zSCHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concept of Local Government

A government is collectivity of power and authorities vested on particular groups

of representatives whose major task centres around designing policies and programmes

that addresses the demands of the people and provide for the good life. The smooth

running of governments, the translation of policies and programmes into concrete reality

together with the rendering of advice falls into the purview of the duties of the

administrative arm of government. As a result, one can see that both government and

administration are inseparably linked together with one depending on the other.

Specifically however, a local government can be regarded as

A system of government whose in local councils makes, accept

responsibility for, and implement their own decisions subject only to
such control as may be exercised by the people through their own
regional government.
The above definition given by Chief ObafemiAwolowo in a debate in the Western

House Assembly connotes a similar meaning giving by Whalen when he said that a local

government connotes.

A given territory and population, an institutional structure for legislative,

executive or administrative purposes, a separate legal identity, a range of
powers and functions authorities by delegation from the appropriate central or
intermediate legislature, and within the ambit of such delegation, autonomy including
fiscal autonomy.
 In the words of R.O.F. Ola, he defines government as “political sub-division of a

nation or state, which is constituted by law and has substantial centre of local affairs

including the process to impose taxes or to exact labour for prescribed purposes.

In as much more practical manner Gboyega has given an apt understanding of

what local government truly stands for. He said, local government enables services by

local, importance only to be locally administered, provides education in citizenship,

provides training in political leadership, makes available to the central government

information about localities which is essential for adequately meeting their needs

efficiently and minimizes concentration of political power by diffusing it. These values it

is added promoted democracy, they contribute to the development of a democratic

climate. All the definitions given above point out certain commonalties. These are that

local government brings about.

(a) Political participation of the local people in their own affairs.

(b) The management of local resources for public goods.

(c) Efficient administration of services to the benefit of the locality and

(d) Possession of legal authority to be able to carry out its statutory

responsibilities. It can sue and equally be sued.

This now brings to mind the all-embracing definition given by the federal

government of Nigeria when it instituted the 1976 nationwide, local government reform.

It provided its definition as:

 Government it local level exercised through representative councils established by

law to exercise specific powers within defined areas. These powers should give the

council’s substantial control over local affairs as well as the staff and institutional

and financial powers to initiate and direct the provision of services and to

determine and implement projects so as to complement the activities of the state

and federal government in their areas, and to ensure, through devoE1ution of

functions to these councils and through the active participation of the people and

their traditional institutes that local initiative and response to local needs and

conditions are maximized.

The above definition derives from four basic nuns and functions put within the

jurisdiction of local government. These are:

a. To make appropriate services and development activities respondents to local

wishes and initiatives by devolving or delegating them to local representatives

bodies.

b. To facilities the exercise of democratic self-government closes to the local

levels of our society and to encourage initiative and leadership potential.

c. To mobilize human and material resources through the involvement of

members of the public in their local development.

d. To provide a two-way channel of communication between local communities

and..government (both state and federal).

The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provides in section 7 (1)

that a local government is:

 The system of local government by democratically elected local government

council is under this constitution guaranteed: and accordingly, the government of every

state shall subject to section 8 of this constitution, ensure their existence under a law

which provides for the establishment, structure, composition, finance and functions of

such councils.

This is the legal document before the National Assembly and with which the

affairs of the country are conducted.

2.2 Concept of Waste Management

Graiser (2007) refers to waste disposal as ‘solid material which is discarded. This

definition ignores the relevant issue of the usefulness, value, or desirability of the matter

in question, but in as much as discarding is an intentional act, it implies that the discarded

judges the material to be of relatively little current value to him. Rogdgers (2011)

contends that waste management is a systematic control of generation, storage, collection,

transportation, separation, processing, recovery and disposal of waste disposal. In the

smallest of places, waste disposal management is accepted as a major aspect of the

indigenous community organization and traditional home management; hence every

house/compound has a designed area for waste disposal collection/disposal and or

incineration (Sanda, 2008). In Nigeria, wastes are generated in homes, commercial,

industrial sites, hospitals, schools, on streets and even religious activities.

