CHAPTER 2

FOCUSING ON THE LEARNERS

This chapter will focus on the review of theories related to the learners’ development giving
emphasis on students’ diversity, and individual differences. It will further present and discuss the learning
and thinking styles, multiple intelligences, and learners with exceptionalities.

Students are expected to learn the concepts and principles of the major development theories
and be able to apply these theories in learning situations that will be given to them in the activities after
the lessons. They will further discuss the theories advocated by theorists and other educationalists, the
stages and levels of moral development, the factors that bring about diversity in the classroom, and share
their insights on diversity as an enriching element in the learning environment.

At the end of each chapter, students are expected to present their personal analysis on the
important ideas of the theorists, submit a research work reflective of the knowledge gained from the
lessons, and a creative group presentation of teaching strategies most especially focusing on students’
diversity and other factors of development which can be in a form of song, poem, jingle, slide share or
power point.

General Objectives At the end of the chapter the students can:

1. Review the various theories related to the learners’ development;

2. Share their knowledge and ideas on factors that bring about student diversity;
3. Discuss individual differences as one of the factors in the teaching-learning process;
4. Identify different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences and learners with
exceptionalities; and
5. Demonstrate the factors of learners’ development through simulated activities and group
presentations.

Lesson 1 Review of the Theories Related to the Learners’ Development

What to Expect

Objectives: After the lesson, the students can:

1. Explain the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories by known theorists;
2. Apply these theories to the teaching-learning situations; and
3. Answer the given activities individually and in groups.

Pre-Discussion

Nowadays, the trend of education is brought about by many researches which tell us that we can be
effective channels of learning provided we have the knowledge and the skills to effect and affect the
development of every learner. Students in education must have already gained a previous knowledge of
child and adolescent development which are also considered as one of the foundations of the learners’
development.

As articulated by Jean Piaget and to quote “The principal goal of education is to create men who are
capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done – men who are
creative, inventive, and discovers.”
 FREUD ERIKSON PIAGET

THEORIES RELATED
TO THE LEARNERS
DEVELOPMENT

KOHLBERG VYGOTSKY BONFRENNER

Lesson Outline

SIGMUND FREUD The Psychosexual Stages of Development

In Freudian theory, the human mind is structured into two main parts: the conscious and
unconscious mind. The conscious mind includes all the things we are aware of or can easily bring into
awareness. The unconscious mind, on the other hand, includes all of the things outside of our
awareness—all of the wishes, desires, hopes, urges, and memories that lie outside of awareness yet
continue to influence behavior.

Freud believes that “the mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk water.” The tip of the
iceberg that is actually visible above the water represents just a tiny portion of the mind, while the huge
expanse of ice hidden underneath the water represents the much larger unconscious.

In addition to these two main components of the mind, the Freudian theory also divides human
personality up into three major components: the id, ego, and superego.

1) The id is the most primitive part of the personality that is the source of all our most basic urges.
This part of the personality is entirely unconscious and serves as the source of all libidinal energy.
It is the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains a human's basic, instinctual
drives. Id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.

2) The ego is the component of personality that is charged with dealing with reality and helps
ensure that the demands of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe, and socially
acceptable. It acts according to the reality principle; i.e. it seeks to please the id's drive in realistic
ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bring grief.

3) The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals and standards
that we acquire from our parents, family, and society at large. It reflects the internalization of
cultural rules, mainly taught by parents applying their guidance and influence.

The Freudian theory suggests that as children develop, they progress through a series of
psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido's pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a different parts
of the body.

There are five (5) stages of psychosexual development:

The oral stage: The anal stage: The phallic stage: The latent stage: The genital stage:.

These stages are:

Oral (0 – 1.5 years of age): Fixation on all things oral. If not satisfactorily met there is the likelihood of
developing negative oral habits or behaviors. The libidinal energies are focused on the mouth.
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting
and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure
from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is
entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

Anal (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated this stage is primarily related to developing healthy toilet
training habits. The libidinal energies are focused on the anus.
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their
bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
​ approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate
time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that
positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent,
productive, and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that
children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. Freud,
further believed that inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an
approach that is too lenient, he suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the
individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training
too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

Phallic (3 – 5 year of age): The development of healthy substitutes for the sexual attraction boys and
girls have toward a parent of the opposite gender. The libidinal energies are focused on the penis or
clitoris. Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At
this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.​ Freud also
believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex
describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However,
the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed
castration anxiety. occurs during the Phallic stage of development in which the source of libido (life force)
is concentrated in the erogenous zones of the child's body (Freud, 1905). During this stage, children
experience an unconscious feeling of desire for their opposite-sex parent and jealousy and envy toward
their same-sex parent. It involves a boy, aged between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually
attached to his mother, and hostile towards his father (who he views as a rival).

