Report On Design of Concrete Wind Turbine Towers: Reported by ACI Innovation Task Group 9

Report on Design of
Concrete Wind Turbine

Towers
Reported by ACI Innovation Task Group 9
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American Concrete Institute
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American Concrete Institute October 2016
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ISBN: 978-1-945487-35-4
Report on Design of Concrete Wind Turbine Towers
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ACIITG-9R-16
Report on Design of Concrete Wind Turbine Towers

Reported by ACI Innovation Task Group 9
Charlc S. Han kat, Chair
Roger J. Becker Neil M. Hawkins ina Kristeva Kirk B. Morgan*

Rick Damiani Kevin L. Kirkley Dan A. Kuchma* Markus Wemli
Charles W. Dolan• Gary J. Klein James D. Lockwood
*Principal authors.
This reporl examine /he benefit of/he de ign of concrete towers for CHAPTER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS, p. 3
land-based wind turbines with heights in excess of 325 fl (100m). 2. !-N otation, p. 3
in comparison lo those of round steel/ubular towers. The e benei
f ts 2.2-Definitions, p. 3
include reduced cost, increased stijfne s. and superior service life
performance. Construction allerna/ives, design
WIND FARM DEVELOPMENT AND
methodologies. and guidance for preliminGIJ' �--·1111!!"' CHAIN, p. 3
towers are presented.
The report recognizes that final
3@
coordination with the /urbine sut.wll.- sign, p. 5
those involved in developing
towers designed for maximum """''•r"""P.< E TOWER TYPES, p. 6
preliminary design. but the final p. 6
loads, especially fatigue and
operations. Design o.f'connections
understanding of fatigue reliUlJ"l'n!er.lr.lt.aurm
for the connection design to remain valid during final checks.
Keywords: concrete tower; full-height tower; hybrid tower; precast

elements; prestressing; slipfonned; SJJread footings; turbine; wind; w irlOI-.___.....-�
fann. CHAPTER 5- TOWER DESIGN, p. 11
5 . 1 -Tower frequency design, p. I I
CONTENTS 5 .2-Service level design, p. 1 2
5.3-Prestressing, p. 1 3
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION, p. 2 5 . 4-Modeling, p. 1 3
1 . 1 -Jntroduction, p. 2 5 . 5-Fatigue, p. 1 5
1 .2- cope, p. 3 5 .6-Prel im inary design guidance, p. 1 5
CHAPTER 6-DESIGN LOADS AND LOAD

COMBINATIONS, p. 15
6. 1 -Load and load combination , p. 1 6
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are 6.2-load factors, p. 1 7
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
CHAPTER 7-DESIGN LOADS, p. 17
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
7. !-Basic weights and load , p. 1 7
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it 7.2-Wind profile, p. 18
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and 7.3-Earthquake loads, p. 1 8
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI ITG-9R-16 was adopted and publisbcd October 2016.
Copyright{;) 2016, A merican Concrete Institute.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and usc in any fonn or by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic
they shall be restated in mandatory language tor incorporation or mechanical device, printed. written. or oral. or recording for sound or visual
by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or fo r usc in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
pcnnission in writing is obtnincd from the copyright proprietors.

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2 REPORT ON DESIGN OF CONCRETE WIND TURBINE TOWERS (ACI ITG-9R-16)
7.4- onnal operating fatigue loads, p. I g

7.5-Temperature loads, p. 1 8
7. Abnormal operating conditions, p. 1 8
CHAPTER 8-CONCRETE RESISTANCE, p. 19

8. 1 -Strength design, p. 1 9
8.2-Serviceability design, p. 1 9
8.3-Joints and connections, p. 1 9
CHAPTER 9-FOUNDATION DESIGN, p. 1 9

9. 1 -Rock anchor foundations, p . 1 9
9.2-Pier-type deep foundations, p. 20
9.3-Spread footings, p. 20
9.4-Termination of reinforcement and prestress, p. 22
9.5-Tower-foundation structural integrity, p. 22
CHAPTER 1Q-CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDAT I ONS, p. 22
CHAPTER 11-REFERENCES, p. 23
Authored documents, p. 23
CHAPTER 1-INTRO
1.1-lntroduction Top offooting

Towers for wind turbines in
been constructed of steel and
although early towers for kW
type truss structures. Lattice blade radiu . Additional details
resurgence for multi-MW ven in Chapter 4.
have reached their shipping li levels increase above 2.5 MW,
the industry several economic pport the turbines are exceedin g
for towers less than 3 2 5 ft ( I0 0 m) tall. Steel towers can ight. In moderate wind areas, such as
be prefabricated, readily transported over existing h1·�gh - ; �ili!l�--::"
Uni ted States, taller towers are beneficial
ways, and efficiently erected on the wind farm site. Wher' �"«:"-- to 2.5 MW turbines to capitalize on the more desir-
concrete towers are widely used in Europe, many wind farm able wind patterns. For turbines in the 5 to 1 0 MW range,
designers in orth America have not considered concrete turbines using a 325 ft (I 00 m) or larger rotor diameter are
towers due to several perceived limitations, including the now under development. Towers for these turbines would
lack of: exceed 325 ft (I 00 m) in height to the nacelle mounting ring
(a) nderstanding the length of time to construct concrete interface. At this height, several of the advantages of the
towers current steel towers are lost due to their larger size, their
(b) Familiarity with the fatigue properties of concrete lower stiffnes , and the neces ity for on- ite completion.
(c) Industry standards for concrete tower design nder these conditions, concrete towers become practi -
(d) Historical cost data cable alternatives and economically attractive. According to
To address these concerns, this report describes the advan- Eng trom et al. (20I 0), using a hub height of 4I 0 ft ( 1 25 m),
tages and options for concrete towers greater than 325 ft it is possible to save up to 30 percent of the tower cost by
(I 00 m) in height. selecting a technology other than the conventional welded
Figure 1. 1 illustrates a tower and highlights several key steel tower. Lattice towers and wooden towers were deter-
terms used in this report. The tower height is measured from mined to be economical. Engstrom et al. (20 1 0) concluded
the foundation interface to the mounting ring. A yaw bearing, that there are everal i nteresting tower alternatives worthy
which permits the horizontal rotation of the turbine, attaches of further development, i ncluding steel towers with slip
to the mounting ring. The turbine and main bearing shaft are critical joints, concrete, hybrid concrete/steel, wood, and
located in the nacelle, which is attached to the yaw bearing. lattice construction. mut et a! . (20II) point out that a the
The blades are attached to the main bearing shaft and, for height of the tower i ncreases, the stiffness demands become
tower design purposes, are included in the nacelle weight. critical . Concrete tower have greater ability than teet to
The hub height is measured from the top of the foundation adj ust sti ffness to meet the performance requirements of the
to the center of the main bearing shaft. The swept area of the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) suppliers.
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REPORT ON DESIGN OF CONCRETE WIND TURBINE TOWERS (ACI ITG-9R-16) 3
1.2-Scope
All references to turbine technology in this report are
limited to horizontal axis turbines of the upwind, three-blade
variety. Other variants of the horizontal axis turbines, such as
the two-blade and down-wind blade orientation, have advan
tages and disadvantages in the categories of dynamic loads
and blade/tower i nterference, but they are not addressed i n
this report. Refer t o Wind Vision 20 15 (U .S. Department
of nergy 20 1 5 ) for more information regarding horizontal
axi s turbines. This report is primarily for land-based towers,
although reference is made to off.<;hore towers when those
data are applicable.
CHAPTER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 -Notation
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, lblin.2 (Pa)
Esec = secant modulus of elasticity of concrete, lb/in.2 (Pa)
ft·max = max imum stress in the concrete stress-strain curve
occurring at Eo, lb/i n.2 (Pa) Fig. 3. 1 . / a- Typ ica/ row of lurbin es in a win d farm an d
k parameter based on modulus of elasticity and strain their access road, A rlin gton, W Y.
conditions schematic of wind farm development that
n ratio of actual strain-to-strain at m heights of wind farms erected in the
Vlwb = velocity of wind at height of suggests l inear devel-
V;/1 = cut-in wind speed; the developer, turbine original
height at which the ), tower designer, contractor,
power in the case of a lex. For example, some site
V;J/It = cut-out wind speed; es, are ongoing activities that
height at which the ing the final proj ect funding.
produce power in a nal (LOP) for wind farms may
vp = wind speed for power ·ng tower design for the OEM
mph (krn/h) or tower designer for the
reference or design wind speed for the turbine, mph varies by project and the time the engi
(krn/h) is required. A tower design LOP may enter
weight of segment i, lb (N) project early or late, depending on the OEM background
lateral deflection of a segment, ft (m) with concrete tower design. An independent engineer LOP
height above ground level, ft (m) may be retained during the fi nding process or by the certi
strain i n concrete corresponding to maximum stress fication agency to validate the design. The independent
strain in concrete engineer certification role is shown as a dashed line in Fig.
maximum concrete strain 3 . 1 . 1 b for early involvement and a sol id line as part of final
(l) tower natural frequency, I /s approval. If the towers are procured on a design-build basis,
the tower design LOP may work directly for the contractor.
2.2-Definitions
The towers are typically provided under the turbine OEM
A I provides a comprehensive l ist of definitions contract and are not within the scope of the LOPs retained for
through an onl i ne resource, '"ACI Concrete Terminology the project. The towers, however, are a significant part of the
(CT- 1 6)," https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetai l . .
project cost and, therefore, could require input at the evalua-'
aspx?lteml C T 1 6. tion stage of the project, particularly with higher hub heights.
.
Early i dentification of the tower type and construction:
CHAPTER 3-WIND FARM DEVELOPMENT AND
method may offer more economical solutions than inferred'
TOWER SUPPLY CHAIN
i n the flowchart, and may be essential for developing a:
reliable cost basis for the project. For current typical hub ·
3.1-lntroduction
heights of 260 to 360 ft (80 to II 0 m), the towers usually
3.1.1 Win d farm deve lopmen t-A wind farm consists of
run approximately I 0 percent of the total cost. For taller
several wind turbines distributed over a large area (Fig. 3 . 1 . 1a). w i nd turbines, however, that percentage could approach 30
Because the visual impact and land requirements are signifi percent. I f design-build options are under consideration, the
cant, the development of a wind farm is complex and often necessary feedback among the developer, contractor, turbine
requires considerable public input. Figure 3. 1 . 1 b presents OEM, and tower designer is not reflected i n Fig. 3 . 1 . 1 b.