2.2.1 Waste disposal Management-Etymological Discourse:

Ezema (2009) and Bridgewater (1980) argues that the amount of waste generated

by human population was Asian J. Bus. Manage., 4(4): 352-358, 2012 very insignificant.
This was due to the size of the population and the spread of population around the world,

coupled with the fact that there was very little exploitation of natural resources, Common

wastes produced during

the early ages were mainly ashes and human wastes; these were released back into the

ground, which did not cause any harm to the environment. Before the invention of

metals, wood was widely used for most application. However, the reuse of wood has

been well documented. Best example being the reuse of timbers for shipbuilding

purposes. With the invention of metals viz: bronze and iron, their use became common in

most applications. Nevertheless, it is once again

well documented that reuse and recovery of such metals have been carried out by early

humans.

With the advent of industrial revolution, waste management became a critical

issue. This is owing to the increase in population and massive shifts in population from

rural areas to industrial towns and cities during mid 18 thcentury. There was a consequent

increase in industrial and domestic wastes posing threat to human health and

environment. By mid 19thcentury, considerable efforts had begun towards managing

wastes. Incinerators were first used during late 19 thcentury in United Kingdom, but they

were opposed on the grounds of emissions, which fell unto the surrounding residential

areas. Further to this a series of legislations were passed in response to concern over

human health and environment (Johnson, 2009).

In Nigeria, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the national agency that

works to protect human and the natural environment.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established and enforces national environmental

protection standards, conducts research on environmental problems, and assists other

organizations in protecting the environment through grants, technical assistance and other

programmers. The following descriptions introduce and define the main activities

classifies under Integrated Waste disposal Management (ISWM). Waste prevention:

Waste prevention often called source reduction means reducing waste by not producing

it. Example of waste prevention would include purchasing durable, long lasting goods

and seeking products and packaging that are as face of toxic substances as possible. It can

be as simple as switching from waste disposal to reusable products, or as complex as

redesigning from a product to use fewer raw materials or last longer.

Recycling: recycling makes use of materials that otherwise would become private

turning them into valuable resources. Recycling helps reduce greenhouse gas emission, in

part by diverting waste from landfills, In some countries, a great deal of recycling occurs

before the waste reaches the landfill. Scrap dealers by directly from households and

business, waste pickers of scavengers collect material from waste bin and waste

collectors separate materials that can be sold as they load their truck. Composting:

Another form of recycling according to Uche (2010) is. composting the controlled

aerobic biological decomposition of organic matter such as food scraps and plant matter

into humus, a soil-like material compost acts as a natural fertilizer by providing nutrients

to the soil, increasing beneficial solid organisms and suppressing certain plant diseases

thereby reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides in land scraping and

agricultural activities.
Organic material often comprises a large portion of the waste disposal stream,

particularly in communities that rely heavily on tourism. Composting can be particularly,

helpful to communities managing their waste and thus reducing their waste and thus

reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Combustion: Combustion is the controlled burnings of waste in a designated facility to

reduce its volume and in some cases, to generate electricity. Combustion is an I.S.W.M.

option for waste that cannot recycle or composted argues Tim (2008) and is sometimes

selected by communities where landfill space is limited.

While the combustion process can generate toxic air emission, installing control

equipment such as acid gas scrubbers and fabric filters in combustors. Combustion of

solid can help reduce amount of waste going to landfills. They also can reduce reliance

on coal one of the fossil fuels that produces greenhouses goes when burned.

The need for environmental education, awareness and public participation:

Environmental education is necessary for improving environmental quality (Emeribe.

2000). Much of traditional waste disposal management practices such as waste burning,

indiscriminate open dumping of waste, ecological ideals and government regulations

often arouse conflict. Enlightened debates, public awareness and even outright opposition

can promote a forum for dialogue and conflict resolution which can lead to balanced

policies which will enhance public commitment. Such a system that involves people’s

participation is democratic. A better understanding of waste disposal management and its

attendant problems will enhance the effective use of the environment. Although people

are capable of influencing their environment in both constructive and destructive ways,
yet, much of the influence has been in the service of making the environment less

attractive. People are depleting natural resource and polluting the environment at an

alarming rate and it is, therefore, important to educate people better in order for them to

have positive attitude, commitment and motivation to adopt sound techniques in

managing their waste products. Environmental education and awareness among decision

makers will according to Emeribe (2000) considerably help in a better integration of

environmental issues into development planning, budgeting and policy formulations. This

will be reflected in the attitude and actions of government functionaries (Ama and Salan,

1992).