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy
develops unconscious sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. Envy and Jealous are aimed at the
father, the object of the mother's affection and attention. These feelings for the mother and rivalry toward
the father lead to fantasies of getting rid of his father and taking his place with the mother. The hostile
feelings towards the father lead to castration anxiety, an irrational fear that the father will castrate (remove
his penis) him as punishment. To cope with this anxiety, the son identifies with the father. This means the
son adopts / internalizes the attitudes, characteristics and values that his father holds (e.g. personality,
gender role, masculine dad-type behaviors etc.). The father becomes a role model rather than a rival.
Through this identification with the aggressor, boys acquire their superego and the male sex role. The boy
substitutes his desire for his mother with the desire for other women. Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans
case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. However, the Electra
complex is a term used to describe the female version of the Oedipus complex. It involves a girl, aged
between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually attached to her father and increasingly hostile toward
her mother. For girls, the Electra complex begins with the belief that she’s already been castrated. She
blames her mother for this and experiences penis envy. For girls to develop their superego and female
sex role, they need to identify with the mother. But the girl’s motivation for giving up her father as a love-
object in order to move back to her mother is much less obvious than the boy’s for identifying with his
father. As a consequence, girls’ identification with their mothers is less complete than boys’ with their
fathers. In turn, this makes the female superego weaker and their identity as separate, independent
persons is less well developed.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved
and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed
this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as
womb envy.

Latency (5 – 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant sexual feelings for the opposite sex.
A period of calm in which little libidinal interest is present. During this stage, the superego continues to
develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships
with peers and adults outside of the family. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this
period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration
in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into
other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence. As with the other psychosexual
stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation
at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Genital (12 – adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are integrated into the mind allowing for
the onset of healthy sexual feelings and behaviors. The libidinal energies are focused on the genitals. The
onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins
during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely
on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to
establish a balance between the various life areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully,
the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. Unlike the many of the earlier stages of
development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point.
Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and
wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the
need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

It is during these stages of development that the experiences are filtered through the three levels
of the human mind. It is from these structures and the inherent conflicts that arise in the mind that
personality is shaped. According to Freud while there is an inter-dependence among these three levels,
each level also serves a purpose in personality development. Within this theory the ability of a person to
resolve internal conflicts at specific stages of their development determines future coping and functioning
ability as a fully-mature adult. A fixation can involve an over-dependence or obsession with something
related to that phase of development. For example, a person with an "oral fixation" is believed to be stuck
at the oral stage of development. Signs of an oral fixation might include excessive reliance on oral
behaviors such as smoking, biting fingernails, or eating.

ERIK ERIKSON Theory on Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erik Homberger Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was
interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of
human beings. Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each
stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. His theory of
psychosocial development holds to the idea that an individual’s personality developed in a series of
stages. Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan of a person
from infancy to adulthood (Cherry, 2018). He was interested in how social interaction and relationships
played a role in the development and growth of human beings.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development focus on the resolution of different crises to

become a successful, complete person. Psychosocial theory proposed that we are motivated by a need
to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to this theory, we experience eight stages
of development over our lifespan. In each stage, Erikson said that we experience crisis or conflict that we
need to resolve. When each developmental task is completed successfully, it would boast our sense of
competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks would result to feelings of
inadequacy.

The Basic Principles of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory focuses on the

following:
 Epigenetic Principle - refers to the idea that development progresses through a series of
interrelated stages and that each stage has a critical period of development
 Psychosocial Crisis– refers to the turning points; conflict between opposing psychological
qualities (Cengage Learning)

Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred
to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy in that aspect of development. The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust
is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in
their life. If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.

During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when
caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to
develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all
about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope,
which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be
present.
Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the
importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At this point in
development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic
actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's
bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Children who struggle
and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during
this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame
and doubt. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between
autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention,
within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point
in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and
able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack
of initiative. The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an
ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality
known as purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages
5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments
and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Children who are encouraged and commended
by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little
or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
 Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before
them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior
and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a
weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.2 Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. When
psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape
and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson
described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on
challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity. Our personal identity is important because
it gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of
personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that
helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early
adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people
develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous
steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less
committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and
depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the
ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating
a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue
to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel
that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.2 Those who fail to
attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this
stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into
adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. At
this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy
with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do. Erikson's theory differed from
many others because it addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older
adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back
on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of
peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should have.​ Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will
feel that their life has been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings
of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

In addition, recent research has suggested further elaboration of the primary conflicts of the
generativity vs. stagnation stage. These include:
• Inclusivity versus exclusivity: This crisis centers on the scope of caregiving activities and on
what and who an individual is willing to include in his or her life. This stage reflects the trust versus
mistrust stage of early childhood.
• Pride versus embarrassment: This aspect of the generativity versus stagnation stage is
centered on the sense of pride that adults take in their family and children. In many ways, it mirrors the
autonomy versus shame and doubt stage of early childhood.
• Responsibility versus ambivalence: This adulthood crisis centers on whether people choose to
take responsibility for their lives and choices. It reflects the initiative versus guilt stage seen earlier during
childhood.
• Productivity versus inadequacy: Work plays a major role in adulthood, so it is no surprise that an
individual’s sense of pride and accomplishment in their work can lead to feelings of productivity. This
stage mirrors the industry versus inferiority stage of childhood.
• Parenthood versus self-absorption: This aspect of adulthood centers on reaching out and
contributing to the next generation. This can occur through parenting although not all people who produce
offspring necessarily become supportive and giving parents and those who do not have children are still
able to give to the next generation in meaningful ways. This part of the generativity versus stagnation
stage reflects many of the aspects of the earlier identity versus role confusion stage of adolescence.
• Honesty versus denial: As the generativity stages draw to a close and people approach the final
stage of life, finding meaning plays an increasingly critical role. Self-knowledge and self-understanding
have an important role during this phase of the generativity versus stagnation stage.