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Prcconstruction wind resource as.�essment, yes

economic assessment, modeling, turbine
evaluation
Wind farm design

Turbine siting Certification
Foundation design agency
Tower design
Electrical system
Civil access design
Construction management
Environmental studies
Suppliers
Permitting transmittals
Wind turbine
Fig. 3.l.lb chematic ofwin dfarm developmen t ( adapted from A SCE IAWEA RP2011).
In this report, development of a wind farm is reduced The appearance of wind turbines and their towers at any
to two broadly defined steps. The first is site selection and given site is usual ly subject to review and public input.
approval ; the second is design and certification. As indi Turbine OEM and their tower suppliers should be involved
cated previously, concrete tower designs are likely to be an in the site selection and approval process when turbine and
i ntegral element to each step of development. Thi s report tower appearances are different from more common generic
assumes that final design of the concrete wind turbine towers designs.
will include detai led i nteraction among the wind farm devel Higher foundation loads i mparted by larger turbines on
oper, contractor, and turbine manufacturer. taller towers can also be expected to magnify the importance
3.1.2 Site appro val Site approval agencies vary by loca
- of site selection relative to geotechnical conditions. The
tion in the United States. For example, an offshore wind fann approval of turbine support structures will vary by region i n
project in Delaware was approved by the Delaware Public the n ited States due to the absence o f minimum standards
Uti lity Commission. In Wyoming, the site approval on federal for fatigue design of reinforced concrete, as wel l as a rela
lands is largely under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land tively l i m i ted body of design guides and standards for wind
Management. M ajor tasks such a environmental impact state turbine generator systems (WTGSs). Regional variations
ments, public input, and establishment of design criteria vary between sites may require input from tower designers to
accordingly. Participation by tower suppl iers at these early assist local authority's decision making as project approvals
stages can provide credibility to feasibility of the project. are. obta.in!!d.
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3.2-Certification and design (LOP). The core mission of ASCE/AWEA RP20 1 1 is to aid
3.2.1 Certifi cation -ASCEI AWEA RP20II and I EC authorities having jurisdiction in the assessment of the work
6 1 400- 1 refer to the certification process for wind farms. of the LOP with regard to WTGSs.
Certification involves design review, prototyping, and Designs should be prepared so that the certification bodies
production quality management during serial production. or independent engineers can validate the designs in a
Certification is carried out by independent bodies that are predictable way. Designers and producers of concrete towers
accredited by their national governments and mutually in the nited States should recognize how to interface with
recognized worldwide. The process culminates in issuance the market with respect to certification and independent
of a type certificate specifYing the item in question and the engineering. Figure 3. 1 . 1 b highl ights some of the interne-
normative standards against which that item was evalu- tions that may be required. Producers should understand the
ated. European examples of certification bodies include relevant standards, model ing practices, as wel l as the respon-
DNV-GL, Bureau Veritas, TOY S D, and T V ORO, ·· ·· sibilities of the turbi ne OEM, tower designer, and contractor
with the latter two having branches in the nited States. so if they are to be included in site selection, preliminary
A lthough the nited States lacks a uniform national certifi- design, and independent validation. Early engagement with
cation process for wind turbine generator systems (WTGSs), a particular certification body may prove critical to the
UL, a global independent safety science company, and the commercialization of any given tower product. Additional
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), a provider of clas- guidelines for certification are given by German ischer L loyd
sification services to the global marine and offshore indus- Industrial Services GmbH (20I 0).
tries, have become involved with wind fields in recent 3.2.2 Design -This report identifies commonly used
:Years. Certification of the tower and turbine components is design specifications. Tower design is greatly affected by
�i.llliiiillll
:normally required worldwide for project insurance, bonding, the overall design criteria. Final selection of design criteria
'and overall project confidence. WTGS cert. i. fi cat io r1 in the site approval and certification process. This
:,�
:on a turbine mounted on a particular under the direction of the authority having
-ina) equipment manufacturers (0 rdi nation with the certification agency.
'turbines and towers for certain nclude ASCE/SE I 7, ACI 3 1 8,
of ofl'shore projects, certification W EA RP20 II. The International
required due to varying water (IEC) standard, IEC 6 1 400- 1 ,
Independent engineers, as i tional standard for large-
a simi lar role as the certifi 7 and ACI 3 1 8 provide loads
but with some important and are calibrated so the
scope of their review. Some rpr·"'nr<>t factors, and strength reduc-
ated or joined with independent between documents. Provisions
entities are not interchangeable. Independent engineering conflict with both ASCE/SEI 7 and
review is normally a requirement of financial partners on it an i mportant step in the tower prelimi-
larger projects for technical due di ligence and risk rna '"''--""""'��:;; process to resolve conflicts and develop unified
ment. Smaller projects often do not involve independent design criteria. An upcoming international standard in devel-
engi neers. Independent engineers are normally requested to opment, IEC 6 1 400-6, will include considerations for steel
issue certification statements at the time of project commis- and concrete towers, as well as gravity-based and rock-
sioning or financial closing, although this differs from that anchor foundations. Technical annexes to the IEC docu-
of the accredited certification bodies previously discussed. ments compare differences in national and regional design
While towers are normally certified for specific turbines, standards.
foundations in the United States have typically not been certi- ASCE/A WEA R P20II does attempt to address the conflict
fied. Foundations are site-specific and their design, through a between ASCE/SEI 7 and ACI 3 1 8, and I EC 6 1 400- 1 .
simpl ified specification of dynamic requirements (stiffness), ASCE/AWEA RP20II documents how the shore-based
can be easily separated from the more iterative design for wind industry in the nited States has attempted to reconci le
·
the dynamics of the tower and turbine. Historically these the relevant international standards and local codes. ASCE/
have been very simple specifications just requiring rotational AWEA RP20 1 1 - 1 1 highlights several key issues affecting
and horizontal stiffness at the base of the tower. On large the design of wind turbine towers. They are summarized in
projects, therefore, independent engineers are commonly the fol lowing:
asked to review foundation designs and other project facility (a) The Recommended Practice section applies to only
components. However, towers are less easily divorced from fabricated circular steel towers and may be extended to
the system dynamic design requirements, and market norms 24-sided polygonal steel towers based on the engineer's
in the nited States have grown in a way that reflects this by j udgement.
excluding independent engineers from tower design reviews, (b) Steel lattice or space frame towers are excluded from
relying instead on the turbine OEM certification process. One the Recommended Practice section.
aspect common to both towers and foundations in the nited (c) Local building codes are not sufficiently special ized
States, however, is the legal- and insurance-based need for for WTGS tower design.
sealed drawings stamped by the l icensed design professional
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(d) Even though local building codes may not be suffi

cient for WTGS tower design, the certification agency may
require that their requirements be satisfied.
(e) Where a proven tower design already ex ists in service
and the tower was designed in accordance with existing
certification agency guidelines, a limited design assessment
or plan review to show compliance with the local building
code may be considered sufficient.
(t) Any less stringent standard in the local building code
should not undercut or violate the certification agency
guidelines.
(g) I t is the owner's or client's responsibil ity to determine
the effect of local building code compliance on the condi
tions of commercial certification.
CHAPTER 4-CONCRETE TOWER TYPES

Concrete towers are divided into two categories: hybrid and
full-height. Although the definition of each category is some
what arbitrary, it reflects the difference in both design and
connection locations with the wind turbine. All wind turbine
towers require steel components at the top of the tower to form
a mounting ring that supports the nacelle at the level
yaw bearing. When the steel interface
than a connection, the tower can be
concrete tower extending from the
ring is considered a full-height towers
Apart from material and are connected to the founda-
concrete tower type will be ring. The tower hub height is
capacity and economics at the of the foundation to the main
crane idle time is generally a 1 . 1 . The height of the concrete
wind farm contractors. For constructed tower heights
Concrete tower shapes may from to ISOm ), the base diameter of the
panel- and column-frame-based systems. To control wind- I
and 33 ft (8 and 0 m). The diameter
induced vibrations, some towers have been produced with ring is between 9 to 1 6 ft {3 to 5 m). It is
a large volume of concrete at the top of the tower in th�--��to need a base diameter of 20 to 23 ft (6 to 7 m) for
manner of a tuned mass. The wide variety of shapes possible a 328 ft (I 00 m) tower with reference to turbines in the 2 to
in concrete, notwithstanding the selection of full-height or 3 M W range. The maximum dimension plays a major role in
hybrid towers, results in differences in construction proce- the segmentation, transportation, and assembly costs in the
dures for towers for each project. The abil ity to select an lower portions of the tower. Load eccentricities for a 5 M W
optimum shape will have a positive impact o n the efficien- turbine are given in Fig. 4.2.
c ies gained in an industry that has grown accustomed to
round steel towers with bolted flange connections. 4.3-Construction types
A number of different techniques are available for the
4.1-Hybrid concrete towers construction of concrete towers. The examples that fol low
Hybrid concrete towers consist of a concrete tower base are based on current or proposed use. Specialty structures,
with a steel tower installed on top, which in turn supports the such as wind turbine towers, can be procured on a design
turbine, as shown in F ig. 4. 1 . Hybrid tower systems are typi build basis, where the contractor and their engineer work
cally designed to optimize the economics of the steel tower directly with the wind farm developer to provide a structure
portion for otl'-site fabrication and on-site erection. The that meets project requirements. This arrangement al lows
concrete tower provides the additional height. The design for creativity and maximum productivity for meeting project
eiements in this report are applicable to the design of the schedules and budget constraints. Time estimates given in
c oncrete portion of a hybrid tower. Engstrom et al. {20 I 0) the following may be shortened when an optimal design and
suggest that for a 4 1 0 ft ( 1 25 m) tower, a 1 60ft (50 m) steel construction process is selected.
tower could be mated to a 250 ft (75 m) concrete tower. The Four construction types are presented: precast concrete;
l iterature refers to concrete base element as a concrete tower cast-in-place concrete; shotcrete; and spin-cast concrete.
or a concrete pedestal interchangeably. All concrete towers discussed in this report are assumed to
be prestressed (pretensioned, post-tensioned, or both), as
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REPOR T ON DESIG N OF CONC RETE WIND TURBINE TOWER S (ACI IT G-9R-16) 7
Tower centerline
Hub center
To�er ToWer
I
Fig. 4.2-Turbin e- tow er in terf ace (5 MW). (N ote: 1 m = 3.3 ft.)
prestress is usually necessary to satisfy service and fatigue

