑃 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 / 𝐷2 )
= [300/{(152 + 102 )2 }] × [15/(152 + 102 )] = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟖𝒍𝒖𝒙.
Example 1.2.4:
The luminous intensity of a source is 600 candela is placed in the middle of a 10 × 6 × 2 m room.
Calculate the illumination:
1. At each corner of the room.
2. At the middle of the 6-m wall.

Page 22
Solution:
Given data: Luminous intensity,(𝐼) = 600 𝑐𝑑, Room area, 𝐴 = 10 × 6 × 2 𝑚.

1. From the Fig. 14(A)
√102 +62
𝑂𝐵 = 𝐵𝐷 = = 5.83 𝑚
2
𝐵𝑆 = 𝑑 = √22 + 5.832 = 6.163 𝑚
∴ The illumination at the corner ‘B':
𝐼 600 2
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝐷 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = × = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝒍𝒖𝒙
𝑑2 6.1632 6.1632
2. From Fig. 14(B)
𝑃𝑆 = √22 + 52 = 5.385 m
The illumination at the point ‘P’,
𝐼 600 2
𝐸𝑃 = 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2
× = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖𝟒𝒍𝒖𝒙
𝑑 5,385 5.3852
Example 1.2.5 :
Two sources of candle power or luminous intensity 200 candela and 250 candela are mounted at
8 and 10 m, respectively. The horizontal distance between the lamps posts is 40 m, calculate the
illumination in the middle of the posts.

Page 23
Solution:
From Fig. 15, d1 = √82 + 202 = 21.54
h1 8
cosθ1 = = = 0.37
d1 21.54
Therefore, The illumination at the point P due the source, S1,
I1 200
E1 = 2 cosθ1 = ( × 0.37 = 0.159 lux
d1 21.54)2
Now, d2 = √102 + 202 = 22.36
h2 10
cosθ2 = = = 0.447
d2 22.36
Therefore, The illumination at the point P due the source, S2,
I2 250
E2 = 2 cosθ2 = ( × 0.447 = 0.2235 lux
d2 22.36)2
Therefore, the Total Illumination at point P due to both the sources
𝐒𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝟐 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟑𝟓) 𝐥𝐮𝐱 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝟓 𝐥𝐮𝐱

Page 24
1.3 Types, Basic Principle, Details

Specifications and Application of
Sources of Light
1.3.1 Incandescent Lamps.
1.3.2 Halogen Lamps.
1.3.3 Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps (Fluorescent

Tube).
1.3.4 High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps.
1.3.5 Sodium Vapour Lamps.
1.3.6 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (C.F.L.)
1.3.7 Metal Halide Lamps
1.3.8 LED Lamps
1.3.9 Neon Signs.

Page 25
INTRODUCTION
Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in a day, it is very
difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is necessary to have substitute for
natural light. The evolution of light source (lamps) starts with carbon-filament bulb (Fig. 17)
from Thomas Edison. The Fig.16 shows the evolution of electric lamps.

Page 26
TYPES OF SOURCES OF LIGHT
Usually in a broad sense, based upon the way of producing the light by electricity, the sources
of light are classified into following five types.
1. ELECTRIC ARC LAMPS
The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and provides
intense light. These are used in search lights, projection lamps, and other special purpose
lamps such as those in flash cameras.
These are usually of three types:
a) Carbon arc lamp,
b) Flame arc lamp, and
c) Magnetic arc lamp (rare use)
2. INCANDESCENT LAMPS
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light that falls in
the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating on this principle.
Depending upon filament material and gas used these are of five types:
a) Carbon filament Lamp
b) Osmium filament Lamp
c) Tantalum filament Lamp
d) Tungsten filament Lamp
e) Tungsten Halogen Lamp
3. GASEOUS DISCHARGE LAMPS
When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it produces visible
radiation by discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and mercury vapor lamps operate
on this principle.
Depending upon the gas or metal and also pressure uses these are of following types:
a) Sodium Vapour Lamp
a. High Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp
b. Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp
b) Mercury Vapour Lamp
a. High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp
b. Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp

Page 27
c) Metal Halide Lamp (HID)

d) Neon Gas Discharge Lamp
4. FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the absorbed
energy into visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This principle is
employed in fluorescent lamps.
These are of different types according to their shape and tube diameter
a) Linear fluorescent tubes
a. T 12 ( 1.5 inch diameter)
b. T 8 (1.0 inch diameter)
c. T 5 (5/8 of an inch in diameter)
d. T 2 (1/4 inch diameter)
b) Fluorescent Bend Lamps
a. U-bent fluorescent lamp (usually 1.5 inch and 1 inch diameter)
b. Fluorescent circling tubes are typically 1 and 1/8 of an inch in diameter.
c) Compact Fluorescent Lamps.
5. LED LAMPS

Page 28
1.3.1 INCANDESCENT (GLS) LAMPS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light that falls in the
visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating on this principle. When
electric current is flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament, its temperature increases. At
very high temperature, the filament emits both heat and light radiations, which fall in the visible
region. The maximum temperature at which the filament can be worked without oxidization is
2,000°C, i.e., beyond this temperature,
the tungsten filament blackens the
inside of the bulb. The tungsten
filament lamps can be operated
efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be
attained by inserting a small quantity
of inert gas nitrogen with small
quantity of organ. But if gas is inserted
instead of vacuum in the inner side of
the bulb, the heat of the lamp is
conducted away and it reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of heat by
conduction and convection, as far as possible, the filament should be so wound that it takes very
little space. This is achieved by using a single-coil or coiled coil filament instead of a straight
wire filament as shown in Fig. 18.
CONSTRUCTION
Fig.19 shows the construction of the
pure tungsten filament incandescent
lamp. It consists of an evacuated glass
bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is
provided with two pins to insert the bulb
into the socket. The inner side of the
bulb consists of a tungsten filament and
the support wires are made of
molybdenum to hold the filament in
proper position. A glass button is
provided in which the support wires are
inserted. A stem tube forms an air-tight
seal around the filament whenever the
glass is melted. The darkening of bulbs
is due to evaporated tungsten condensing

Page 29
on the relatively cool bulb surface. With an inert gas filling, the evaporation will be suppressed,
and the heavier the molecular weight, the more successful it will be. For normal lamps an argon:
nitrogen mixture of ratio 9/1 is used because of its low cost. Krypton or Xenon is only used in
specialized applications such as cycle lamps where the small bulb size helps to offset the
increased cost, and where performance is critical.
DETAIL SPECIFICATIONS
Lamp Type Incandescent
Rated Voltage in Volts 250 / 225 / 24 etc.