Implications in Education
 Allow the child to play with various natural, simple materials, and role-playing for the expression
of fantasy and imagination.
 Introduce games, stories and songs that are meaningful and enjoyable. Real-life activities like
serving food, chopping vegetables or cooking prepare children for participation in the community
around them.
 Child-directed activities where the child chooses his or her activity and repeats it as often as they
want must be encouraged.
 Teachers who know how to apply psychosocial development in the classroom create a safe
environment where each child feels appreciated and comfortable exploring new knowledge and
relationships rather than letting fear inhibit learning.

JEAN PIAGET The Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget's stages of development are part of a theory about the phases of normal intellectual
development, from infancy through adulthood. This includes thought, judgment, and knowledge. The
stages were named after psychologist and developmental biologist Jean Piaget, who recorded the
intellectual development and abilities of infants, children, and teens. It is concerned with children, rather
than all learners.
▪ It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or
specific behaviors.
▪ It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual
increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then
the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. For Piaget, cognitive
development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation
and environmental experience.
Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between
what they already know and what they discover in their environment. Along with the stages of
development, Piaget's theory has several other main concepts or basic components,

Three Basic Components to Piaget's Cognitive Theory

Schemas- Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean
that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience or to plan
future actions. Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a
mental representation of the world (building blocks of knowledge). It is "a cohesive, repeatable action
sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core
meaning." Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how
they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of
the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store
these mental representations and apply them when needed.

For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is
a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and
paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a restaurant,
they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation. Piaget believed that newborn babies
have a small number of innate schemas - even before they have had many opportunities to experience
the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These
reflexes are genetically programmed into us.
For example also, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips.
A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the
baby has a 'sucking schema.' Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the
palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which
touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas,
grasping and shaking.
Adaptation processes enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation, and
accommodation). Jean Piaget (1952 viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to
the world. This happens through:
Assimilation which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Example of Assimilation
A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his
father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).
Accommodation this happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be
changed to deal with a new object or situation.
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even
though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to
make people laugh. With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and
make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
Equilibration (Equilibrium) is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a
child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state
of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and
will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information
is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to
make an adjustment to it.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages
of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought. His theory
focuses on understanding how children acquire knowledge regarding fundamental concepts such as
object permanence, number, categorization, quantity, causality, and justice. Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development are broken down into four (4) stages namely the:

Sensorimotor - Birth to ages 18-24 months

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists,
even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.
During the early stages, according to Piaget, infants are only aware of what is right in front of them. They
focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate environment.
Because they don't yet know how things react, they're constantly experimenting. They shake or throw
things, put things in their mouth, and learn about the world through trial and error. The later stages
include goal-oriented behavior that leads to a desired result.

Between ages 7 and 9 months, infants begin to realize that an object exists even though they can
no longer see it. This important milestone -- known as object permanence -- is a sign that memory is
developing. After infants start crawling, standing, and walking, their increased physical mobility leads to
more cognitive development. Near the end of the sensorimotor stage (18-24 months), infants reach
another important milestone -- early language development, a sign that they are developing some
symbolic abilities.

Characteristics and Developmental Changes (Cherry, 2018):

 The infant interacts to the world through their reflexes and sensations.
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence).
 Infants learn about the environment through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

Preoperational, 2-7 years

During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make
one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself. Thinking is still egocentric, and the
infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. During this stage (toddler through age 7), young
children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also
develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and
future, and engage in make-believe. But their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical.
They cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison

Characteristics and Developmental Changes (Cherry, 2018):

 Children think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
 Children tend to be egocentric and see things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.

Here are some examples that we can be apply in classroom situations :

 One way to do this is by playing dress up and encouraging the child to take on a character.
 Sometimes children in this age group enjoy playing house. This is also a good activity because
they are playing different roles that they have observed in their own lives.
 Hands on activities should also be facilitated at this time.
 Encourage children to play with toys that change shape (ex: play of sand, clay, water) because
this will help them move towards the concept of conservation.
Concrete operational – 7-11 years
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development
because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out
internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). Children can conserve
number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something
stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. At this time, elementary-age and
preadolescent children -- ages 7 to 11 -- show logical, concrete reasoning.

Children's thinking becomes less focused on themselves. They're increasingly aware of external events.
They begin to realize that their own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or
may not even be part of reality. But during this stage, most children still can't think abstractly or
hypothetically.

Characteristics and Developmental Changes (Cherry, 2018)

 During this stage, children begin to think logically or think “operational thought” about concrete
events.
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation that something stays the same in quantity
even though its appearance changes. For example, the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is
equal to that in a tall, skinny glass.
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.
 Children begin using inductive reasoning from specific information to a general principle.

