ECE 7 Introduction To FM Broadcasting Systems and Standards

| ECE 7: Broadcast and Acoustic i
2 Engineering
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| ECE 7: Broadcast and Acoustic 1
2 Engineering 1
UNIT 2:
Introduction to FM Broadcasting System and Standards
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
After reading this material, students are expected to:
 Recognize, identify and analyze the FM broadcast communications system

concepts, elements and applications
 Differentiate FM broadcasting technique from AM and TV
 Use the FM standards in the design of FM broadcasting network which
includes coverage mapping and interference
 Use the FM standards in the design of FM station which includes the design
of studio system, Technical Operation Center (TOC), Transmission System,
Coverage Mapping and prediction and interference study.
2.1 Introduction
In transmissions using FM—frequency modulation—the program audio signal is used to

modulate the frequency of the carrier wave that will be transmitted by the station.
When the amplitude of the program signal is zero, the carrier remains unmodulated.
As the instantaneous amplitude of the program signal increases up to its maximum,
then the carrier frequency varies accordingly, up to the maximum amount allowed,
which is 100 percent modulation. FM services are very robust and immune to
interference from outside sources of RF. This is because, although interfering signals
may add or subtract from the amplitude of the RF carrier, they do not affect the
frequency of the wanted signal that carries the audio information heard at the receiver.
The bandwidth allocated to FM channels is much wider than AM, and this allows the
bandwidth of the audio signal that can be transmitted to extend to about 15 kHz. This
good frequency response, combined with good signal-to-noise ratio and low
interference, makes FM capable of high-quality audio.
For FM broadcasting, the range of RF frequencies is 88 to 108MHz in the very high

frequency (VHF) band. Carriers are assigned to channels, which for FM are spaced at
200 kHz intervals in the United States and here in the Philippines (other countries use
either 100kHz or 200kHz spacing), with the carrier frequency in the center of each
channel.
The change in frequency of the carrier, as it is modulated, is known as the deviation, or

frequency swing. The maximum deviation allowed for 100 percent modulation is
specified by the FCC as plus and minus 75kHz.
Because it is the frequency, and not the amplitude, of the carrier that is varied, FM
produces sidebands in a different way from AM. Without going into details, the
modulating signal produces a range of upper and lower sidebands, extending much
more than plus or minus 75kHz from the carrier frequency. When using subcarriers,
the sidebands extend out further than for mono audio alone. As illustrated in Figure 1,
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the radio spectrum available for the main signal from an FM station is specified by the
FCC as plus or minus 120 kHz from the carrier frequency.
Figure 1. Comparison of AM and FM Band Emissions Masks
Because FM channels are allocated at 200 kHz spacing, the transmitted signal from an
FM station therefore extends to some extent into adjacent channels both above and
below its allocated frequency. The maximum RF emission bandwidth allowed is
specified by the FCC and is reduced for much of the adjacent channels. To reduce
interference, however, first adjacent FM channels are not usually allocated for use in
the same transmission area.
Two-channel stereo sound, consisting of left and right program channels, is used
almost universally at analog FM radio and TV broadcast stations. A system of
transmitting stereo over AM was developed and incorporated into the FCC’s rules.
However, because of increased potential for interference with other stations and the
generally poorer audio performance of AM, the system was not widely adopted. Few
AM stations these days transmit in stereo.
No matter what type of analog broadcast station is involved (FM, AM, or TV), all stereo
broadcast systems use a method for coding the left and right audio channels that
ensures that the stereo signal can be decoded and played by both stereophonic and
monophonic receivers. It is not sufficient to simply transmit a left channel signal and a
right channel signal. Instead, a “main program” channel must be transmitted that
combines both the left and right audio signals together so it can be used by a
monophonic receiver, and a “stereo program” channel must be transmitted that can be
coupled with the main program channel to produce left and right program material at a
stereo receiver.
Figure 2 illustrates the method used to achieve this result. Before transmission, the left
and right channels are added together to produce a combined mono sum signal (left +
right), and the right channel signal is subtracted from the left to produce the
supplementary stereo difference signal (left - right). After passing through the
transmission system, the “left + right” signal can be received by mono receivers and
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played over a single loudspeaker. At a stereo receiver, the sum and difference signals
are added together, and subtracted from each other, as follows:
This produces the

original individual left and right channel signals (actually twice the amplitude, but
that is easily adjusted), which can be played over stereo loudspeakers or
headphones.
The stereo coding process is carried out using a stereo generator. Whether we are
talking about an analog FM or TV station, the transmitter is only able to accept one
audio signal to be modulated; therefore, the stereo generator has also to combine the
sum and difference signals together in a special way, as described next. This system
for broadcasting stereo sound is known as the Zenith system because it was
developed by the Zenith Radio Corporation.
Figure 2. Stereo Coding
In the case of FM radio, the stereo generator produces a composite output signal as
shown in Figure 3. The “left + right” main program signal needed for mono
reception is baseband audio, with 15kHz bandwidth. A stereo pilot tone of 19 kHz is
added as a reference signal, and the “left - right” stereo difference signal needed to
produce the stereo channels is amplitude modulated onto the 38kHz second harmonic
of the 19 kHz stereo pilot (i.e., a subcarrier at twice the frequency). Because the
stereo difference signal is an audio signal with 15 kHz bandwidth, the modulated
subcarrier has lower and upper sidebands, carrying the program information, which
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extend 15 kHz below to 15 kHz above the suppressed 38kHz subcarrier. This whole
composite stereo signal, which is still at baseband, is fed to the FM transmitter.
Figure 3. Composite FM Stereo Signal
The arrangement for analog TV is similar but with a different stereo pilot frequency.
Although all combined together, these different signals do not interfere with each
other because they have different frequencies. This also means that a stereo receiver
can easily separate the signals out again for decoding. A mono radio receiver may
not be able to separate out the stereo subcarrier signal from the mono signal, but this
is not important because the stereo signal is near the top of the range of human
hearing and is not reproduced by the receiver. The stereo pilot mentioned earlier is
an unmodulated subcarrier (i.e., a subcarrier that does not have any additional
information added to it). One purpose of the stereo pilot is to provide a reference
frequency for demodulating the stereo subcarrier. It also tells receivers that the host
FM or analog TV station is broadcasting in stereo. If an FM or analog television
station does not transmit the stereo pilot signal, then receivers will assume that the
station is broadcasting a monaural program, and they will not try to decode the
received audio into a left and right channel.
As well as stereo audio, other subcarriers can be used to carry additional

information in a broadcast signal, which may not be associated with the
broadcaster’s main programming. The following discussion about subcarriers uses
the FM baseband signal for illustrative purposes. However, this explanation of how
subcarriers are added to FM signals is equally applicable to analog TV aural (sound)
signals. A subcarrier is a special type of carrier. It has similar characteristics, except
that it must first be added to a host carrier before the combined signal is modulated
in the transmitter in order to be delivered to a receiver. Subcarriers are common in
FM radio and analog TV systems because there is plenty of room in the channel for
them to be added. Figure 3 illustrates the fact that an FM stereo signal actually
occupies only a little more than half of the baseband spectrum that can be used. The
excess channel capacity that remains presents an opportunity for FM broadcasters to
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generate additional income by leasing out some, or all, of their excess channel
capacity to third parties for subcarrier services such as background music, radio
paging, or the Radio Reading Service. The same is true for TV broadcasters, although
the subcarrier space available to them is slightly different than the subcarrier space
available to FM stations. The FCC refers to these as subsidiary communications
authorization (SCA) services.
The three most common FM band subcarriers in use today, apart from the 38 kHz
stereo subcarrier, are the 57 kHz (RDS), 67kHz, and 92kHz subcarriers, as shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. FM Stereo Signal with 57 kHz (RDS), 67 kHz, and 92 kHz Subcarriers
In 1993, the National Radio Systems Committee (NRSC) adopted a standard for
transmitting digital data at 1187.5 bits per second on a subcarrier in the FM
baseband. This standard is called the United States Radio Broadcast Data System
(RBDS), often referred to as RDS, for Radio Data System. Updated editions of this
standard were adopted by the NRSC in 1998 and 2004.
The RDS signal carries data such as station identification, song titles, artist names,
and other program-related information; it can also accommodate other text such as
weather and traffic updates. RDS data can be displayed as scrolling text on a
receiver’s display panel.
The RDS subcarrier is centered on 57 kHz, the third harmonic of 19kHz (the FM
stereo pilot frequency), and the recommended bandwidth is approximately 4kHz.
As shown in Figure 4, the RDS signal fits between the stereo program material and
the 67kHz subcarrier.
After going through technical specifications of FM broadcasting, let us now explore

the technical standards and operating requirements for FM broadcasting stations in
the Philippines (1991 Revision).
The increasing Importance of the role of FM broadcasting in the Philippines has

encouraged broadcast engineers and the National Telecommunications Commission
to pool their resources together and come up with technical standards and rules and
regulations relating to FM broadcast.
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These technical standards and regulations were derived from CCIR

recommendations, relevant engineering data and rules and regulations of the
Federal Communications Corn- mission, and other data supplied by manufacturers
of radio equipment and by licensees of FM broadcast stations. These standards and
regulations shall be revised from time to time to be effective and compatible with
technical progress.
2.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)
Technical Standards and Operating Requirements for FM