Rated Power In Watts 10/25/40/60/100 etc
Coil Type Straight/ Coil/ Coiled-coil
According to wattage. For example
Rated Output In Lumens
A19 Frosted 100W lamp is 1750 lm
Colour Temperature Warm (2,500K – 2,700K)
Colour Rendering Index 95+
Average Rated Life in Hours 750 to 2000
Efficacy in Lumen per watt 6 to 20
Bulb Shape A/B/G/S/PAR etc.
Approx. Diameter in 1/8 th. Inch increment 10/19/25/40 etc.
Base Screw E14/ E40 Bayonet B22 etc
Finish Clear / frosted/Opal
Reflector With / Without
Dimmable Yes
ADVANTAGES
 Low initial cost
 Low fixture cost
 Simple installation
 Inexpensive to dim
 All-weather operation
 High CRI
 It works on AC as well as DC.
 Available in various size and shape
 No stroboscopic effect
 The luminous efficiency increases with the increase in the voltage of the lamp
 Brightness of the lamp is more
 These are operating at unity power factor

Page 30
DISADVANTAGES
 Voltage sensitive
 Lowest efficacy
 Short life
 Generates heat.
APPLICATIONS
Incandescent lamps are commonly used in desk lamps, table lamps, hallway lighting, closets,
accent lighting, and chandeliers. They provide good colour rendering and, in fact, serve as the
colour standard by which all other lamps are measured. Incandescent lamps are easily
dimmable.
Because common incandescent lamps have low efficacies, restrict their use to applications where
short hours of use are expected, where the lamps are frequently switched, where decorative
lamps are needed, or where there are no other alternatives.

Page 31
1.3.2 HALOGEN LAMPS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Halogen light bulbs operate on the same principle as standard incandescent heating the tungsten
filament until it glows but from there, halogens improve upon the process. Halogen Lamps
Unlike incandescent lamps, halogen lamps use a halogen gas fill (typically iodine or bromine), to
produce what is called a “halogen cycle” (Fig. 20) inside the lamp. In the halogen cycle, halogen
gas combines with the tungsten that evaporates from the lamp filament, eventually re-depositing
the tungsten on the filament instead of allowing it to accumulate on the bulb wall as it does in
standard incandescent lamps. As a result, the light output does not degrade as rapidly as it does
with common incandescent lamps, so lamp life is extended. The higher operating temperature of
the filament improves luminous efficacy. The lamp produces a “whiter” or “cooler” light, which
has a higher correlated color temperature (CCT) than standard incandescent lamps. The bulbs are
more compact, offering opportunities for better optical control. Halogen lamps are sometimes
called “quartz” lamps because their higher temperature requires quartz envelopes instead of the
softer glass used for other incandescent lamps.
CONSTRUCTION
Halogen incandescent lamps have a slightly different shape and a thicker and heavier glass bulb
than the common incandescent. Because their higher
temperature requires quartz envelopes instead of the softer
glass used for other incandescent lamps. Halogen lamps are
sometimes called “quartz” lamps. Halogen lamps use a
halogen gas fill (typically iodine or bromine), to produce
what is called a “halogen cycle”.
These are available in different size and shapes. (Fig.20).
Typical double-ended tubular-shaped (Linear) halogen
lamps (Fig. 21) are from 3 to 5 inches long and 100 to 1500
watts. Single-ended versions range from 75 to 500 watts.
The single-ended lamps are available in line- and low
voltage varieties.

Page 32
DETAIL SPECIFICATIONS:
Lamp Type Tungsten Halogen Lamp
Rated Voltage in Volts 225/250

Rated Power In Watts 60/75/100 etc
Coil Type Coil/ Coiled-coil
According to wattage. For example 100W
lamp is 1850 lm
Colour Temperature Warm (3,000K-3,200K)
Colour Rendering Index 95 - 100 (1A)
Average Rated Life in Hours 2000-3500 hours
Efficacy in Lumen per watt 16 -18.8 lumens/Watt
Bulb Shape A/G/T/AR/R/PAR etc.
Finish Clear/Frosted
Base R7s/ Bi-Pin/G4/E11/GU10 etc.
Reflector With or without
Dimmable Yes
ADVANTAGES
 More compact
 Whiter light than incandescent (higher colour temp.)
 Excellent lumen maintenance
 Longer life
 More light
 Whiter light
DISADVANTAGES
 Cost more
 Increased IR
 Increased UV
 Handling problem.

Page 33
APPLICATIONS
LINEAR line halogen lamps are ideally suitable for flood-, up-, task-lighting and wall-washing
in homes, shops, hotels/restaurants and security lighting (outdoor).
CAPSULES are ideally suitable for task- and decorative lighting in homes, shops and
hotels/restaurants
REFLECTOR LAMPS to replace A-lamps in applications such as track heads, recessed down
lights, and wall wash, accent, and exterior flood luminaries. Reflector lamps of lower wattages
than A-lamps can be used when directional light is needed.