Piaget’s Concepts during Concrete Operational Stage:

Seriation is the ability to sort objects or situations according to any characteristic, such as size,
color, shape, or type. Some examples of a seriation exercises would be: children putting objects in order,
or arrange objects from smallest to largest, largest to smallest, shortest to tallest or thinnest to thickest
and so forth. This is a very important concept to master for children to learn in school, especially in math
and science (Chouraeshkenasi, 2018).

Classification is the ability to simply group a set of objects and to group around a common
category of attributes (Aquino, 2016). For example, the bunch of animals in the picture to the right can be
grouped based on their color, size, number of legs, or type of animal. You can have young children
classify anything, including fruits, flowers, vegetables, or toy cars. Once they have classified objects
accordingly, children can compare objects further to learn more specific similarities and differences
between objects, both within and between matched groups.

Conservation is the ability to understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass,
number, volume or length. Piaget's famous example of conservation was performed using liquids poured
into different shaped containers. Though the volume of liquid remains the same across the two containers,
each container has a very different visual appearance, with one being tall and thin, while another was
short and wide. Based on his observation, Piaget concluded that children were able to appreciate that
the total amount of liquid was unchanged despite being poured into differently shaped containers.

Decentering (also known as Decentration) refers to the ability to consider multiple aspects of a
situation. For example, when a child is asked to choose between two lollipops, a child might choose
based on flavor, color, and size of the lollipops before choosing the biggest, reddest, cherry-flavored
lollipop available. Decentration is good at times because it allows multiple pieces of information to be
considered at once.

Transitivity is the ability to recognize relationships among various things in a serial order. For
example, when a child is told to put away his books according to height, the child recognizes that he
starts with placing the tallest one on one end of the bookshelf and the shortest one ends up at the other
end.
 Reversibility is the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to
their original condition or an awareness that actions can be reversed (Cherry, 2018). An example of this is
being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be
able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Formal operational – 11 years and over

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During
this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.
Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development -- usually at age 11-plus -- are able to
use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about things in
systematic ways, come up with theories, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract
relationships and concepts such as justice. Although Piaget believed in lifelong intellectual growth, he
insisted that the formal operational stage is the final stage of cognitive development. He also said that
continued intellectual development in adults depends on the buildup of knowledge.

Piaget's 1936 theory broke new ground because he found that children's brains work in very
different ways than adults'. Before his theory, many believed that children were not yet capable of thinking
as well as grown-ups. Some experts disagree with his idea of stages. Instead, they see development as
continuous. Another criticism is that Piaget didn't consider how a child's culture and social environment
affect their development. Piaget acknowledged that some children may pass through the stages at
different ages than the averages noted above. He also said some children may show characteristics of
more than one stage at a given time. But he insisted that: cognitive development always follows this
sequence. Stages cannot be skipped; each stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a more
complex understanding of the world;

 Children need physical, hands on practice with facts and skills needed for development.
 Use cut-out letters to build words.
 Avoid lessons that are very different from the child's world. Then, steer away from using
workbooks or paper and pencil activities very often.

Piaget emphasized the importance of "hypothetico-deductive reasoning" during the formal

operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical "what-if" situations that are not always
rooted in reality, i.e. counterfactual thinking. It is often required in science and mathematics.
 Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to think very
concretely and specifically in earlier stages, and begin to consider possible outcomes and
consequences of actions.
 Metacognition, the capacity for "thinking about thinking" that allows adolescents and adults to
reason about their thought processes and monitor them.
 Problem-solving is demonstrated when children use trial-and-error to solve problems. The ability
to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges (Gallagher, and Reid,
2002).

Characteristics and Developmental Changes (Cherry, 2018):

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
 Abstract thought emerges. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Here are some examples that we can apply in classroom situations :

 Give children an opportunity to manipulate objects and test out ideas
 Do simple experiments having limited number of steps with three or less variables at a time
 Reading selections should have a limited number of characters
 Students should have practice classifying objects and ideas on complex levels
 Use analogies to show the relationship of new material to already acquired knowledge.
Teaching implications of Piaget's theory (Slavin 2005; Khalid (2015):

In the 21st century classroom learning is learner-centered and accomplished through active
discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to guide and facilitate learning. Therefore, teachers should
encourage the following within the classroom:

1. A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for
a correct answer, teachers should emphasize the student's understanding and process they used to get
the answer.
2. Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiated, active involvement in learning activities.
Children should take an active role in the learning process such as acting much like little scientists as
they perform experiments, make observations, inquire, reflecting, discussing and learn about the world.
As they interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
3. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts that
children go through all the same developmental stages, however they do so at different rates. Because of
this, teachers must make special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of
children rather than for the whole class group.
4. Provision for collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each
other).The classroom teacher acts as a learning guide who manages the activities and directs student
learning but who does this through activities that require students’ engagement in a variety of ways –
perhaps working in groups, or in teams, by pairs or focusing independently at different times.
5. The teacher must encourage students to discuss, reflect, analyze, understand and create things.
Teachers must facilitate students by asking queries, questions, and posing problems to solve; they must
stimulate students thinking by providing them with situations to create something ; they should listen to
them carefully as well as observing them minutely and then trying to suggest new ways to learn better.