requirements.
4.3.1 Prec ast c onc rete sys tem Precast elements
manufactured in advance of their placement onsite.
fabrication, therefore, can be initiated s
contract is agreed to and may proceed
and foundation construction is
can be either complete annular
shell corner elements making nn-t>r\T-ttron
variable width panels
tower systems (Fig. 4.3.1(b)).
4.3. 1(a) and (b) involve
coordinated with the crane size
smaller pieces brought in for sm
vice versa for larger pieces.
The size of the precast element also aftects where they are
fabricated. If large elements are precast, the entire on�CEISl----•
operation can be moved onto the wind farm site to avoid
over-highway transportation. This implies that site quality
control equivalent to that of plant operations is also trans
ferred. Economic consideration with precasting will be
affected by the number of casting forms required to meet the
construction schedule. Early initiation of precast contracts
requires fewer forms and more reuses. A shorter construc
tion schedule may requi re duplicate sets of forms and, there
fore, higher mobi lization costs.
As an example, one precast system has been used to
construct 440 ft (135 m) hub height towers using 35 precast
segments. The base diameter of these towers is 48 ft (14.5
m); the circular segments were split in half to facilitate ship
ping. The top five segments were complete rings (Grunberg
and Gohlmann 2013) .
Erection times for 440 ft (135 m) precast towers are esti
mated at 3 days per tower, assuming all components are
onsite and readily available. The total wind farm construc- (b) Advanced tower systems
tion time is attributable to the availabil ity of casting beds
Fig. 4.3.1-Precast con crete elemen ts (photos courtesy of
and cranes.
( a) Tin dall Corporation; an d (b) Ren ew able En ergy World).
4.3.2 Cast-in -plac e sys tem Two conventional cast-in
place options can be applied to tower construction: jump
forms and slipforming. Cast-in-place construction requires
8 REPOR T ON DESIG N OF CONC R E TE WIND TURBI NE TOWER S (ACII T G-9R-16)
Fig. 4. 3. 2.2a-S/ipforming grain silos.
tall form system are possible. With this rate of movement,

a 325 ft ( I 00 m) tower can be fabricated in approximately
At 6.5 ft (2 m) per day, the schedule would include
to install the top mounting ring in place.
uous operation with limited control
®
t experience with slipfonning is
in plumb alignment.
g. 4.3.2.2b) was slipfonned to
(460 m), indicating large and
Fig. 4.3.2.1-Jump forms in ·s feasible by slipforming.
courtesy ofWTF Fomrwork). ng i s a spray-on process that
against a form backer (ACl
consideration of two scheduling
a hand layup process, the shotcrete
c onstruction cannot begin until the foundation is ready for
ted. Shotcreting has the advantage of
the next sequence of work. Second, the speed of construe-
ti o n is dependent on the strength of the underlyin g concr·et �;_,__....;��m:";ad single internal or external form. The fonn
e adjustabl e to change diameter as the form work
Both cast-in-place approaches require a continual supply of
moves up, and can be continuous with a movable inner form.
concrete and may justify an on-site hatching operation.
Shotcreting structures as large as wind turbine towers would
4.3.2.1 Jumpforms J ump forms fasten to the just-placed
-
require an investment in research, development, and quality
concrete to create a new level of formwork. They can be
control as the wind tower structures are larger than current
designed to vary both the diameter and wall thickness as
they move up. A standard height of form is I 0 to 20 ft (3
�
shotcre e construction practice. On-site construction times
are projected to be simi lar to cast-in-place options. L i ke cast-
to 6 m). They can be moved as soon as the concrete in the
in-place construction, the foundations have to be completed
form has cured sufficiently to support the move. Building
prior to beginning shotcreting.
construction typically jumps the forms once a week;
4.3.4 Spin-cast concrete-Spin-cast concrete is a special
however, tower construction can jump daily, as the only load
subset of precast construction that uses a rotating form to
is the axial weight of the section above. With a daily 1 3 ft
place concrete in a very dense configuration. The process
(4 m) jump, a 325 ft (100 m) tower can be topped out in
has been used successfully for high-voltage transmission
25 days. The number of turbines in the wind farm would
towers, but not for anything as large as a wind turbine tower
dictate the number of forming systems required to meet the
(Rodgers 1972; Fouad and Detwi ler 20 1 2). Forms can be
construction schedule. As seen in Fig. 4.3.2. 1 , formwork for
manufactured to allow tapered annular sections. Length of
cylindrical towers can be simple.
the spin-cast elements i s dependent on the lifting capacity
4.3.2.2 Slipform ing S i i pforming
- which involves
,
onsite. Construction times would be simi lar to precast
continuous concrete placement, has been successfully used
options and prefabrication can be initiated while foundations
in chimney, grain silo, and building core construction, as
are being constructed.
shown in Fig. 4.3.2.2a (ACI 307; A I 3 1 3). Steel rods are
placed in the concrete and hydraulic jacks grip the rods to move
4.4-Construction considerations
the torm up as concrete is being placed. Casting rates of 7 to
The size, shape, and selection of elements for concrete
1 2 in. ( 1 80 to 300 mm) per hour for a 4 to 6.5 ft ( 1 .2 to 2 m)
towers are affected by construction considerations and
�;=�
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w;th ACI American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org
available equipment. H igh-capacity cranes are expensive between tower erection and readiness for nacelle placement;
but are needed to lift the nacelle and the blade assemblies however, this joint use will complicate crane movements.
in all cases. Effective use of this equipment is possible by Cast-in-place tower options will l i kely use pumped
alternating the tower construction with turbine installation. concrete rather than bucket placement; pumping provides
Crawler cranes and lifting towers have both been used a continuous supply of concrete for slipform, jumpform,
for wind tower construction. With nacelle masses up to or shotcrete options. Technologies developed for high-rise
530 kip (240,000 kg) and blade assembly mass close to buildings allow concrete to be pumped to heights in excess of
1 30 kip (60,000 kg), concrete elements can be sized to be 2000 ft (600 m), ample for the wind towers under discussion.
compatible with turbine l i fts on the proj ect to max imize Wind speed could limit selection of element weights or
crane use. Post-tensioning operations may require lag time concrete pumping, so early determination of construction
wind conditions is necessary to meet overall schedules.
While nacelle installation can wait for calm conditions,
optimal tower element weights or pump extension stabil ity
could be less than the crane lift's maximum capacity to allow
for work i n a wider range of wind speed. Vortex shedding
i s a major design concern for the tower during construction
and is addressed in ASCE/SE I 7. Vibration and wind effects
on structures that are not yet fully prestressed can result in
undesirable loadings on the incomplete structure. These
conditions could require partial prestressing or temporary
external reinforcement of towers during construction.
construction are given i n ACI

®ustry tolerances reflecting plant
cases, are more stringent than
these tolerances should be made
to determine if industry stan
n the desired properties and to
options. More rigid toler
can affect the overall tower
gives dimensions of the National Renewable

Energy Laboratory REL) 5 MW Reference Turbine Tower
(Jonkman et al. 2009), the towers reported by Grunberg and
,ohlmann (20 1 3), and those by Engstrom et al . (20 I 0). The
comparisons are, at best, approxi mate because there is no
Fig. 4. 3.2. 2b-Troll A slipformed platform under construc correlation of loads between the different tower designs.
tion {photo courtesy a/Creative Commons).
Table 4.6a-Tower dimensions

Top diameter, m Base diameter, Average wall Tower side
Source Turbine size Height, m (ft) (ft) Ill (ft) thickness', m (in.) taper, %
Jonkman et al.
5 MW 87 6 (287) .87 ( 1 2 . 7 ) 6 . 0 (20) 0.027 ( stee l ) ( I ) 1 .3
(2009)
80 (262) 3.0 ( 1 0) 6.75 ( 22) 0.40 ( J 6) 2 .3

ngstriim et a I . 1 00 ( 32 8 ) 3.0 ( 1 0 ) 8 (26) 0.40 ( 1 6) 2.5
3 MW
(20 1 0 ) 1 25 (4 1 0) 3.0 ( 1 0) 9.25 (30) 0.40 ( J 6 ) 2.5
1 50 (492) 3.0 ( 1 0 ) 1 0. 5 (34 ) 0.40 ( 1 6 ) 2 .5
80 (262) 3.8 ( 1 2 . 5 ) 7. (25.6) 0.54 (2 1 ) 2 .5

Engstrom e t a l . I 00 (328) 3.8 ( 1 2. 5 ) 8 . 8 (29) 0.54 (2 1 ) 2 .5
5 MW
(2 0 I 0 ) 1 25 (4 1 0 ) 3.8 ( 1 2. 5 ) 10 . 1 ( 3 3 ) 0 . 5 4 (2 1 ) 2 .5
1 50 (492) 3.8 ( 1 2. 5 ) 1 1 .3 (37) 0.54 (2 1 ) 2 .5
Griinbcrg and
5 MW 1 3 5 (443) -3.4 ( - 1 1 .2 ) 1 4. 5 (47.6) 0.45 ( 1 7. 8 ) 0.44
Gohhnann (20 1 3 )
Wall Lh1ckncss t s csumatcd from wctght of concrete and average diameter o l rower. Steel tower thickness ts gtvcn as reported t n the lttcraturc and arc provtdcd to allow com panson
of overall tower stillness.
10 REPOR T ON DESIG N OF CONC RETE WIND TURB I NE TOW E R S (ACI IT G-9R-16)
Engstrom et at. (20 I 0) conducted a detailed cost estimate design. Some German designs (Grunberg and Gohlmann
of 42 different structures consisting of several tower types (20 1 3) recommend prestressing to 50 percent of the allow
for a simulated low wind speed/high wind shear region in able stress and setting the concrete strength to eliminate
Sweden. Recognizing the l i mitations of the study with refer tension under all loads. This design approach may be appro
ence to wind profile, these estimates highlight prestressing priate for German wind conditions but results in a large
as one factor requiring close attention for cost control. Given amount of prestress force and the corresponding installa
that the study used relatively low reference extreme wind tion and stressing costs for prestressing tendons shown in
speeds, this finding should mark the economic importance Table 4.6b. U.S. practice would more l ikely prestress to a
of the selection of the prestressing level, as well as the load level to prevent tension in the concrete under service fatigue
estimates that can be used. ote that the Engstrom study conditions and al low tension or even cracking under extreme
cost estimates are for German construction and not directly loads. This point is noteworthy in l ight of the . S. Depart
transferable to other markets. Assuming that the relative ment of Energy (20 1 5) report regarding gross capacity factor
labor, material, and equipment costs are similar, a breakout maps for wind speeds at 1 40 m (460 ft) elevation that, theo
of the cost percentage for each tower component for a sl ip retically, render viable many sites on the U .S . East Coast,
formed tower is given in Table 4.6b. It is not clear from the although hurricanes necessitate design for extreme wind
study if the cost of concrete includes form and mobilization loads. The prestressing strategy for these extreme condi
expenses. The prestressing tendon contribution is given and tions becomes an important cost consideration. Prestressing
is a significant cost factor. approaches are discussed in more detai l i n Chapter 5.
Interpreting the effect of the prestressing cost impact In 2005, the ational Renewable Energy Laboratory
requires understanding the prestressing approach used m (NREL) conducted a feasibility study on cost and construc
tion approaches for wind towers (LaN ier 2005). The study
Table 4.6b-Comparative cost for slipformed site locations subjected to earthquake forces EQ,
components uenced by wind. Table 4.6c summarizes
The concrete costs were developed in
�pe'I!&J1ce:<1 large commercial chimney
from the N REL study are
ier 2005):
developed for all the