Page 34
1.3.3 LOW PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOUR LAMPS

(FLUORESCENT TUBE)
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Passing electricity through a gas or metallic vapour will cause electromagnetic radiation at
specific wavelengths according to the chemical constitution and the gas pressure. The
fluorescent tube has a low pressure of mercury vapour, and will emit a small amount of
blue/green radiation, but the majority will be in the UV at 253.7nm and 185nm.
1. Electric current causes the electrodes to send electrons through the gas in the glass tube.
2. The mercury in the gas reacts and emits ultraviolet light.
3. These UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-emission of light of
different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the emission is called as
luminescence. The phosphor converts the ultraviolet light into visible light.
In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known as
fluorescent lamp.
CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it is
made in the form of a long tube.
The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with electron emissive material and
are placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and
certain amount of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The construction of
fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. 22. Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer
from low efficiency and they produce an objectionable colored light. Such drawback is
overcome by coating the inside of the tube with fluorescent powders. They are in the form of
solids, which are usually knows as phosphors. Today’s fluorescent lamps use a tri-phosphor
coating containing specific color bands of red, green and blue. These lamps render colors
much more accurately than their halo-phosphate counterparts.

Page 35
A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp
with bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the electrodes
directly across the supply at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series that acts as
ballast when the lamp is running, and it provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor of
4μF is connected across the starter in order to improve the power factor.
According to diameter, length and shape these are of different types. Again according to the
Phosphor material the colour output also different.
WORKING
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in
the form of globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open
circuited and full supply voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of
electrodes and choke coil. The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an
arc with a starting glow. This glow warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short
circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come in series and are connected across the supply
voltage. Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of
current through them. These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube
discharge that takes place through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts
conduction with argon gas as the temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form
and takes over the conduction of current.

Page 36
In the mean time, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling
down. As a result, the starter terminals will open or break the series circuit. A very high
voltage around 1,100 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter terminals in the
series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced voltage is quite
sufficient to break down the long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collides with argon
and mercury vapor atoms. The excited atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which will not
fall in the visible region.
Fluorescent Lamp
Lamp Type (Halo phosphate / Tri-phosphor)
Rated Voltage in Volts 250

Rated Power In Watts 6/10/20/36/40 etc
Coil Type Tungsten coil
40 W lamp is 3200 lm
Colour Temperature (3,000K-6500K)
Colour Rendering Index 55-85
Average Rated Life in
7000-20000 hours
Hours
Efficacy in Lumen per watt 80-90 lumens/Watt
Shape Linear / U-bent / Circling
Length in inch 6/12/24/36/48/60
Diameter in inch 1/4, 5/8, 1, 1.5
Light Colour Bluish white/ Yellowish white/ Yellowish pink/ Green
Base Single pin / Bi-Pin (usually available ) / 4 pin (for Circular)
Magnesium tungstate / Zinc beryllium silicate / Cadmium
Phosphor material
silicate / Calcium tungstate or Zinc silicate
Dimmable No

Page 37
ADVANTAGES
 High efficiency.
 The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
 The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
 Less chances of glare.
 These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be
unsatisfactory.
 Different colour, shape and size of lamps are available.
DISADVANTAGES
 The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.

 The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low
ambient temperature.
 Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may
cause disturbance.
 The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.
 Not dimmable
APPLICATIONS
 Commercial lighting: Shops, Malls, Restaurants, Hotel etc.

 Industrial lighting: Sheds, Factory, Bays etc
 Classroom lighting: Normal Class room, Drawing Rooms, Halls, Common Room,
Laboratory, Workshops etc.
 Residential lighting: Drawing room, Reading room, Bed room, common space etc.

Page 38
1.3.4 HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOUR LAMPS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of
excitation and ionization of metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a discharge
tube.
When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential, gas or metal
vapor starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two electrodes. A volt–ampere
characteristic of the arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp possesses a negative
resistance characteristic. A choke or ballast is provided to limit high currents to a safe value.
Here, the choke serves two functions.
 It provides ignition voltage initially.

 Limits high currents.
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all
the discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The
nature of the gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.
CONSTRUCTION
In High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp, the electrical arc, gasses and metals are contained in
what is known as the arc tube. The arc tube is made from quartz because of their high
temperature. All arc tubes are housed within a larger outer glass envelope. There are two main
electrodes at the two ends and one starting (Auxiliary) electrode inside the Arc tube. Argon and
mercury are also inside the arc tube. A frame holds all firmly inside the outer glass envelope as
shown in Fig. 24. In between arc tube and outer glass space is filled with Nitrogen gas.
Like fluorescents, HID lamps require a ballast to control the electrical current in the arc tube.
Certain HID lamps also require an ignitor, which produces a high voltage to pulse the arc tube,
allowing the arc to strike.
Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
1. MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
2. MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
3. MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high
pressures.

Page 39
WORKING
The mercury in the tube is a liquid at normal temperatures. It needs to be vaporized

and ionized before the tube will conduct electricity and the arc can start. So, like fluorescent
tubes, mercury vapour lamps require a starter, which is usually contained within the mercury
vapour lamp itself. A third electrode is mounted near one of the main electrodes and connected
through a resistor to the other main electrode. In addition to the mercury, the tube is filled
with argon gas at low pressure. When power is applied, there is sufficient voltage to ionize the
argon and strike a small arc between the starting electrode and the adjacent main electrode. This
starting arc discharge heats the mercury and eventually provides enough ionised mercury to
strike an arc between the main electrodes. This process takes from 4 to 7 minutes, so mercury
lamps are slow starting. Some bulbs include a thermal switch which shorts the starting electrode
to the adjacent main electrode, extinguishing the starting arc once the main arc strikes.

