Final Module in Child and Adolescent Learner and Leraning Principles Module 3 Alone

Module 3
Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories
What This Module Is About

This module is about the different developmental theories and other relevant theories that make up
the human behavior. These developmental stage theories divide child development into distinct stages
which are characterized by qualitative differences in behaviour. There are a number of different views about
the way in which psychological and physical development that proceed throughout the life span.
The module is divided into six lessons, namely:

 Lesson 3.1: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
 Lesson 3.2: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Theory
 Lesson 3.3: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
 Lesson 3.4: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
 Lesson 3.5: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
 Lesson 3.6: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
What You Are Expected To Learn (Intended Learning Outcomes)

After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. identify and understand the developmental theories that will explain human behavior on your cognitive,
physical and emotional growth and development
2. compare and contrast the different developmental theories; and
3. appreciate the value of human existence to yourself, your community and to the world you live.
Introduction
Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to
look at some theories…” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now
lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; if fact they are proposed
explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my 3 year old so
inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these
and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change
over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.
A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a
blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories are guidelines much
like directions that come with an appliance or other object that required assembly. The instructions can help
one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.
Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and
after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established
theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific
investigation. Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing
concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for
investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.
Lesson 3.1
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development; and
2. draw implication of Freud’s theory to education.
Child and Adolescent Learner & Learning Principles - ISPSC Tagudin Campus, 1st Semester, SY 2020-2021 @MAI Page 2
Read
Freud’s views about human development are more than a century old. He can be considered the
most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about the unconscious and also about
sexual development. Although a lot of his views were criticized and some considered them debunked, (he
himself recanted some of his earlier views). Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the
starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erikson’s Psychological theory in the next lesson.
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists present different views about
how personality develops. As mentioned, Freud presents a very interesting theory about personality, its
component and development. Take note of the following words: Erogenous zone as referred to as he
specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure needs. This may be the mouth, anus and genitals.
Fixation results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also probably
the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes five distinct stages. According to
Freud, a person goes through the sequence of those five stages and along the way there are needs to be
met. Whether those needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality
or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each
stage of development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the particular stage.
If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors
related to this erogenous zone.
1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the child is
focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to Oral Fixation or Oral
Personalities which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral
receptive, that is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, oral aggressive, that is,
with tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may
become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. On the other hand, they may
also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.
2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The
child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s expectations, particularly the
parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to
three years the child’s favorite word might be “No!”. therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training
process when the child retains feces when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality,
fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and
control; or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
3. Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool
age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be
seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s studies led him to believe that during this stage boys develop
unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys see their father as a rival for her mother’s affection.
Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These
feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus unintentionally
killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.
Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience, developing
unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to as the Electra Complex.
According Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of their father, boys
eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By identifying with their father, the boys
develop masculine characteristics and identify themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings
toward their mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and
avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
4. Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The
children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and
girls with girls during this stage.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start
of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their
sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.
Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego and the
superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego and the superego. For each
person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and last to develop is the superego.
The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality
because as a baby, it works so that the essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle.
It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its need. So whatever feels good now is what it will
pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is
hungry. It’s id wants food or milk… so the baby will cry. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries.
When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his
or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented towards
considering neither reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry any time of day and night!
Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or daddy is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants
it now and it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she relates more with the
environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that
others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to
negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the
deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meet its need, it always takes into
account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego
develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers
and others persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral.
The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Feud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has a strong ego, who can help satisfy he needs
of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical,
practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the ego to do all that strike a balance. If the id exerts too
much power over the ego, the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over
one’s life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the ego is overpowered. The
person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others’ actions. The person’s best effort to be good
may still fall short of the superego’s expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was brought up.
His experiences about how his parents met his needs. The extent to which he was allowed to do the things
he wanted to do, and also how he was taught about right or wrong, all figures to the type of personality and
consequent adjustment that a person will take. Freud believed that the personality of an individual is
formed early during the childhood years.
Topographical Model
The unconscious. Fred said that the most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us a t a conscious level. He believed that the most of
what influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried
down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these
complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic
ways.
The conscious. Freud also said that all that we are of is stored in our conscious mind. Our
conscious mind only comprise a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only
aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality, most of what we are is hidden and out of
reach.
The subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we
can reach if prompted, but is not in or active conscious. Its right below the surface, but it is still hidden
somewhat unless we reach for it. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or
the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious. Because the unconscious is so huge,
and because we are only aware of the very small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of
the iceberg to illustrate it. A big art of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s surface.
The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been
made part of our personalities, referred to as nonconscious.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Course/Year & Section: ____________________ Score: _________
Professors’ Name: Dr. Tessie Dela Cruz, Ms. Gemalyn Tenoc, Mrs. Maria Ana Ilagan
Code: M3-3.1-1
What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

