* ATOMIC STRUCTURE, ELECTRONIC DISTRIBUTION, CHEMICAL FORMULAE : -

= Chemists use symbols to express elements easily. The symbol of any element is represented by its
atom. The atom is the fundamental building unit of matter, It is the smallest individual unit of matter
which can share in chemical reactions. Matter consists of molecules consist of atoms, The mass of the
atom is concentrated in the nucleus because the electron has a negligible mass relative to that of the
proton or neutron.

* Chemical symbols of some elements : -

· The symbol of the element is represented by one letter that is written in capital or two letters
( the first letter is written in capital and the second one in small). Some elements are common in
their initial letters, so, the second letter is taken to differentiate between them like:

Ø Carbon (C) and Calcium (Ca).

Ø Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He).

Ø Sulphur (S) and Silicon (Si).

· The element symbol is derived from its Latin name, so that symbols of some elements differ
from their names in the English language such as Sodium is called Natrium in Latin & its symbol
is Na, Potassium is called Kalium in Latin & its symbol is K, Iron is called Ferrum in Latin & its
symbol is Fe, Copper is called Cuprum in Latin & its symbol is Cu, Silver is called Argentum in
Latin & its symbol is Ag.

· Carbon is symbolized by one letter, while calcium is symbolized by two letters because the name
of each of them starts with letter (C) so, (C) is chosen as the symbol of carbon and Ca is the
symbol of calcium, The symbol of sodium is Na not (So) as it is expected because the symbol is
derived from Latin name, so that symbols of some elements differ from their names in English
language.

* Structure of an Atom : -

· The word "atom" comes from the Greek word "atomos", meaning uncuttable or indivisible.

· An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of that
element.

· Everything on our earth is made from 96 stable and 12 unstable elements. Each element has a
 different atomic structure. The basic structure of an atom involves a nucleus and the orbiting
electrons.

· Atoms are made up of three particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

1. Nucleus: It is the centre of the atom. It contains protons and neutrons.

· Protons are always positively charged. The number of protons in the atom is called its atomic
number(also called proton number). In the Periodic Table, atoms are arranged in atomic number
order. Protons have a relative charge of +1.

· Neutrons have a neutral charge.

2. Electron cloud: It is the outer portion of the atom.

· Electrons: They are negatively charged and are arranged around the nucleus in shells or orbits.
They have a relative charge of –1

· The total number of electrons in an atom is always the same as the number of protons in the
nucleus.

· The nucleus diameter is only about 1/100000 of the atoms diameter, so much of the volume of
the atom consists of empty space.

· The number of neutrons may be equal to the number of protons as in Calcium (C), the mass
number is 12 and the atomic number is 6, or more than the number of protons as in Sodium
(Na), the mass number is 23 and the atomic number is 11, so the mass of atom increases, If the
number of protons changes, the value of the positive charge of the nucleus changes, the values
of the atomic number & mass number change, so, the element changes into another element.

· Boyle, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford & Bohr are from scientists who contributed to the
discovery of the atom construction, The atomic radius of an atom is measured in Angstrom, One
angstrom equals a part of ten thousands million parts of one metre (10 -10), The radius of
hydrogen atom equals 0.3 Angstrom, this indicates how much the atom is small.

* Modern Atomic
* The nucleus of the atom : -

· The number of protons and electrons are equal in atom which is therefore electrically neutral.

· Protons and neutrons are called nucleons since they occur inside the nucleus.

· Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus. In a neutral atom, number of
protons=number of electrons (not in ions)

· Mass number (A) = number of protons+ number of neutrons

* How electrons are arranged in the atom : -

· The number of electrons in every shell or energy level is given by the formula 2n2 where n is the
 number of the shell

· The outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons; the penultimate shell cannot have more
than 18 electrons

· A new shell is formed as soon as the octet is complete in each inner shell

· An atom becomes stable if it reaches octet configuration (or duplet in the case of hydrogen and
helium)

· The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. Therefore, VALENCY is the
number of electrons gained or lost to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration

· Valency: The combining capacity of an atom is called its valency,

· Atomic number: It is equal to a number of protons.

· Mass number: It is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons.

* What happens when the outermost shell contains a number of electrons that are close to its
maximum capacity?
= Valency in such cases is generated by subtracting the number of electrons present in the outermost
orbit from octet (8). For example, oxygen contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell. Its valency is
calculated as: 8 – 6 = 2. This means oxygen needs two electrons to form a bond with another element.
* Electronic Configuration : -

1) Hydrogen- 1

2) Helium- 2

3) Lithium- 2, 1

4) Beryllium- 2, 2

5) Boron- 2, 3

6) Carbon- 2,4

7) Nitrogen- 2,5

8) Oxygen- 2,6

9) Fluorine- 2,7
10) Neon- 2, 8

11) Sodium- 2, 8, 1

12) Magnesium- 2,8,2

13) Aluminium- 2,8,3

14) Silicon- 2,8,4

15) Phosphorus- 2,8,5

16) Sulphur- 2,8,6

17) Chlorine- 2,8,7

18) Argon- 2,8,8

19) Potassium-2, 8, 8, 1

20) Calcium- 2,8,8,2

* Criss -cross method examples : -