All Simulation For Street Light

Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for Terrestrial TV range extension
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Communication Stream
Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for

Terrestrial TV range extension
By:
Sade Shure………ATR/5503/05
Issayas Fekadu…ATR/2732/06
Advisor’s Name:
Ephrem Teshale Bekele (PhD)
February, 2018
1 Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for Terrestrial

TV range extension
1.1 Abstract
This project presents the Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for Terrestrial TV Range
Extension. A Booster (amplifier), is a device that amplifies an antenna signal, usually into an
output with the same impedance as the input impedance. Typically 75 ohm for coaxial cable and
300 ohm for twin-lead cable.
An antenna amplifier boosts a radio signal considerably for devices that receive radio waves.
Many devices have an RF amplifier stage in their circuitry, that amplifies the antenna signal,
these include, but are not limited to; radios, televisions, mobile phones and Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
devices. Amplifiers amplify everything, both the desired signal present at the antenna, and the
noise. Thus the key to a "good" level of input at the receiver with the minimum amount noise
includes many design considerations in an electrical amplifier. So in this project we are trying to
design and realize device which comprises band pass micro wave filter which filters the signal
within certain frequency range we intended to transmit, signal amplifier which amplifies or
boosts the passed through the band pass filter and other components which are necessary to make
fully functional booster like power splitter in order to divide power from the amplifier. In order
to do the simulation, design and optimization the booster we will use one of the Full wave EM
Simulation software, the Advance Design System (ADS) software. A full wave EM simulator is
software that performs full wave analysis for an RF/Microwave circuit. Full wave analysis is to
solve the complete set of Maxwell’s equations to without any simplifying assumptions. And also
we will bring a brief discussion of the results obtained from the simulation, optimization and
testing of the design of the VHF/UHF Booster for terrestrial TV range extension. In this
documentation we tried to separate each section of the device (booster) separately, as a filter,
power amplifier and the last section as the power divider.
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Contents
1 Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for Terrestrial TV range extension ......... i
1.1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................. i
1.2 Introduction and Background ........................................................................................... 1
1.3 Problem statement ............................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Deliverables ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Resource Requirement and Cost Breakdown ................................................................... 6
1.8 Tentative Project Plan ...................................................................................................... 7
2 Filters ...................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Filter network analysis ................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Scattering Parameters.............................................................................................. 11
2.2 Filter design .................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Determinations of Filter Specifications .................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Design of a low-pass prototype filter: ..................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Element transformation ........................................................................................... 18
3 Power Amplifiers ................................................................................................................. 21
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Transistors ...................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.1 Bipolar junction transistors (BJT) ........................................................................... 22
3.2.2 Field effective transistors (FETS) ........................................................................... 23
3.3 Amplifier Parameters ..................................................................................................... 24
3.3.1 Stability ................................................................................................................... 24
3.3.2 Linearity .................................................................................................................. 25
3.3.3 Impedance Matching ............................................................................................... 26
4 Power splitters/combiners................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Resistive power dividers ................................................................................................ 29
4.2 Reactive power divider................................................................................................... 30
4.2.1 Wilkinson power divider /splitter ........................................................................... 30
5 Conclusion and recommendation ....................................................................................... 37
6 Bibliography......................................................................................................................... 38
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Lists of figures
Figure 1: Tentative project plan …………………………………………………………11
Figure 2: Characteristics of low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters……….14
Figure 3: Two-port network showing network variables……………………………….…16
Figure 4: Butterworth (maximally flat) response………………………………………….20
Figure 5: Low-pass prototype filters for Butterworth filters………………………………22
Figure 6: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of an inductor………………………......23
Figure 7: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of a capacitor………………………..….24
Figure 8: DC characteristics of an NPN BJT…………………………………………….,..27
Figure 8.1: Matched Transmission-line system…………………………………………..31
Figure 9: Power division and combining…………………………………………………...32
Figure 10:2- way power divider…………………………………………………………………………. 33

Figure 11: 3-Way power divider....................................................................................................33
Figure 12: (a) 2-way an equal-split Wilkinson power divider in microstrip line form. (b)
Equivalent transmission line circuit……………………………………………………….. 35
Lists of tables
Table 1: Element Values for Butterworth Low-pass Prototype Filters ( g0 = 1 .0, Ωc = 1 , LA =
3.01dB at Ωc)………………………………………………………….21
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1.2 Introduction and Background

Boosters have been used for many years to raise the level of signals delivered TV receivers.
When located ahead of losses in a receiving system, the effect of a booster can be improved the
quality signals, resulting in a more satisfactory viewing experience for users of either digital or
analog TV signals. If this technique used improperly, they can make the quality of signal worse.
With the increase in the average number of television per household, demand has arisen for
internal signal distribution system in homes, allowing a single aerial to feed multiple receivers.
Indoor amplifiers also often needed for this, and a wide range of models is now available for
installation either by the householder or by the aerial trade.
An amplifier used properly can under normal conditions improve the quality of the signal being
received, but is also likely to make the reception system more venerable to interference from
signals on nearby frequencies, either by overloading the receiver, or by itself being overloaded.
The VHF/UHF amplifiers in domestic TV reception systems are used for a variety of purposes,
principally they can raise the signal level from an aerial to overcome losses in the feed to a
receiver and provide the multiple output to feed several receivers around the home.
As a general principle, where signals are poor it is the best to locate an amplifier ahead of any
attenuation that exists between the aerial and receiver. Boosters should only be used where they
are needed to achieve a suitable level of signal at all outlets in the home. Most boosters have one
input and one output. However models are available with up to four inputs, allowing for direct
connection of two UHF aerial. Models are also available with up to six outputs. These can be
used to feed outlets around the home. In general we use the distributed element model rather than
lumped element model because our device works at higher frequencies.
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1.3 Problem statement

Signals from antenna are not always as strong as needed for TV receivers different
environmental and other factors contributes to weaken this microwave signal which is delivered
to the TV receiver. to reefer one; length of a coaxial cable from the antenna to the TV receiver
makes a signals to lose their strength so that we couldn’t have a clear image or voice on our TV.
Locally there is no any progress made on this problem. Since it’s expensive and not that much
available on the market, it’s hard to find a microwave antenna to TV signal booster. Selecting an
apparatus that best suits for a given application requires thorough investigation. And this all
requires conducting a broad survey of the available researches.
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1.4 Objectives
The objective of this project is to design and optimize a VHF/UHF booster for terrestrial TV
range extension which primarily used to overcome the loss in the coaxial cable between the
antenna and the TV set. In areas distant from TV transmitters, overcoming this loss is necessary
since the signals are already weak. It is our aim to make a prototype of this antenna to TV
booster that can be used:
 To design and realize a booster with better performance in our country.