Activity 1. Examine yourself. Based on what you have learned in this lesson, try to accomplish
the diagram.
Chunking the Data

Important Terms Learned Important Concepts/Ideas Learned
Important Generalizations Learned Insights Learned
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.1-2

Activity 2. Evaluate yourself. Answer the following:
A. Identification:
_______________ 1. These are parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at
particular stages of development.
_______________ 2. A developmental stage that occurs during the first 18 months of life when the infant
gives pleasure centers on the mouth.
_______________ 3. What is the etymology of the word “phallic” which means “penis?
_______________ 4. This developmental stage occurs between the ages of 3-6.
_______________ 5. It follows after the oral stage occurring between 1 ½ until 3 years of age.
_______________ 6. It is the psychoanalytic defense mechanism that occurs when the individual remains
locked in an earlier developmental stage because needs are under or
overgratified.
_______________ 7. It occurs at approximately between 6 years of age until puberty.
_______________ 8. This marks as the final stage of psychosexual development occurring from puberty
onwards.
_______________ 9. On this stage, the child represses all interests in sexuality and develops social and
intellectual skills.
_______________10. This is regarded as a time for basic social exploration like making friends and forming
little social cliques noting no rivalry with the opposite sex parent.
There’s no battle for control over satisfaction.
_______________11. During this time, the person directs sexual impulses toward someone of the opposite
sex.
B. True or False:
_______________ 12. Each stage of psychosexual development features pleasure as sort of experience
not only in one part of the body but others too.
_______________ 13. The Oedipus Complex is the young child’s development of an intense desire to
replace the parent of the same sex and enjoy the affection of the opposite-sex
parent.
_______________ 14. Freud believed that unresolved conflicts with parents will re-emerge during
adolescence.
_______________ 15. Adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between these early
sources of pleasure as the mouth, anus and genitals including the demands of
reality.
_______________ 16. The phallic stage triggers either the Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex.
_______________ 17. The uniqueness of an individual’s personality has started and found in the late
adulthood.
_______________ 18. Defecation is the exercise of anal muscles that reduces tension.
_______________ 19. Chewing, sucking and biting are chief sources of pleasure. Thus, reduces tension in
the infant.
_______________ 20. The primary personality development during the oral stage is that of the superego.
Lesson 3.2
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Theory
Lesson Objectives
1. describe Piaget’s stages in your own words; and
2. match your learning activities to your cognitive stage.
Read
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology. This
theory fueled other researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals
construct knowledge.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His research method
involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed.
These tasks were later known as Piagetian Tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “generic epistemology” because he was
interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into biology and also he
had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his theories and
research of child development. Out of his researches, Piaget came up with the Stages of Cognitive
Development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also to
intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied to teaching and curriculum design
especially in the preschool and elementary curricula.
Basic Cognitive Concepts

 Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or
create a meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each
drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child
sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail.
It barks. It’s furry. The child then puts this description of a dog on file in his mind. When he sees
another similar dog, he pulls out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal, and
says “four legs, tail, barks, furry… that’s a dog.
 Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would
make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a different looking dog) into his
schema of a dog.
 Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the child now sees another
animal that looks like bit a dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog
and say, “Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too”. Then the mommy explains,
“That’s not a funny looking dog. That’s a goat”. With mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now
create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.
 Equilibration. Piaget believed that the people have the natural need to understand how the world
works and to find order, structure and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper
balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our
schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This
means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert
effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of

assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other constructivists’
perspectives of learning like Bruner and Vygostsky.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations. Children learn about the world
through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence).
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them. They realize that their actions can
cause things to happen in the world around them. During this earliest stage of cognitive development,
infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's
entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor
responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning.
As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world
works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of
time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as
crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact.
Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of
development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of
their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to
objects.
2. The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. While
they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is
the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think
very concretely about the world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view
of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy. For example, a
researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice
between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is
smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely
choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
The Key Features Of The Preoperational Stage Include:
a. Centration
Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at one time. When a child can
focus on more than one aspect of a situation at the same time they have the ability to decenter. During this
stage children have difficulties thinking about more than one aspect of any situation at the same time; and
they have trouble decentering in social situation just as they do in non-social contexts.
b. Egocentrism
Childrens' thoughts and communications are typically egocentric (i.e. about themselves).
Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. According to
Piaget, the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child
does.
c. Play
At the beginning of this stage you often find children engaging in parallel play. That is to say they
often play in the same room as other children but they play next to others rather than with them. Each child
is absorbed in its own private world and speech is egocentric. That is to say the main function of speech at
this stage is to externalize the child’s thinking rather than to communicate with others. As yet the child has
not grasped the social function of either language or rules.
d. Symbolic Representation
The early preoperational period (ages 2-3) is marked by a dramatic increase in children’s use of the
symbolic function. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than
itself. Language is perhaps the most obvious form of symbolism that young children display. However,
Piaget (1951) argues that language does not facilitate cognitive development, but merely reflects what the
child already knows and contributes little to new knowledge. He believed cognitive development promotes
language development, not vice versa.
e. Pretend (or symbolic) Play
Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may play these
roles with props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate. 'In
symbolic play, young children advance upon their cognitions about people, objects and actions and in this
way construct increasingly sophisticated representations of the world' (Bornstein, 1996, p. 293).
As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and children begin to enjoy the participation of
another child in their games and “let’s pretend “play becomes more important. For this to work there is going
to be a need for some way of regulating each child’s relations with the other and out of this need we see the
beginnings of an orientation to others in terms of rules.
f. Animism
This is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have human feelings and
intentions. By animism Piaget (1929) meant that for the pre-operational child the world of nature is alive,
conscious and has a purpose.
Piaget has identified four stages of animism:

 Up to the ages 4 or 5 years, the child believes that almost everything is alive and has a purpose.
 During the second stage (5-7 years) only objects that move have a purpose.
 In the next stage (7-9 years), only objects that move spontaneously are thought to be alive.
 In the last stage (9-12 years), the child understands that only plants and animals are alive.
g. Artificialism
This is the belief that certain aspects of the environment are manufactured by people (e.g. clouds in
the sky).
h. Irreversibility
This is the inability to reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point.
3. Concrete-Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)

During this stage, children begin thinking logically about concrete events. They begin to understand
the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example, their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
while children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become
much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become
better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very
rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are
unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
The Key Features Of The Concrete Stage Include:

Children gain the abilities of conservation (number, area, volume, and orientation), reversibility,
seriation, transitivity and class inclusion. However, although children can solve problems in a logical fashion,
they are typically not able to think abstractly or hypothetically.
a. Conservation
Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its
appearance changes. To be more technical conservation is the ability to understand that redistributing
material does not affect its mass, number, volume or length. By around seven years the majority of children
can conserve liquid, because they understand that when water is poured into a different shaped glass, the
quantity of liquid remains the same, even though its appearance has changed. Five-year-old children would
think that there was a different amount because the appearance has changed.
b. Classification
Piaget also studied children's ability to classify objects – put them together on the basis of their
color, shape etc. Classification is the ability to identify the properties of categories, to relate categories or
classes to one another, and to use categorical information to solve problems. One component of
classification skills is the ability to group objects according to some dimension that they share. The other
ability is to order subgroups hierarchically, so that each new grouping will include all previous subgroups.
c. Seriation
The cognitive operation of seriation (logical order) involves the ability to mentally arrange items
along a quantifiable dimension, such as height or weight.
4. The Formal Operational Stage in Cognitive Development (Ages: 12 and Up)

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems.
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning. They begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle
to specific information.
This final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple
potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal
operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about
hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative
process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get
older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually
process through these four stages.
A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a
fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
Key Features Of Formal Operational Stage Include:

a. Hypothetical Deductive Reasoning
Hypothetical deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically through generating predictions,
or hypotheses, about the world to answer questions. The individual will approach problems in a systematic
and organized manner, rather than through trial-and-error.
b. Abstract Thought/Analogical Reasoning

Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas.
The individual can think about hypothetical and abstract concepts they have yet to experience. Abstract
thought is important for planning regarding the future.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.2-1

Activity 1. Examine yourself. Based on what you have learned in this lesson, try to accomplish
the given template.
Chunking the Data