2.2.2 Political Economy of Waste Management

According to (OlarZerbork,2003),developing countries have waste disposal

management problems different than those found in fully industrialized countries; indeed,

the very composition of their waste is different than that of ‘developed’ nations. This

includes differences in volume generated and also content. Before one can examine

individual problems in waste

The need for environmental education, awareness and public participation:

Environmental education is necessary for improving environmental quality (Emeribe.

2000). Much of traditional waste disposal management practices such as waste burning,

indiscriminate open dumping of waste, ecological ideals and government regulations

often arouse conflict.

Enlightened debates, public awareness and even outright opposition can promote a

forum for dialogue and conflict resolution which can lead to balanced policies which will
enhance public commitment. Such a system that involves people’s participation is

democratic. A better understanding of waste disposal management and its attendant

problems will enhance the effective use of the environment. Although people are capable

of influencing their environment in both constructive and destructive ways, yet, much of

the influence has been in the service of making the environment less attractive. People

are depleting natural resource and polluting the environment at an alarming rate and it is,

therefore, important to educate people better in order for them to have positive attitude,

commitment and motivation to adopt sound techniques in managing their waste products.

Environmental education and awareness among decision makers will accordingEmeribe

(2000) considerably help in a better integration of environmental issues into development

planning, budgeting and policy formulations. This will be reflected in the. attitude and

actions of government functionaries (Ama and Salan, 1992).

2.2.2 Political Economy of Waste Management

According to (Olar Zerbork,2003),developing countries have waste disposal

management problems different than those found in fully industrialized countries; indeed,

the very composition of their waste is different than that of ‘developed’ nations. This

includes differences in volume generated and also content. Before one can examine

individual problems in waste management, it is important to understand the political and

economic framework in which governments must frequently work in developing

countries.
 In most cities in Nigeria, refuse collection and waste management is part of the

functions of the local government authorities. However, over time these Local

government authorities appear to be incapacitated due to poor resources, obsolete trucks

and population increase among others. To reduce these challenges, state governments

took over the responsibility of waste management within the cities. In view of this, Oyo

state created Oyo state waste management authority (LAWMA) to take charge of refuse

collection and waste management. This agency is yet to adequately handle this challenge

within Oyo state. Meeting the financial demands of MSW management will continue to

be a problem in the cities of developing countries. In areas where residents are assessed

fees for waste removal, the rate of collection can be quite poor (Schübeler 1996). Further,

fewer and fewer people will be willing to pay in the face of poor or declining service.

Many municipalities may not even be aware of the degree to which revenues are

collected, or the true costs of their entire MSW operations. The problems are

compounded when revenues from MSW collection are simply rolled into the general

treasury, as opposed to returning to waste-related operations. Many municipalities have

turned to privatization as a potential solution; certainly the financial picture is cleared

somewhat when the entire system is turned over to outside contractors. However, local

governments will still be held to account if., service declines. With increased

urbanization, demand for services will undoubtedly increase. Municipal tax and fee

revenues, however, are not likely to rise as quickly as the population. This is due to the

fact that of the people moving to the city, the majority are likely to be poor migrants from

rural areas in search of employment, unable to contribute significantly to the revenues of

the municipality. Although they may demand marginally less services due to their lower

level of

consumption, they are likely (at least at first) to congregate in the poorer, moredensely

settled areas, exacerbating the health and sanitation problems posed by these often

unplanned communities. Additionally, the high moisture content and organic composition

of wastes in the developing world may lead to problems of increased decomposition rates

in areas with high average daily temperatures; high seasonal or year-round rainfall would

only compound these problems, presenting additional challenges with insect populations

and conditions conducive to disease. To mitigate these problems, much more frequent

collection is needed in hot, humid areas to remove organic wastes before they are able to

decompose than would be needed in cooler, drier climates. Although daily collection has

proven unreliable or unworkable in many cities (Cointreau 1982), perhaps a twice-weekly

collection of organic material (possibly in conjunction with a municipal composting

operation), would be sufficient to reduce decomposition.