involved with constructing
except the procurement
Table 4.6c-Estimated installed tower costs and tower type

from L aNier 2005)
Turbine/tower size, construction
method, and condition MW I n stalled cost Percent all-tubular steel cost
Hybrid stee l concrete (EQ) 1 .5 $ 1 ,402,72 1 1 03
3.6 $2.380,653 1 04
3.6 $2,026,608 88
All-cast-in-place concrete (wind ) 5.0 $ 1 ,872,036 63
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costs of the turbine hub and rotor and the electrical

work to move the power from the turbine into the
power distribution grid. Thus, the tower costs Turbin � ,. Operatio nal
., ,.
Turbine
include the cost of fabricating the tower elements at Cut in limit range Cut out limit
1.2
the factory; shipping them to the site; developing the GP
site roadway system and contractor support offices,
Stiff-stiff tower
etc. necessary to support a large 50-tower construc design region
tion project; construction of foundations; assembly
of the tower elements on site; the labor and equip
ment necessary to support erection and integration of
the tower elements; and the cranes and labor neces
sary to erect the turbine, hub, and rotor on the tower.
These tower costs were developed for 325 ft ( I 00 m) tall

towers, which is estimated to be the height above which a
concrete tower becomes cost competitive compared to steel .
A comparison o f costs in Table 4.6c t o the Engstrom e t al.
(20 I 0) observation in Chapter I that concrete towers could 4.0 8.0 12.0
save up to 30 percent over comparable steel towers, impl ies Turbine rpm
that the cost differentials may be more sensitive to site and

Fig. 5.1-Preferred naturalfrequenCJ' rangesfor a 5 MW tow er.
construction than just a simple comparison. In all cost esti
mating cases in Table 4.6c, at least one concrete tower
frequency design
is less costly than a steel tower option.
ible design solutions to avoid reso-
of turbine operation and wind:
CHAPTER 5-
soft tower design; and the stiff-
Design parameters for initial
design, the natural frequency
wind turbine towers are the
than the blade passing frequen-
ance of dynamic resonance
"ck walls, are typically uneco-
service life. The main
practice. For the second design
from aerodynamic and mass i
·mes called a flexible tower, the
to wind shear, turbulence, a
the rotor frequency. Soft tower
tions including shaft/hub/rotor ,.,.,,.,., ••,,.;
ons at the hub, resulting in large
have dominant frequencies at the rotor frequency associated
and creating interferences between
with the rotor rotations per minute and at the blade passing
.J -•Ifl!ll"'ii' tower. Soft tower designs have been used on
frequency, which, for a three-bladed turbine, is three tim ,:;.__....t.\MI
smaller wind turbines. The third design approach tiff-
larger than the rotor forcing frequency. These conditions are
flexible-places the natural frequency of the tower between
also the source of the high-cycle, low-load fatigue that is in
the 1\vo forcing functions. H istorical ly, this is where the
addition to the sustained tower wind load. The service level
natural frequency of concrete towers is designed.
forces are superimposed on the prestressing forces.
Figure 5 . 1 uses a Campbell diagram to provide a natural
Service life considerations arise from the time needed
frequency design zone for a 5 MW turbine tower. The 1 p line
to recover the investment cost of the wind farm and the
represents the response to the hub rotation frequency. The 3 P
in-service performance of the tower. For purposes of this
l ine represents the response to the blade passing frequency.
document, a 20-year life is assumed and is consistent with
The two l i mits are bounded between dashed l ines repre-
most current wind farm design. If fatigue governs, a small
senting the 5 percent over-tolerance and under-tolerance
increase in tower wal l thickness can result in a tower service
operation. Dynamic amplification of the tower response to
life in excess of 50 years.
the forcing functions (resonance) is lowest when the tower
At the end of the 20-year economic life, the tower may
fre � uency is in the center range for a soft-stiff tower. Recog-
be considered for use with a new turbine. The industry calls _
mzmg that fatigue usage can be a factor in the overall design
such reuse repowering. When considering a repowering
life, parameters in the control algorithm can change over the
scenario at the end of the turbine design lifetime, where a
operational life of a system.
larger turbine may be envisioned replacing the existing
Turbines 5 MW and larger have a cut-in operating speed
one, the additional tower life aspect makes concrete towers
of between 4 and 5 rpm and a cut-out speed approximately
even more economically efficient. In fact, if designed with
I 2 rpm. This range is highl ighted in the shaded area of
sl ightly larger thickness from the inception, concrete towers
Fig. 5 . 1 and the corresponding tower design ranges identi-
may al low for the next-generation turbines to be installed on
tied. H istorical ly, attention is paid to the tower first natural
the existing support structures.
frequency. As towers become taller, attention to the second
and third natural frequencies is prudent.

12 REPOR T O N DESIG N OF CONC R E TE WIND TURBI NE TOWER S (ACII T G-9R-16)
Determination of the natural frequency is theoretically the tower and can result in a shift of the fundamental natural
a simple calculation given in Eq. (5. 1 ) and based on the frequency into an undesirable range. Tower post-tensioning
deformed shape of the tower. should be of such magnitude that the tower does not go into
tension under maximum service load, even if some cracking
ro-
, = -
- L.JV;y
' -'
is permitted at extreme loads. Post-tensioning allows control
(5. 1 ) of cracking and, in consequence, can have a direct impact
I, W. on the tower operational natural frequency. Maximum load
g
ings can occur with the turbine in an operational, powered
down, or parked configuration. Engstrom et al. {20 I 0) suggest
where � is the weight of each segment i, and y; is the lateral post-tensioning the tower to 2900 psi (20 M Pa). Considering
deflection of a particular segment. In practice, the calculation service wind load on an out-of-service circular tower, the
is completed for a frequency domai n, classically damped, maximum compression stress would be approximately 6200
elastic analysis available in most sophisticated finite element psi (40 M Pa) and the tension stress would be zero. This strategy
programs. is consistent with the more moderate winds in Germany.
Concrete towers offer two approaches to control frequency: Whi le a simple guide, Table 4.6b indicates prestressing for
tower dimensions and concrete elastic modulus. The tower this approach is a major cost component and prestressing to
diameter, taper, and wall thickness dimensions are deter this level may be uneconomical. Maximum wind load on
mined in conjunction with an average concrete modulus to a tower is not a fatigue consideration; therefore, concrete
achieve the target structural stiffness. In final design, the design strength of 7000 to 9000 psi (50 to 60 M Pa) would
modulus of elasticity may be refined by selection of the satisfy this condition. An effective prestress force of 2900
concrete strength. For concrete strength between 3000 and psi (20 M Pa) is larger than would typically be used in orth
I 0,000 psi (20 and 70 M Pa), the modulus of elasticity varies practice. A more common etTective prestress
between 3200 and 5700 ksi (22 and 40 range of 1 000 to 1 500 psi (7 to I 0 M Pa).
relationship given in AC I 3 1 !l. European sufficient prestress to prevent decom
for the modulus of elasticity can t® prestressing compressive stress
of the modulus of elasticity for operating service cyclic loads.
mended. Tower design should a ·on can have a substantially
strength and elastic modulus rhl.l<JP<: ·an fatigue life of the tower
and modulus consistent with strengths.
selected. Predetermination of to the greater of 70 percent of
V.,111 can be part of fatigue load
mination of long-term data on
the concrete may be required for Grunberg and Gohlmann (20 1 3)
be no decompression at service level
5.2-Service level design
mpression or tensile stresses for larger
Fatigue analysis is a very i mportant part of the design a t.d...--��..� acceptable and would be less conservative than
could be the controlling factor for all subcomponents of the the Engstrom et al. (20 1 O) guidance. Critical to this option
tower system. While the final design includes the detailed is that all cracks remain closed and in compression under
input from the turbine manufacturer, a thorough under- service-cycle fatigue loadings. Such a strategy is useful i n
standing o f the loads is necessary during prel iminary design places where winds on parked turbines might be high but
to ensure that the tower will be acceptable in final design. rare, making them too infrequent to be considered fatigue
Assuming a tower is producing power, 75 percent of the loads. Locations in the U . S . Midwest, Atlantic seacoast, and
service l ife, the total number of cycles due to 3 blade pass- the Gulf Coast are in this condition. Less conservative still
ings per cycle is: is to use a concrete fatigue design standard that permits axial
n = 0.75 x 20 years x 365 days/year stresses to enter into the tension range (D V-OS-C502;
x 24 h/day x 60 min/h x 1 5 cycles per min x 3 amite Euro- I nternational du Beton 1 993 ).
..
Engstrom et al. (20 I 0) recommendations do not spectfy
n = 3.50 x I 0 cycles if post-tensioning considers the weight of the nacelle. The
nacelle weights range from 260 to 530 kip ( 1 20 to 240 tonne)
Both the 75 percent service life and the 1 5 rpm are at for 3 MW and 5 MW turbines, respectively, with more detail
the high end of operational service life, making the predic provided in Chapter 6. The nacelle is a substantial and constant
tion of total cycles conservative. This number of cycles is axial force and should be included in the design. I ncluding the
above fatigue endurance limit states typically associated nacelle weight as part of the compression force reduces the
with concrete. Consequently, the magnitude of the cyclic required prestress. Because prestressing tendons are a major
load is critical to successful service level design (AC I 2 1 5 R; component of cost, design of the required prestress could
M indess et al. 2003 ; eville 20 1 2). include the effect of the nacelle weight. Prestress forces may
Equally important to fatigue in service level design is be required to be considered with other slenderness effects if
l imiting or preventing cracking of the tower under service unbonded tendons are used. I n all cases, favorable and unfa
lo<!d. Cracking of the tower reduces the effective stiffness of vorable gravity load e1Iects should be included.
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Turbine mod u le
m o u nt i hg ring
I
�
Post-ten i o n i n g
ancHors
I
AriJchor
�olts
Post-tension
r
Shear t a nsfer
rei nfor�ement
I
I I
I nternal Externa l _ l '----' 1
_ _ _
tendon tendon
(a) Post-tension anchors in foundation
Fig. 5.3a-Post-tensioning detail.
5.3-Prestressing
Concrete wind towers are prestressed using precast or
�:��·��!1!1
pretensioned elements, field post-tensioning at the comple-
Ost- te ns i
tion of the erection process, or serial P' o
erection. Post-tensioning places the c'
compression and mitigates the
of concrete to tensile stresses in
tendons are either unbonded
tendons in ducts. Bonded
strength capacity than un
more susceptible to fatigue
crack in tension. Research by
cates that fatigue deterioration in
concrete is far greater than in uncracked concrete due to fret
ting near the crack interface, although unbonded tendons
facilitate inspection, allow tendon replacement, and havr� e:___......
. ..-
smaller cyclic loads, as they are dependent on the integrity (b) Post-tensioning ducts in foundation
of the end anchorage. Unbonded tendons are commonly and anchors at nacelle interface
used in concrete wind turbine towers.
Fig. 5. 3b-Post-tension termination options.
Post-tensioning tendons require attention to detail at the
mounting ring, the foundation interface, and the interme
diate deviation points along the tower. A schematic cross due to tower deformation, should be considered in the
section of the mounting ring for both internal and external design. Second-order effects i nclude tendon contact with the
tendon details is shown in Fig. 5.3a. The mounting ring can brackets and should be included. These brackets accomplish
be fastened to the tower using the post-tensioning anchors two objectives. First, they provide intermediate anchor loca
or independently with embedded bolts. Foundation details tions to provide stability as the tower segmentally is erected.
require access to the post-tension anchors and could be a Second, they deform laterally with the tower, providing an
m irror image of the mounting ring detail ( Fig. 5.3b(a). A lter equilibrating force and reducing secondary moments due to top
natively, post-tensioning tendons can be looped through the lateral deformation. The degree of the self-equilibrating effect
foundation (Fig. 5.3b(b)). The size of the foundation access of the tendon is dependent on the lateral displacement possible
should consider that the post-tensioning strand packs could in the bracket. The brackets can be integral with the concrete
be placed in the foundation, and the tendon pulled to the top or post-installed steel elements, as shown in Fig. 5.3c. I nternal
of the tower rather than l i fting the strand packs to the top. tendons do not require brackets and the selection of bracket
Post-tensioning rods can be installed from the top down. type is dependent on the construction type and preference.
Tendons run continuously from the mounting ring to the
foundation, and do not necessarily require contact with 5.4-Modeling
the tower. In practice, a number of intermediate al ignment Modeling wind tower structures is more sophisticated
brackets are installed on the tower wall. Potential shifting of than nonnal building structures. Specific considerations in
the post-tensioning tendon, relative to the concrete section constructing the model i nclude soi l conditions, foundation
details, tower. features; materials, and second-order effects.
American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org ((i'Cij
14 REPOR T O N DESIG N OF CONC R E TE WIND TURBI NE TOWER S (ACII T G-9R-16)
I ntermediate
a n chor/cou pler fc max
Shear transfer
0.4 fc ma
rei nfo rcement
:ren dons
Fig 5. 4-Concrete stress-strain relationship (adapted ji-om