 To amplify signals that are already weak because of the distance between
the broadcasting tower and the TV and other factors.
 To design a prototype which any local or nearby industry who wants to
fabricate this designs.
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1.5 Methodology
Designing VHF/UHF booster is a complex topic since it also includes filter design in it. At the
very beginning we will survey and dig deeply different books and documents concerning this
topic. After the surveying process is over, we will proceed to the designing process. After we
carefully design the booster, we will test its validity by simulation, using simulation software. If
the simulation works as it is predicted in the design, we will proceed to the next step, which is to
optimize the design. We will optimize the design from the result of the simulation by
Evolutionary Optimizing Tools. By analyzing the simulation, the optimizations that can be made
to the design can be understood. After the optimization is done, we will implement a prototype
of the booster. After the implementation of the prototype is done, we will test the performance of
the device. This is how the whole process looks like:
Figure 1: Methodology
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1.6 Deliverables
VHF/UHF TV range boosters are an important component for a proper and quality image
viewing purpose. We will deliver such type of booster. And we will organize the results in such a
way that is understandable. So for simplicity, we will deliver:
 A thesis that describes the concepts and challenges involved in the design,
optimization and realization of the VHF/UHF Booster for TV range
extension.
 A simulation model for validation of the initial design.
 A description of the process necessary for optimization.
 A prototype of the booster.(at the end of the year)
 Test results of the prototype.
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1.7 Resource Requirement and Cost Breakdown

Since we have planned to go further to get a prototype (hardware) of our design we may require
or use the following electrical devices, equipment’s and software’s:
Hardware
 A PCB board
 A computer
 Other electrical circuit elements
Software
 MATLAB
 Advance design system (ADS).
 EmPro(optional)
 Altium Designer
Budget Requirement
No. Purchase Cost

1 Useful Hardware components 1800.00 birr
2 Travel expense(Optional) 1300.00 birr
3 Total 3100.00 birr
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1.8 Tentative Project Plan

Our tentative project plan is listed in the following Gantt chart.
TENTATIVE PLAN
S U R V E Y4-Nov-16 45
DESIGN 5-Dec-16 44
SIMULATION 6-Jan-17 15
OPTIMIZATION 21-Jan-17 32
PROTOTYPE DELIVERY 22-Feb-17 68
TESTING 2-May-17 20
D O C U M E N T A T I O N A N D T H E S I S W R I T E U P 11-Nov-16 238
Documentation
Prototype
and Thesis Testing Optimization Simulation Design Survey
delivery
Write up
Start date 11-Nov-16 2-May-17 22-Feb-17 21-Jan-17 6-Jan-17 5-Dec-16 4-Nov-16
Duration (days) 238 20 68 32 15 44 45
Figure 1: Tentative project plan
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2 Filters
Introduction
Filter networks are essential building elements in many areas of RF/microwave engineering.
Such networks are used to select/reject or separate/combine signals at different frequencies in a
host of RF/microwave systems and equipment. Although the physical realization of filters at
RF/microwave frequencies may vary, the circuit network topology is common to all. At
microwave frequencies, voltmeters and ammeters for the direct measurement of voltages and
currents do not exist. For this reason, voltage and current, as a measure of the level of electrical
excitation of a network, do not play a primary role at microwave frequencies. [1]
A filter (or electrical filter) is a device that removes unwanted components from a signal. It only
passes signals with the desired frequencies (called the pass-band) and attenuates the signals with
frequencies outside the pass-band (called the stop-band). And by microwave filters, it is meant a
class of electrical filters designed to operate in the microwave frequency range.
The microwave frequency range is the set of electromagnetic (Electromagnetic (EM)) waves
with frequencies ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz, which correspond to wavelengths (in free
space) from 1m to 1mm. Microwave systems have an enormous impact on modern society. Their
applications are diverse. Most wireless communications including broadcast television, cell-
phones, Wi-Fi, radar and satellite communication are done in the microwave frequency range.
For reasons such as non-linearity in the signal processing circuits and internal/external noise
generation, frequency components outside the wanted signal band are generated. The frequency
components outside the signal band interfere and affect the satisfactory functioning of electrical
systems. They could cause distortion, jamming of received signals or poor reception in
communication equipments unless they are stopped. One good way to stop them is to filter them
out and prohibit them from entering the processing system. For this reason, microwave filters are
considered as indispensable building blocks in modern wireless and telecommunication systems.
Filters operating at low frequencies can be constructed using only resistors, capacitors and
inductors. Electrical circuits that are composed of these conventional circuit elements are said to
implement the lumped element model. Lumped element filters work nicely for low frequency
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signals, but for microwave frequencies, they tend to be inaccurate and impractical. For these
frequencies, we must consider a more general model, known as the distributed element model.
Generally, there are four types of filters designed for various applications. These are:
• Low-pass filters: allow only frequencies below a certain cutoff frequency to pass and
attenuate/reject frequencies above the cutoff frequency.
• High-pass filters: allow only frequencies above a certain cutoff frequency to pass and
attenuate/reject frequencies below the cutoff frequency.
• Band-pass filters: allow only a desired band of frequencies, between two cutoff frequencies, to
pass and attenuate/reject frequencies outside that band.
• Band-stop filters: attenuate/reject only a desired band of frequencies, between two cutoff
frequencies, and pass frequencies outside that band.
Figure 2: Characteristics of low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters. [2]
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The filter used for this project is band-pass microwave filter. A filter that selects and passes only
a desired band of frequencies and operates in the microwave frequency range.
Lumped and Distributed Filters
Electrical circuits that are composed of traditional conventional circuit elements like the ones
stated above are said to implement the lumped element model. The lumped element model of
electrical circuits makes the simplifying assumption that the resistance, capacitance and
inductance of the circuit are concentrated into idealized electrical components: resistors,
capacitors and inductors joined by a network of perfectly conducting wires. The model is
conceptually simple, but it becomes increasingly unreliable as the frequency of the signal
increases, and they are not suitable for filter construction above certain frequencies, with
500MHz given as a guideline. For such cases, we must consider a more general model, the
distributed element model, whose dynamic behavior is described by Maxwell’s equations. The
distributed element model is more accurate but also more complex than the lumped element
model. Filters implementing the distributed element model apply at all frequencies.
Distributed element components are made up of short lengths of transmission line. In the
distributed view of circuits, the elements are distributed along the length of the conductor and are
inextricably mixed together. The filter design is concerned with inductance and capacitance, but
because of this mixing of elements; they cannot be treated as separate lumped inductors and
capacitors. There is no precise frequency above which distributed element filters must be used,
but they are especially associated with the microwave band (300MHz → 300GHz). A common
rule of thumb is to apply distributed element modeling when component dimensions are longer
than 0.1λ, where λ denotes the wavelength of the signal being transmitted. All classical filter
classes implemented in lumped element designs (Butterworth, chebyshev, etc.) can be
implemented using a distributed element approach [7]. There are many component forms used to
construct distributed element filters, but all have the common property of causing a discontinuity
on the transmission line. These discontinuities present reactive impedance to a wave front
traveling down the line, and these reactance can be chosen by design to serve as inductors,
capacitors or resonators, as required by the filter.
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2.1 Filter network analysis