Human health risks

There are some human health risks associated with waste disposal handling and

disposal in all countries to some degree, but certain problems are more acute and

widespread in underdeveloped nations. Cointreau (1982) has classified these into four

main categories: 1) presence of human fecal matter, 2) presence of potentially hazardous

industrial waste. 3) the decomposition of solids into constituent chemicals which

contaminate air and water systems, and 4) the air pollutioncaused by consistently burning

dumps and methane release.

According to (OlarZerbork 2003) industrial waste can pose significant health risks for

those involved in the collection and ultimate disposal of waste disposal. The presence of

toxic compounds in municipal waste disposal is highly regulated in modern developed

nations, where special procedures must be followed to ensure minimum environmental

contamination and human exposure.

Environmental issues

The decomposition of waste into constituent chemicals is a common source of

local environmental pollution. This problem is especially acute indeveloping nations:

very few existing landfills in the world’s poorest countries would meet environmental

standards accepted in industrialized nations, and with limited budgets there are likely to

be few sites rigorously evaluated prior to use in the future. The problem is again

compounded by the issues associated with rapid urbanization. As land becomes scarce,

human settlements encroach upon landfill space, and local governments in some cases

encourage new development directly on top of operating or recently closed landfills.

A major environmental concern is gas release by decomposing garbage. Methane

is a byproduct of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, and these bacteria thrive in

landfills with high amounts of moisture. Methane concentrations can reach up to50% of

the composition of landfill gas at maximum anaerobic decomposition (Cointreau-Levine,

1996).

A second problem with these gasses is their contribution to the so-called

greenhouse gasses (GHGs) which are blamed for global warming. Both gases are major
constituents of the world’s problem GHGs; however while carbon dioxide is readily

absorbed for use in photosynthesis.

Waste reduction

It would seem that the easiest and most effective way to reduce the amount of

waste to be disposed of would be to simply produce less in the first place. (Johannessen

1999).Hoornweg, et al (1999) state that for every metric ton of unsorted municipal waste

disposal (containing 0.3 Mt. carbon), 0.2 Mt are converted to landfill gasses. Of this gas,

carbon dioxide and methane each comprise .09 Mt. Since it is believed that landfill gasses

supply 50% of human-caused methane emissions and 2-4% of all worldwide greenhouse

gasses (Johannessen 1999), this is clearly an area of concern in global.

2.3 Waste Management and Sustainable Development

The end of the 1 980s saw a radical reappraisal of our concerns over resource

availability and use, the environmental consequences of resource exploitation and the

relationship between the environment, poverty and economic change. This re-appraisal

has given rise to a new approach to environment and development issues - an approach

which seeks to reconcile human needs and the capacity of the environment to cope with

the consequences of economic system. This approach is called sustainable development.

Sustainable development is an implied development without destruction, it is the

judicious use of non-renewable resources for the present and future generations, which

are nonrenewable resources, must be used at a judicious rate, neither too fast nor too slow

and to ensure that the natural wealth that they represent is converted into long-term
wealth as they are used.

In Nigeria we succinctly put it as sustainable development without jeopardizing future

development, meaning that in our efforts to explore and exploit the natural resources to

serve us, there is an obvious paradox evident in the need to ensure economic

development, while protecting the environment.

It is important to note that there must be a balance between levels of development

and the stock of natural resources, that is, development must be at a level that can be

sustained without prejudice to the natural environment or to future generations. Therefore

if there is to be sustainable development in waste management in Nigeria, the availability

of land (for landfill), human resources, plant and equipment and other tools including

capital must be readily available. We need to protect future for the next generation by

cleaning up our environment of all types of waste, taking into consideration both physical

and’ population development of the state. As such waste management must mean the

collection, keeping, treatment and disposal of wastes in such a way as to render it

harmless to human and animal life, the ecology and the environment generally.