Important Terms Learned Important Concepts/Ideas Learned
Important Generalizations Learned Insights Learned
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.2-2

Activity 2. Evaluate yourself. Answer the following.
_____ 1. Piaget used this term to explain an internal representation of the world.
A. Cognition C. Assimilation
B. Schema D. Accommodation
_____ 2. The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding via thought, experience,
and the senses.
_____ 3. Janie knows that a bird has wings and can fly. While camping she finds a bat and thinks it's a bird,
but realizes that it doesn't act the same way as a bird. She is confused. She is using what
adaptation process with this new knowledge?
_____ 4. It is the idea that objects exist even if they are out of sight.
A. Elimination C. Object Permanence
B. Reversibility D. Conceptualize
_____ 5. He was one of the 20th century's most influential researchers in the area of developmental
psychology
A. Jeen Piaget C. Jeen Piagget
B. Jean Piagget D. Jean Piaget
_____ 6. It is the acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solve.
A. Cognitive Development C. Sensorimotor
B. Formal Operational D. Equilibrium
_____ 7. Jacob is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation. Which adaptation process
is he using?
_____ 8. The stage in Piaget's Theory where a child have the ability to systematically solve a problem in a
logical and methodological way.
A. Sensorimotor Stage C. Concrete Operational Stage
B. Preoperational Stage D. Formal Operational Stage
_____ 9. It is a stage in Piaget's Theory where a child understand the world by coordinating sensory
experiences.
_____ 10. Cindy understands her world primarily by grasping and sucking easily available objects. Cindy is
clearly in Piaget's ________ stage
Lesson 3.3
Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
Lesson Objectives
1. identify and understand the 8 stages as described by Erikson; and
2. suggest at least 5 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.
Read
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are a very relevant, highly regarded and meaningful
theory. Life is a continuous process, involving leaning and trials which help us to grow. Erikson’s
enlightening theory guides us and helps us to tell why.
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve
subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages
and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages; however, can be resolved
successfully at a later time.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage
begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about
the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of
trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when
threatened.
If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.
If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense
of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around
them or in their abilities to influence events.
Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can
have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of
support.
Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the
basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and
an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has
outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to
Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and
a sense of independence.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to
survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they
begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack
self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.
What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has
many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate
the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from
their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within
an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to
allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to
become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if
the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when
toilet training).
The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During
the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other
social interaction.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a
“time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."
During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at
school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal
skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make
decisions.
Children Playing
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a
sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents
will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If
the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their
behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some
guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a
conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during
childhood between the ages of five and twelve.
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on
their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major
source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious
(competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is
restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore
may not reach his or her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then
they may develop a sense of Inferiority.
Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion,
and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a
sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are
becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families,
housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood
and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult
(Erikson, 1963, p. 245)
This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an
adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he
or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of
self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of
the adolescent changes.
Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can
adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even
when there may be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the
outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I
want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure
about themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different
lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).
Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative
identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this
stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships
leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment,
safety, and care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).
Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing
things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture
things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part
of the bigger picture.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals
may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of care.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this
time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life.
Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of
bitterness and despair.
Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something
that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and
explore life as a retired person.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did
not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on
their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both
ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states
that need to be balanced.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.3-1

Activity 1. Examine yourself. Create a tag line or a personal quotation on how you see or
understand yourself based on personal experiences or with others following the different stages of
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development. Remember to do it chronologically. Templates are
given to you.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.3-2