Grunberg and Gohlmann {2013]).
Grunberg and Gohlmann (20 1 3) base the value of Ec on

Fig 5. 3c-External tendon brackels. the CEB-FTP Model Code (Comi te Euro-Tnternational du
Beton 1 993) formulation. umerical ly, Ec would be l ightly
greater based on ACT 3 1 8, as illustrated in ACT 423 . 1 OR.
..-��!1
Research at the Univer ity of Iowa ( Lewi n 20 I 0) expl
model ing of wind turbine towers in detail .. .......
ing stress-strain relations are
_
The calculation in Eq. (5. 1 ) i s

ness, including both the concrete
l - (k - 2 )n
(5.4a)
underlying soi l conditions.
both the tower fundamental TrPn ...nc-:v
are usually designed assumi
representing the boundary
simulations are carried out for .,.,,pn·pr'
a sotler base. The system n (5.4b)
within 5 percent for the range of
ated for load simulations to remain valid. Foundation design
specifications from turbine original equipment manufac
... (5 .4c)
turers (OEMs) will then include these lower stiffness termS-__,......,
for purposes of foundation design. Careful attention should
be given to the use of these sti ffness terms when designing Alternative stress-strain relation hips for concrete are
deep foundations as compared to shallow ones. given by Hognestad et a! . ( 1 955) and for membrane struc
Two features that should be included in the detailed model tures by Vecchio ( 1 989).
of the tower are the entry door and top turbine assembly. The The concrete plays an important role in the vibrational
base entry can have a significant effect on both the stiffness damping of the structure. Damping coefficients of 0.04 of
and response of the tower. The model should consider both critical for the structural damping and 0.06 of critical for
the opening size and its local stiffening details. The tower aeroelastic damping-including blade effects-are recom
entry potentially affects the post-tensioning placement and, mended by Grunberg and Gohlmann (20 1 3). The damping
therefore, requires attention to detail ing. Similarly, the top coefficient i s given for the concrete structure; however, the
mounting ring (Fig. 5 .3a) requires defini tion of the interface damping coefficient can be influenced by foundation condi
with the tower, yaw bearing, and turbine. tion . When the foundation i included, damping coefficient
Material considerations include the concrete modulus and ranged from 1 .0 to 1 .6 percent of critical for steel towers due
concrete strength. The maximum service load compressive to the plasticity of the soi l .
stresses in the concrete can exceed the elastic limit, so a The post-tensioning installation should b e coordinated with
secant modulus is otlen needed to model the concrete and the model. Unbonded tendon modeling includes identification
get accurate lateral deformations. of whether the tendon is placed in an internal duct or if it is
As shown in Fig. 5 .4, the German practice (Grunberg fastened at discrete anchor brackets, as in Fig. 5.3b. Modeling
and Gohlmann 20 1 3 ) u es a nonlinear stress-strain relation brackets and internal ducts should consider the tolerance of
ship tor designing concrete towers. The relationships corre the opening in the bracket and the required tower deformation
sponding to the figure are given in Eq. (5 .4a) through (5 .4c). prior to the tendon contacting the deviation surface.
The secant modulus is computed for a line passing through Second-order effects should be included in the model
the stress-strain curve at 0.4f,:.,.,u. due to the large mass at the tower top. Detailed infonnation
Amencan � le lns
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on the mass and other inertial properties of the turbine are

elect concrete strength
(2 1 -69 MPa)
essential to establ ishing the natural frequency of the tower
3000 - 10,000 psi
and overall system response.
5.5-Fatigue
elect ection to meet natural
The fatigue life for low-ampl itude, high-cycle fatigue can
frequency requirements of Figure
be computed from the service life, as discussed in 5 . 2 . The 5. 1
fatigue life of concrete in compression is usually accepted
as having no endurance limit ( Harte and Van Zijl 2007 ;
M indess et al . 2003) . I n foundation design, fatigue consider
ations include shear stresses in two-way foundations without Pre design
transverse reinforcement and cyclic tensile stresses in
deformed reinforcement. For towers, fatigue considerations
would additionally include cyclic stresses in post-tensioning Check de ign for zero tension at
tendons and shear at anchorage brackets and terminations. service ind load and strength
5.5.1 A.:-cial stresse If the tower is designed to have requirements
no tensile stress under service load, then Engstrom et al.
(20 I 0) suggest that fatigue is not a principle design issue for
preliminary design. Design of the tower for maximum wind
stresses fol lows from this assumption. The cyclic fatigue
stresses should be less than half the maximum stress level
and, therefore, below critical levels.
The Engstrom et al. (20 I 0) assumption it�S.ij·····
a review of fatigue strength by Hsu
and Tepfers and Kutti ( 1 979)
compressive stress less than 20
fatigue cycles, which is consi Final design
that concrete has no c-o111nre�:�•rn phase
Other comparisons in Hsu's ( I
cycles are possible for a ratio
the conservative service life limi
K i m ( 1 996) warn that fatigue ines
for higher-strength concrete; however, the majority of their
for pre/iminmy design of wind
testing was conducted at stress ratios above 60 percent offc'' · �:� .l.!ri.llil•
l �
Harte and Van Zijl (2007) indicate that CEB-FIP Model . .,..
__
(Comite Euro- I nternational du Beton 1 993 ) also suggests 5.6-Preliminary design guidance
a 40 percent of {/ limit for cyclic stresses in wind towers. Recommendations in the I iterature (Engstrom et al . 2 0 1 0)
Fatigue provisions of DN V-OS-C502 employ a M i ner sum suggest that preliminary design should select a concrete
approach to compute fatigue damage (M iner 1 945). strength in the range of 3500 to 8500 psi (25 to 60 M Pa),
5.5.2 Joints-A l i terature review of the fatigue behavior
a tower base diameter between 25 to 33 ft (8 to I 0 m ), and
ofjoints in concrete provided l ittle insight into the long-term a tower top diameter of I 0 to 1 6 ft (3 to 5 m). Preliminary
behavior of horizontal or vertical joints subjected to wind design can be conducted using generally available infor
tower fatigue loadings. Most turbine manufacturers have mation and based on maximum rotor thrust. Figure 5.6 is a
proprietary fatigue performance data for concrete struc design flowchart for developing a preliminary design. The
tures. Bass et al. ( 1 9H9) examined shear friction connections design methodology assumes strength or service conditions
and conducted fatigue testing on the joints designed using are predominate design conditions for establishing tower
shear-friction theory. Such joints may occur at termination dimensions and prestressing. Fatigue stresses should then
or prestressing deviators. A lthough the number of cycles fall under the 0.4fc ' l imit. Table 4.6a provides guidance for
studied by Bass et al. ( 1 989) is less than those directly rele selecting trial tower dimensions.
vant to wind towers, joint performance suggests prestressed
or reinforced joi nts may be satisfactory. Researchers exam CHAPTER 6-DESIGN LOADS AND LOAD
ining strengthening concrete in shear with externally bonded COMBINATIONS
fi ber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) have demonstrated both The loads and load combinations on a turbine tower can be
strength and fatigue strength gains ( Barnes and Mays 1 999; divided into four categories: gravitational and i nertial loads
Kim and Heffernan 200H). Such research suggests that i ncluding power production, breaking, and seismic effects;
concrete confinement improves fatigue performance. aerodynamic loads; actuation loads including blade startup;
and loadings such as ice, rain, and nonoperational conditions
such as high wind on a parked turbine. European practice
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16 REPOR T ON DESIG N OF CONC RETE WIND TURBINE TOWER S (ACII T G-9R-16)
applies partial load factors to each load and uses material 6.1-Loads and load combinations
strength reduction factors. In the United States, the load and For prelimi nary design, maximum wind loads from ASCE/
resistance factor design (LRFD) is used with strength-reduc SEI 7 may be used in combination with the load and strength
tion factors on the member nominal strength. reduction factors associated with concrete behavior given in
ACI 3 I H . ACI 3 1 8's strength reduction factors are statisti
Table 6.1 a-Wind design conditions (adapted from cally developed to be consistent with ACI 3 1 8 and ASCE/
ASCEIAWEA RP2011 ) SEI 7 load factors. This provides a consistent basis for calcu
lation and results in a tower size that may be modeled for
Ocsign load case (OLC) Description of wind condition
aeroelastic effects. Final design will include establishing
NWP Nonnal wind profi le
the full array of service and strength loadings, load factors,
NTM 1onnal turbu lence profile strength reduction factors, and serviceabi l ity limit states.
Extreme coherent wind with direc- A general description of the wind design conditions on
ECD
tion change a turbine tower is given in Table 6. 1 a. Table 6. I b summa
ECG Extreme coherent gust
rizes the design load cases (DLCs) used, and load details are
provided later in this chapter. The table includes the terms
EDC Extreme wind direction change
"coherent wind" and ''coherent gust". These winds come
EWS Extreme wind shear from the detailed site investigation and represent winds that
EOG Extreme operating gust would most l i kely cause resonance in the tower.
EWM Extreme wind model
Table 6.1 b-Loads and design load cases (adapted from G runberg and Gohlmann [2013], IEC 61400-1 , and
ASCEIAWEA RP2011 )
Design load
Design condition condition group
Power production u
Power production plus