Page 40
Lamp Type High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp
Rated Voltage in Volts 200-250

Rated Power In Watts 50w – 1000w
1580-58000 According to the wattage.
For example 400 W lamp is 22600 lm
Colour Temperature 3,900K
Colour Rendering Index 50
6000-10000 hours
Hours
Efficacy in Lumen per watt 35-60
Shape A / ED / R / BT
Base Mogul
Finish Clear / Coated
Dimmable No
ADVANTAGES
 Good for landscape lighting.
 The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
 Long life
 All-weather operation
 Different shape and size of lamps are available.
DISADVANTAGES
 Lowest HID efficacy

 Poor lumen maintenance
 Poor color
 Requires a ballast
 Re-strike time
 Not dimmable
APPLICATIONS
 Commercial lighting: Shops, Malls, Restaurants, Hotel etc.

 Industrial lighting: Sheds, Factory, Bays, Rail yards etc
 Community lighting: Roads, Highways etc

Page 41
1.3.5 SODIUM VAPOUR LAMPS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps (A simple discharge lamp is shown in
Figure below) is based on the phenomenon of excitation and ionization of gas vapor present
between the two electrodes of a discharge tube. Usually discharge tube filled with xenon to
help start the arc, as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture. There is an ignitor built into the
ballast which sends a pulse of high voltage energy through the arc tube. This pulse starts an
arc through the xenon gas.
Sodium Pressure Lamps are broadly two types:

1. High Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp (SON)
2. Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp (SOX)

Page 42
1.3.5.1 HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP (SON)
CONSTRUCTION
The Fig. 26 shows the construction of a typical single-ended, screw base high- pressure sodium
lamp.. The HPS lamp consists of a narrow arc tube supported by a frame in a bulb. The arc tube
has a high pressure (nearly 1 Atmospheric) inside for higher efficiency. Sodium, mercury and
xenon are usually used inside the arc tube. The arc tube is made of aluminium oxide ceramic
which is resistant to the corrosive effects of alkalis like sodium. All arc tubes are housed within a
larger outer hard glass envelope. There are two main electrodes at the two ends inside the arc
tube. Mogul Base of different diameter is usually employed.

Page 43
WORKING
The most common way to start the lamp is with a pulse start. There is an ignitor built into the
ballast (Fig.27) which sends a pulse of high voltage energy through the arc tube. This pulse starts
an arc through the xenon gas. The lamp turns sky blue as the xenon lights. The arc then heats up
the mercury and the mercury vapour then lights, giving the lamp a bluish colour. The lamp heats
and the sodium is the last material to vaporise. The sodium vapour strikes an arc over 240° C.
The sodium is mixed with other impurities to create a more "white" light. The mercury helps add
a blue spectrum light to the pure yellow of the sodium. Maintaining a vacuum is difficult, oxygen
and other gasses can seep in over time. The getter keeps a stable vacuum by sucking out
remaining oxygen and unwanted gasses. The sodium is stored often stored in the amalgam
reservoirs on the ends of the arc tube when it is cool unlike the LPS lamp where the sodium is
stored in the bumps on the side of the tube. Operating sodium at higher pressures and
temperatures makes it highly reactive.

Page 44
Lamp Type High Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp

(SON)
Rated Power In Watts 50w – 1000w
Colour Temperature 2,100K
Average Rated Life in Hours 20000-24000 hours
Warm up 10 minutes, hot re-strike – within 60 seconds
Re-strike time Approximately 1 minute
Efficacy in Lumen per watt 50 - 90
Shape ED / ET / E / BT
Base Mogul (Screw Cap)
Dimmable No
ADVANTAGES
 Highest efficacy
 Long life
 Universal burning position
 Range of wattages
 Good lumen maintenance
 All-temperature operation
 Can be retrofitted into older Mercury Vapour fixtures.
DISADVANTAGES
 Color
 Requires a ballast
 Cycling (standard lamp)
APPLICATIONS
 Roadway lighting
 Outdoor lighting, yard lighting
 Municipal lighting,
 Home, high bay lighting etc.

Page 45
1.3.5.2 LOW PRESSURE SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP (SOX)
CONSTRUCTION
A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge
lamp consists of a U-shaped special Borosilicate glass tube enclosed in a double-walled
vacuum flask, to keep the temperature of the tube within the working region. The inner U-
tube consists of two oxide-coated electrodes, which are sealed with the ends. These electrodes
are connected to a bayonet or pin type base construction of sodium vapor lamp is shown in
Fig. 28. Modern lamp is coated on its inner surface with an infra-red reflective film to
minimize radiated heat loss.
WORKING
Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner tube. When
sufficient voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge starts in the inert gas, i.e.,
neon; it operates as a low-pressure neon lamp with pink color. The temperature of the lamp
increases gradually and the metallic sodium vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the
monochromatic yellow light. This lamp takes 10–15 min to give its full light output. The
yellowish output of the lamp makes the object appears gray.
In order to start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-W lamps.
These voltages can be obtained from a high reactance transformer or an auto transformer. The
operating power factor of the lamp is very poor, so that a capacitor is placed to improve the
power factor to above 0.8. More care should be taken while replacing the inner tube, if it is
broken, then sodium comes in contact with the moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp
must be operated horizontally or nearly so, to spread out the sodium well along the tube.

Page 46
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp
Lamp Type (SOX)
Rated Power In Watts 18 - 180
Colour Temperature Yellow (2,200K)
Colour Rendering Index 44
up to 16,000 hours
Hours
Warm up 10 minutes,
Re-strike time Approximately 3 minute
Efficacy in Lumen per
100-200
watt
Shape ED / ET / E / BT
Base Mogul (Screw Cap)
Dimmable No
ADVANTAGES
 Very efficient lamp
 Powerful lamp for use of large areas
 Despite a warm up time of 5-10 minutes it restarts immediately
 Lumen output drop negligible with age
 Less likely to give rise to glare
 Low operating temperature
 Comparatively Inexpensive and can be operated on low cost electrical control gears.
DISADVANTAGES
 Worst colour rendering of any lamp
 Sodium is a hazardous material which can combust when exposed to air
 Shorter life than other types of discharge lamps.
 Burning position generally confined to the horizontal position ± 20, vertical with the cap
uppermost burning is permitted only for low wattage lamps.