_____ 1. Erikson characterizes development as a series of _____.

A. psychosexual stages C. psychomoral stages
B. psychosocial stages D. ethical stages
_____ 2. What psychosocial crisis results in either a feeling of confidence or inadequacy?
A. Trust vs. mistrust C. Intimacy vs. isolation
B. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt D. Industry vs. inferiority
_____ 3. Why is the successful completion of the trust versus mistrust stage important?
A. Because if this stage is not successfully completed, the individual will become anxious and
insecure.
B. Because if this stage is not successfully completed, the individual will not be trustworthy.
C. Because if this stage is not successfully completed, the individual will not understand the
concept of trust.
D. Because if this stage is not successfully completed, the individual will become a liar.
_____ 4. A straight student turned party-goer shows what stage?
A. Industry vs. Inferiority C. Generativity vs. Stagnation
B. Identity vs. Role Confusion D. Trust vs Mistrust
_____ 5. According to Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development, which stage describes a child who
needs to learn important academic skills and compare favorably with peers in school to achieve
competence?
A. Trust vs Mistrust C. Initiative vs Guilt
B. Identity vs Role Confusion D. Industry vs Inferiority
_____ 6. Jane, a toddler, insists on dressing herself each morning for school, even though she generally
selects mismatching outfits, misses buttons, and wears her shoes on the wrong feet. When her
mother tries to dress Jane or fix her outfit, Jane brushes her mother off and insists on doing it
herself. What stage of psychosocial development best describes Jane’s behavior?
A. Trust vs. Mistrust C. Initiative vs. Guilt
B. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt D. Industry vs. Inferiority
_____ 7. The stage that occurs between birth and 18 months is concerned with:
A. Trust vs. mistrust C. Initiative vs. guilt
B. Autonomy vs. shame D. Doubt Identity vs. role confusion
_____8. Preschool children learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be
independent
A. Generativity v. Stagnation C. Initiative v. Guilt
B. Identity v. Role Confusion D. Industry v. Inferiority
_____ 9. 40s-60s or the middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world usually through family
and work, or they feel a lack of purpose.
A. Industry v. Inferiority C. Generativity v. Stagnation
B. Initiative v. Guilt D. Identity v. Role Confusion
_____ 10. 20s-40s or young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate
love, or they feel socially isolated
A. Initiative v. Guilt C. Industry v. Inferiority
B. Ego Integrity v. Despair D. Intimacy v. Isolation
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.3-3
What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity – Major Course Outcome1)
Activity 3. Enrich yourself. Make a digital story-telling or an eAutobiography reflecting your whole
story from the time you were born up to these days. Indicate some important milestones or struggles you
have. Be able to send your output through my email address or through our GC/google classroom.
Lesson 3.4
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lesson Objectives
1. identify and understand the stages of moral development;
2. analyze your level of moral reasoning based on your responses to moral dilemmas; and
3. cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your future work as a teacher.
Read
Individuals when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decisions, exercise their
own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of moral
reasoning. He based his theory on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to
choose right from the wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork for present debate within
psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking through their
experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality, and human
welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment and extended the ages covered by by
Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than
Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive development of
children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). Like Piaget, he presented those dilemmas
to the individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the
responses were right or wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three levels. Each
level represents a significant change in the social moral reasoning or perspective of the person.
Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. Each level has two sub-stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order
listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.
1. Preconventional Stage
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children
accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-
conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation/Punishment-Obedience
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example,
an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation/Mutual Benefit
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by
whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited
interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own interests.
As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch
my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his
parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an
incentive by giving him an allowance.
2. Conventional Stage
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that
this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation/Social Approval
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation/Law and Order
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying
rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in
stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates
a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated
by an outside force.
3. Postconventional Stage
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more
abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society
and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live
by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and
justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be
obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a
situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation/Social Contract
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are
regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare
should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is
theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation/Universal Principles
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas
such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and
a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the
ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way,
the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid
punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.4-1

Activity 1. Examine yourself. Complete the statement using the template below.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory taught me that…__________________________

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Lesson 3.5
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Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
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Lesson Objectives
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1. identify and understand why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-Cultural” theory; and
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2. explain how scaffolding is useful in your teaching as a skill.
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Read
Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that
parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions.
According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people.
The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive
development. He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the
social and cultural context within which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the
appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplishes a task.
Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with others, and
then integrated into the individual’s mental structure. Every function in the child’s cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention,
to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships
between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57) A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the
potential for cognitive development is limited to a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This "zone" is
the area of exploration for which the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction
to fully develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more experienced peer is able to provide the learner with
"scaffolding" to support the student’s evolving understanding of knowledge domains or development of
complex skills. Collaborative learning, discourse, modelling, and scaffolding are strategies for supporting the
intellectual knowledge and skills of learners and facilitating intentional learning.
The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in
cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social
Development Theory.
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition
(Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making
meaning."
Unlike Piaget's notion that children’s' development must necessarily precede their learning,
Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally
organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to
preceed (i.e., come before) development.
In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must

understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Piaget understands moral development as a construction process, i.e. the interplay of action and
thought builds moral concepts. Kohlberg on the other hand, describes development as a process of
discovering universal moral principles.
More Knowledgeable Other
The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has
a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or
concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the
case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or
experience.
For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win
at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or their
parents?
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their
learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been
used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs
is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the
learner does.
Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second important principle
of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development. This is an important concept that relates to the
difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner.
For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself and would
have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and
has developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive
instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own -
developing higher mental functions. He also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing
skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent
children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.5-1