Broadcasting Stations in the Philippines
(1991 Revised Edition)
A. Definition of Terms
1. FM broadcast band
That portion of the radio frequency spectrum from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. The
band is divided into 100 channels.
2. FM broadcast channel
A band of frequencies 200 kilohertz wide and is designated by its center
frequency. Channels for FM broadcast stations begin at 82.1 megahertz and
continue in successive steps of 200 kilohertz to and including 107.9 megahertz.
3. FM broadcast station
A station employing frequency modulation in the FM broadcast band and
intended to be received by the general public.
4. Frequency Modulation
A system of modulation where the instantaneous frequency varies in proportion
to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, and the instantaneous
radio frequency is independent of the frequency of the modulating signal.
5. Center frequency
The carrier frequency allocated by the Authority.
6. Frequency Swing
The instantaneous departure of the frequency of the emitted wave from the
center frequency resulting from modulation.
7. Antenna height above average terrain (HAAT) means
a. The height of the radiation center of the antenna above the terrain 3 to 16
kilometres from the antenna. (Generally, a different antenna height will be
determined for each radial direction from the antenna. The average of
these various heights is considered as the antenna height above average
terrain).
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b. Where circular or elliptical polarization is employed the antenna height

above average terrain shall be based upon the height of the radiation
center of the antenna which transmits the horizontal components of
radiation.
8. Antenna field gain

The ratio of the effective free space field intensity produced at 1.6 kilometres in
the horizontal plane expressed in millivolts per meter for one (1) kilowatt
antenna input power, to 137.6 millivolts per meter.
9. Antenna power gain

The square of the ratio of the root- mean-square free space field strength
produced at 1.6 kilometers in the horizontal plane, in millivolts per meter for one
(1) kilowatt antenna power, to 137.6 millivolts per meter. This ratio should be
expressed in decibels (dB). (If specified for a particular direction, antenna power
gain is based on the field strength in that direction only).
10. Effective radiated power (ERP)

The product of the transmitter power (transmitter output power less
transmission line loss) multiplied by (a) the antenna power gain or (b) the
antenna field gain squared. Where circular or elliptical polarization is employed,
the term “effective radiated power” is applied separately to the horizontal and
vertical components of radiation.
11. Field intensity

“Field intensity” as used in these standards shall mean the electric field intensity
in the horizontal direction.
12. Free space field intensity

The field intensity that would exist at a point, in the absence of waves reflected
from the earth or other reflecting objects.
13. Service area

As applied to FM broadcasting, means the service resulting from an assigned
effective radiated power and antenna height above average terrain.
14. Radio-frequency (R .F.) Protection Ratio

The value of the radio-frequency wanted-to-interfering signal ratio that enables,
under specified conditions, the radio-frequency protection ratio to be obtained at
the output of a receiver.
15. Percentage modulation

The ratio of the actual frequency swing to the frequency swing defined as 100
percent modulation, expressed in percentage. For FM broadcasting stations, a
frequency swing of 75 kilohertz is defined as 100 percent modulation.
16. Multiplexing
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In its simplest sense, multiplexing implies that two or more independent sources
of information are combined for carriage over a single medium, namely, the radio
frequency “carrier”, and then are separated at the receiving end. In stereophonic
broadcasting, for example, program information consisting of left and right audio
signals are multiplexed onto an FM carrier for transmission to receivers which
subsequently recover the original audio signals.
17. FM Stereophonic Broadcast

The transmission of a stereophonic program by a single FM broadcast station
utilizing the main channel and a stereophonic sub-channel.
18. Channel
A transmission path. The distinction between the concept of a “Channel” and a
“signal” are not always clear. The usage herein distinguishes between
transmission channels; e.g., main channel, stereophonic subchannel, etc., and left
and right audio “signals”.
19. Composite Baseband Signal

A signal which is the sum of all signals which frequency-modulates the main
carrier. The signal can be represented by a formula which includes all signal
components: the main channel signal, the modulated stereophonic subcarrier, the
pilot subcarrier and the SCA subcarrier(s).
20. FM Baseband
The frequency band from 0 Hertz (Hz) to a specified upper frequency which
contains the composite baseband signal.
21. Main Channel

The band of frequencies from 50 (or less) Hz to 15,000 Hz on the FM baseband
which contains the main channel signal.
22. Main Channel Signal

A specified combination of the mono phonic or left and right audio signals which
frequency-modulates the main carrier.
23. Stereophonic Sound

The audio information carried by plurality of channels arranged to afford the
listener a sense of the spatial distribution of sound sources. Stereophonic sound
includes, but is not limited to, biphonic (two channel), triphonic (three channel)
and quadrophonic (four channel) services.
24. Stereophonic Sound Subcarrier

A subcarrier within the FM broadcast baseband used for transmitting signals for
stereophonic sound reception of the main broadcast program service.
25. Stereophonic Sound Subchannel

The band of frequencies from 23 2.34 Cross-talk kHz to 99 KHz containing sound
subcarriers and their associated sidebands.
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26. Subchannel
A transmission path specified by a subchannel signal occupying a specified band
of frequencies.
27. Subchannel Signal

Subcarrier(s) and associated sideband(s) which frequency-modulate the main
carrier. It is synonymous with “subcarrier”, as in the stereophonic subcarrier or
SCA subcarrier.
28. Pilot sub-carrier

A pilot sub-carrier serving as a control signal for use in the reception of FM
stereophonic broadcast.
29. Left (or Right) signal

The electrical output of a microphone of a combination of microphones placed so
as to convey the intensity, time, and location of sounds originating
predominantly to the listener’s left (or right) of the center of the performing area.
30. Left (or Right) stereophonic channel

The left (or right) signal as electrically reproduced in the reception of an FM
stereophonic broadcast.
31. Stereophonic separation

The ratio of the electrical signal caused in the right (or left) stereophonic channel,
to the electrical signal caused in the left (or right) stereophonic channel, by the
transmission of only a right (or left) signal.
32. Frequency Deviation

The peak difference between the instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave
and the carrier frequency.
33. Injection Ratio

The ratio of the frequency swing of the FM carrier by a subchannel signal to the
frequency swing defined as 100 percent modulation, expressed in percentage.
The total injection of more than one subchannel signal is the arithmetic sum of
each subchannel.
34. Cross-talk
An undesired signal occurring in one channel caused by an electrical signal in
another channel.
35. Linear Crosstalk

A form of “crosstalk” in which the undesired signal(s) is created by phase or gain
inequalities in another channel or channels. Such crosstalk may be due to causes
external to the stereophonic generator consequently it is sometimes referred to as
“system crosstalk”.
36. Nonlinear Crosstalk
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A form of crosstalk in which the undesired signal(s) is created by harmonic

distortion or inter-modulation of electrical signal(s) in another channel or
channels. Such crosstalk may be due to distribution within the stereophonic
generator or FM transmitter consequently it is sometimes referred to as
“transmitter crosstalk”.
37. SCA
The term SCA is an acronym for a “Subsidiary Communications Authorization.”
38. Index of cooperation

As applied to facsimile broadcasting, is the product of the number of lines per
inch, the available length in inches, and the reciprocal of the line use ratio (e.g.
105 x 8.2 x 8/7 = 984).
39. Line-use ratio

As applied to facsimile broadcasting is the ratio of the available line to the total
length of scanning line.
40. Available line

Means the portion of the total length of scanning line that can be used specifically
for picture signals.
41. Rectilinear scanning

The process of scanning an area in a predetermined sequence of narrow straight
parallel strips.
42. Optical density

The logarithm (to the base 10) of the ratio of incident to transmitted or reflected
light.
43. Experimental Period

The period between 12 midnight to 5:00 a.m. local standard time (1600-2100
(MT). This period may be used for experimental purposes in testing and
maintaining apparatus by the licensee of any FM broadcast station on its
assigned frequency and not in excess of its authorized power, provided no
interference is caused to other stations maintaining a regular operating schedule
within such period.
44. Operating Power

This is the product of the plate voltage (Ep) and the plate current (Ip) of the last
radio stage and efficiency factor, F, expressed: Operating Power = Ep x Ip x F.
This is the indirect method of determining the operating power of each FM
station for the purpose of specifying the operating power range of FM
transmitters. The factor F shall be established by the transmitter manufacturer
for each type of transmitter and shall be specified in the instruction book (s)
supplied to each customer with each transmitter.
45. Last radio stage
The oscillator or radio-frequency- power amplifier stage which supplies power
to the antenna.
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46. Qualified technician

As applied to FM broadcasting means a person who is a holder of any class of
Radio Telephone Operator’s License or its equivalent except those mentioned in
Section 7.4 as issued by the existing regulatory body.
B. Allocation of Frequencies for FM Broadcast Stations
Channel-designation of FM broadcast frequencies are shown in the table

below.
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CHANNEL
NO.
FREQUENCY
(MHz)
CHANNEL
Engineering
NO.
FREQUENCY
(MHz) 1
201 88.1 251 98.1
202 88.3 252 98.3
203 88.5 253 98.5
204 88.7 254 98.7
205 88.9 255 98.9
206 89.1 256 99.1
207 89.3 257 99.3
208 89.5 258 99.5
209 89.7 259 99.7
210 89.9 260 99.9
211 90.1 261 100.1
212 90.3 262 100.3
213 90.5 263 100.5
214 90.7 264 100.7
215 90.9 265 100.9
216 91.1 266 101.1
217 91.3 267 101.3
218 91.5 268 101.5
219 91.7 269 101.7
220 91.9 270 101.9
221 92.1 271 102.1
222 92.3 272 102.3
223 92.5 273 102.5
224 92.7 274 102.7
225 92.9 275 102.9
226 93.1 276 103.1
Table 1.
227 93.3 277 103.3
228 93.5 278 103.5
229 93.7 279 103.7
230 93.9 280 103.9
231 94.1 281 104.1
232 94.3 282 104.3
233 94.5 283 104.5
234 94.7 284 104.7
235 94.9 285 104.9
236 95.1 286 105.1
237 95.3 287 105.3
238 95.5 288 105.5
239 95.7 289 105.7
240 95.9 290 105.9
241 96.1 291 106.1
242 96.3 292 106.3
243 96.5 293 106.5
244 96.7 294 106.7
245 96.9 295 106.9
246 97.1 296 107.1
247 97.3 297 107.3
248 97.5 298 107.5
249 97.7 299 C. M. D. Hamo-ay
107.7
250 97.9 300 107.9
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Allocation of Frequencies for FM Broadcast Stations
C. Classes of FM Broadcast Stations
1. Class A Station
A Class-A station shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 25