A described above at microwave frequencies, the use of voltmeters and ammeters for the direct
measurement of voltages and currents is impractical. For this reason, voltage and current, as a
measure of the level of electrical excitation of a network, do not play a primary role in analysis at
microwave frequencies [1]. For filters operating at microwave frequencies scattering parameters
(S-parameters), that are defined as the ratio of reflected and transmitted power instead of voltage
and current are suitable.
2.1.1 Scattering Parameters

The short circuit admittance, open circuit impedance, hybrid h–, and hybrid g– parameters are
commonly used to formulate two port circuit models that macroscopically inter-relate the driving
point input and output impedance and forward and reverse transfer characteristics of relatively
complex linear networks. These models are simple architectures in that they embody only four
electrical parameters whose measurement or calculation exploit the electrical implications of
short or open circuits imposed at the input and output ports of the network undergoing study.
Although the parameterization of these conventional two port models can generally be executed
straightforwardly and accurately at relatively low signal frequencies, high signal processing
frequencies present at least two challenges in broadband electronics. The first of these challenges
is that the unavoidable parasitic inductance implicit to circuit interconnects renders perfect short
circuits an impossibility at very high signal frequencies. Moreover, very low impedance paths at
either the input or the output port of electronic circuits may force embedded active devices to
function nonlinearly or even to fail because of excessive current conduction. Second, the
inherent potential instability of most high frequency or broadband electronic networks is
exacerbated when these networks are constrained to operate with open circuited input or output
ports. For example, attempts to measure the open circuit impedance parameters of a broadband
electronic circuit are invariably thwarted by parasitic network oscillations incurred by the action
of opening either an input or an output network port. S-parameters are important in microwave
design because they are easier to measure and to work with at high frequencies than other kinds
of two-port parameters. They are conceptually simple, analytically convenient and capable of
providing detailed insight into a measurement and modeling problem. However, it must kept in
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mind that -like all other two-port parameters, S-parameters are linear by default. I.e. they
represent the linear behavior of the two-port. Consider the Two-port network show below:
Figure 3: Two-port network showing network variables. [1]
Above figure shows a network along with incident and reflected waves at its two ports. We adopt
a convention of representing the incident wave by 𝑎𝑖 and the reflected wave by 𝑏𝑖 at the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ port.
Hence, 𝑎1 is an incident wave, while 𝑏1 is a reflected wave at port 1. Similarly, 𝑎2 and 𝑏2
represent incident and reflected waves at port 2, respectively. So the scattering or S parameters
of the two-port network are defined in terms of the wave variables as
The relationships between the wave variables and the voltage and current variables are defined as
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2.2 Filter design

Several techniques and methodologies are available today for designing microwave filters.
Review articles that survey the state of the art in this field enable designers to select the most
convenient approach for various filter topologies and applications. All these design approaches
generally consist of two sequential steps [3]:
1. A synthesis problem is solved using techniques typically borrowed from lumped-element

network synthesis which has generally three steps:
a) Determination of filter specifications: the important filter specifications are set,
such as the important frequencies and the number of reactive elements
b) Design of a low-pass prototype filter: a low-pass prototype filter is designed using one
of the following response functions:
 Butterworth
 Chebyshev
 Elliptic-function
 Gaussian
 All-pass
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c) Transforming the elements of the low-pass prototype filter

to meet the requirements of the actual filter
2. A suitable equivalence between the synthesized network and the actual distributed structure to
be realized is established, enabling the physical dimensioning of the structure. The sections
below will elaborate how each step is completed.
2.2.1 Determinations of Filter Specifications

The first thing to do when designing a filter is to set the specifications. These are a set of
requirements that the filter needs to satisfy. And these requirements are what establish the
characteristic of the filter, and they depend on the desired application of the filter. Generally the
specifications of a band-pass microwave filter include making decisions for the following
 the pass-band
 the insertion loss and return loss
 the number of reactive elements in the lumped filter.
 the distributed model filter.
Pass-band
It refers to the range of frequencies that are desired to pass through the filter with a minimum
loss. Any frequency that is outside the pass-band spectrum is called stop-band, and is highly
attenuated by the filter. For band-pass filters, the pass-band is specified between two frequencies,
called cut-off frequencies, and a central frequency.
Insertion loss and Return loss

Insertion loss and return loss are the transmission and reflection loss, they determine the
performance of a filter in the pass-band and stop-band
Number of Reactive Elements

The lumped model reactive elements are simply the inductors and capacitors in the lumped filter.
The number of reactive elements, also called the order of the filter, meeting a specified insertion
loss and return loss is given by
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Where: n = filter order, LA = insertion loss, LR = return loss, S = shape factor. Note that if the
order is high, the insertion loss and return loss will also be high.
2.2.2 Design of a low-pass prototype filter:

After the filter specifications are set, the next step is to implement a low-pass prototype filter
using one of the response functions. A brief description of the response functions is found in [1],
if the reader is interested. For this project, we have chosen Butterworth response. A butterworth
low-pass response has a transfer function given by
Where n is the degree or the order of filter, which corresponds to the number of reactive
elements required in the low-pass prototype filter. This type of response is also referred to as
maximally flat, because its amplitude-squared transfer function defined in above Equation has
the maximum number of 2n − 1 zero derivatives at Ω = 0. Therefore, the maximally flat
approximation to the ideal low-pass filter in the pass-band is best at Ω = 0, but deteriorates as Ω
approaches the cutoff frequency Ωc. Fig. 4 shows a typical maximally flat response.
In general, a low-pass prototype filter is defined as a filter whose element values are normalized
to make the source resistance or conductance equal to one, denoted by go = 1, and the cutoff
angular frequency to be unity, denoted by Ωc = 1(rad/s). Fig. 5 demonstrates two possible forms
of an n-pole low-pass prototype for realizing a Butterworth filter response. Either form may be
used because both are dual from each other and give the same response. It should be noted that in
fig. 8, gi for i = 1 to n represents either the inductance of a series inductor or the capacitance of a
shunt capacitor; therefore, n is also the number of reactive elements. If g1 is the shunt
capacitance or the series inductance, then go is defined as the source resistance or the source
conductance. Similarly, if gn is the shunt capacitance or the series inductance, gn+1 becomes the
load resistance
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Figure 4: Butterworth (maximally flat) response.
or the load conductance. Unless otherwise specified, these g values are supposed to be the
inductance in heneries, capacitance in farads, resistance in ohms, and conductance in mhos. For
Butterworth or maximally flat low-pass prototype filters having a transfer function given in
Equation with an insertion loss LA= 3.01dB at the cutoff Ωc = 1, the element values as referred
to in fig. 5 may be computed by
Obtaining the low-pass filter prototype from these response functions involves some pretty bulky
calculations, but luckily these calculations have already been done for various cases and
presented in tabulated
data. Table 1 gives element values for such filters having n = 1 → 9.
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Where ω0 denotes the center angular frequency and FBW is defined as the fractional bandwidth.
If we apply this frequency transformation to a reactive element g of the low-pass prototype, we
have
which implies that an inductive/capacitive element g in the low-pass prototype will transform to
a series/parallel LC resonant circuit in the band-pass filter.
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Figure 5: Low-pass prototype filters for Butterworth filters. [1]
2.2.3 Element transformation

Thus far, we have only completed making the low-pass prototype filter, which has a normalized
source resistance/conductance g0 = 1 and a cutoff frequency of Ωc = 1(rad/s). To obtain
frequency characteristics and element values for practical filters, based on the low-pass
prototype, one needs to apply frequency transformation and impedance scaling to the
elements of the low-pass prototype, which will be addressed in the subsequent sections.
2.2.3.1 Frequency Transformation

The frequency transformation, which is also referred to as frequency mapping, is required to
map, for example, the filter response in the low-pass prototype frequency domain Ω to that in the
frequency domain ω in which a practical filter response such as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass,
and band-stop are expressed. The frequency transformation will have an effect on all the reactive
elements accordingly, but no effect on the resistive elements.
The frequency transformation from a low-pass prototype to a practical band-pass filter having
cutoff frequencies ω1 and ω2 in the angular frequency axis ω is given by
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2.2.3.2 Impedance Scaling

In addition to the frequency mapping, impedance scaling is also required to accomplish the
element transformation. The impedance scaling will remove the g0 = 1 normalization and adjusts
the filter to work for any value of the source impedance denoted by Z0. For convenience, it is
wise to define impedance scaling factor γ0 as
Applying the impedance scaling on the filter elements will change them in the following way:
L→ γ0L
C → C/ γ0
R → γ0R
G→G/ γ0
After applying both the frequency transformation and the impedance scaling, the elements for the
series LC resonator circuit in the band-pass filter are
Figure 6: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of an inductor
Similarly, the elements for the parallel LC resonator in the band-pass filter are
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Figure 7: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of a capacitor
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3 Power Amplifiers
3.1 Introduction
Power amplifiers are an inherent part of a transmitting chain, which is required to boost the
signal and overcome channel losses between the transmitter and receiver.[6] Boosting up Signals
is one of the most basic and prevalent circuit functions in modern RF and microwave systems.
Early microwave amplifiers relied on tubes, such as klystrons and Traveling-wave tubes, or
solid-state reflection amplifiers. However, due to the dramatic improvements and innovations in
solid-state technology that have occurred since the 1970s, most RF and microwave amplifiers
today use transistor devices such as Si BJTs, GaAs or SiGe HBTs, Si MOSFETs, GaAs
MESFETs, or GaAs or GaN HEMTs. Microwave transistor amplifiers are rugged, low-cost, and
reliable and can be easily integrated in both hybrid and monolithic integrated circuitry. Transistor
amplifiers can be used at frequencies in excess of 100 GHz in a wide range of applications
requiring small size, low noise figure, broad bandwidth, and medium to high power capacity.
Although microwave tubes are still useful for very high power and/or very high frequency
applications, continuing improvement in the performance of microwave transistors is steadily
reducing the need for microwave tubes. [5]
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3.2 Transistors
For the microwave circuit designer transistors are the key active elements most often used to
achieve signal generation (oscillators), signal amplification and a wide range of other, more
complex, switching and signal processing functions Traditional microwave transistors, including
MESFETs and HEMTs, are normally constructed from III-V group compounds. HBTs are based
on both III–V and SiGe compounds.
3.2.1 Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

A current controlled transistor which is a minority-carrier device in the base region; this a bipolar
device because there are two junctions, the emitter –base junction, which is forward biased to
inject the minority carriers into the base, and the collector –base junction, which is reverse biased
to collect all of the base minority carriers into the collector.
RF bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are usually made using silicon (Si), and this transistor is
one of the oldest and most popular active RF devices in use today because of its low cost and
good operating performance in terms of frequency range, power capacity, and noise
characteristics. Silicon junction transistors are useful for amplifiers up to the range of 2–10 GHz,
and in oscillators up to about 20 GHz. Bipolar transistors typically have very low 1/f-noise
characteristics, making them well suited for oscillators with low-phase noise. Bipolar junction
transistors are sometimes preferred over FETs at frequencies below about 2–4 GHz because of
higher gain and lower cost, and the possibility of biasing with a single power supply. Bipolar
transistors are subject to shot noise as well as thermal noise effects, so their noise figure is not as
good as that of FETs.[9]
Figure 8: DC characteristics of
an NPN BJT
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The biasing point for the transistor depends on the application and type of device, with low
collector currents generally giving the best noise figure, and higher collector currents giving the
best power gain.
Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
The operation of a heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is essentially the same as that of a
BJT, but an HBT has a base-emitter junction made from a compound semiconductor material
such as GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), or silicon germanium (SiGe), often in conjunction with
thin layers of other materials (e.g., aluminum). This structure offers much improved performance
at high frequencies. Some HBTs can operate at frequencies exceeding 100 GHz, and recent
developments with HBTs using SiGe have demonstrated that these devices are useful in low-cost
circuits operating at frequencies of 60 GHz or higher. [5]
3.2.2 Field effective transistors (FETS)