Activity 1. Examine yourself. Vygotsky always emphasized the role of cultural factors in
cognitive development. He also identified intellectual tools of adaptation which enable individuals to
acquire cognitive skills depending on what tools their culture has made available for them. From this
learning, how do you see yourself applying your role as part of the society you live in? What impact
does it do good or bad to you as a future teacher? Emphasize how scaffolding helps in your
learning.
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Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.5-2

_____ 1. Of the following, which theorist most stresses the importance of social support and language in
cognitive developmental growth?
A. Chomsky C. Piaget
B. Vygotsky D. Vygotsky
_____ 2. Which of the following concepts undergirds Vygotsky’s perspective on learning?
A. Culture and Language C. Assimilation and proximity
B. Adaptation and accommodation D. Adaptation and equilibrium
_____ 3. Which of the following are essential to Vygotsky’s view of development?
A. Social interaction and activity
B. Close emotional relationships with adults and peers
C. Adaptation through experimentation
D. Individual trial and error and experimentation
_____ 4. The concepts and symbols, such as numbers and language that allow people to think, solve
problems, and function in a culture are best described as:
A. forms of internalisation C. examples of private speech
B. types of scaffolding D. types of cognitive tools
_____ 5. Of the following, which best describes Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development?
A. Tasks learners can complete if they're given help
B. Children's awareness of how much they understand
C. Tasks learners can complete on their own
D. The extent to which learners are able to internalise the knowledge of others
_____ 6. Which of the following is the best definition of scaffolding?
A. Providing assessment to identify the students' zones of proximal development
B. Assisting the development of disadvantaged learners with early intervention experiences
C. Providing social experiences for youngsters that reduces egocentricity
D. Providing instructional assistance that allows a learner to proceed through the zone of proximal
development
_____ 7. According to Vygotsky, students can benefit from help if:
A. They are at the stage of concrete operational or higher
B. Their inner speech is developed past preoperational
C. Tasks are in their zones of proximal development
D. They are capable of transformation and reversibility
_____ 8. The name given to the instructional assistance that allows the learner to progress through the zone
of proximal development is:
A. Accommodation C. Maturation
B. Assimilation D. Scaffolding
_____ 9. Vygotsky believes that
A. Learning occurs when learners react with others in their social environment
B. Learning is heavily related to the interactions of others
C. Learning occurs in social contexts
D. Learning occurs in specific stages
_____ 10. Vygotsky believes
A. both nature and nurture affect someone's intelligence
B. only nature determines someone's intelligence
C. only nurture determines someone's intelligence
D. both man and culture live together
Lesson 3.6
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Lesson Objectives
1. identify and understand the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory;
2. identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development; and
3. use the ecological theory as framework to describe the factors that affect a child and adolescent
development.
Read
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to
explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and
develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple
environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves
enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school
system, and then to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological
systems inevitably interacts with and influences each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external
influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model Levels

1. The Micro System
The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends,
classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in your
micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social
agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing with
these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such
environment.
Brenfenbrenner says that how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how
they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will
understandably foster they children’s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological
systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience
very different environments.
Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as
temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how
he/she is treated by others.
2. The Mesosystem
The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means that
your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his
parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may
feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of
their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and spend time
with them, and then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.
However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child
experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.
3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does
not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached
to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict
between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a
tighter bond between the mother and the child.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact
with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces,
extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the
workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.
4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve the
socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a
third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that
still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s cultural
patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children
in peaceful environments.
5. The Chronosystem
The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve the
socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major
life transition, may affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a
majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after
it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time,
which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The
chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as
immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.
By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to
demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the contexts
that children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different settings.
Bronfenbrenner's work was very important in understanding a systematic approach of human and
social development. ... His theory is important for educators to understand because it allows the educator to
build fundamental relationships with their students and create a communication rich classroom that involves
the parents.
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.6-1

Activity 1. Examine yourself. In a graphic organizer, make a sketch of who are these people or
circumstances that have influenced for being you: attributes, attitudes, interests, habits, etc. You can
indicate how they have cause an impact to your change or learning as an individual.
ME
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Name: _________________________________ Date: __________
Code: M3-3.6-2