Page 47
APPLICATIONS
 Indoor general lighting

 Road specially major trunk roads
 Parking lot
 Tunnel lighting
 General illumination of photographic laboratories producing black & white prints.

Page 48
1.3.6 COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS (C.F.L.)
BASIC PRINCIPLE
The principle of operation Compact fluorescent lamps is functionally identical to linear
fluorescent lamp. Both are gas-discharge lamps that use electricity emitted from cathodes to
excite mercury vapour contained within the glass envelope, using a process known as inelastic
scattering. Electrons that are bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will radiate
ultraviolet light as they return to a lower energy
level; this emitted ultraviolet light is converted
into visible light as it strikes the fluorescent
coating (as well as into heat when absorbed by
other materials such as glass).
CONSTRUCTION
The construction a Compact fluorescent light
constitutes a phosphor coating lime glass tube. A
drop of mercury, argon gas, and the electrodes
with their mount assemblies are inside the tube as
shown in Fig.29. The electrode filament is dipped
in a mixture of barium, strontium, and calcium
carbonate mount assembly is almost similar to
the stem press unit in the incandescent lamps.
The filaments play both roles as anode and
cathode. Generally, small plates are attached to
the filament to protect it from electron
bombardment and to reduce the wattage loss at
both ends. An electronic ballast for starting the
lamp also in-house within the lamp assemble.
Some CFL are available without the ballast.
Compact Fluorescent lamps (bulbs) are either

pin-based (they plug into a socket) or they are
medium screw-based (they screw into the same
socket as common incandescent bulbs).
CFLs are available in different Shapes and Sizes (Fig.30).
 Spiral Lamps: A small fluorescent tube in a spiral shape available either with the tube
exposed or covered by a plastic or glass shell to mimic the shape of more traditional light
bulbs. Spiral CFL bulbs come in a wide range of sizes from compact spirals designed to
fit in small household fixtures to large spirals typically used as grow lights and
commercial lighting.

Page 49
 Standard Lamps: CFL spiral lamps with a plastic or glass shell designed to give the
appearance of a traditional A-shape bulb. Diffuser lens provides a quality of light similar
to frosted incandescent bulbs.
 Globe Lamps: Commonly used in vanity mirrors or open bulb applications. Vanities
usually require multiple bulbs, which generate radiant heat. CFLs reduce this heat build-
up and save energy. Frosted cover provides a diffused light.
 Candelabra: The screw-in torpedo-shape and small base of this bulb is designed for
smaller light fixtures from chandeliers to sconces. To use a smaller candelabra-based
bulb in a regular socket, you can use a socket reducer.
 Triple Tube Lamps: These CFLs have more tubing in a smaller area, which generates
even more light from a shorter bulb. They pack a high Lumen output into a very small
space and can be used in fixtures designed for incandescent bulbs.
 Flood Lamps: Designed for use in recessed and track lighting fixtures indoors and
outdoors. They provide diffused light and generate less heat than an incandescent or
halogen flood light.
Fluorescent lamps are available usually in these colour temperatures:
 Warm white (2700K)

 Cool white (4000K)
 Daylight (6000K)

Page 50
WORKING
Tube has two electrodes on both ends which is

treated with Barium. Cathode is having a
temperature of about 900º C and generates a beam of
electrons which is further accelerated by potential
difference between electrodes. These accelerated
electrons strike Mercury and Argon atoms which in
turn results in the rise of low temperature plasma.
This process initiates the radiation of Mercury in
Ultra violet form. Tube’s inside face contains phosphor coating whose function is to convert
Ultra violet light into visible light. This tube is fed with AC power supply which facilitate the
changing functionality of Anode and Cathode. The CFL also consists a switched mode converter.
It functions on a very high frequency and acts as a replacement of ballast (choke) and starter
assembly.
Lamp Type Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

Rated Power In Watts 5/9/ 13/18/20/36/40 etc
13 W lamp is 840 lm
Colour Temperature (2700K-6500K)
7000-12000 hours
Hours
Shape Spiral/ SLS/ A/ Pl-L etc
Length in inch Depending on the size & shape For 13 W Spiral L= 3.83 in.
Diameter in inch 1/8 inch,
Light Colour Warm white (2700K) / Cool white (4000K) / Daylight (6000K)
Single pin / Bi-Pin (usually available ) / 4 pin (Screw /
Base
Bayonet etc
Dimmable No.
Reflector With / without

Page 51
ADVANTAGES
 It is energy efficiency
 It has a higher life span (nearly five to fifteen times) compared to the old filament bulbs.
 It has lesser power rating (almost 80 percent) compared to the old filament bulbs.
 It is low life cycle cost. Though, it has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp,
it can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp’s lifetime.
DISADVANTAGES
 It takes more time to start
 The initial Purchase cost is high.
 It does not come in dark shades too.
 Like all other fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain mercury, which complicates their
disposal.
APPLICATIONS
 Residential lighting
 Replacement of Incandescent lamp
 Commercial lighting, shops, display board, distributing lighting
 Outdoor application (reflector type) etc