kilowatts and an Effective Radiated Power (ERP) not exceeding 125 kilowatts and
limited in antenna height of 2,000 feet above average terrain. The minimum
transmitter power shall be 10KW. Class A station shall only be allowed in Metro-
Manila and Metro-Cebu.
2. Class B Station
A Class-B station shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10

kilowatts and an Effective Radiated Power not exceeding 30 kilowatts, and
limited in antenna height of 500 feet above average terrain. The minimum
transmitter power shall be I KW.
3. Class C Station
A Class-C station is a non-commercial, community station having an authorized

radiated power not exceeding 1,000 watts (ERP).
4. Class D Station FREQUENCY

CHANNEL (MHz)
A class-D 202 88.3 station shall have an
authorized 206 89.1 transmitter power not
exceeding 10 210 89.9 watts. Educational
stations shall be 214 90.7 allowed to operate with
Class-D 218 91.5 transmitter power.
222 92.3
5. All classes of 226 93.1 FM Stations shall be
protected to the 230 93.9 1 mV/m contour or 60
dBu contour 234 94.7
238 95.5
6. Table of Assignments
242 96.3
The frequency assignments for the cities
246 97.1
of Manila, Laoag, Legaspi, Cebu,
250 97.9
Davao, and Zamboanga shall be
254 98.7
selected from table 2.
258 99.5
262 100.3
266 101.1
270 101.9
274 102.7
278 103.5
282 104.3
286 105.1
290 105.9
294 106.7 C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Table 2. Frequency assignments for Manila, Laoag, Legaspi, Cebu, Davao and Zamboanga
7. Radio Frequency Protection Ratios
a. The following radio frequency protection ratios (Table 3) provide for the
minimum physical separation between stations and protection of stations from
interference.
RADIO-FREQUENCY PROTECTION RATIOS (dB)

(based on the horizontal component of radiation)
Frequency Spacing (KHz) R.F. Signal Ratio
0 60dBu : 15dBu
200 60dBu : 53dBu
400 60dBu : 80dBu
Table 3. Radio-frequency Protection Ratios (db)
b. Intermediate frequency amplifiers of most FM broadcast receivers

are designed to operate on 10.7 mega Hertz. For this reason, the
assignment of two stations in the same area, one with a frequency
10.6 or 10.8 mega-Hertz removed from that of the other, should be
avoided if possible.
c. FM Broadcast Stations shall not be authorized to operate in the same

city or in nearby cities with a frequency separation of less than 800
kHz.
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d. The nature and extent of the protection from interference accorded

the FM broadcast stations is limited solely to that which results from
the application of the radio frequency protection ratio.
e. A commercial broadcast entity may establish only one primary FM

radio station within the geographical boundaries of any province.
D. Technical Requirements
1. Safety Requirements
a. Conformity with Electrical Wiring Rules
All equipment using electrical power shall conform with the provisions of the
Philippine Electrical Code and the Philippines Electronics Code so as to
ensure the safety of property, equipment, personnel and the public in general.
b. All component parts shall be in accordance with generally accepted

standards or those of the International Standards.
2. Transmitting Facilities
a. Location and Layout

i. Any site particularly suitable for FM broadcasting in an area, in the
absence of other comparable sites, may be shared by and be made
available to as many applicants as possible.
ii. The transmitting site should be selected consistent with the purpose
of the station, i.e., whether it is intended to serve a small city, a
metropolitan area, or a large region. The location should be so
chosen that line-of-sight can be obtained from the antenna over the
principal city or cities to be served.
b. Antenna System
i. It shall be standard to employ horizontal polarization. However,

circular or elliptical polarization of the clockwise or counter-
clockwise rotation may be employed, if so desired.
ii. The antenna must be constructed such that it is clear of
surrounding buildings or objects that would cause shadow
problems.
iii. In the event a common tower is used by two or more licensees for
antenna and/or antenna supporting purposes, the licensee who
owns the tower shall assume full responsibility for the maintenance
of the tower structure, its painting and lighting requirements. In
case of shared ownership, only one licensee shall assume such
responsibility.
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For the protection of air navigation, the antenna and supporting structure shall be
painted and illuminated in accordance with ATO regulations.
c. Transmitter and Associated Equipment
i. Electrical Performance Standards
The general design of the FM broadcast transmitting system (from input

terminal of microphone preamplifier, through audio facilities at the
studio through lines or other circuits between studio and transmitter,
through audio facilities at the transmitter, and through the transmitter,
but excluding equalizers for the correction of deficiencies in microphone
response) shall be in accordance with the following principles and
specifications:
1. The transmitter shall operate satisfactorily in the operating

power range with a frequency swing of ±75 kilohertz, which
is defined as 100 percent modulation.
2. The transmitting system shall be capable of transmitting a
band of frequencies from 50 to 15,000 Hertz. Pre-emphasis
shall be employed in accordance with the impedance-
frequency characteristics of a series inductance-resistance
network having a time constant of 75 microseconds. The
deviation of the system response from the standard pre
emphasis curve shall lie between two limits. The upper of
these limits shall be uniform: (no deviation) from 50 to 15,000
Hertz. The lower limit shall be uniform from 100 to 7,500
Hertz and 3 dB below the upper limit; from 50 to 100 Hertz
and the lower limit shall fall from the 3 dB limit at a uniform
rate of 1Db per octave (4dB at 50 Hertz); from 7,500 to15,000
Hertz, the lower limit shall fall from the 3 dB limit at a
uniform rate of 2 dB per octave (5dB at 15,000 Hertz).
3. At any modulating frequency between 50 and 15,000 Hertz
and at modulation percentages of 25, 50 and 100 percent, the
combined audio frequency harmonics measured in the
output of the system shall not exceed the root-mean- square
values given in the following table:
MODULATOR FREQUENCY DISTORTION

50 to 100 Hz 3.50 %
100 to 7500 Hz 2.50 %
7,500 to 15,000 Hz 3.0
4. Measurements shall be made employing a 75- microsecond

de-emphasis in the measuring equipment and 75-
microsecond pre-emphasis in the transmitting equipment,
and without compression, if a compression amplifier is
employed. Harmonics shall be included to 30,000 Hertz.
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2 Engineering 1
5. It is recommended that none of the three main divisions of

the system (transmitter, studio to transmitter circuit, and
audio facilities) contribute over one-half of these percentages
since at some frequencies the total distortion may become
the arithmetic sum of the distortion of the divisions.
6. The transmitting system output noise level (frequency

modulation) in the band of 50 to 15,000 Hertz shall be at least
60 decibels below 100 percent modulation (frequency swing
of ±75 kilohertz). The measurement shall be made using 400
Hertz modulation as a reference. The noise measuring
equipment shall be provided with a standard 75-
microsecond de-emphasis; the ballistic characteristic of the
instrument shall be similar to those of the standard VU
meter.
7. The transmitting system output noise level (amplitude

modulation) in the band of 50 to 16,000 Hertz shall be at least
50 decibels below the level representing 100 percent
amplitude modulation. The noise-measuring equipment
shall be provided with a standard 75 microsecond de-
emphasis; and the ballistic characteristics of the instrument
shall be similar to those of the standard VU meter.
8. Automatic means shall be provided in the transmitter to

maintain the assigned center frequency within the allowable
tolerance of (± 2000 Hertz).
9. The transmitter shall be equipped with suitable indicating

instruments for the determination of operating power and
with other instruments as are necessary for proper
adjustments, operation, and maintenance of the equipment.
10. Adequate provision shall be made for varying the

transmitter output power to compensate for excessive
variations in line voltage or for other factors affecting the
output power.
11. Allowances shall be provided in all component parts to

avoid overheating at the rated maximum output power.
12. If a limiting or compression amplifier is employed,

precaution should be maintained in its connection in the
circuit due to the use of preemphasis in the transmitting
system.
13. Any emission appearing on a frequency removed from the

carrier by between 120 kHz, and 240 kHz, inclusive, shall be
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 1
attenuated at least 25 decibels below the level of the un-

modulated carrier.

carrier by more than 240 kHz and up to and including 600
kHz shall be attenuated at least 35 db below the level of the
unmodulated carrier.