tim It
Start-up
onnal shut down

u
mergency shutdown
EWM 50-year retum u
Parked ( idle)
EDC Ice A
Tr.msport. assembly. and

Manufacntrer to speci fy T
repair or maintenance
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Table 6.2-Load factors* Table 7-Basic turbine load information (derived

Design load case group from Jonkman et al. [2009] and Engstrom et al.
[2010])
Action u A F T
loading data
Unfavomblc 1 .35 1 .10 1 .00 1 .25
Favorable 1 .0 1 .00 1 .00 1 .0
Prestre s1 1 .0 1 .00 1 .00 1 .0
Wi nd loads 1 .35 ! 1 .10 1 .00 1 .50

Nacelle centroid 6 ft ( 1 .9 m downwind)
Opemtional
1 .35 1 .10 1 .00 1 .50
forces
Thennal
1 .35
actions
Earthquake 1 .00 Hub height above

6.6 ft (2 m )
·�ud factors ar� consistent for German standards (Grunberg and Gohlmann 20 1 3 ) and yaw bearing
thctr corrcspondmg loads. If ASCEISEJ 7 wind loads arc used, then for U conditions,
Hub mass 1 25 kip (mass) (56,700 kg)
the load factor should be 1 .0 instead of 1 .35; for A and T conditions, 0.85 instead of
1 .0; and for F conditions. 0.74 instead of 1 .0. 274 kip-ft
Hub i nertia
'Prestress is a ncr all losses. I f the change in stress is accounted for in the nonlinear ( 1 1 5.900 kg-m2 )
analysis, an upper and lowcrbound of the stress change has to be established.
6 1 ,700 kip-tt2
tThc most unfavorable ofU or A conditions can be used.
(2,607,400 kg-m2)
DLCs include operational; under power production; and

parked, start-up/shutdown, fault, and transportation ;a· ��··
1 �......•
stances (Table 6. 1 b). The DLCs in Table 6. �..;
ment of Cases 1 . 1 through 8.2 DLC
Associated with each design load
load partial safety factors (PSF
whether the analysis is for serv · - m)
or factored load (U), a
and transportation (T) situat - m)
·6.2-Load factors -m)
Final design load factors and strength reduction factors are

' determined in the prel iminary design phase and as part of I percent
the certification process. Some load factors associated with

· the design load combination groups are given in Table 6. � . -�.....JIIIII!'I'I 0.3 percent
These values are based on an English language discussion of
German standards (Grunberg and Gohlmann 20 1 3 ) and may
be considered as initial values. They are consistent with the
loads defined in Table 6.2 but are not necessari ly calibrated
to the extent that ASCE/SET 7 and ACT 3 1 8 have been. nfa
dynamic loads. Turbine-related loads are a result of the
vorable actions are defined in Table 6. 1 b as those that work
in consort to increase load effects, and favorable action as aeroelastic effects, including vortex shedding, of operating
the turbine; they require close coordination with the turbine
those that decrease load effects. Simi lar conditions occur in
ACT 3 1 8 where, for example, load factors of 0.9 are placed manufacturer.
on certain dead loads where the effect of an increased dead
7.1-Basic weights and loads
load is favorable in reducing overturning.
The data in Table 7 are derived from the ational Renew
CH APTER 7-DESIGN LOADS
able Energy Laboratory (NREL) 5 MW Reference Turbine
The wind tower loads consist of self-weight and applied (Jon kman et al. 2009) and from Engstrom et al. (20 1 0) for
the 3 M W turbine. The table is provided to indicate the
loads. Similar to bridge codes or building codes, the elf
equipment sizes and range of loads anticipated on a tower.
weight of the structure is established by the licensed design
professional ( LDP) and applied loads are specified. The Table 7 provides generic turbine weights and wind condi
tions for design but does not provide loads generated from
applied loads corresponding to Table 7 are divided into two
categories: conventional structural loads and turbine-related the turbine itself. The rotor forces and associated moments
loads. The conventional loads include gravity loads, wind that is, the forces and moments generated by the blades onto
the hub and thus the nacelle at tower-to are a function
forces on a static structure, and seismic loadings on a static
structure. n l i ke the common method in building design, of the turbine characteristics and controller dynamics. These
forces vary by manufacturer and are applied at the hub axis.
it is necessary to add earthquake effects to the turbine
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18 REPORT O N DESIGN O F CONCRETE WIND TURBINE TOWERS (ACI ITG-9R-16)
Rotor orque kN-m
4000
3000 J
2000
v
v
/
1000
v-r---
R torthr st, kN
--
4 6 8 12 14 16 18 20 24
Wind speed, m/s
Fig. 7. /-Steady-state rotor thrust and rotor torque (adapted

from Jon/..71wn et a/. [2009}).
For i nstance, REL (Jonkman et al. 2009) simulation for

a 5 M W turbine i ndicate that the maximum factored rotor
thrust is approximately 370 kip ( I 640 kN) and the maximum
(factored) rotor torque is approx imately 5780 kip-ft (7840
k -m). Figure 7 . 1 is a steady-state representation of a 5 M W
turbine operation. The actual dynamic operational ultimate
limit state loads are up to two times the steady-state values.
7.2-Wind profile
Loads may result from high winds
as the 50-year gust or ! -year gust,
ation . ASCE/AWEA RP20 1 1 "ulol.-"'" as load and resistance factors
can be designed using nal design to be consistent with
critical wind peed occurs at th level of safety.
tion of the wind distribution
The wind profi le allows calcu
consistent with ASCE/SEI 7 and win tower result from differential
design parameter . The e load are used i n conjunction with Two conditions should be
turbines in the parked (idle) position under the "Design design: lateral effects and circum-
condition' column i n Table 6. 1 b. ASCE/SEJ 7 and ACI 3 1 �8
--
�iil ll llll!'
Lateral effects result from one side of the
may then be used for preliminary tower design. tower having exposure to solar input. The longitudinal
expansion of the heated portion is restrained by the shaded
7.3-Earthquake loads portion of the tower, as in Fig. 7 .5a, leading to lateral defor
Earthquake loads are a function of the site location and mation of the top of the tower and possible internal stresses.
mass and dynamic properties of the tower. In seismic The exterior surface attempts to expand while the interior
region , earthquake loads hould be combined with certain surfaces stay near a constant temperature. C ircumferen
operational loads according to IEC 6 1 400- 1 and are not i n tially, if an entire quarter of the tower attempts to expand,
the scope of ASCE/SEJ 7 . residual cracking stresses could occur on the opposite inte
rior surface. Local ly, the temperature gradient between the
7.4-Normal operating fatigue loads i nside and outside wal l of the tower can lead to tension on
ormal operation and fatigue load , which are derived the interior face, possibly resulting in longitudinal cracks
from close coordination between the turbine supplier and (Fig. 7 .5b). These temperatures differentials could affect
the tower designer, are used i n conjunction with the power vertical joints and temperature reinforcement placement i n
production conditions of Table 6. 1 b. These loads derive t h e concrete.
from the complex dynamics of the turbine aero-servo-elastic
system. They are normal ly computed via computer-aided 7.6-Abnormal operating conditions
engineering tools that can account for aerodynamics, iner Rain and ice loadings fal l into the abnormal operating
tial and structural response, and controls effects. These category in I EC documents. The inclusion of these loads
programs are useful in a general sense; however, they are depends on site location and the turbine blades. Ice accumu
dependent on the turbine and blade detai ls. Consequently, lation on the blades can affect the balance and vibration of
the final tower design is dependent on the selection of the the structure. Wang et a l . (20 1 3) concluded that heavy rain
turbine supplier and the blades for that turbine. Al lowable can increase the dynamic effects on the turbine by as much
as 1 4 percent.
Amencan �
Provided by I (J
le lns
..--- P otential cra cks
Heated zo n e
Fig. 7.5b-Circumferentia/ heated zone.
CHAPTER 8-CONCRETE RESISTANCE