Piaget emphasized teaching through discovery, the learner is challenged to use his abilities and
concrete experiences. According to Piaget, ideas and concepts cannot be communicated directly from
teacher to learner. Instead, the learner must construct his or her own knowledge system that is derived
from concrete experience. Piaget viewed the teacher’s role essentially as a facilitative one and the
teacher must not be coercive or authoritative. (Semmar & Al-Thani, 2015).

LEV VYGOTSKY Theory on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky's theory of language development focused on social learning and the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level of development obtained when children engage in social
interactions with others; it is the distance between a child's potential to learn and the actual learning that
takes place.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

The zone of proximal development is a concept that was created by influential psychologist Lev
Vygotsky. According to him, the Zone of Proximal Development is: "The distance between the actual
development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development
as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers." (Vygotsky, 1935). In the ZPD we have to consider the Upper Limit which defines the level of
additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance of an able instructor and the Lower Limit
which is the level of problem solving reached on different tasks by the child working alone. There are a
few essential factors that are critical to the success of this learning process:
 The presence of someone with the knowledge and skills to guide the learner (‘more
knowledgeable other”)
 Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the mentor or teacher that help guide the learner
through the ZPD
 Social interactions that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills
The "More Knowledgeable Other"
The concept of the "more knowledgeable other" is quite simple and fairly self-explanatory. The
more knowledgeable other is someone who has a higher level of knowledge than the learner. It is the
more knowledgeable other who provides critical guidance and instruction during the sensitive learning
period. While a child might not yet be capable of doing something on their own, they are able to perform
the task with the assistance of a skilled instructor.

Scaffolding
When children are in this zone of proximal development, providing them with the appropriate
assistance and tools gives students what they need to accomplish the new task or skill. These activities,
instructions, tools, and resources are known as scaffolding. Eventually, the scaffolding can be removed
and the student will be able to complete the task independently. While scaffolding is now almost
synonymous with the zone of proximal development, it is not a concept that was initially introduced by
Vygotsky. Instead, this component has been put forth by other researchers who have expanded upon the
original theories. Here is an example of Scaffolding
Scene: Mom is helping child construct a puzzle. They have a model that they can refer to. The child tries
to place green pieces where they do not belong.
Mom: Did we find any green up here? (points to model)
Child: (looks at model) This one. (points to incorrect place
in the model)
Mom: I think maybe that’s a leftover. Do you think so?
Child: (nods)
Mom: Maybe we don’t need the green one, cause there isn’t
any green one up there, is there. Remember?
Child: (looks at pieces pile, puts green pieces back, chooses two appropriate pieces.

Another example of ZPD in the classroom is: A teacher in an experimental psychology course
might initially provide scaffolding for students by coaching them step-by-step through their experiments.
Next, the teacher might slowly remove the scaffolding by only providing outlines or brief descriptions of
how to proceed. Finally, students would be expected to develop and carry out their experiments
independently.

Social Interaction
This more knowledgeable other is often a parent, teacher, or another adult, but this is not always
the case. In many instances, peers provide valuable assistance and instruction. During certain periods of
a child's life, they may even look to peers more than they look to adults. The teen years, when forming an
identity and fitting in is so critical, is just one example. Kids at this age often look to their peers for
information about how to act and how to dress. Vygotsky believed that peer interaction was an essential
part of the learning process. In order for children to learn new skills, he suggested pairing more
competent students with less skilled ones.

Figure 1 Vygotsky’s Basic Idea of Language and Thought

socialized
speech

private communicative
speech speech

Inner speech
 He emphasizes the social contexts of learning, and that knowledge is mutually
built and constructed.

Vygotsky’s Overall Teaching Recommendations

 Assess child’s Zone of Proximal Development
 Provide just enough assistance
 Use more skilled peers as teachers
 Encourage private speech, self-regulation

COGNITIVE and LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

WHAT IS LANGUAGE ? HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPS?

BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

INFLUENCES

Figure 2 Vygotsky’s Cognitive and Language Development Theory

Language is …….
…a form of communication, spoken, written, or
signed, that is based on a system of symbols.

Phonology - - - - - Sound system of a language

Morphology - - - - Units of meaning involved in word formation

Syntax - - - - - -- - Rules for combining words into phrases/sentences

Semantics - - - - - Meaning of words and sentences

Pragmatics - - - - Appropriate use of language in different contexts

Biological and Environmental

Influences

Children are neither exclusively

biological linguists
nor
social architects of language.

Interactionists emphasize the

contribution of both.
 Key Milestones in Language Development
 Preschool: learn morphological rules like plurals, -ed for the past tense
 Preschool: learn and apply the rules of syntax, e.g., how to form wh- questions
 Middle Childhood: vocabulary development continues at a breathtaking pace and development
of metalinguistic awareness – knowledge of language, e.g., what a preposition is.
 Adolescence: Greater understanding of metaphors, satire, and complex literary works.
 Adolescence: Writing improves as planning and revising skills are enhanced.

Supporting Vocabulary Development

 Increase opportunities for reading & writing
 Computers
 Relate the new to the known
 Promote active, in-depth processing
 Everyday conversations: introduce and elaborate on new words
 Give students an opportunity to use words in a variety of contexts

STUDY IN VOCABULARY TRAINING

Read the following passage with the difficult or the easy words.