carrier by more than 600 kHz shall be attenuated at least 43+
10 Log10 (Power, in watts) decibels below the level of the
unmodulated carrier, or 80 decibels, whichever is the lesser
attenuation.
ii. Construction
In general, the transmitter shall be constructed either on racks and panels

or in totally en-closed frames protected as required by the Philippine
Electronics Code and the Philippine Electrical Code and those set forth
below:
The transmitter shall comply with the following:
1) Enclosure. The transmitter shall be enclosed in a metal frame or

grille, or separated from the operating space by a barrier or
other equivalent means. All metallic parts shall be connected to
ground.
2) Grounding of controls. All external metallic handles and

controls accessible to the operating personnel shall be
effectively grounded. No circuit in excess of 100 volts shall have
any part exposed to direct contact. A complete dead front type
of switchboard is preferred.
3) Interlocks on doors.
a) All access doors shall be provided with interlocks which

will disconnect all voltages in excess of 350 volts when any
access door is opened.
b) Means shall be provided for making all tuning adjustment,

requiring voltages in excess of 350 volts to be applied to the
circuit, from the front of the panels with all access doors
closed.
c) Proper bleeder resistors or other automatic means shall be

installed across all capacitor banks to lower any voltage
which may remain accessible with access door open to less
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 1
than 350 volts within 2 seconds after the access door is

opened.
d) All plate supply and other high voltage equipment,

including transformers, filters, rectifiers and motor
generators, shall be protected so as to prevent injury to
operating personnel.
e) Power equipment and control panels of the transmitter

shall meet the above requirements exposed 220 volts AC
switching equipment on the front of the power control
panels is not recommended.
iii. Wiring and Shielding
1) The transmitter panels or units shall be wired in accordance with

standard switchboard practice, either with insulated leads properly
cabled and supported or with rigid bus bar properly insulated and
protected.
2) Wiring between units of the transmitter, with the exception of circuits
carrying radio-frequency energy, shall be installed in conduits or
approved fiber or metal raceways e. Indicating instruments for
protection from mechanical injury.
3) Circuits carrying radio- frequency energy between units shall be

coaxial, or two-wire balanced lines, or properly shielded.
4) All stages or units shall be adequately shielded and filtered to

prevent interaction and radiation.
iv. Metering Equipment
1) All instruments having more than 1,000 volts potential to ground

on the movements shall be protected by a cage or cover. (some
instruments are designed by the manufacturer to operate safely
with voltages in excess of 1,000 volts on the movement).
2) In case the plate voltmeter is located on the low potential side of

the multiplier resistor with the potential of the high potential
terminal to the instrument at or less than 1,000 volts above ground,
no protective case is required. However, it is good practice to
protect voltmeters subject to more than 5,000 volts with suitable
over-voltage protective device(s) across the instrument terminal in
case the winding opens.
3) Transmission line meters and any other radiofrequency instrument

which may be necessary for the operator to read, shall be so
installed as to be easily and accurately read without the operator
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
having to risk contact with circuits carrying high potential radio-

frequency energy.
v. Indicating Instruments
1) Each FM broadcast station shall be equipped with indicating

instruments for measuring the direct plate voltage and current of the
last radio stage and the transmission line radio frequency power.
2) In the event that the plate voltmeter or plate ammeter in the last radio
stage is defective, the operating power shall be maintained by means
of the radio-frequency power meter.
vi. Installation
1) The installation shall be made in suitable quarters.
2) Since an operator must be on duty at the transmitter control during

operation, suitable facilities for his welfare and comfort shall be
provided at the control point.
vii. Other Technical Data
An accurate circuit diagram, as furnished by the manufacturer of the

equipment, shall be retained at the transmitter location.
d. Monitoring Equipment
i. Frequency Monitor
1) The licensee of each station shall have in operation, either at

the transmitter or at the place where the transmitter is controlled,
a frequency monitor of a type approved by the Commission which
shall be independent of the frequency control of the transmitter.
2) In the event that the frequency monitor becomes defective, the

station may be operated without such equipment pending its
repair or replacement for a period not in excess of 60 days
without further authority of the Commission: Provided, That:
a) Appropriate entries shall be made in the operation log of

the station to show the date and time the monitor was
removed from and restored to service.
b) The Engineer in Charge of the Region in which the station

is located shall be notified both immediately after the
monitor is found to be defective and immediately after the
repaired or replacement monitor has been installed and is
functioning properly.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
c) The frequency of the station shall be compared with an

external frequency source of known accuracy at
sufficiently frequent intervals to ensure that the frequency
is maintained within the tolerance. An entry shall be made
in the station log as to the method used and the results
thereof.
3) If conditions beyond the control of the licensee or permittee

prevent the restoration of the monitor to service within the above
allowed period, informal request may be filed with the Engineer in
Charge of the Region in which the station is located for such
additional time as may be required to complete re pairs of the
defective instrument or equipment.
ii. Modulation Monitor
The modulation monitor (deviation monitor) Is an optional

requirement for an FM station. The FM station may refer to the
monitoring section of the Authority, to the Standards Authority of
the KP or to other FM stations for modulation measurements.
3. Stereophonic Transmission Standards
a. The modulating signal for the main channel shall consist of the sum of the
left and right signals.
b. A pilot subcarrier at 19,000 Hertz plus or minus 2 Hz, shall be transmitted
that shall frequency-modulate the main carrier between the limits of 8 and
10 percent.
c. The stereophonic subcarrier shall be the second harmonic of the pilot
subcarrier and shall cross the time axis with a positive slope
simultaneously with each crossing of time axis by the pilot subcarrier.
d. Amplitude modulation of the stereophonic subcarrier shall be used.
e. The stereophonic subcarrier shall be suppressed to a level less than one
percent modulation of the main carrier.
f. The stereophonic subcarrier shall be capable of accepting audio
frequencies from 50 to 15,000 Hz.
g. The modulating signal for the stereophonic subcarrier shall be equal to the
difference of the left and right signals.
h. The pre-emphasis characteristics of the stereophonic subchannel shall be
identical with those of the main channel with respect to phase and
amplitude at all frequencies.
i. The sum of the side bands resulting from amplitude modulation of the
stereophonic subcarrier shall not cause a peak deviation of the main
carrier in excess of 45 percent of total modulation (excluding SCA
subcarriers) when only a left (or right) signal exists; simultaneously in the
main channel, the deviation when only a left (or right) signal exists shall
not exceed 45 percent of total modulation (excluding SCA subcarriers).
j. The maximum modulation of the main carrier by all SCA subcarriers shall
be limited to 10 percent.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
k. At the instant when only a positive left signal is applied, the main channel
modulation shall cause an upward deviation of the main carrier
frequency; and the stereophonic subcarrier and its sidebands signal shall
cross the time axis simultaneously and in the same direction.
l. The ratio of peak main channel deviation to peak stereophonic subchannel
deviation, when only a steady state left (or right) signal exists, shall be
within plus or minus 3.5 percent of unity for all levels of this signal and all
frequencies from 50 to 15,000 Hertz.
m. The phase difference between the zero points of the main channel signal
and the stereophonic subcarrier sidebands envelope, when only a steady
state left (or right) signal exists, shall not exceed plus or minus 3 degrees
for audio modulating frequencies from 50 to 15,000 Hz.
Note: If the stereophonic separation between left and right stereophonic

channels is better than 29.7 decibels at audio modulating frequencies between
50 to 15,000 Hz it will be assumed that (I) and (m) of this section have been
complied with.
n. Cross- talk into the main channel caused by a signal in the stereophonic
subchannel shall be attenuated at least 40 decibels below 90 percent
modulation.
o. Cross-talk into the stereophonic subchannel caused by a signal in the

main channel shall be attenuated at least 40 decibels below 90 percent
modulation.
p. For required transmitter performance the maximum modulation to be

employed is 90 percent (excluding pilot subcarrier) rather than 100
percent.
q. For electrical performance standards of the transmitter and associated
equipment, 100 percent modulation is referred to include the pilot
subcarrier.
4. Subsidiary Communications Authorization (SCA)
a. Permissible uses of the SCA must fall within one or both of the following
categories:
i. Transmission of programs which are of a broadcast nature, but

which are of interest primarily to limited segments of the public
wishing to subscribe thereto. Illustrative services include:
background music, storecasting, detailed weather forecasting;
special time signals; and other material of a broadcast nature
expressly designed and intended for business, professional,
educational, religious, trade, labor, agricultural, or other groups
engaged in any lawful activity.
ii. Transmission of signals which are directly related to the operation
of FM broadcast stations; for example: relaying of broadcast
material to other FM and standard AM broadcast stations; remote
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
cueing and order circuits; remote control telemetering functions

associated with authorized STL operation,
and similar uses.
b. An application for the SCA shall specify the particular nature and
purpose of the proposed use. If visual transmission of program material is
contemplated, the application shall include certain technical information
concerning the visual system, on which the Authority shall rely in issuing
an SCA. If any significant change is subsequently made in the system,
revised information shall be submitted. The technical information to be
submitted is as follows:
i. A full description of the visual transmission system.

ii. A block diagram of the system, as installed at the station, with all
components, including filters, identified as to make and type.
Response curves of all composite filters shall be furnished.
c. SCA operations may be conducted without restriction as to time, so long

the main channel is programmed simultaneously.
d. Nature of the SCA
i. The SCA is of a subsidiary or secondary nature and shall not exist

apart from the FM license or permit. No transfer or assignment of it
shall be made separate from the FM broadcast license and failure to
transfer the SCA with the FM license renders the SCA void. Any
assignment or transfer of an SCA shall, if desired, be requested as
part of the main station’s transfer or assignment application. The
licensee or permittee must seek renewal of the SCA at the same
time it applies for its renewal of FM license or permit; failure to
renew the latter automatically terminates the SCA.
ii. The grant or renewal of an FM license or permit shall not be
furthered or promoted by the proposed or past operation under an
SCA; the licensee must establish that his broadcast operation is in
the public interest wholly apart from the SCA activities.
e. Multiplex Operations Engineering Standards
i. Frequency modulation of SCA subcarriers shall be used.