Concrete resistance is divided into three parts: strength,
serviceabi l ity, and connections.
8.1-Strength design
Strength design of the tower may be calculated in accor
dance with ACI 3 1 8 using the load combinations and load
��·
factors provided in Tables 6. 1 b and 6.2, using the �·-��·�•!..
reduction factors from AC I 3 1 8. The one s
needing additional attention is the . :
unbonded tendons. ACI 3 1 8 is
beams and slabs, which give rise
being approximately the �...0� ....... �
(70 M Pa). These values could nl'll•n ·N"'�

tower. The size of the tower
that these joints have residual

that is, they may be fully func
8.2-Serviceability design ·ce l i te has expired. There are no
Serviceabi l ity stresses can be calculated in accordance tor high cyclic loads anticipated for
with Tables 6.2 and 7. Turbine manufacturers Towers constructed with ring sections,
maximum tower forces based on their proprietary analysis as in Fig. 4.3 . 1 (a), have performed satisfactorily tor years.
software. sing Engstrom et a!. (20 1 0) recommendations r n-service performance data of the advanced tower systems
that the service stress under ful l service wind is 5800 psi design, shown in Fig. 4.3 . 1 b, are not readily avai lable.
( 40 M Pa), then the compressive stress can be as high as
0.80/c'. This would be higher than the ACI service l im i ts CHAPTER 9-FOUNDATION DESIGN
of 0.60/c'; however, for a 50- or I 00-year recurrence, this The foundation design and construction is often sepa
should be satisfactory. A maximum compressive stress of rate from tower design. onetheless, the two units should
0.6/c' is appropriate for 1 - to 5-year service level winds. perform in an integral manner for the entire system to work.
Alternative approaches to fatigue and prestress design are Three types of foundations are considered in the fol lowing
discussed in 5 .5 . in recognition of their wide use: rock anchor foundations,
To provide a service l i te of 20 years or 3 x 1 as fatigue p ier-type deep foundations, and spread footings.
cycles, compressive cyclic stresses, in the direction of the
longitudinal tower axis, should be kept below 0.4// There is 9.1-Rock anchor foundations
insufficient data to provide definitive recommendations on If competent rock is near the surface, a small founda
shear fatigue strength ofjoints in towers. Bass et al. ( 1 989) tion pad may be secured to the rock using prestressed rock
demonstrated successful joint design at lower fatigue cycles. anchors, as in Fig. 9 . 1 . The anchors are normally threaded bar�
Jointed European towers have performed successfully tor but tendons have been used. I n addition to factored extreme
several years. l oads, the anchors are evaluated for fatigue in consider�
ation of the relative stiffness of the subgrade and the ancho r,
8.3-Joints and connections group, simi lar to load-sharing in pretensioned bolted joints;
The majority of connections in a precast tower will be For extreme loads, consideration should be given to ancho ;
designed using principles of shear-friction or anchorage to load amplification when such foundations are mounted on
concrete. The small body of work on eye! ic behavior of shear comparably soft strata. Rock anchors should terminate on

Fig. 9. 3- onstruction o.fspread.footing.for steel towet:
have been used and are each subject to cyclic degradation i n

fractured or highly weathered ground conditions. The center
of rigidity for pier-type foundations is lower than that tor
shallow foundations, and lateral soi l pressure contributes to
rotational stiffness. These factors should be considered i n
Further information o n deep foundations i s
common for w i n d towers, as

ings are intended as gravity
ing, vibration, and excess
foundation shape is typically
ar foundations have been used.
in in excess of 325 yd3 (250 m3) of
ine, and will be larger for the next
Critical issues for spread foundation
concrete flexural and shear design, termina
tion of reinforcement or prestressing, and tower/founda
tion i nterface. In addition to plane sections not remaining
plane i n thick foundations, the use of the strut-and-tie model
addresses size effect considerations in shear. Offshore struc
tures in clay soi ls have experienced reduction of the shear
Fig. 9.2-Deep foundation. modulus and cavitation under the foundation from vibratory
loadings, which may be applicable to clay foundations i n
wet soi l ( Houlsby e t al. 2005).
the top of the foundation to ensure full engagement of the
9.3.1 Flexure de. ign Design for bending can fol low
foundation reinforcement and to facilitate maintenance. Top
-
recommendations in ACI 3 1 8 . Foundations may be designed

and bottom reinforcement is required in the foundation cap to
as one-way spread footings or two-way slabs. Foundations
accommodate turbine load reversals. Shear transfer between
designed as isolated one-way foundations and isolated
the rock anchors and tower anchorage should be checked
two-way slabs have to meet the applicable provisions of
to avoid windward or leeward shear cracks, as discussed i n
Chapters 7 and 8 of ACI 3 1 8- 1 4, respectively. Three condi
9.3 . Details on design of rock anchors may b e found i n Post
tions affect the selection of reinforcement: flexural strength;
Tensioning I nstitute (2006).
minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement; and
minimum flexural reinforcement. For cases where the flex
9.2-Pier-type deep foundations
ural strength controls design, the selection of reinforcement
Soils providing adequate lateral resistance are candi
is unambiguous.
dates tor pier-type deep foundations, as seen i n Fig. 9.2.
For foundations, ACI 3 1 8 provides guidance whether
Depending on the soil lateral stiffness, these foundations
temperature or minimum flexural reinforcement is appro
may be solid or hollow cylinders. In either case, prestressing
priate. The foundation chapter refers back to the appropriate
anchorage is critical to ensure adequate connection to the
slab chapters. In the slab chapters, minimum temperature
·· lower.· Both patented and general design deep foundations
Amencan�
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e
le lns
with ACI ·
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· · ·
No "'"'oductoon or §.lo r lllg pe<milted without IICI!nse hom IHS

REPORT ON DESIGN OF CONCRETE WIN D TURBINE TOWERS (ACI ITG-9R-16) 21
and shrinkage reinforcement is specified for one-way and

two-way slabs and assume normal bui lding slab dimensions.
As the foundation thickness increases, temperature rein
---� v
(!) M Fan-Shaped Struts
forcement increases and may substantially exceed flexural

requirements. Consequently, some designers refer to the �
beam chapter and l imit the reinforcement to 1 33 percent of
the reinforcement required by analysis to resist moment in
accordance with 9.6. 1 .3 of ACI 3 1 8- 1 4. ACI 3 3 6.2R may
provide additional guidance.
Self-Weight of Footing
Figure 9.3 illustrates that flexural reinforcement was
Bearing Pressure may be
provided as an orthogonal grid. The reinforcing pattern
linear Varying or Uniform
should provide reinforcement in two directions at all loca
tions, although it can vary from orthogonal grids to radial Fig. 9. 3. 2a-Fiow offorces in a gravity foundation for a
circular arrangements, or combinations of these according wind towe1:
to constructabil ity issues. Larger turbines with more anchor
bolts have increased the incidence of radial-circular rein N .. M
1....
,, .
forcing patterns. ,' '\.
9.3.2 Shear design-Spread footings can be designed for

I
' •,
v
.....
0
one-way shear, two-way shear, and shear friction, and are I
typically designed without shear reinforcement in the United

States.
-------------·
...
For one-way shear design, it is important to consider
tower foundations may be deeper and
spread footings, and that the flow of
is much ditlerent than in beams.
that the one-way shear stress at
without shear reinforcement
depth, and that this fai lure ctr."dl'""'" friction resistance along a
reported by Shioya et at. ( I
( 1 999). M inimum shear
be required in foundations unti l sts that 2 t o 4 times the tower
1 .5 �// psi M Pa), from �vc 0.
(OA"'ifc' = riate ( zel et a t . 20 I I ).
raised the concern that factored loads in the typically deep may be imposed in a gravity-
foundations for wind towers may exceed the shear stress due to the self-weight of the tower faun-
capacity of these foundations. To examine this more close; , -- : ;;�l\ll��
a nd supported elements, due to a large overturning
zel et at. (20 I I ) completed a series of shear tests on founda- moment. The combined effect from the combination of these
tions in which the support from the ground was distributed. loads is that bearing may be only on part of the foundation.
It was observed that the failure shear stress was considerably Two-way shear stresses due to overturning moment may
higher than earlier tests. zel et at. (20 I I ) did not contend be much larger than shear stresses due to self-weight of the
that diagonal tension is reduced by the struts. Eventually, all tower and are often the critical design condition. The effect
specimens failed due to a diagonal crack between the inside of the moment on two-way shear stresses may be considered
edges of the load and reaction. The provided explanation is using the shear and moment transfer provisions of 8.4.4 of
that the capacity is h igher because much of the shear force ACI 3 1 8- 1 4. The portion transferred by flexure is normally
is carried directly by struts to the bearing region, such that in the range of 60 percent of the total moment.
they do not contribute to the diagonal tension due to shear as Chapter 1 8 of ACI 3 1 8 calls for construction joints to be
occurs in slender beams, which is illustrated in Fig. 9.3.2a. checked for shear capacity, and shear friction is given as the
To account for this, the Canadian Standards Group (20 1 4) mechanism to verify capacity. These joints may be at the
(www. csagroup.com) states that foundations designed using precast/cast-in-place interface or adjacent to the termination
strut-and-tie models do not need to satisfy minimum shear of anchor bolts and hardware and should include reinforce-
reinforcement requirements. The National Building ode of ment across the potential crack interface. In accordance with
Canada (20 1 5) reduces the allowable stress strength as the 22.9 of ACI 3 1 8- 1 4, the shear friction resistance should be
angle of the strut decreases, which is critical to a safe design checked in all cases where there is an existing or paten-
of shallow foundations. tial crack. Figure 9.3 .2b presents one possible shear fric
Another issue affecting one-way shear i s that the effective tion surface that is checked by some design engineers. The
width to resist shear in one-way spread foundation slabs is free body diagram of the shaded region above this shear in
also a design consideration. A I 3 1 8 states that the effective surface is shown in Fig. 9.3 .2b. The actions causing shear
width can be I 0 times the width of the column. The shear lag on this surface are shown using dashed l i nes, and the actions
resisting slip along thi surface are shown using solid l i nes.
lh
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No reproducbon or networking permitted withou1 bcense from IHS
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A shear friction check along this i nterface may result i n the Wind
-
need for reinforcement across this possible failure surface.
9.4-Termination of reinforcement and prestress