Lynda and Mely went to school in Davao City. They were antagonists (enemies). They saw each other
often. They had lots of altercations (fights). At the end of high school, Mely maligned (said bad things
about) Lynda. Then Mely moved away. Lynda stayed in Davao City. She got a job as a bailiff (worked for
a judge). One day Lynda was working, and she saw Mely. Mely did not see Lynda. Mely looked
apprehensive (afraid). She was being incarcerated (under arrest).
Note: Students from both groups performed equally well on literal questions, but the students with the
difficult words did much worse on inference questions.

STUDY IN VOCABULARY TRAINING

Sample Test Questions
Literal Questions such as:
Mely and Lynda saw each other ____________ in school.
(a) never (c) frequently
(b) not much (d) often
Inference Questions such as:
Lynda works in a ____________ .
(a) school (c) courthouse
(b) hospital (d) university

STUDY IN VOCABULARY TRAINING

Sample of Training Format
Teacher: This word is “altercations.” What word is this?
Student: “Altercations.”
Teacher: Correct, “altercations.” What does “altercations” mean? (points to meaning on index card).
Student: “Fights.”
Teacher: Yes, “altercations” means “fights.” Listen do you
have altercations with your teacher? [student responds] Do you have altercations with a tree? [student
responds]. So what does “altercations” mean?
Student: “Fights.”
Teacher: (after similar questions about “antagonist”) Listen, Do you have any antagonists” ? [student
responds] Do you have any altercations with your antagonists? [student responds]

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG Levels and Sub-Stages of Moral Development

 Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle
but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories
involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between
the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. One
of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in
Europe.

A situation was presented that Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors
said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and
this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help
from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have
the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered
the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that
night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug. Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?

3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?

4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions, Kohlberg hoped to
discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys
aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What Kohlberg was mainly interested
in was not whether the boys judged the action right or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He
found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.

Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. Each level has two sub-stages.
People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning
typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a
personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is
based on the physical consequences of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being
punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
In the earliest stage of moral development, obedience, and punishment is especially common in young
children. At this stage, Kohlberg says, children see rules as fixed and absolute (Cherry, 2018). The child
assumes that powerful authorities laid down a fixed set of rules which he or she must follow and obey
(Crain, 1985).
Obeying the rules set by authorities is important, otherwise severe punishment will follow (Niekerk,
2014).The child does what is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must
have done something wrong (McLeod, 2013). For example, a child may think, 'I don't want to be scolded
by my teacher so I'm not going to spank my classmate!'.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right
view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. They account
for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. It also focuses
on self-reward. Moral decisions in this stage are based on getting a reward that is personally meaningful.
For example, a child may think, 'I want a new dress, so I will help mom wash the dishes.’ Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2 - Conventional morality

At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral
standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is
based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. The emphasis is more on parental rules
and societal laws. Individuals base their decisions on what their parents, authorities and/or law enforcers
say is right.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which
the person belongs.
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others (Niekerk, 2014).
Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. For example, a student may think, 'Students who
cheat on tests are bad, so I will not cheat.' During this stage, children are entering their teensee morality
as more than simple deals. They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family and
society and behave in "good" ways. Good behavior means having good motives and interpersonal
feelings such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others.(Crain, 1985). Another example, a child
gives away her lunch to one of the street children because she thinks doing so means being nice.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
Niekerk (2014) noted that the individual is becoming more concerned with society as a whole as well as
with how important it is to maintain the social order. This stage speaks about the rule, the law and order
for everyone. The individual is concerned about obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid
guilt (McLeod, 2013; Corpuz et.al. 2013). For example, someone may think, “If I steal, I will break the law
and breaking the law is wrong.”

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights
and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15%
are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is
to say, most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through
ethical principles for themselves.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
Niekerk (2014) noted that the individual is becoming more concerned with society as a whole as well as
with how important it is to maintain the social order. This stage speaks about the rule, the law and order
for everyone. The individual is concerned about obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid
guilt (McLeod, 2013; Corpuz et.al. 2013). For example, someone may think, “If I steal, I will break the law
and breaking the law is wrong.”
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws
might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of
particular individuals The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection
of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines
which may or may not fit the law (.(Sincero, 2012). The principles apply to everyone. E.g.,human rights,
justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going
against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or
imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.
Cherry (2018) stressed that Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even
if they conflict with laws and rules.