ii. The instantaneous frequency of SCA subcarriers shall at all times
be within the range 20 to 75 kHz; Provided, however, that when the
station is engaged in stereophonic broadcasting, the instantaneous
frequency of SCA subcarriers shall at all times be within the range
53 to 75 kHz.
iii. The arithmetic sum of the modulation of the main carrier by SCA
subcarriers shall not exceed 30 percent: Provided, however, that
when the station is engaged in stereophonic broadcasting, the
arithmetic sum of the modulation of the main carrier by the SCA
subcarriers shall not exceed 10 percent.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
iv. The total modulation of the main carrier, including SCA subcarriers,
shall meet the requirements of 6.2.2.
v. Frequency modulation of the main carrier caused by the SCA
subcarrier operation shall, in the frequency range 90 to 15,000 Hz,
be at least 60 dB below 100 percent modulation: Provided,
however, that when the station is engaged in stereophonic
broadcasting, frequency modulation of the main carrier by the SCA
subcarrier operation shall, in the frequency range 50 to 53,000 Hz,
beat least 60 dB below 100 percent modulation.
vi. The center frequency of each SCA subcarrier shall be kept at all
times within 500 hertz of the authorized frequency.
f. Facsimile Engineering Standards
The following standards apply to facsimile broadcasting under SCA

operations.
i. Rectilinear scanning shall be employed, with scanning spot

progressing from left to right and scanned lines progressing from top
to bottom of subject copy.
ii. The standard index of cooperation shall be 984.
iii. The number of scanning lines per minute shall be 360.
iv. The line-use ratio shall be 7/8, or 315 degrees of the full scanning
cycle.
v. The 1/8 cycle or 45 degrees not included in the available scanning line
shall be divided into 3 equal parts, the first 15 degrees being used for
transmission at approximately white level, the second 15 degrees for
transmission at approximately black level, and the third 15 degrees
for transmission at approximately white level.
vi. An interval of not more than 12 seconds shall be available between
two pages of subject copy, for the transmission of a page-separation
signal and/or other services.
vii. Amplitude or(frequency-shift) modulation of the subcarrier shall be
used.
viii.Subcarrier modulation shall normally vary approximately linearly
with the optical density of the subject copy.
ix. Negative modulation shall be used, i.e., for amplitude modulation of
subcarrier, maximum subcarrier amplitude and maximum radio
frequency swing on black; for frequency modulation of subcarrier,
highest instantaneous frequency of subcarrier on black.
x. Subcarrier noise level shall be maintained at least 30 dB below
maximum (black) picture modulation level, at the radio transmitter
input.
xi. The facsimile subcarrier transmission shall be conducted in the
frequency range between 22 and 28 KHz. Should amplitude
modulation of the subcarrier be employed the subcarrier frequency
shall be 25 Khz with sidebands extending not more than 3 KHz in
either direction from the subcarrier frequency. Should frequency
modulation of the subcarrier be employed the total swing at the
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
subcarrier shall be within the range from 22 to 28 kHz, with 22 kHz

corresponding to white and 20 kHz corresponding to black on the
transmitted copy. In multiplex operation, the modulation of the FM
carrier by the modulated subcarrier shall not exceed 5 percent. In
simplex operation, the modulation of the FM carrier by the modulated
subcarrier shall not exceed 30 percent.
xii. During periods of multiplex facsimile transmission, frequency
modulation of the FM carrier caused by the aural signals shall, in the
frequency range from 20 to 30 kHz, be at least 60dB below 100 percent
modulation. Frequency modulation of the FM carrier caused by the
facsimile signals shall, in the frequency range from 50 to 15,000 hertz,
be at least 60 dB below 100 percent modulation.
5. Studio, Equipment and Allied Facilities
a. The studio being the recognized source of program materials and other
forms of intelligence of various kinds and content, must be properly
equipped to faithfully respond to these impressions and produce the same
to the highest degree possible, up to the turnover point which is the
transmitter input.
b. Studio Location and Layout
i. Each studio shall be associated with a control room from which the
operational area of the studio may be viewed with. However, when
the studio arid control rooms are integrated into one, an announcer
shall perform simple front panel type functions like level
adjustments and switchings during his/her board hours.
ii. Studios and control rooms shall be so constructed that they are
adequately insulated from sources of extraneous noise and
vibration, and the acoustic treatment of such studios and control
rooms shall be in accordance with good engineering practice.
6. Emergency Equipment and Facilities
a. Alternate Main Transmitter
i. The regular and the optional main transmitter shall be co-located in

a single place.
ii. The external effects from both regular and alternate main
transmitters shall substantially be the same as to frequency and
stability.
b. Auxiliary Transmitter
i. An auxiliary transmitter may be provided and may be installed in

the same location as the regular main transmitter or in another
location.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
ii. Its operating power shall not be less than 10% or never greater than
the authorized operating power of the main transmitter.
iii. A licensed operator shall be in control whenever an auxiliary
transmitter is placed in operation.
iv. When installed in a location different from that of the regular main
transmitter, a type- approved modulation monitor and a frequency
monitor are required to be installed with it.
7. Spare Component Parts
In order to cut down-times during scheduled on-air operations, a reasonable

variety and number of spare components appropriate to the equipment
installed at the site shall be kept on hand.
E. Broadcast Auxiliary Services
1. Broadcast auxiliary services fall under these three categories:
a. Studio-to-Transmitter Link (STL)

b. Remote Pick-up Broadcast Station
c. Communications, Coordination, and Control Link.
2. The frequency bands and transmitter power output authorized for the above
services are as follows:
a. Studio-To-Transmitter Link
 Band A 300-315 MHz

 Band B 734-752 MHz
 Band C 942-952 MHz
The maximum power allowable for STL Bands A, B, and C shall 15 watts.
b. Remote Pick-up Broadcast Station
 Band A 315-325 MHz

 Band B 450-451 MHz
 Band C 455-456 MHz
The maximum power allowable for Remote Pick-up Bands A, C shall be 35

watts.
c. Communications, Coordination and Control Link

 Band A 4-12 MHz (non-exclusive)
 Band B 25.67-26.1 MHz
 Band C 162.235-162.615 MHz
166.250 and 170.150 MHz
 Band D 432.5-433 MHz
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
437.5-438 MHz
The maximum power allowable for Communications, Coordination and
Control Link shall be:
 Band A - 100 watts (SBS)

 Band B - 160 watts (ERP)
 Band C - 160 watts (ERP)
 Band D - 200 watts (for repeater)
3. The National Telecommunications Commission shall authorize the employment

of any one or all of these broadcast transmission services to a station depending
on the necessity and availability of frequencies for the purpose. Any AM or FM
station authorized to operate is entitled to use any broadcast transmission
services relevant to the efficient operation of the station where the use of physical
lines or cables is not feasible.
F. Operating Requirements
1. Hours of Operation
a. Minimum Operating Schedule - The licensee of each FM station shall

maintain a minimum operating schedule of two thirds of the total hours
that it is authorized to operate, except in emergencies when, due to causes
beyond the control of the licensee, it becomes impossible to continue
operating. The station may cease operations for a period not exceeding 10
days.
b. Broadcast outside of the authorized regular operating schedule (as before
regular sign-on schedules and/or beyond the regular sign-off schedules)
may be aired without prior authorization from the appropriate regulatory
body provided the program falls under an emergency category or of very
important relevance to the station’s existence. The information shall be
entered in the program and operating logs at the time the broadcast was
aired.
c. If a permanent discontinuance of operations is being contemplated, then
the licensee shall notify the appropriate regulatory body in writing, at
least two (2) days before the actual discontinuance is affected.
2. Other Operating Requirements
a. The center frequency of each FM broadcast station shall be maintained

within 2000 Hertz of the assigned center frequency.
b. The percentage of modulation shall be maintained as high as possible
consistent with good quality of transmission and good broadcast practice
and in no case less than 85 percent nor more than 100 percent on peaks of
frequent recurrence during any selection which normally is transmitted at
the highest level of the program under consideration
c. The operating power of each Station shall be maintained as near as
practicable to the authorized operating power, and shall not exceed the
limits of 5 percent above and 10 percent below the authorized power,
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
except that in an emergency when it becomes impossible to operate within

the authorized power, the station may be operated with reduced power.
The operating power of each station shall be determined by the indirect
method. This is the product of the plate voltage (Ep) and the plate current
(Ip) of the last radio stage, and an efficiency factor, F; that is, Operating
Power = Ep x Ip x F. The efficiency factor, F, shall be established by the
transmitter manufacturer for each type of transmitter.
d. The station equipment shall be so operated, tuned and adjusted that
emissions outside of the authorized channel do not cause harmful
interference to the reception of other radio stations. FM broadcast stations
shall maintain the bandwidth occupied by their emissions in accordance
with the specifications set forth in this section. Stations shall achieve the
highest degree of compliance practicable with their existing equipment. In
either case, should harmful interference to the reception of other radio
stations occur, the licensee may be required to take such further steps as
may be necessary to eliminate the interference.
e. If a limiting or compression amplifier is employed, care should be
maintained in its use due to pre emphasis in the transmitting system.
3. Posting of Station and Operator Licenses
The station license and other instrument(s) of station authorization shall be

posted in a conspicuous place and in such a manner that all terms are visible, at
the place the licensee considers to be the principal control point of the
transmitter. At all other control points listed on the station authorization, a
photocopy of the station license and other instrument(s) of station
authorization shall be posted.
4. Operators Requirements
a. Radio Operators holding a valid radiotelephone first class operator’s

license, except as provided for in next paragraph of this section, shall be in
actual charge of the transmitting apparatus and shall be on duty either at
the transmitter location or remote-control point.
b. A station which is authorized with a power of 10 kilowatts or less may be
operated by persons holding commercial radio operator’s license of any
class, except those with an aircraft radiotelephone operator authorization
or a temporary limited radiotelephone operator class license, when the
equipment is so designed that the stability of the frequency is maintained
by the transmitter itself within the limits of tolerance specified, and none
on the operations , except those specified in sub-paragraphs (i) through (v)
or this paragraph, necessary to be performed during the course of normal
operation, may cause off- frequency operation or result in any
unauthorized radiation. Adjustments of the transmitting equipment by
such operators, except when under the immediate supervision of a radio-
telephone first class operator, shall be limited to the following:
i. Those necessary to commence or terminate transmitter emissions as