_____ 1. Who developed the Ecological Systems Theory?
A. Vygotsky C. Piaget
B. Bronfenbrenner D. Freud
_____ 2. Cultural beliefs and values are included in which system?
A. Mesosystem C. Exosystem
B. Microsystem D. Macrosystem
_____ 3. Mesosystem is the interaction with which system?
A. Exosystem C. Microsystem
B. Macrosystem D. None of the above
_____ 4. __________ is the environment / people which the child is not directly involved with but influence by.
A. Exosystem C. Mesosystem
_____ 5. Which system relates to how things change overtime?
A. Microsystem C. Mesosystem
B. Chronosystem D. Exosystem
_____ 6. One of teacher’s crucial roles include _______
A. Communicate well with their students
B. Respect students privacy
C. Encourage exploration of beliefs
D. All of the above
_____ 7. Social settings that do not contain children but that affect their experiences in immediate settings
A. Exosystem C. Mesosystem
_____ 8. Bronfenbrenner's term for the connections between microsystems
A. Microsystem C. macrosystem
B. Exosystem D. Mesosystem
_____ 9. In bioecological theory, activities and interaction patterns in the child's immediate surroundings are known as
the:
A. Exosystem C. Macrosystem
B. Microsystem D. Mesosystem
_____ 10. Which of the following provides the best example of the microsystem as described in Bronfenbrenner's
ecological theory?
A. Students interact directly with their teacher.
B. A parent attends a parent-teacher conference without the student.
C. Local government approves increased funding for public school libraries.
D. Society progresses toward acceptability of females serving in more administrative roles in the schools.
_____ 12. The link between the home and the school is an example of a?
A. microsystem. C. Macrosystem
B. mesosystem. D. Chronosystem
_____ 13. The school board passes a new rule that limits the number of students allowed in each classroom in order to
enhance teacher-student relationships. This is an example of which environmental system?
A. Microsystem C. Exosystem
B. Mesosystem D. Chronosystem
_____ 14. Which of the following provides the best example of the macrosystem as described in Bronfenbrenner's
ecological theory?
A. Students interact directly with their teacher.
B. A parent attends a parent-teacher conference without the student.
C. Local government approves increased funding for public school libraries.
D. Society progresses toward acceptability of females serving in more administrative roles in the schools.
_____ 15. Temporal changes in children's environments, which produce new conditions that affect development. These
changes can be imposed externally or within the child.
A. Microsystem C. Chonosystem
B. Mesosystem D. Macrosystem
References
Corpuz, Brenda et.al., The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.,
2018
Acero, Victorina et.al., Child and Adolescent Development. Rex Book Store, Inc., 2008
Borabo, Milagros et al., Intercative and Inovative Teaching Stategies 1, Lorimar Publishing, Inc., 2015
https://www.childadolescencepsychology.edu.ph; https://www.developmentalstagesof man.gov.ph;

https://www.growthdevelopment
https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html
https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget-moral.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
https://www.google.com/search?q=bronfenbrenner%27s+ecological+theory+simply+psychology&rlz=1C1CH
BF_enPH834PH834&oq=&aqs=chrome.7.69i59l8.1226100j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

Final Module in Child and Adolescent Learner and Leraning Principles Module 3 Alone

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Module 3

Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

What This Module Is About

The module is divided into six lessons, namely:

What You Are Expected To Learn (Intended Learning Outcomes)

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud’s Personality Components

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

Chunking the Data

Important Generalizations Learned Insights Learned

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

2. The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

The Key Features Of The Preoperational Stage Include:

Piaget has identified four stages of animism:

3. Concrete-Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)

The Key Features Of The Concrete Stage Include:

4. The Formal Operational Stage in Cognitive Development (Ages: 12 and Up)

Key Features Of Formal Operational Stage Include:

b. Abstract Thought/Analogical Reasoning

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

Chunking the Data

Important Generalizations Learned Insights Learned

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Success and Failure In Stage One

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

What Happens During This Stage?

What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

_____ 1. Erikson characterizes development as a series of _____.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory taught me that…__________________________

In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must

Zone of Proximal Development

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model Levels

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

What YOU will do… (Intended Learning Activity)

https://www.childadolescencepsychology.edu.ph; https://www.developmentalstagesof man.gov.ph;

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_ 1. Erikson characterizes development as a series of _.