According to Barger (2000), Kohlberg believed that people progress in their moral reasoning. He
proposed six stages of moral development which could be classified into three levels.
First level - moral thinking is focused at the elementary school level.
Stage 1
 The child/individual behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so
by some authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher).
 Obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment.
Stage 2
 Views that right behavior means acting in one's own best interests.
Second level- moral thinking is focused in society. Young people think as members of the conventional
society with its values, norms, and expectations.
Stage 3
 The individual, being a good person, has an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the
approval of others.
Stage 4
 One is oriented to abide and obey the law and respond to the obligations of duty.
Third level- moral thinking according to Kohlberg is not reached by the majority of adults. Individuals are
less concerned with maintaining society for itsown sake, and more concerned with the principles and
values that make for a good society.
Stage 5
 Understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others.
Stage 6
 Emphasizes respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience.
 Implications to Teaching (Ethridge, 2018):

During stage one, children behave in order not to be punished. At stage two, they become good boys
and girls to earn rewards. By stage three, children begin thinking about the welfare of other people and
caring about their expectations. So, teachers should give students the opportunity to help create a
classroom code of conduct. Through this, they will become responsible for the rules that they set and
follow them accordingly, rather than blindly agreeing to standards set by school administrators or other
authorities. Some of the activities that may be given to the learners are as follows:
• Provide group projects where students work together toward the understanding of curriculum instead of
sitting back and listening to the teacher talk at them. Group activities encourage engagement.
• Give the students opportunities to hear different perspectives especially in deciding what is right or
wrong. Have discussions, forums, debates, etc. about certain issues. This will be more meaningful if the
issues are related to the students' lives (Losabia, 2010).
• Discuss issues in a multicultural or global perspective. Present them how are certain issues tackled in
other cultures. Through this, students can widen their understanding and learn to respect different views
and beliefs.
• Be an example to the students. We must walk our talk so to speak. Values are caught than taught. So
as teachers, we must present values and attitudes worth emulating.

URIE BRONFENBRENNER Bio-Ecological Systems Theory

The Ecological Systems Theory of Bronfenbrenner looks at a child’s development within the
context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment. Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines
complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s development. This theory has recently
been renamed “bio-ecological systems theory” to emphasize that a child’s own biology is a primary
environment fueling her development. The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.
Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development
then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the
larger environment as well.

How is a child's development affected by their social relationships and the world around them?
Ecological systems theory provides one approach to answering this question. The ecological systems
theory was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. He believed that a person's development was affected by
everything in their surrounding environment. He further divided the person's environment into five different
levels: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem. In
this lesson, you will learn about these different environmental levels by meeting five-year-old Alex and
examining the influences in his life.

Microsystem
We will begin with the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory: the microsystem. The microsystem is
the system closest to the person and the one in which they have direct contact. Some examples would be
home, school, daycare, or work. A microsystem typically includes family, peers, or caregivers.
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional. In other words, your reactions to the people in your
microsystem will affect how they treat you in return. This is the most influential level of the ecological
systems theory.

Let's look at the microsystem Alex lives in. The first part of his microsystem is his home
environment. This includes his interactions with his parents and little sister. Alex's school is also part of
his microsystem. His regular school interactions are with his kindergarten teacher and the other children
in his class.

The microsystem
This is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct
contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate
surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include family, school, neighborhood, or
childcare environments. At this level, relationships have impact in two directions - both away from the
child and toward the child. For example, a child’s parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however,
the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional
influences, and he shows how they occur among all levels of environment. The interaction of structures
within a layer and interactions of structures between layers is key to this theory. At the microsystem level,
bi-directional influences are strongest and have the greatest impact on the child. However, interactions at
outer levels can still impact the inner structures.

Mesosystem
The next level of ecological systems theory is the mesosystem. The mesosystem consists of the
interactions between the different parts of a person's microsystem. The mesosystem is where a person's
individual microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon
one another. These interactions have an indirect impact on the individual. this layer provides the
connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000).

Examples: the connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and
his neighborhood, etc. One aspect of Alex's mesosystem would be the relationship between his parents
and his teacher. His parents take an active role in his school, such as attending parent/teacher
conferences and volunteering in his classroom. This has a positive impact on his development because
the different elements of his microsystem are working together. Alex's development could be affected in a
negative way if the different elements of his microsystem were working against one another.

Exosystem
The exosystem is the next level we will examine. The exosystem refers to a setting that does not
involve the person as an active participant, but still affects them. This includes decisions that have
bearing on the person, but in which they have no participation in the decision-making process. An
example would be a child being affected by a parent receiving a promotion at work or losing their job. One
part of Alex's exosystem would be his father's workplace. Alex's father is in the Navy. This often takes him
away from the family, and Alex sometimes does not see his father for months at a time. This situation
impacts Alex, and he becomes anxious when his father leaves. This layer defines the larger social system
in which the child does not function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s development by
interacting with some structure in her microsystem (Berk,2000). Parent workplace schedules or
community-based family resources are examples. The child may not be
directly involved at this level, but he does feel the positive or negative force involved with the interaction
with his own system.
The macrosystem
This layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment. While not being a
specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The effects
of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of
all other layers. For example, if it is the belief of the culture that parents should be solely responsible for
raising their children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This, in turn, affects
the structures in which the parents function. The parents’ ability or inability to carry out that responsibility
toward their child within the context of the child’s microsystem is likewise affected.

The chronosystem
This system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments. Elements
within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the
physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child. As children get older, they may react differently
to environmental
changes and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence them.

Nature vs. Nurture?