a routine matter.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 2
ii. Those external adjustments that may be required as a result of

variations of primary power supply.
iii. Those external adjustments which may be necessary to ensure
modulation within the limits required.
iv. Those adjustments necessary to effect any change in operating
power which may be required by the station’s instrument(s) of
authorization. Should the transmitting apparatus be observed to be
operating in a manner inconsistent with the station’s instrument of
authorization and none of the above adjustments are effective in
bringing it into proper operation, a person holding other than a
radio telephone first class operator’s license and not acting under
the immediate supervision of a radio-telephone first class operator,
shall be required to terminate the station’s emissions.
c. A station shall employ at least one full-time first class radiotelephone

operator whose primary duty shall be to effect and ensure the proper
functioning of the transmitting equipment.
5. Log Requirements
The licensee or permittee of each FM broadcast station shall maintain separate

program and operating logs and shall require entries to be made as follows:
a. In the Program Log
i. An entry of the time each station identification announcement (call

letters, frequency and location) is made.
ii. An entry briefly describing each program broadcast such as “music”,
“drama’’, “speech”,etc. together with the name at the beginning and
ending of the complete program. If a mechanical record is used, the
entry shall show the exact nature thereof, such as “record”,
“transcription”, etc. and the time it is announced as a mechanical
record. If a speech i made by a political candidate, the name and
political affiliation of such a speaker shall be entered.
iii. An entry showing that each sponsored program broadcast has been
announced as sponsored, paid for, or furnished by the sponsor.
iv. An entry showing, each program of network origin, the name of the
network originating the program.
b. In the Operating Log
i. An entry of the time the station begins to supply power to the

antenna, and the time it stops.
ii. An entry of the time the program begins and ends.
iii. An entry of each interruption to the carrier wave, its cause, and
duration; or an interruption of program transmission.
iv. An entry of the following every 30 minutes:
 Operating constants of the last radio frequency stage (total plate
current and plate voltage)
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
 Any other entry required by the Instrument of Authorization.
c. If a maintenance log is kept aside from the operating log, the following
entries are recommended:
i. An entry of the time and result of the test of auxiliary transmitter.
ii. A notation of all frequency checks and measurements made
independently of the frequency monitor and of the correlation of
these measurements with frequency monitor indications.
iii. A notation of the calibration check of automation recording devices.
An entry of the data and time of removal from the restoration to
service of any of the following equipment in the event it becomes
defective:
 Final R.F. stage plate voltmeter readings.
 Final R.F. stage plate voltmeter readings.
 Transmission line radio frequency voltage current, or power
meter readings.
 The entries required concerning quarterly inspections of the
condition of the tower lights and associated control equipment
and an entry when towers are cleaned and! or repainted.
 Entries which describe fully any experimental operation of
transmitter.
 Any other entries required by the current instrument of
Authorization of the station and the provisions of this subpart.
d. A log must be kept of all operations during the experimental period. If the
entries required above are not applicable thereto then the entries shall be
made so as to fully describe the operation.
e. Logs of FM broadcast stations shall be retained by the licensee or permittee

for a period of two (2) years: Provided, however, that logs involving
communications incident to a disaster or which include communications
incident to or involved in an investigation by the appropriate regulatory
body and concerning which the licensee or permittee has been notified,
shall be retained by the licensee or permittee until he is specifically
authorized in writing by the appropriate regulatory body to destroy them:
Provided further, that logs incident to or involved in any claim or
complaints of the licensee or permittee has notice, shall be retained by the
licensee or permittee until such claim or complaint has been fully satisfied
or until the same has been barred by the statute limiting the time for the
filing of suits upon such claims.
f. Each log shall be kept by the person or persons competent to do so, having
actual knowledge of the facts required, who shall sign the log when starting
duty and again when going off duty. The logs shall be made available upon
request by an authorized representative(s) of the appropriate regulatory
body during reasonable hours of the day.
g. A log shall be kept in orderly manner in suitable form, and in such detail
that the data required for the particular class of station concerned are
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
readily available. Key letters or abbreviations may be used if proper

meaning or explanation is contained elsewhere in the log.
h. No log or portions thereof shall be erased, obligated, or will fully destroyed

within the period of retention provided by the rules. Any necessary
correction may be made only by the person originating the entry who shall
strike out the erroneous portion, initial the correction made, and indicate
the date of correction. Rough log(s) may be transcribed into condensed
form but in such cases the original rough or memoranda and all portion(s)
thereof shall be preserved and made part of the complete log.
6. Operation Under Subsidiary Communications Authorizations
a. Operations conducted under a Subsidiary Communications

Authorization (SCA) shall conform to the uses and purposes authorized
by the Authority in granting the SCA application. Prior permission to
engage in any new or additional activity must be obtained from the
Authority pursuant to application therefore.
b. Super audible and sub audible tones and pulses may, when authorized
by the Authority, be employed by SCA holders to activate and deactivate
subscribers’ multiplex receivers. The use of these or any other control
techniques to delete main channel material is specifically forbidden.
c. In all arrangements entered into with outside parties affecting SCA -
operation, the licensee or permittee must retain control over all material
transmitted over the station’s facilities, with the right to reject any material
which it deems inappropriate or undesirable. Subchannel leasing
agreement shall be reduced to writing, kept at the station, and made
available for inspection upon request.
d. The logging announcements and other requirements imposed on logs and
station identification are not applicable to material transmitted on
authorized subcarrier frequencies.
e. To the extent that SCA circuits are used for transmission of program
material, each licensee or permittee shall maintain a daily program log in
which a general description of the material transmitted shall be entered
once during each broadcast day; Provided however, that in the event of a
change in the general description of the material transmitted, an entry
shall be made in the SCA program log indicating the time of each such
change and a description thereof.
f. Each licensee or permittee shall maintain a daily operating log of SCA
operation in which the following entries shall be made (excluding
subcarrier interruptions of five minutes or less):
i. Time subcarrier generator is turned on.
ii. Tine modulation is applied to subcarrier.
iii. Time modulation is removed from subcarrier.
iv. Time subcarrier generator is turned off.
g. The frequency of each SCA subcarrier shall be measured as often as
necessary to ensure that it is kept at all times within 500 Hz of the
authorized frequency. However, in any event, the measure shall be made
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
at least once each calendar month with not more than 40 days expiring
between successive measurements.
h. Program and operating logs for SCA operation may be kept on special
columns provided on the station’s regular program and operating log
sheets.
i. Technical standards governing the SCA operation shall be observed by all
FM broadcast stations engaging in such operation.
7. Operation During Emergency
When necessary to the safety of life and property and in response to

dangerous conditions of a general nature, FM broadcast stations may, at the
discretion of the licensee and without further Commission authority, transmit
emergency weather warnings and other emergency information.
Examples of emergency situations which may warrant either an immediate or

delayed response by the licensee are tornadoes, typhoons, floods, tidal waves,
earthquakes, extra-heavy rains, widespread fires, discharge of toxic gases,
widespread power failures, industrial explosions, and civil disorders.
Transmission of information concerning school closings and transportation

problems is appropriate. In addition, and if requested by responsible public
official, emergency point-to-point messages may be transmitted for the
purpose of requesting or dispatching aid and assisting in rescue operations.
G. FM Broadcast Translators and Signal Boosters
a. Definition of Terms
i. FM Broadcast Translator. A station in the broadcasting service

operated for the purpose of retransmitting the signals of an FM radio
broadcast station without significantly altering any characteristic of the
incoming signal other than its frequency and power output, in order to
provide FM broadcast service to the general public.
ii. Commercial FM translator station. An FM broadcast translator station
which rebroadcasts the signals of a commercial FM radio broadcast
station.
iii. Non-commercial FM translator station. An FM broadcast translator
station which rebroadcasts the signals of a non- commercial FM radio
broadcast station.
iv. Primary FM station. The FM radio broadcast station radiating the
signals which are retransmitted by an FM broadcast translator station
or by an FM booster station.
v. FM broadcast booster station. A station in the broadcasting service
utilizing a signal booster that operates on the same frequency as the
primary FM station.
vi. Rebroadcast. Means reception by radio of the program of a radio
station, and the simultaneous or subsequent retransmission of such
program by a broadcast station.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
b. Licensing Policies
i. Purpose and Permissable Service - FM Translators provide a means

whereby the signals of FM broadcast stations may be retransmitted to
areas within the province in which direct reception of such FM
broadcast stations is unsatisfactory due to distance or intervening
terrain barriers. The FM translator shall be located within the province
in which its primary station is located. The maximum translator power
allowable is 100 watts. A maximum of 2 translator stations may be
licensed for each primary station.
ii. An FM translator may be used only for the purpose of retransmitting
the signals of an FM broadcast station which is received directly
through space, converted, and suitably amplified.
iii. The transmissions of each FM translator shall be intended for direct
reception by the general public and any other use shall be incidental
thereto.
iv. The technical characteristics of the retransmitted signals shall not be
deliberately altered so as to hinder reception on conventional FM
broadcast receivers.
v. An FM translator shall not deliberately retransmit the signals of any
station other than the station it is authorized by license to retransmit.
Precautions shall be taken to avoid unintentional retransmission of
such other signals.
vi. FM broadcast booster stations provide a means whereby an FM radio
broadcast station may provide service to areas of low signal intensity
in any region within the province. An FM broadcast booster station
shall be located within the 1 millivolt per meter predicted flat terrain
contour and within the province in which its primary station is located.
An FM broadcast booster station is authorized to retransmit the signals
of the primary station only. It shall not retransmit the signals of any
other station nor make independent transmission, provided, however,
that locally generated signals may be used to excite the booster
apparatus for the purpose of conducting tests and measurements
essential to the proper installation and maintenance of the apparatus.
The maximum allowable power of a booster station is 100 watts. A
maximum of 2 booster stations may be licensed for each primary
station.
vii. The transmission of an FM broadcast booster station shall be intended
for direct reception by the general public. Such stations will not be
authorized to establish a point-to-point FM radio relay system.
viii. An FM broadcast translator station or an FM booster station with a
power of 100 watts or less may be operated by a person designated by
and under the control of the licensee and need not be a licensed
operator.
ix. An authorization for a commercial FM translator station or booster
station shall not be granted if its signal shall interfere with any existing
principal station, FM booster station or FM translator station as
provided for in the FM radio frequency protection ratio.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
x. An authorization for FM translator station or booster station shall not