Page 52
1.3.7 METAL HALIDE LAMPS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Inside the fused quartz arc tube, two tungsten electrodes doped with thorium are sealed into each
end and an AC voltage is applied to them through molybdenum foil seals fused in silica. It is the
arc between the two electrodes where the light is actually created. Metal halide lamps are similar
to mercury vapour models except for the addition of metal halides of sodium iodide and
scandium iodide. Certain metal halide lamps feature other iodides to improve the efficiency and
colour balance of the lamp. Metal halide represents the most popular and widely used HID
category.
CONSTRUCTION
Metal-halide lamps consist of an arc tube with electrodes, an outer bulb, and a base (Fig. 32).
The shape of lamps is also different in Shape and Size (Fig. 33)
1. Arc tube
Inside the fused quartz arc tube,

two tungsten electrodes doped
with thorium are sealed into each end.
Besides mercury vapour, the lamp
contains iodides or bromides of
different
metals. Iodine and bromine are of the
halogen group of the periodic table,
and so are termed "halides" when
ionized. Scandium and sodium are
also used in some types,
with thallium, indium, and sodium in
European Tri-Salt models. A noble
gas, usually argon, is cold filled into
the arc tube at a pressure of about
2 kPa to facilitate starting of the
discharge. Argon filled lamps are
typically quite slow to start up, taking
several minutes to reach full light

Page 53
intensity; xenon fill, as used in automotive headlamps, start up relatively faster. The ends of the
arc tube are often externally coated with white infrared–reflective zirconium
silicate or zirconium oxide to reflect heat back onto the electrodes to keep them hot
and thermionically emitting. Some bulbs have a phosphor coating on the inner side of the outer
bulb to improve the spectrum and diffuse the light.
2. Outer bulb
Most types are fitted with an outer glass bulb to protect the inner components and prevent heat
loss. The outer bulb can also be used to block some or all of the UV light generated by the
mercury vapour discharge, and can be composed of specially doped "UV stop" fused silica.
Ultraviolet protection is commonly employed in single ended (single base) models and double
ended models that provide illumination for nearby human use. Some high-powered models,
particularly the lead-gallium UV printing models and models used for some types of sports
stadium lighting do not have an outer bulb. The use of a bare arc tube can allow transmission of
UV or precise positioning within the optical system of a luminary.
3. Base
Some types have an Edison screw metal base, for various power ratings between 10 and 18,000
watts. Other types are double-ended, as depicted above, with R7s-24 bases composed of ceramic,
along with metal connections between the interior of the arc tube and the exterior. These are
made of various alloys (such as iron-cobalt-nickel) that have a thermal coefficient of expansion
that matches that of the arc tube.
WORKING
Like other gas-discharge lamps such as the very-similar vapour lamps, metal-halide lamps
produce light by ionizing a mixture of gasses in an electric arc. In a metal-halide lamp, the
compact arc tube contains a mixture of argon or xenon, mercury, and a variety of metal halides,
such as sodium iodide and scandium iodide. The particular mixture of metal halides influences
the correlated colour temperature and intensity (making the light more blue or red, for example).
When started, the argon gas in the lamp is ionized first, which helps to maintain the arc across
the two electrodes with the applied starting voltage. The heat generated by the arc and electrodes

Page 54
then ionizes the mercury and metal halides into plasma, which produces an increasingly-brighter
harsh white light as the temperature and pressure increases to operating conditions.
The arc-tube operates at anywhere from 5–50 atm or more (70–700 psi or 500–5000 kPa) and
1000–3000 °C. Like all other gas-discharge lamps, metal-halide lamps have negative
resistance (with the rare exception of self-ballasted lamps with a filament), and so require
a ballast to provide proper starting and operating voltages while regulating the current flow
through the lamp. About 24% of the energy used by metal-halide lamps produces light (an
efficacy of 65–115 lm/W), making them substantially more efficient than incandescent bulbs,
which typically have efficiencies in the range 2–4%.
Lamp Type Metal halide lamp

Rated Power In Watts 40 W to 1500 W
400 W lamp is 26000 lm
Warm-up 2-3 minutes
Re strike time 10 to 20 Minutes
6000-18000 hours
Hours
Shape R/ ED/ BT/T etc
Light Colour Warm white (2700K) / Cool white (4000K) / Daylight (6000K)
Base Mogul, FC2 etc.
Dimmable No.

Page 55
ADVANTAGES
 The advantage of metal halide lighting is its bright crisp, white light output and wide
applications
 Ceramic arc tubes provide improved Colour consistency over lamp life.
 Good luminous efficiency.
 Life range between 6000 hours to 18000 hours.
 Available with various colour temperatures.
.
DISADVANTAGES
 It takes more time to start
 The initial Purchase cost is high.
APPLICATIONS
 Metal-halide lamps are used for general lighting purposes both indoors and outdoors,
such as commercial, industrial, and public spaces, parking lots, sports arenas, factories,
and retail stores, as well as residential security lighting; automotive
 Metal-halide lamps are used in Electric torch, automobile headlights
 Another widespread use for such lamps is in photographic lighting and stage
lighting fixtures.
 Flood lighting where good colour and high efficiency are desired.
 Sports lighting etc.

Page 56
1.3.8 LED LAMPS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Like an ordinary diode, the LED diode works when it is forward biased. In this case, the n-type
semiconductor is heavily doped than the p-type forming the p-n junction. When it is forward
biased, the potential barrier gets reduced and the electrons and holes combine at the depletion
layer (or active layer), light or photons are emitted or radiated in all directions. A typical figure
blow showing light emission due electron-hole pair combining on forward biasing.
CONSTRUCTION
A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. A semiconductor die is rest in a
refractive cavity and placed inside a dome which also act as lens to directed and enhance the
light output. Anode and cathode terminals are comes out through post and anvil. To distinguish
the Anode terminal, the lead is made larger than cathode lead. Also the side nearer to cathode
terminal the epoxy dome is champers or made flat as shown in Fig.35. When a suitable voltage
is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. LEDs are available in different colour (Fig.36) and
shapes (Fig.37)