2.4 Nature and Management of (solid) wastes in Nigeria

The culture of the people in the geographical entity called Nigeria varies from one

nationality to the other and their way of life has contributed tremendously to affect their

environment. In a densely populated cities in Nigeria as well as small villages, the habit

of dumping waste disposals which are mainly domestic, medical and industrial in

strategic and commercial centers or near their houses is a common environmental

phenomenon. This happening tends to qualify the environment and perhaps this informed

the then Federal Military Government to promulgate Decree No 58 of 1988.

The Decree created Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) and

charged it with the responsibility of maintaining decent environment in Nigerian cities

and towns. The Decree made provisions for the post of a chairman who has the

knowledge of environmental matters, four distinguished scientists and one representative

from Federal Ministries of Health. Science and Technology, Works and Housing,

Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development, Industries, Mines, Power and

Steel, Employment, Labour and Productivity, Petroleum

Resources, Transport and Aviation.

According to cookey (2005:50) waste disposal management is defined as the

discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and

transport, processing and disposal of waste disposal in a manner that is in accord with the

best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and

other environmental consideration, and that is also responsive to public attitudes. In its

scope, waste disposal management includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning

and engineering functions involved in solutions to all problems of waste. Invariably, the

activities associated with waste disposals management from the’ point of generation to

final disposal can be group into the following:

 Waste generation

 Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source

  Collection

 Separation and processing and transformation of waste disposals;

 Transfer and transport;

 Disposal.

Waste generation:-encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer

being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal. Waste

generation is an activity that is not very controllable.

Waste handling- Waste handling and separation involves the activities associated with

management of waste until they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling

also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection.

Separation of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of waste

disposal at the source. On-site storage is of primary importance because of public health

concerns and aesthetic consideration., The cost of providing storage for waste disposals at

the source is normally borne by the home owner in the case of individuals, or by the

management of commercial and industrial properties. Processing at the source involves

activities such as compaction and yard waste composting.

Waste collection- waste collection includes not only gathering of waste disposal and

decidable materials, but also the transport of these materials after collection, to the

location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a material

processing facility, a transfer station, or a landfill disposal site.

Separation, processing, and transformation of waste disposal: The recovery of

separated materials, the separation and processing of waste disposal components, and

transformation of waste disposals that occurs primarily in locations away from the source

of waste generation are encompasses by this functional element. The type of means and

facilities that are used for the recovery of waste materials that have been separated at the

source in clued curbside collection, drop of, and buy back centre (cookey 2005:51) the

separation and processing of wastes that have been separated at the source and the

separation of coming wastes usually occur at material recovery facilities, transfer stations

combustion facilities, and disposal sites. Processing often includes the separation of

bulky items, separation of waste components by size using magnets, volume reduction by

compaction and combustion. Transformation processes are used to reduce the volume and

weight of wastes requiring disposal and to recover conversion products and energy. The

organic fraction of municipal waste disposal (MSW) can be transformed by a variety of

chemical and biological process. The most commonly used chemical transformation

process is combustion, which is used in conjunction with the recovery of energy in the

form of heat. The most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic

composting. The selection of a given set of process will depend on the waste

management objectives to be achieved.

Transfer and transport- This involves two steps:

(1) The transfer of waste from the smaller collection vehicle to the large transport

equipment.
 (2) The subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to a

processing or disposal site.

The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station. Although motor vehicle transport is

most common, rail cars and larges are also used to transport wastes.

Disposal- Today the disposal of waste by land filling or lands Priding is the ultimate fate

of all waste disposals, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported

directly to a landfill site, residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFS),

residue from combustion of waste disposal, compost, or other substances from various

waste disposal-processing facilities. A modem sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an

engineered facility used for disposing of waste disposals on land or within the earth’s

mantle without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the

breeding of rats and insects and the contamination of groundwater.