be granted should the predicted 1 millivolt per meter field strength
contour extend into the boundary of another province.
xi. Each application for an FM broadcast booster station shall include a
statement concerning the steps which have been taken in the design
and location of the equipment to ensure that the areas of service from
the primary FM station will not be degraded by operation of the FM
booster station.
c. Operational Requirements
i. Unattended Operation
A station authorized under this subpart may be operated without a

licensed radio operator in attendance if the following requirements are
met:
 The translator shall be equipped with suitable automatic

circuits which will place it in a non-radiating condition in the
absence of a signal on the input channel.
 The on-and-off control (if at a location other than the
transmitter site) and the transmitting apparatus shall be
adequately protected against tampering by unauthorized
persons.
 The Authority shall be supplied with the name, address and
telephone number of a person or persons who may be
contacted to secure suspension of operation of the translator
promptly, should such action be deemed necessary by the
Authority. Such information shall be kept by the licensee.
 An application for authority to construct a new station
pursuant to this subpart or to make changes in the facilities of
such a station, which proposes unattended operation, shall
include an adequate showing as to the manner of compliance
with this section.
ii. Power Limitations
The power output of the final radio frequency amplifier of a station

authorized under this subpart shall not exceed 100 watts.
 Stations employing multiple radio frequency amplifiers will be

licensed as a single station provided that the total power
output shall not exceed 100 watts.
 No limit is placed upon the effective radiated power which
may be obtained by the use of horizontally and vertically
polarized directive transmitting antennas.
iii. Emissions and Bandwidth
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
 The license of an FM translator or FM booster station authorizes

the transmission of either F3 or F9 emission (frequency
modulation).
 Standard width FM channels Will be assigned and the
transmitting apparatus shall be operated so as to limit spurious
emissions to the lowest practicable value. Any emission
including intermodulation products and radio frequency
harmonics which are not essential for the transmission of the
desired aural information shall be considered to be spurious
emissions.
 The power of emissions appearing outside the assigned channel

shall be attenuated below the total power of the emission as
follows:
Distance of Emission from Minimum Attenuation

Center Frequency between Unmodulated
Carrier
120 to 240 kHz 25 dB
Over 240 and up to 600 kHz 35 dB
Over 600 kHz 60 dB
 Greater attenuation than that specified in the previous

paragraph of this sub-section may be required if interferences
result outside the assigned channel.
iv. Consideration should be given to accessibility of the site at all times of

the year and to the availability of facilities for the maintenance and
operation of the FM translator.
v. Equipment and Installation
a. Applications for new station or for changes in the facilities of existing

stations will not be accepted for filing unless the transmitting
apparatus to be employed is type-accepted.
b. Transmitting antennas, antennas used to receive signals to be

rebroadcast, and transmission lines are not subject to the
requirement for type-acceptance.
c. The following requirements must be met before the translator or

booster equipment will be type-accepted by the Authority.
1) The frequency converter and associated amplifiers of an FM

translator shall be so designed that the electrical
characteristics of a standard FM signal, including
stereophonic subchannel, introduced into the input
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
terminals will not be significantly altered by passage

through the apparatus except as to frequency and
amplitude. The overall frequency response of the apparatus
within its assigned channel when operating at its rated
power output and measured at the output terminals, shall
provide a smooth curve, varying within limits separated by
no more than 3 decibels.
2) Radio frequency harmonics at the output terminals of the

transmitter shall be attenuated at least 60 decibels below the
fundamental output carrier level. All other emissions
appearing outside the assigned channel shall conform with
the specifications set forth in paragraph (3) below.
3) The local oscillator or oscillators employed in the translator

equipment shall, when subjected to variations in ambient
temperature between minus 30 degrees and plus 50 degrees
Centigrade and in primary supply voltage between 85
percent and 115 percent of the rated value, be sufficiently
stable to maintain the output carrier frequency of the
translator within plus or minus 0.005 percent of its assigned
frequency, assuming zero variation of the received primary
station signal from its assigned frequency.
4) The apparatus shall contain automatic circuits which will

maintain the power output constant within 2 decibels when
the level of the signal at the input terminals is varied over a
range of 40 decibels and which will not permit power output
to exceed the maximum rated power output under any
condition. If a manual adjustment is provided to compensate
for different average signal levels, provision shall be made
for determining the proper setting for the control and if
improper adjustment of the control could result in improper
operations, a label shall be affixed at the adjustment control
bearing a suitable warning.
5) The apparatus shall be equipped with automatic controls

which will place it in a non-radiating condition when no
signal is being received on the input channel, either due to
absence of a transmitter signal or failure of the receiving
portion of the translator or booster. The automatic control
may include a time-delay feature to prevent interruptions in
the operation of the station caused by fading or other
momentary failures of the incoming signal.
6) The amplifying devices employed in the final radio

frequency amplifier shall be of the appropriate power rating
to provide the rated power output of the translator or
booster. The normal operating constants for operation at the
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
rated power output shall be specified. The apparatus shall be

equipped with suitable meters or meter jacks so that
appropriate voltage and current measurements may be
made while the apparatus is in operation.
7) Wiring, shielding, and construction shall be in accordance

with accepted principles of good engineering practice.
d. The exciter employed to provide a locally generated and modulated

input signal to the Translator shall be type- accepted and shall meet
the following specifications for type-acceptance by the Authority.
1) The local oscillator or oscillators employed in the exciter,

when subjected to variations in ambient temperature
between minus 30 degrees and plus 50 degrees centigrade,
and in primary supply voltage between 85 percent and 115
percent of the rated value, shall be sufficiently stable to
maintain the output center frequency of the exciter within
plus or minus 0.005 percent of the frequency assigned to the
primary station.
2) Automatic means shall be provided for limiting the level of
the audio frequency voltage applied to the modulator to
insure that a frequency swing in excess of 75 kHz will not
occur under any condition of modulation.
3) Wiring, shielding, and construction shall be in accordance
with accepted principles of good engineering practice.
e. Type-acceptance will be granted only upon a satisfactory showing

that the apparatus is capable of meeting the requirements of
paragraphs c) and d) of this subsection. The following, procedures
shall apply:
1) Any manufacturer of apparatus intended for use by a station
authorized under this subpart may request type acceptance
by following the procedures set forth by the Authority.
2) Apparatus for use by stations authorized under this subpart
which has been type-accepted by the Commission will
normally be authorized without additional measurements
by the applicant.
3) Other rules concerning type-acceptance, including
information regarding withdrawal of type- acceptance,
modification of type-accepted equipment and limitations on
the findings upon which type-acceptance is based, are set
forth by the Authority.
f. The installation of an FM translator or booster station employing

type-accepted apparatus may be made by a licensed technician or
licensed engineer.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
g. Simple repairs, such as the replacement of tubes, fuses or other plug-

in components and the adjustment of non-critical circuits which
require no particular technical skill may be made by a qualified
person. Repairs which require the replacement of attached
components, adjustment of critical circuits, or technical
measurement, shall be made only by a licensed technician or
licensed engineer.
h. Any test or adjustment which require the radiation of signals for

their completion and which could result in improper operation of
the apparatus, shall be made by or under the immediate supervision
of a licensed First-class radio-telephone operator or licensed
engineer. The transmitting antenna may be designed to produce
either horizontal or vertical polarization, or a combination of
horizontal and vertical polarization. Separate transmitting antennas
are permitted if both horizontal and vertical polarization is to be
provided.
vi. Equipment Changes
 No change, either mechanical or electrical, maybe made in the

FM translator or booster apparatus which has been type
accepted.
 Formal application is required for any of the following changes

to be made on NTC Form in the case of FM broadcast translator
stations and FM broadcast booster stations:
1) Replacement of the translator or booster as a whole.