In contrast to BJTs, field effect transistors (FETs) are monopolar, with only one carrier type
(holes or electrons) providing current flow through the device: n-channel FETs employ electrons,
while p-channel devices use holes. In addition, while a BJT is a current controlled device, an
FET is a voltage-controlled device, having a source-to-drain characteristic that is similar to that
of a voltage-dependent variable resistor. Field effect transistors can take many forms, including
the MESFET (metal semiconductor FET), the MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor FET), the
HEMT (high electron mobility transistor), and the PHEMT (pseudomorphic HEMT). GaAs
MESFETs are among the most commonly used transistors for microwave and millimeter wave
applications, being usable at frequencies up to 60 GHz or more. Even higher operating
frequencies can be obtained with GaAs HEMTs. GaAs MESFETs and HEMTs are especially
useful for low-noise amplifiers since these transistors have lower noise figures than any other
active devices. Recently developed gallium nitride (GaN) HEMTs is very useful for high power
RF and microwave amplifiers. CMOS FETs are increasingly being used for RF integrated
circuits, offering high levels of integration at low cost and low power requirements. [5] and [9]
23 | P a g e
3.2.2.1 MESFET (Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

One of the most important developments in microwave technology has been the GaAs metal
semiconductor field effect transistor (MESFET), as this device permitted the first practical solid-
state implementation of amplifiers, oscillators and mixers at microwave frequencies. GaAs
MESFETs can be used at frequencies well into the millimeter wave range, with high gain and
low noise figure, often making them the device of choice for hybrid and monolithic integrated
circuits at frequencies above 10 GHz. [5] and [9]
3.3 Amplifier Parameters

There is a need for different considerations when designing an amplifier, thus this amplifier have
to fulfill amplifiers must be somehow stable and linear.
3.3.1 Stability
Creating an oscillator is the most notorious pitfall of amplifier design. The resulting circuit is
usually quite useless for its intended purpose, and effort put into an elaborately optimized design,
e.g. for low noise or flat gain, will have been wasted. An indifferently performing but stable
amplifier would be more useful. Stability is therefore the first and most vital issue that must be
addressed in amplifier design. There are several reasons why unintended oscillation is an easy
trap to fall into:
i. We are tempted to do our design work, e.g. of impedance matching networks, only for
the intended operating frequency band of our circuit but oscillation might occur at any
frequency, often one far removed from the design frequencies.
ii. Virtually all single transistors are potentially unstable at some frequencies, which are
often outside the design frequency band.
iii. The source and load impedances are a critical factor in producing oscillation, but are
never wholly predictable. Oscillation is most likely with highly reactive source or load
impedances, and these are very likely to occur outside the operating band.[8]
A passive network is always absolutely stable; this means that any operational
impedance between any two nodes must have poles and zeros on the left-hand side of the
complex plane, an active network which exhibits impedances having poles located only in the
left-hand semi-plane and zeros located also in the right-hand side. Oscillation is possible if either
24 | P a g e
the input or output port impedance has a negative real part; this would then imply that in | Гin |>1
or| Out|>1. Because Гin and Гout depend on the source and load matching networks, the
stability of the amplifier depends on ГS and ГL as presented by the matching networks. Thus, we
define two types of stability:
i. Unconditional stability: The network is unconditionally stable if |in |<1 and |out|<1 for all
passive source and load impedances (i.e.,|S|<1 and|L|<1).
ii. Conditional stability: The network is conditionally stable if|in|<1 and|out|<1only for a
certain range of passive source and load impedances. This case is also referred to as
potentially unstable stability condition of an amplifier circuit is usually frequency
dependent since the input and output matching networks generally depend on frequency.
It is therefore possible for an amplifier to be stable at its design frequency but unstable at
other frequencies. The rigorous general treatment of stability requires that the network
scattering parameters (or other network parameters) have no poles in the right-half
complex frequency plane, in addition to the conditions that|in|<1 and|out|<1 [6]. This can
be a difficult assessment in practice, but for the special case considered here, where the
scattering parameters are known to be pole free (as confirmed by measurability).[5]
3.3.2 Linearity
Another problem related with Amplifier design is non-linearity. The topic of amplifier linearity
has become a very popular topic in the technical community due the widespread deployment of
digital communication systems; the simplest form of linearization is to employ some form of
negative feedback to the amplifier. At low frequencies, where device phase shifts and circuit
elements are well behaved, multi-decade feedback amplifiers have been implemented. [5] As one
approaches the microwave realm, keeping the feedback negative gets a bit harder. When
operating at frequencies above several gigahertz, it is difficult to apply shunt feedback
techniques with more than two stages due to the absolute phase shift of the loop itself resulting
from its physical size. When using hybrid circuit techniques, shunt feedback at 2 GHz is a
challenge. Amplifiers employ both series and shunt feedback methods in order to achieve linear
amplifier performance. These amplifiers have been realized in hybrid form for many years and
typically operate from 50 to 1000 MHz. Linearizing RF power amplifiers tends to be a bit more
difficult. One of the more popular methods to achieve linear amplifier performance is the use of
25 | P a g e
feed-forward techniques. Feed-forward techniques have been used to linearize high-power

amplifiers, such as the ones used in cellular base-station applications, and in ultralow-distortion
amplifiers used in CATV trunk systems. The method is easy to understand but a little difficult to
implement. Feed-forward systems are composed of two amplifiers—the power amplifier you are
trying to linearize and the error amplifier along with supporting hardware. The technique begins
by sampling some of the input signal, which is considered to be distortion free, and combining it
with a sample of the power amplifier’s output waveform. The sampled input signal is delayed by
the group delay of the power amplifier and combined with the sampled output signal, which
consists of desired carriers plus distortion. By adjusting the amplitude and phase of the sampled
signals such that the carrier is canceled, just the distortion components will remain at the input of
the error amplifier. The remaining distortion waveform is then amplified by a very linear error
amplifier and forward coupled into the output of the amplifier system. A delay line must be used
at the output of the power amplifier before final combining to account for the delay in the error
amplifier. If the delays and amplitudes are correctly matched, a substantial amount of distortion
can be canceled. In practice, about 20 to 25 dB of distortion improvement can be obtained. As
the operational bandwidth becomes wider, the problem becomes more difficult; however,
broadband amplifiers can be realized. It should be noted that these schemes are open-loop
systems and are prone to typical open-loop problems such as temperature drift, drive level,
voltage pushing, and component matching. Typical delay line times are 5 to 20 ns.
3.3.3 Impedance Matching