Termination of reinforcement and prestressing from the Potentia I windward shear Potential downwind shear
tower has to complete a load path to the foundation and crack in lightly reinfo r.::.ce:..:d:...._---71.&1 crack in l ightly reinforced
anchor bolts should be capable of developing the moment footing footing
at the base of a tower. Dowels for cast-in-place options are

simi lar to typical column foundations. Prestressing termi
nations may either be independent anchors or -shaped
tendons stressed from the top of the tower (Fig. 5.3a and
5 .3c). Post-tensioning anchor locations have to consider
the load path through the foundation and avoid excessive
Fig. 9.5a implifiedstrut-and-lie modelfor towerfoundation.
tension in the concrete. Placing anchors in the foundation
requires the design to meet all strength and fatigue require
ments when transferri ng the load from the anchor zone to
the remainder of the fow1dation. Placing the anchor at the
top of the tower and using U-returns at the base requires
splicing the strand or that the strand packs be lifted to the
top of the tower and threaded to the base and back. This
design also requires that the concrete at the bottom return be
adequately consolidated around the duct to prevent
when the tendon is stressed. Additional i
to post-tensioning is found in the nucl
at . ( 1 994a,b) describe many of the
tered in the post-tensioning of
9.5-Tower-foundation
There has to be a coherent
the tower and the foundation. for steel wind turbine towe1:
options allow the tower concrete on

interface by consolidating the concrete on the foundation.
Precast options may require a grout or epoxy interface to
......
..-
ensure proper bearing. _ __
Providing an integral load path is essential to tower

performance. Schematic or detai led strut-and-tie models
can provide both insight and detail i ng for the load path, as
shown in Fig. 9.5a. This strut-and-tie model indicates that the
tension reinforcement should engage the flexural reinforce
ment in the foundation to provide a complete load path. I f
the strut-and-tie method is used t o design foundations, shear
design stress checks are not required. If the strut capacity i s
inadequate, a leeward or windward crack can develop and
the foundation can fail, as indicated in Fig. 9.5a. This condi
tion may occur in either spread footings or rock anchored
foundations. Anchor bolts, as shown in Fig. 9.5b, depend
on a strut between the anchor terminus and the compres Fig. 9. 5c-Anchor bolt concrete breakout.
sion side of the tower to transfer the bending moment to the
foundation. In addition, the anchor bolts should provide the
CHAPTER 1D-CONCLUSION AND
group concrete breakout capacity or be integrated into the
RECOMMENDATIONS
foundation reinforcement. I nadequate development will lead
to a complete breakout of the anchor bolt assembly, as i l lus Concrete wind turbine towers 328 ft { 1 00 m ) and above
trated in Fig. 9.5c. in height have been designed and successfully deployed i n
Europe. Concrete and hybrid tower construction w i l l enable
the next generation of economical towers with hub height
in excess of 328 ft ( 1 00 m). Detailed design of wind turbine
towers of all types is a complex effort requiring close coor-
Amencan �
Provided by I (J
le lns
dination between the tower designer and the turbine original Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
equipment manufacturer (OEM). PCI M N L- 1 3 5 :200 Tolerance Manual for Precast and
I mportant advantages of concrete towers include: Prestressed Concrete Construction
(a) A variety of construction options
(b) Lower project costs Authored documents
(c) Potential for i mproved service life Ashar, H . ; Naus, D.; and Tan, C. P., 1 994a, ''Prestressed
(d) Potential for repowering with the next generation of Concrete i n S uclear Power Plants (Part I )," oncrete
turbines International, V. 1 6, o. 5, May, pp. 30-34.
(e) Providing taller hub heights Ashar, H . ; aus, D . ; and Tan, C. P., 1 994b, ''Prestressed
(f) Potential for reduction of logistics and transportation Concrete i n S uclear Power Plants (Part 2)," oncrete
constraints International, V. 1 6, o. 6, June, pp. 58-6 1 .
(g) Allowing for locally sourced materials and labor Barnes, R. A . , and Mays, G. C., 1 999, "Fatigue Perfor
mance of Concrete Beams Strengthened with CFRP Plates,"
CHAPTER 11-REFERENCES Journal of Composites for Construction, V. 3, No. 2, l ay,
American oncrete Institute pp. 63-72. doi : I 0. 1 06 1 /(ASCE) I 090-0268( 1 999)3 :2(63)
ACI 1 1 7 - I 0( 1 5)-Specification for Tolerances for Bass, R. A.; Carrasqu i l lo, R. L . ; and Jirsa, J. 0., 1 989,
Concrete Construction and Materials and Commentary "Shear Transfer Across ew and Existing Concrete Inter
ACI 2 1 5R-92(97) onsiderations for Design of faces," ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 4, July-Aug., pp.
Concrete Structures Subjected to Fatigue Loading 3 83-393.
AC! 307-0!.{ ode Requirements for Reinforced Col l ins, M . P., and Kuchma, D., 1 999, '·How Safe are our
Concrete Chimneys and Commentary Large Lightly Reinforced Concrete Beams, Slabs, and Foot
ACI 3 1 3- 1 6-Design Specification for Concrete " A CI Structural Journal, V. 96, o. 4, July-Aug., pp.
and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granul a�r.JIIII•••
Commentary nal du Beton, 1 993, "CEB-FIP
AC! 3 ! 8- 1 4-Building Code -·""""' Code," Thomas Telford Ltd.,
Concrete and Commentary
ACI 336.2R-88(02l-�� um!eSillr-d assanzadeh, M . ; Stalin, T; and
Procedures for Combined Foot for Large Wind Turbi nes,"
ACI 336.3R- I V-342 Hoga torn fOr vind-
Drilled P iers 1 0:48, Elforsk Electricity and
ACI 423 . 1 OR- I uide to m, 48 pp.
ACI 506.2- 1 3-Spec ification fo i ter, R. J., 20 1 2, "High-Strength
,..,.,,,,..r,.,,. Poles," PCI Journal, V. 57, No.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
ASCE/S E I 7- 1 0-M inimurn Design Loads for Bui n a·.---_:.�--�n�ischer Lloyd I ndustrial Services GmbH, 20 I 0,
and Other Structures The New Guideline for the Certification of Wind Turbines,
Edition 20 I 0, Renewables Certification (GL), Hamburg,
American Society of Civil Engineers/American Wind Energy Germany, 6 pp.
Association (ASCEIA WEA) Grunberg, J., and Gohlmann, J., 20 1 3, Concrete Struc
ASCE/AWEA RP20 1 1 - 1 1 -Recommended Practice for tures for Wind Turbines, Beton Kalender, Ernst & Sohn,
Compliance of Large Land-Based Wind Turbine Support Darmstadt, Germany.
Structures Harte, R . , and Van Zij l, G. P. A. G., 2007, "Structural
Stability of Concrete Wind Turbines and Solar Chimney
Det Norske Veritas Towers Exposed to Dynamic Wind Action," Journal of Wind
DNV-OS-C502:2007-0ffshore Concrete Structures Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, V. 95, No. 9,
Oct., pp. 1 079- 1 096. doi : 1 0. 1 0 1 6/j .jweia.2007 .0 1 .028
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Hognestad, E.; Hanson, . W. ; and McHenry, D., 1 955,
I EC 6 1 400- 1 :20 1 Wind Turbi nes - Part 1 : Design "Concrete Stress Distribution in Ultimate Strength Design,"
Requirements A CI Journal Proceedings, V. 52, o. 1 2, Dec., pp. 455-480 pp.
I EC 6 1 400-2 :20 1 3-Wind Turbines - Part 2: Small Wind Houlsby, G. T.; Kelly, R. B . ; Huxtable, J.; and Byrne,
Turbines B. W., 2005, ''Field Trials of Suction Caissons in Clay for
IEC 6 1 400-6:20 1 6-Wind Turbines - Part 6: Tower and Offshore Wind Turbi ne Foundations," Geotechnique, V. 55,
Foundation Design Requirements o. 4, pp. 287-296. doi : I 0. 1 680/geot.2005 .5 5 .4.287
Hsu, T T., 1 98 1 , "Fatigue of Plain Concrete," A CJJournal
National Research ouncil of Canada Proceedings, V. 78, No. 4, July-Aug., pp. 292-305.
BC 20 1 5- ational Building Code Jonkman, J.; Butterfield, S.; M usial, W.; and Scott, G., G.,
2009, "Definition of a 5-MW Reference Wind Turbine for
Offshore System Development," Technical Report R ELI
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(N R EL), Golden, CO, Feb., 63 pp. sixth edition, Post-Tensioning Institute, Farmington H il ls,
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Report on Design of

Concrete Wind Turbine

ltcense hom IHS

Report on Design of Concrete Wind Turbine Towers

American Concrete Institute

Amencan Concrete Institute

Report on Design of Concrete Wind Turbine Towers

Charlc S. Han kat, Chair

Roger J. Becker Neil M. Hawkins ina Kristeva Kirk B. Morgan*

Keywords: concrete tower; full-height tower; hybrid tower; precast

CHAPTER 6-DESIGN LOADS AND LOAD

Amencan Concrete Institute

7.4- onnal operating fatigue loads, p. I g

CHAPTER 8-CONCRETE RESISTANCE, p. 19

CHAPTER 9-FOUNDATION DESIGN, p. 1 9

CHAPTER 1Q-CONCLUSION AND

1.1-lntroduction Top offooting

CHAPTER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS

Amencan Concrete Institute

Prcconstruction wind resource as.�essment, yes

Wind farm design

(d) Even though local building codes may not be suffi­

CHAPTER 4-CONCRETE TOWER TYPES

Fig. 4.2-Turbin e- tow er in terf ace (5 MW). (N ote: 1 m = 3.3 ft.)

prestress is usually necessary to satisfy service and fatigue

Fig. 4. 3. 2.2a-S/ipforming grain silos.

tall form system are possible. With this rate of movement,

construction are given i n ACI

gives dimensions of the National Renewable

Table 4.6a-Tower dimensions

80 (262) 3.0 ( 1 0) 6.75 ( 22) 0.40 ( J 6) 2 .3

80 (262) 3.8 ( 1 2 . 5 ) 7. (25.6) 0.54 (2 1 ) 2 .5

developed for all the

Table 4.6c-Estimated installed tower costs and tower type

Hybrid stee l concrete (EQ) 1 .5 $ 1 ,402,72 1 1 03

All-cast-in-place concrete (wind ) 5.0 $ 1 ,872,036 63

costs of the turbine hub and rotor and the electrical

These tower costs were developed for 325 ft ( I 00 m) tall

that the cost differentials may be more sensitive to site and

Amencan Concrete Institute

Fig 5. 4-Concrete stress-strain relationship (adapted ji-om

Grunberg and Gohlmann (20 1 3) base the value of Ec on

The calculation in Eq. (5. 1 ) i s

on the mass and other inertial properties of the turbine are

Power production plus

onnal shut down

EWM 50-year retum u

Tr.msport. assembly. and

American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

Table 6.2-Load factors* Table 7-Basic turbine load information (derived

Favorable 1 .0 1 .00 1 .00 1 .0

Prestre s1 1 .0 1 .00 1 .00 1 .0

Wi nd loads 1 .35 ! 1 .10 1 .00 1 .50

Earthquake 1 .00 Hub height above

DLCs include operational; under power production; and

·6.2-Load factors -m)

Final design load factors and strength reduction factors are

the certification process. Some load factors associated with

Rotor orque kN-m

Wind speed, m/s

Fig. 7. /-Steady-state rotor thrust and rotor torque (adapted

For i nstance, REL (Jonkman et al. 2009) simulation for

..--- P otential cra cks

(d) Even though local building codes may not be suffi