2) A change in the transmitting antenna system, including
the direction of radiation or directive antenna pattern.
3) Any change in the overall height of the antenna structure.
4) Any change in the location of the translator or booster
except a move within the same building or upon the same
pole or tower.
5) Any horizontal change in the location of the antenna
structure which would (i) be in excess of 500 feet or (ii)
would require notice to the Air Transportation Office
(ATO).
6) Any change of input or output frequency of a translator.
7) Any change of primary station of a translator.
8) Any change of authorized transmitter operating power
output.
9) Any change in authorized principal community or area
being served.
10) Other equipment changes not specifically referred to
above.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 3
d. Technical Operation and Operators
i. Frequency Tolerance
The licensee of an FM translator station shall maintain the center

frequency at the output of the translator within 0.01 percent of its
assigned frequency. The output frequency of an FM booster station
shall be the exact frequency of its primary station.
ii. Frequency Monitors and Measurements
 The licensed of a station authorized under this subpart is not

required to provide means for measuring the operating frequency of
the transmitter. However, only equipment having the required
stability will be approved for use by an FM translator or booster.
 In the event that a station authorized under this subpart is found to

be operating beyond the frequency tolerance. The licensee shall
promptly suspend operation of the station and shall not resume
operation until the station has been restored to its assigned
frequency. Adjustment of the frequency determining circuits of an
FM translator or booster shall be made by a licensed technician or
licensed engineer.
iii. Time of Operation
 An FM translator is not required to adhere to any regular schedule

of operation. However, the licensee of an FM translator is expected
to provide a dependable service to the extent that such is within its
control and to avoid unwarranted interruptions to the service
provided.
 If an FM translator station is inoperative for 10 days or more, the
licensee shall promptly notify the Authority in writing where the
station is located, promptly describing the cause of the in operation
and the steps being taken to place the translator in operation again
and the licensee shall promptly notify the Authority promptly
when operation is resumed.
 Failure of an FM translator station to operate for a period of 30
days or more, except for causes beyond the control of the licensee,
shall be deemed evidence of discontinuance of operation and the
license of the station may be cancelled at the discretion of the
Authority.
 An FM translator shall not be permitted to radiate during extended
periods when signals of the primary station are not being
retransmitted.
iv. Station Inspection
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 4
The licensed of a station authorized under this subpart shall make the
station and the records required to be kept by the rules in this subpart
available for inspection by representatives of the Authority.
v. Posting of Station License
 The station license and any other instrument of authorization or

individual order concerning the construction of the station or the
manner of operation shall be kept in the station records file
maintained by the licensee so as to be available for inspection upon
request, to any authorized representative of the Authority.
 The call sign of the translator or booster together with the name,
address, and telephone number of the licensee or local
representative of the licensee, if the licensee does not reside in the
community served by the translator or booster, and the name and
address of a person and place where station records are maintained,
shall be displayed at the translator or booster site on the structure
supporting the transmitting antenna, so as to be visible to a person
standing on the ground at the transmitter site. The display shall be
maintained in a legible condition by the licensee.
vi. Operator Requirements
 An operator holding a valid restricted radio telephone operator

permit shall observe the operation of a station authorized under this
subpart by obtaining reception of its transmissions.
 In the event of malfunction, or upon notice by the Authority, the

operator shall immediately cause the operation of the station to cease
until the malfunction is corrected or until the conditions requiring
suspension of operation are corrected.
vii. Additional Orders
In cases where the rules contained in this part do not cover all phases of
operation or experimentation with respect to external effects, the
Authority may make supplemental or additional orders in each case as
may be deemed necessary.
e. Other Operating Requirements
i. Station Records
 The licensed of a station authorized under this subpart shall

maintain adequate station records, including the current
instrument of authorization, official correspondence with the
Authority, maintenance records, contracts, permissions for
rebroadcast, and other pertinent documents.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 4
 The records to be maintained where an antenna structure is

required to be marked or lighted shall be governed by the
provisions of the Air Transportation Office (ATO).
 Station records shall be retained for a period of 2 years.
ii. The licensee of an FM translator shall not rebroadcast the programs of
any FM broadcast station without obtaining prior consent of the
primary station whose programs are proposed to be retransmitted. The
Authority shall be notified of the call letters of each station rebroadcast
and the licensee of the FM translator shall certify that written consent
has been received from the licensee of the station whose programs are
retransmitted.
iii. An FM translator is not authorized to rebroadcast the transmissions of

any class of station other than a primary FM broadcast station.
H. Public Information File
An updated Public Information File shall made available at all times to the NTC
inspector or to any interested party. The Public Information File shall be kept on file
at each broadcast station and shall contain the following:
a. A copy of the station license.

b. Documents as to mode of ownership whether partnership, corporation or
single proprietorship including trade name as registered in the Department
of Trade.
c. Documents on all changes of transmitter equipment, including the
incorporated changes in the license and the corresponding construction
permits.
d. Copies of the Program Standards, the Technical Standards, the NTC
compilation of laws, regulations, circulars and memoranda.
e. Evidence of membership in the KBP, or any other broadcasters’
organization.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 4
Assessment of Learning
Quiz: Fill-in the blanks.
1. The bandwidth allocated to FM channels is much wider than AM, and this
allows the bandwidth of the audio signal that can be transmitted to extend to
about _____ kHz.
2. For FM broadcasting, the range of RF frequencies is ________ in the very high
frequency (VHF) band.
3. A _________ is station employing frequency modulation in the FM broadcast
band and intended to be received by the general public.
4. The ratio of the effective free space field intensity produced at 1.6 kilometres in
the horizontal plane expressed in millivolts per meter for one (1) kilowatt
antenna input power, to 137.6 millivolts per meter is called ___________.
5. The antenna power gain is expressed in ________.
6. The electric field intensity in the horizontal direction is called _______.
7. As applied to FM broadcasting, ________ means the service resulting from an
assigned effective radiated power and antenna height above average terrain.
8. In its simplest sense, ___________ implies that two or more independent sources
of information are combined for carriage over a single medium, namely, the
radio frequency “carrier”, and then are separated at the receiving end.
9. A signal which is the sum of all signals which frequency-modulates the main
carrier is called ____________.
10. The band of frequencies from 50 (or less) Hz to 15,000 Hz on the FM baseband
which contains the main channel signal is called the _____________.
11. An undesired signal occurring in one channel caused by an electrical signal in
another channel is called ________.
12. The term SCA is an acronym for ____________.
13. The portion of the total length of scanning line that can be used specifically for
picture signal is called __________.
14. The period between 12 midnight to 5:00 a.m. local standard time (1600-2100 (MT)
is referred to as _____________.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 4
15. Channel No. 206 is at ____________ frequency.
For 25 points, make an outline of the Technical Standards and Operating Requirements
for FM Broadcasting Stations in the Philippines.
Assignment:
1. What are the different concepts regarding FM Broadcast Communications

System?
2. Identify the elements and applications of FM Broadcast Communication
System.
3. How does FM Broadcasting technique differs from AM and TV Broadcasting
Systems?
4. Come-up with the design of FM broadcasting network including coverage
mapping and interference.
5. Define the following:
a. FM studio system
b. FM Technical Operation Center
c. FM Transmission System
d. FM Coverage Mapping
e. FM Prediction and Interference Study
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 4
2.3 References
 Technical Standards and Operating Requirements for FM Broadcasting Stations

in the Philippines (Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas)
 Jones, Graham (2005). A Broadcast Engineering Tutorial for Non-engineers, 3 rd
Edition. 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA: Elsevier Inc.
2.4 Acknowledgment
The information contained in this module were taken from the reference cited
above. These are all based on the standards set by KBP. The following members of
the Technical Standards Committee of the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster sa Pilinas
are hereby acknowledged:
Arcadio Carandang, Jr. --- Chairman
Leoncio Galang --- Vice-Chairman
Carlos Saliuan, Jr. --- NTC Representative
Alfredo Ceralde --- Member
Romualdo Lintag --- Member
Salvador Castillo --- Member
Filomeno Babas --- Member
Ernesto Claudio --- Member
Rolando Agbay --- Member
Endorsed by:
MIGUEL C. ENRIQUEZ
Chairman – Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas
ANDRE S. KAHN
President – Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas
Approved by:
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
2 Engineering 4
MARIANO E. BENEDICTO II
Commissioner – National Telecommunication Commission
C. M. D. Hamo-ay

ECE 7 Introduction To FM Broadcasting Systems and Standards

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ECE 7 Introduction To FM Broadcasting Systems and Standards

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| ECE 7: Broadcast and Acoustic i

 Recognize, identify and analyze the FM broadcast communications system

In transmissions using FM—frequency modulation—the program audio signal is used to

For FM broadcasting, the range of RF frequencies is 88 to 108MHz in the very high

The change in frequency of the carrier, as it is modulated, is known as the deviation, or

Figure 1. Comparison of AM and FM Band Emissions Masks

This produces the

Figure 2. Stereo Coding

Figure 3. Composite FM Stereo Signal

As well as stereo audio, other subcarriers can be used to carry additional

After going through technical specifications of FM broadcasting, let us now explore

The increasing Importance of the role of FM broadcasting in the Philippines has

These technical standards and regulations were derived from CCIR

2.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

Technical Standards and Operating Requirements for FM

7. Antenna height above average terrain (HAAT) means

b. Where circular or elliptical polarization is employed the antenna height

8. Antenna field gain

9. Antenna power gain

10. Effective radiated power (ERP)

11. Field intensity

12. Free space field intensity

13. Service area

14. Radio-frequency (R .F.) Protection Ratio

15. Percentage modulation

17. FM Stereophonic Broadcast

19. Composite Baseband Signal

21. Main Channel

22. Main Channel Signal

23. Stereophonic Sound

24. Stereophonic Sound Subcarrier

25. Stereophonic Sound Subchannel

27. Subchannel Signal

28. Pilot sub-carrier

29. Left (or Right) signal

30. Left (or Right) stereophonic channel

31. Stereophonic separation

32. Frequency Deviation

33. Injection Ratio

35. Linear Crosstalk

36. Nonlinear Crosstalk

A form of crosstalk in which the undesired signal(s) is created by harmonic

38. Index of cooperation

39. Line-use ratio

40. Available line

41. Rectilinear scanning

42. Optical density

43. Experimental Period

44. Operating Power

46. Qualified technician

B. Allocation of Frequencies for FM Broadcast Stations

Channel-designation of FM broadcast frequencies are shown in the table

Allocation of Frequencies for FM Broadcast Stations

C. Classes of FM Broadcast Stations

A Class-A station shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 25

A Class-B station shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10

A Class-C station is a non-commercial, community station having an authorized

4. Class D Station FREQUENCY

RADIO-FREQUENCY PROTECTION RATIOS (dB)

b. Intermediate frequency amplifiers of most FM broadcast receivers

c. FM Broadcast Stations shall not be authorized to operate in the same

d. The nature and extent of the protection from interference accorded

e. A commercial broadcast entity may establish only one primary FM