One of the most critical requirements in the design of high-frequency electronic circuits is that
the maximum possible signal energy is transferred at each point. In other words, the signal
should propagate in a forward direction with a negligible echo (ideally, zero). Echo signal not
only reduces the power available but also deteriorates the signal quality due to the presence of
multiple reflections. Impedance matching is very desirable with radio frequency (RF)
transmission lines. Standing waves lead to increased losses and frequently cause the transmitter
to mal- function. A line terminated in its characteristic impedance has a standing-wave ratio of
unity and transmits a given power without reflection. Also, transmission efficiency is optimum
where there is no reflected power. A "flat" line is non-resonant; that is, its input impedance
always remains at the same value when the frequency changes.
26 | P a g e
Matching a transmission line has a special meaning, one differing from that used in circuit
theory to indicate equal impedance seen looking both directions from a given terminal par for
maximum power transfer. In circuit theory, maximum power transfer requires the load
impedance to be equal to the complex conjugate of the generator. This condition sometimes
referred to as a conjugate match. In transmission-line problems marching means simply
terminating the line in its characteristic impedance. A common application of RF transmission
lines is the one in which there is a feeder connection between a transmitter and an antenna.
Usually the input impedance to the antenna itself is not equal to the characteristic impedance of
the line. Furthermore, the output impedance of the transmitter may not be equal to the Zo of the
line. Matching devices are necessary to flatten the line. A complete matched transmission-line
system is shown in Figure below. [10]
Figure 8.1: Matched Transmission-line system
27 | P a g e
4 Power splitters/combiners
Various RF applications require power to be distributed among various
paths and this distribution of power is done using splitting and recombining of electromagnetic
signals. This is a fundamental signal processing functionality in electronics. Many circuits exist
in the RF and microwave designer’s toolbox to facilitate effective signal splitting and
recombination. The simplest way these can be done is by using a power splitter or divider and
power coupler (combiner). Power dividers and couplers are passive microwave components used
for power division or power combining. In power division, an input signal is
divided into two (or more) output signals of lesser power, while a power combiner accepts
two or more input signals and combines them at an output port. The coupler or divider may
have three ports, four ports, or more, and may be (ideally) lossless. [5] Power dividers are an RF
microwave accessory constructed with equivalent 50Ω resistance at each port. These accessories
divide power of a uniform transmission line equally between ports to enable comparison
measurements. Power dividers provide a good impedance match at both the output ports when
the input is terminated in the system characteristic impedance (50Ω). Power dividers are also
known as power splitters and, when they used in reverse, power combiners and directional
couplers. In most circumstances, power dividers provide equal amplitude and equal phase
splitting and Power dividers are reciprocal devices, thus they can also be used to combine power
from output ports into the input port. The two main categories of power dividers are, reactive and
resistive, with each suited for its own specific application. This report explains the different types
of power divider, key parameters, applications and some considerations that need to be taken into
account when incorporating power dividers into our design.
Figure 9: Power division and combining. (a) Power division. (b) Power combining
28 | P a g e
Types of Power divider

Broadly power dividers are categorized into two, the Reactive power divider and Resistive
power divider
4.1 Resistive power dividers

Resistive power divider have inherent characteristics that make them an
excellent choice for certain applications but unsuitable for others. Figure below shows the layout
of a simple 2-Way resistive power divider. ZO denotes the characteristic impedance of the
system.
Figure 10:2- way power divider Figure 11: 3-Way power divider
Advantages and disadvantages of the resistive divider

Advantages:
 Generally these units are smaller because they are made utilizing
lumped elements.
 These units are can be extremely broadband and are the only type
of dividers that operate DC onwards.
Disadvantages:
 These units have poor power handling capability, usually limited by the power
tolerances of the resistors.
 These units tend to have high loss and poor isolation, making them a poor choice for
applications where insertion loss and isolation are critical factors.
29 | P a g e
4.2 Reactive power divider

Reactive power dividers come in various forms and cover a wide range of
frequencies. They can have multiple output ports, but those with odd number
of output ports are usually referred to as N way power dividers. They can be
realized using waveguide, stripline, microstrip, transformer and various other
technologies. These dividers come in in-phase, out of phase (hybrids), out of phase (quadrature
hybrids) and other specialized configurations. One of the main advantages of using reactive
power dividers is that they are “lossless”. Brief explanation is given on
some of the devices, and with the Wilkinson type explored more in detail. Some key parameters
and some things to consider, when incorporating these devices into your design, are explained.
4.2.1 Wilkinson power divider /splitter

The Wilkinson power divider or Wilkinson splitter as it is also known takes its name from Ernest
Wilkinson, the electronics engineer who initially developed it in the 1960s. Wilkinson published
his idea in IRE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, in January 1960 under the title:
"An N-way Power Divider". It can be seen from the title of the paper that the idea for what is
now known as the Wilkinson power splitter is for a multiple port device, although the most
common implementation seen in practice these days is for a two way divider.
The Wilkinson divider splitter/combiner is a form of power splitter / power combiner that is
often used in microwave applications and uses quarter wave transformers, [4] which are easily
fabricated as quarter wave lines on printed circuit boards and as a result it offers the possibility
of proving a very cheap and simple splitter / divider / combiner while still providing high levels
of performance. While the printed circuit board transmission line approach is widely used for the
Wilkinson divider / splitter combiner, it is also possible to use other forms of transmission line
or lumped circuit elements (inductors and capacitors).At higher frequencies (above 500 MHz)
these devices are usually realized as a microstrip or stripline Wilkinson design. Figure 3.4 shows
below a simple 2-Way Wilkinson power divider. Being a lossless reciprocal three port network,
it inherits all its properties which state that this type of network cannot have all the ports
simultaneously matched. To solve this isolating resistor is placed between the two output ports,
since no current flows through the resistor (there is no potential difference between the output
ports), this resistor does not contribute to any resistive loss. This makes an ideal Wilkinson a
30 | P a g e
100% efficient device. This resistor also provides excellent isolation even when the device is
used as a combiner. Another property of the Wilkinson divider is that it is broken down into
quarter wavelength (ʎ/4) sections.
Advantages and disadvantages of Wilkinson power divider splitter