Page 57
WAVE
VF @
LENGTH COLOUR MATERIAL
20MA
RANGE (NM)
Aluminium nitride (AlN)
< 400 Ultraviolet 3.1 - 4.4 Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
400 - 450 Violet 2.8 - 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
450 - 500 Blue 2.5 - 3.7
Silicon carbide (SiC)
Gallium phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
500 - 570 Green 1.9 - 4.0
(AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
570 - 590 Yellow 2.1 - 2.2
(AlGaInP)
Orange / Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
590 - 610 2.0 - 2.1
amber (AlGaUInP)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
610 - 760 Red 1.6 - 2.0 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
(AlGaInP)
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
> 760 Infrared < 1.9
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Page 58
Shapes of LED Lamps
 Type A: this is the standard (incandescent) light-bulb shape that we are all familiar with
in our homes. Many LED bulbs, now replicate the shape of the type A incandescent light
bulb
 Type B: bullet tip light bulb
 Type BT: bulging or tubular shape. Most commonly found in table lamps
 Type BR: short height, reflector-style bulb
 Type C: candle shaped bulb, used in chandeliers mostly
 Type CP: stands for crystalline pear-shaped bulb
 Type E: ellipsoid shape
 Type ER: stands for ‘extended reflector’ shape of a light bulb
 Type F: candelabra ‘flame-style’ shape of the bulb
 Type G: globular or circle-shaped bulb
 Type HK: ‘hexagonal candle’ shaped light bulb
 Type K: Krypton, or a narrow reflector type shape of a light bulb
 Type MB: halogen light bulb
 Type MR: quartz reflector style shaped light bulb
 Type P: pear-shaped light bulb
 Type PAR: parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR)
 Type PS: elongated incandescent shape
 Type R: reflector style of light bulb
 Type S: the straight sided style of light bulb
 Type T: tube-shaped light bulb

Page 59
WORKING
LEDs create light by electroluminescence in a semiconductor material. Electroluminescence is
the phenomenon of a material emitting light when electric current or an electric field is passed
through it - this happens when electrons are sent through the material and fill electron holes.
An electron hole exists where an atom lacks electrons (negatively charged) and therefore has a
positive charge. Semiconductor materials like germanium or silicon can be "doped" to create and
control the number of electron holes. Doping is the adding of other elements to the
semiconductor material to change its properties. By doping a semiconductor you can make two
separate types of semiconductors in the same crystal. The boundary between the two types is
called a p-n junction. The junction only allows current to pass through it one way, this is why
they are used as diodes. LEDs are made using p-n junctions. As electrons pass through one
crystal to the other they fill electron holes. They emit photons (light).
Lamp Type LED Lamp
Rated Voltage in Volts 100-240V

Rated Power In Watts 0.5 W to 1500 W
Operating Frequency 50-60Hz
Rated Output In Lumens According to wattage. For example 20W lamp is 2000 lm
Colour Rendering Index >80
Type of Bulb Batten / T / Conventional
Average Rated Life in Hours 50000 hours
Efficacy in Lumen per watt 60 -100 lumens/Watt
Shape Linear / T shaped / A / G / Candle etc
Material Glass / Polycarbonate / Plastic
Light Colour Warm white / Cool white / White
Base Screw (E) / Bayonet (B) / Pin etc
Dimmable Yes

Page 60
ADVANTAGES
 Energy efficient – LED’s are now capable of outputting 135 lumens/watt
 Long Lifetime – 50,000 hours or more if properly engineered
 Rugged – LED’s are also called “Solid State Lighting (SSL) as they are made of solid
material with no filament or tube or bulb to break
 No warm-up period – LED’s light instantly – in nanoseconds
 Not affected by cold temperatures – LED’s “like” low temperatures and will startup
even in subzero weather
 Directional – With LED’s you can direct the light where you want it, thus no light is
wasted
 Excellent Colour Rendering – LED’s do not wash out colours like other light sources
such as fluorescents, making them perfect for displays and retail applications
 Environmentally friendly – LED’s contain no mercury or other hazardous substances
 Controllable – LED’s can be controlled for brightness and colour
DISADVANTAGES
 Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable
of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety
specifications.
 Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black
body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light.
 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient
temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life
 Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature) emit
proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-
pressure sodium lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means
that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The
International Dark-Sky Association discourages the use of white light sources with
correlated color temperature above 3,000 K.
 Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power
supplies.
 High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial
capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies.
 Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather a
Lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical
light field.

Page 61
APPLICATIONS OF LED
 Electronic displays such as OLEDs, micro-LEDs, quantum dots etc.
 As an LED indicator.
 In remote controls.
 Lightings.
 Opto-isolators.
 Moving Display
 Optical Communication
 Robotics, Security system etc.
APPLICATIONS OF LED LAMPS

 Home lighting
 Shops, market, Bar, Restaurants etc.
 Spot lighting, showcase lighting
 street lighting
 Outdoor lighting

Page 62
1.3.9 NEON SIGNS
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Neon sign or lighting consists of brightly glowing, electrified glass tubes (Fig. 38) or bulb (Fig.
39) that contain rarefied neon or other gases. Neon lights are a type of cold cathode gas-
discharge light. A neon tube is a sealed glass tube with a metal electrode at each end, filled with
one of a number of gases at low pressure. A high potential of several thousand volts applied to
the electrodes ionizes the gas in the tube, causing it to emit colored light. Neon tubes can be
fabricated in curving artistic shapes, to form letters or pictures. They are mainly used to make
dramatic, multicolored glowing signage for advertising, called Neon signs (Fig. 38).
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING

A neon lamp is constructed (Fig. 40) by mounting two electrodes within a small glass
envelope. When a starting voltage (usually 55-110 volts AC, or 90-140 volts DC) is applied, the
gas ionizes and starts to glow permitting a very small current to travel from one electrode to the
other.