In order to determine whether to use a Wilkinson power divider splitter / Wilkinson combiner, it
is necessary to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of using them.
Advantages:
 Simplicity: The Wilkinson divider / splitter / combiner is particularly simple and

can easily be realized using printed components on a printed circuit board. It is
also possible to use lumped inductor and capacitor elements, but this complicates
the overall design.
 Cost: When the Wilkinson power divider is realized using printed circuit board
elements, the cost is very low - possibly the only increase above that of the single
resistor used results from an increase in the board area used as a result of the
printed elements. However to reduce losses, a low loss PCB substrate may need to
be used and this would increase the cost.
 Loss: If perfect components were used, the Wilkinson splitter divider would not
introduce any additional loss above that arising from the division of the power
between the different ports. In addition to this, the real components used for the
Wilkinson splitter can be very low loss, especially when PCB transmission lines
are used along with low loss PCB substrate material.
 Isolation: The Wilkinson divider / combiner provides a high degree of isolation
between the "output" ports.
Disadvantages:
31 | P a g e
 Frequency response: As the Wilkinson splitter is based around the use of

quarter wave transmission lines; it has a limited bandwidth, although there are
some Wilkinson splitters available that offer reasonably wide bandwidths.
2-Way Wilkinson power divider basics
Although the Wilkinson power divider concept can be used for an N-way system, it is easiest to
see how it operates as a two way system, and later expand it out to see how the Wilkinson power
splitter can be used as an n-way device.
The Wilkinson power divider / Wilkinson combiner uses quarter wave transformers to split the
input signal to provide two output signals that are in phase with each other.
Figure 12: (a) 2-way an equal-split Wilkinson power divider in microstrip line form. (b)
Equivalent transmission line circuit.
The resistor between the two output ports enables the two outputs to matched while also
providing isolation. The resistor does not dissipate any power, and as a result the Wilkinson
power divider can theoretically be lossless. In practice there are some losses, but these are
generally low. The resistor between the two output ports enables the two outputs to matched
while also providing isolation. The resistor does not dissipate any power, and as a result the
Wilkinson power divider can theoretically be lossless. In practice there are some losses, but these
are generally low. [5]
The values within the two-way Wilkinson divider / combiner can be calculated:
R = 2 x Z𝑜
32 | P a g e
Zmatch = √2 𝑍𝑜
= 1.414 x 𝑍𝑜
Where
R = the value of the terminating resistor connected between the two ports
𝑍𝑜 = the characteristic impedance of the overall system
Zmatch = the impedance of the quarter wave transformers in the legs of the power divider
combiner.
In order to see how the Wilkinson divider works, consider a signal entering the left hand port,
port 1 in the diagram above. The signal reaches the physical split and passes to both outputs,
ports two and three of the Wilkinson divider. As the two legs of splitter / divider are identical,
the signals appearing at the outputs will have the same phase. This means that ports 2 and 3 will
be at the same potential and no current will flow in the resistor.
As the power is being split, it is necessary to ensure that the impedances within the Wilkinson
divider are maintained. To achieve this, the two output ports must each appear as an impedance
of 2 x 𝑍𝑜 - the two output ports of 2 𝑍𝑜 in parallel will present an overall impedance of 𝑍𝑜 . The
impedance transformation is achieved by placing a quarter wave transmission line between the
star point and the output - the transmission line has an impedance of 1.414 x 𝑍𝑜 . In this way, the
impedance within the system is maintained.
The Wilkinson divider is an ideal form of splitter / divider for many RF applications. It provides
a low level of loss and maintains a high level of isolation between the output ports. A further
advantage is that it can often be made very cheaply when used at microwave frequencies because
the transmission line elements can be printed on the circuit board. This means that the only
component required for the Wilkinson divider is a resistor.
There are key parameters that are often encountered when designing and specifying performance
of power splitters/couplers
1. Splitting Ratio or Coupling Ratio

Splitting ratio (coupling ratio) is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. By
convention, the amplitude ratio is defined by the lower of the two output powers. Thus, a 90:10
33 | P a g e
split would imply a coupling ratio of 10 dB and a 99:1 split would imply a coupling ratio of
20dB. Typically power dividers are designed such that the input power is equally distributed
among the output ports. Thus, a 2 to 1 power divider passes 50% (-3 dB) of the power to each
output. A 3 to 1 power divider passes 33% (4.8 dB) of the power to each port, and so on.
2. Relative Phase Shift

Various power divider and coupler circuits exist which facilitate either 0 degree (in phase), 90
degree (quadrature phase), or 180 degree (differential) phase shift between the two output
signals. Generally, 00 (in phase) circuits are the easiest to design, followed by the 900 and 1800
circuits
3. Amplitude Balance
Amplitude balance is a measure of how evenly the power is split between
the two arms of the device, and it is not applicable to directional couplers
because they have an uneven power ratio.
4. Amplitude Ripple
Amplitude flatness is determined by how well the divider maintains the
amplitude ratio over a specified bandwidth. Ideally the device would provide a perfectly flat (i.e.
0 dB) ripple over the usable bandwidth. However, this is never the case and real devices will
have some amount of amplitude ripple around the nominal splitting ratio. Typical values range
from a few hundredths of a dB to over 1 dB depending on the design. In many designs,
amplitude flatness can be traded for bandwidth. Hence, a 2-8 GHz device might specify a very
flat 0.3dB ripple while a 2-18 GHz device might specify a 0.7 dB ripple. Acceptable levels of
amplitude ripple are application specific. Power dividers have better amplitude flatness than
couplers, as a general rule.
34 | P a g e
5. Phase Balance
Phase balance is a measure of the differential phase shift between the
two output arms. Like Amplitude Balance, Phase Balance primarily applies to
equal output power components like Wilkinson power dividers and quadrature
hybrids. Most components provide a phase balance of a few degrees, and this
balance tends to get worse at higher frequencies.
6. Phase Ripple
Like amplitude flatness, phase flatness corresponds to how well the constant relative phase shift
is maintained throughout the bandwidth of the device. Well designed and packaged power
dividers and couplers will fluctuate by only a few degrees over the entire usable bandwidth.
Usually, the higher the operating frequency, the more difficult it is to maintain constant phase
flatness. Phase error is mostly caused by small transmission line length asymmetries between the
two output ports. This problem is exacerbated when there is poor VSWR matching at the ports.
Careful design and packaging techniques help to maintain accurate phase flatness.
7. Insertion Loss
For power dividers and couplers, insertion loss refers to the additional loss above the nominal
loss due to splitting. For example, in a 3 dB power divider the insertion loss might be specified
as 0.5dB. This implies that for a 0dBm input signal, the two output signals will be approximately
-3.5dBm each. The additional losses are caused primarily by reflections, dielectric absorption,
radiation effects, and conductor losses. Broadband designs tend to have higher insertion losses
because they are physically longer devices, and thus accumulate more dielectric, radiation, and
conductor losses. Conductor losses in high frequency devices are caused predominantly by the
skin effect and the surface roughness of PCB traces. Losses caused by reflections also increase
with increasing frequency.
8. Power Divider Isolation

In an ideal power divider the output ports are mutually isolated. In other words, a signal entering
output 2 does not leak out of output 3. Isolation is defined as the ratio of a signal entering output
1 that is measured at output 2, assuming all ports are impedance matched (usually 50 ). Isolation
values above 15 dB are considered good, and some designs are better than others in terms of
achievable isolation. A common engineering trade-off tends to exist in power dividers and
35 | P a g e
couplers: the larger the bandwidth and the higher the frequency, the more difficult it is to provide
good isolation. Resistive power dividers, for example, can achieve outstanding DC to 40 GHz
coverage, but only provide 6 dB of isolation. A Wilkinson power divider, on the other hand, can
achieve isolations better than 20 dB, but is impractical to build with bandwidths ratios
greater than about 65:1
36 | P a g e
5 Conclusion and recommendation

As described in the above this project, designing the VHF/UHF booster for terrestrial TV rang
extension includes three sections. The first section is all about the design about band-pass filter.
In this section we followed three basic steps to design our band-pass filter:
1. First, the filter specifications are determined.

2. Second, a low-pass prototype filter is designed.
3. Then the low-pass prototype filter will be transformed into a lumped element band-
pass filter using frequency transformation and impedance scaling.
The second part is all about the design of power amplifier in order to boost the signal passed
through the band-pass filter. When we are designing the power amplifier we considered the key
parameters to design the amplifiers like stability linearity and impedance matching.
The third section is all about the division of the power amplified by the power amplifier in order
to get the multiple outlets. The power splitter used for our design is the Wilkinson power splitter.
And the simulation was done by using ADS2011 .05. ADS is a full wave EM analysis software
that is used to design, simulate and optimize mainly RF/Microwave systems. But when we are
trying to design the power amplifier we encountered the problem because of the absence of RF
transistor in Advance design system (ADS).
37 | P a g e
6 Bibliography
[1] Jia-Sheng Hong. MicrostripFilters for RF/Microwave Applications. Ed. by Kai Chang. 2nd.
Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering. Hoboken, NewJersey:
JohnWiley&Sons,Inc., 2011.
[2] Dhanasekharan Natarajan. A Practical Design of Lumped, SemiLumped and Microwave

Cavity Filters. Vol. 183. RV College of Engineering Bangalore India: Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2013.url:http://www.springer.com/series/7818.
[3] Giuseppe Macchiarella Dan Swanson. “Microwave Filter Design by Synthesis and
Optimization.” In: Ieee Microwave Magazine (Apr. 2007).
[4] E. Wilkinson, “An N-Way Hybrid Power Divider,” IRE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, vol. MTT-8, pp. 116–118, January 1960.
[5] David M. Pozar. Microwave Engineering. Ed. by Charlotte Cerf. 4th. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2012.
[6] ADS Circuit Design Cookbook 2.0
[7] Jacques Beneat Pierre Jarry. Design and Realizations of Miniaturized Fractal Rf and
Microwave Filters. http://www.omnisophie. com. Hoboken, NewJersey: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2009.
[8] I. A. Glover, S. R Pennock and P. R. Shephered. Microwave devices circuits and subsystems
for communication engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010.
[9] Vendelin pavio. Microwave circuit design using linear and nonlinear techniques, John Wiley
& Sons, 1998.
[10] Devendra K. Misra. Radio-Frequency and Microwave Communication Circuits, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. 2004.
38 | P a g e

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Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for Terrestrial TV range extension

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for

Ephrem Teshale Bekele (PhD)

1 Design and Realization of VHF/UHF Booster for Terrestrial

Figure 2: Characteristics of low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters……….14

Figure 3: Two-port network showing network variables……………………………….…16

Figure 4: Butterworth (maximally flat) response………………………………………….20

Figure 5: Low-pass prototype filters for Butterworth filters………………………………22

Figure 6: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of an inductor………………………......23

Figure 7: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of a capacitor………………………..….24

Figure 8: DC characteristics of an NPN BJT…………………………………………….,..27

Figure 8.1: Matched Transmission-line system…………………………………………..31

Figure 9: Power division and combining…………………………………………………...32

Figure 10:2- way power divider…………………………………………………………………………. 33

1.2 Introduction and Background

1.3 Problem statement

 To design and realize a booster with better performance in our country.

1.7 Resource Requirement and Cost Breakdown

No. Purchase Cost

1.8 Tentative Project Plan

PROTOTYPE DELIVERY 22-Feb-17 68

Figure 1: Tentative project plan

Figure 2: Characteristics of low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters. [2]

Lumped and Distributed Filters

2.1 Filter network analysis

2.1.1 Scattering Parameters

Figure 3: Two-port network showing network variables. [1]

2.2 Filter design

1. A synthesis problem is solved using techniques typically borrowed from lumped-element

c) Transforming the elements of the low-pass prototype filter

2.2.1 Determinations of Filter Specifications

Insertion loss and Return loss

Number of Reactive Elements

2.2.2 Design of a low-pass prototype filter:

Figure 4: Butterworth (maximally flat) response.

Figure 5: Low-pass prototype filters for Butterworth filters. [1]

2.2.3 Element transformation

2.2.3.1 Frequency Transformation

2.2.3.2 Impedance Scaling

Figure 6: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of an inductor

Figure 7: Low-pass to band-pass transformation of a capacitor

3.2.1 Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor

3.2.2 Field effective transistors (FETS)

3.2.2.1 MESFET (Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

3.3 Amplifier Parameters

feed-forward techniques. Feed-forward techniques have been used to linearize high-power

3.3.3 Impedance Matching

Figure 8.1: Matched Transmission-line system

Types of Power divider

4.1 Resistive power dividers

Advantages and disadvantages of the resistive divider

4.2 Reactive power divider

4.2.1 Wilkinson power divider /splitter

Advantages and disadvantages of Wilkinson power divider splitter

 Simplicity: The Wilkinson divider / splitter / combiner is particularly simple and

 Frequency response: As the Wilkinson splitter is based around the use of

2-Way Wilkinson power divider basics

1. Splitting Ratio or Coupling Ratio

2. Relative Phase Shift

8. Power Divider Isolation

5 Conclusion and recommendation