Page 63
Neon lamp is a low pressure gas discharge lamp. It is a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL).
The term "Neon Lamp" is used to describe a CCFL with a tube diameter less than 15 millimeters.
A neon lamp is a sealed glass tube filled with neon gas, which is one of the so-called "noble"
(inert) gases on the far right of the Periodic Table. There is an electrode at either end of the tube.
A neon light actually works using either AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current), but if
DC current is used, the glow is only seen around one electrode. AC current is used for most neon
lights we see. When an electric voltage is applied to the terminals (about 15,000 volts), enough
energy is supplied to remove an outer electron from the neon atoms. If there is not enough
voltage, there will not be enough kinetic energy for the electrons to escape their atoms and
nothing will happen. The positively charged neon atoms are attracted to the negative terminal,
while the free electrons are attracted to the positive terminal. These charged particles,
called plasma, complete the electric circuit of the lamp.
Neon signs are made of glass tubes bent into letters or shapes and filled with inert gas. When the
electric current hits the electrodes in the tubes, electrons flow through the gas, making its atoms
glow. The type of gas in the tubes, determine the colour of the light.
There are two main ways of producing other colors of light besides the orange-red of neon. One
way is to use another gas or a mixture of gases to produce colors. As mentioned earlier, each
noble gas releases a characteristic color of light. For example, helium glows pink, krypton is
green, and argon is blue. If the gases are mixed, intermediate colors can be produced.
NEON GLOW LAMP SPECIFICATIONS
Red Red
Type Of
Standard High Green Glow Blue Glow Orange Glow
Neon
Brightness Brightness
Colour RED RED GREEN BLUE ORANGE
Life
30000-50000 20000-25000 15000-20000 10000-15000 30000-50000
(hours)
Current
3 1 0.6 -1.2 0.45 - 1 1.6
(mA)
Lumen
50 lm/W 65 lm/W
output

Page 64
ADVANTAGES
 Good lumen per watt performance
 Neon performs more reliably in cold weather than hot cathode fluorescent lights
 More reliable than LEDs for airport runway landing lights
 Wide operating ranges
 Can run on AC or DC
 Can be made into custom shapes.
DISADVANTAGES
 Shape of tube is a limitation
 Argon is not reliable in cold temperatures
 Diffused light (not good for any focused beam applications)
 They output very little light for amount of power required.
 Limited colours available based on gas and glass colour configurations.
 The glass tubes can be fragile.
 Generally only one colour can be used at a time.
 Very high maintenance costs.
 One small crack and the entire piece are broken.
APPLICATIONS
 They are mainly used to make dramatic, multicolored glowing signage for advertising,
called neon signs, Light-emitting tubes form colored lines with which a text can be
written or a picture drawn, including various decorations, especially
in advertising and commercial signage. By programming sequences of switching parts on
and off, there are many possibilities for dynamic light patterns that form animated
images.
 Airport runway lighting.
 Small neon lamps are most widely used as visual indicators in electronic equipment and
appliances, due to their low power consumption, long life, and ability to operate on mains
power.
 Pilot lamps that indicate the presence of electrical power in an appliance or instrument
(e.g. an electric coffee pot or power supply).
 Decorative (or "figural") lamps in which the cathode is shaped as a flower, animal, etc.
The figures inside these lamps were typically painted with phosphorescent paints to
achieve a variety of colors.

Page 65

UTHD (Unit 1 - Illumination)

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UTHD (Unit 1 - Illumination)

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Utilization, Traction,

Heating and drives

Lecture notes prepared by:

Light, Luminous Flux, Luminous Intensity, Lumen, Candle Power,

1.2. Laws of Illumination:

1.2.1 Law of Inverse Squares

1.3 Types, basic principle, Details Specifications and

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1 Definitions of Terms Used in Illumination

Light, Luminous Flux, Luminous Intensity, Lumen,

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

Fig.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum or Ether Spectrum.

1.1.2 VISIBLE LIGHT OR VISIBLE EMISSION

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1.3 LUMINOUS FLUX (Φ)

1.1.4 LUMINOUS INTENSITY (I)

1.1.5 LUMEN (lm)

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1.6 CANDLE POWER

1.1.7 ILLUMINATION (E)

Bigger unit of Illumination is

1.1.8 LUX OR METER CANDLE

1.1.9 MEAN SPHERICAL CANDLE POWER (MSCP)

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1.10 MEAN HORIZONTAL CANDLE POWER (MHCP)

1.1.11 MEAN HEMI-SPHERICAL CANDLE POWER (MHSCP)

1.1.12 REDUCTION FACTOR

1.1.13 LAMP EFFICIENCY

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

Efficacy example: Downlight (Fig. 4)

1.1.14 SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION

Its unit is Watts per Candela.

Given, 𝑉 = 200 𝑉, 𝐼 = 1.2 𝐴, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥(∅) = 2,800 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠.

𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑂⁄𝑃 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑚 2800

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

i. Discomfort Glare- Glare which causes discomfort.

1.1.16 GLARE INDEX

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1.17 SPACE-HEIGHT(S/H) RATIO

1.1.18 UTILISATION FACTOR (U.F)

The Utilisation Factor is depends on the following condition of:

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

i) The lighting System and Direct Ratio (D.R),

1.1.19 MAINTENANCE FACTOR (M.F.)

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

1.1.20 DEPRECIATION FACTOR

𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝟏

1.1.21 COLOUR TEMPARATURE

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

The colour temperature is a specification of the colour appearance of a light source. By

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1.22 COLOUR RENDERING INDEX (CRI)

1.1.23 WASTE LIGHT FACTOR OR LIGHT LOSS FACTOR

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

 AMOUNT OF OVERLAP OF LIGHT FLUX

1.1.24 ABSORPTION FACTOR

Nirmalendu Maji, Lect. (S.G), APC

1.1.26 REFLECTION FACTOR

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙

1.1.27 SOLID ANGLE

“The solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere

1.1.28 BEAM ANGLE