More modern child development theories accept that both a child’s biology and his environment
play a role in change and growth. Theories now focus on the role played by each and the extent to which
they interact in ongoing development. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on the quality
and context of the child’s environment. He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these
environments becomes more complex. This complexity can arise as the child’s physical and cognitive
structures grow and mature. So, given that nature continues on a given path, how does the world that
surrounds the child help or hinder continued development? This is the question answered by
Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

Urie Bronfenbrenner, uses his bio-ecological model to provide a startlingly clear view of the
problems we have been seeing in our students and in our families. He says that technology has changed
our society, and while we are taking great pains to safeguard the physical environment from the damage
done by a technology, we have spent no resources to provide similar safeguards to the damage done to
our societal environment. (Henderson, 1995). Our economy has shifted from an industrial model to a
technological model, yet the patterns of the workplace have continued to rely on the factory work ethic.
Parents are expected to work a schedule that revolves around the factory whistle – even though they may
work in a high tech office. Also of concern to Bronfenbrenner is the “deficit” model used to determine the
level of support granted by the public to struggling families. Parents must declare themselves deficient in
some way in order to qualify for help in solving problems that may come about because of our cultural
value of independence. A larger degree of failure means a larger amount of support. By working from this
deficit model, we expect families to hold their hands up from deep inside a black hole of helplessness.
Then, we expect them to have the psychological strength to climb up the thin rope the throw down.

Common Real life Situations where Teachers can apply the Bio-Ecological Theory

Example # 1:
An example would be between a child and their religious setting. This would be considered part of the
Microsystem of Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model. When a child's parents are religious, often the
child is taken to their parents' place of worship. They are taught the values and morals of that religion and
are expected to live by the "rules" of the religion. For instance, a child who was raised in a devout Muslim
home would not eat anything containing pork. In other cases, children who are raised in extremist homes,
for example, are more likely to be racist or prejudice against certain groups of people.

Example #2:
Another real life example would be between a child and their cultural values. This would be considered
part of the macrosystem of Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model. A culture's values are its ideas about
what is good, right, and just. A child raised in the United States of America could have a different set of
cultural values than a child raised in an Asian home especially in Mindanao. Cultural values are based on
the setting in which we were raised. For example, if a child is raised to believe that they are not to look at
people of authority when being reprimanded or spoken to, they are not likely to look a teacher in the eye
when the teacher is speaking to them even though in the United States, it is seen as disrespectful to not
look at someone in the eye when they're talking to you. Another example would be how a child is dressed.
In America, it's normal for kids to go out in the summer dressed in t shirts and shorts however, a child
who is raised in Marawi that it is immoral to show skin would not be found in shorts in the summer time.
Our values are what drive our decisions.
Example #3:
The relationship between the child and their parents. When parents are going through a divorce it can
create an unstable environment. Children have no control over their parents getting a divorce. This type
of microsystem will have a potential negative effect on the child, that the parents don’t realize it at the
time. When the parents are going through a divorce the children’s environment becomes the complete
opposite than what they had been accustomed to. They have to go from that stable two- parent home to
having two separate homes and environment. The divorce immediately throws out any kind of stable of
environment that the child is any remotely close too. This type of negative environment cannot have such
a toll not only on the child’s home life but also their education. It starts to become a less of priority for the
family because there are a lot more factors that have to be played into their new situation.

Example #4:
Another real life example is between family and school. An example of this is when the parents join the
PTA. When the family is involved with school it becomes a positive aspect for the children. Children
usually tend to view school as a boring and stressful environment. When they see that their parents are
involved and enjoy it, then children could tend to start developing this positive aspect. Another factor of
this is that when the family is involved with the school the family can become more involved with one
another. The PTA set up so many different events throughout the school term that they are always in the
knowing with what is going on with the school. It sets aside time where they can spend some more time
together and it also will help give them more time to talk about. The parents can start to learn more about
their children and who their friends are. Bronfenbrenner says it is important to have that positive
relationship between the family and schools. If the family does not have that relationship then children
could suffer when it comes to their education.
Example #5:
The relationship between the child and his or her peer group. The direct relationship between the two will
fall into Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem because it deals with immediate relationships. Peer groups in
school have a great influence on a child. In order to fit into social settings, a child will follow after their
peer group. A child will change their certain behaviors in order to fit that of their peers. Peer groups can
encourage positive behavior such as succeeding in school and participating in extracurricular activities at
school, such as sports, study groups, or clubs. Peer groups can also influence negative behaviors such
as getting involved with illegal substances or situations. Positive relationship with peers can help a child
succeed. Negative relationships with peers can hinder how well a child succeeds.
Example #6:
Another real life example of Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory is in areas in which the child has no
control over. This example falls into Bronfenbrenner’s exosytem. An example would be when a parent is
laid off from a job or the parent has no permanent job. Not only were the parents affected by the loss, but
also the child. The child had no influence over the parents losing their jobs or the repercussions it caused.
When a parent losses their job, the typical environment that the child is use to changes. The parents
could go into a financial crisis. This crisis could cause the family to have to move from one location to
another, allot spending, shortage of food or necessities, and parental stress. All of these factors can lead
to abuse and neglect of the child. In this situation, it will affect the child’s microsystem because his or her
relationship with parents may be affected by the crisis.
Example #7:
An example of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is the relationship between a person and the country
they live in. This would be considered the Macrosystem of Bronfenbrenner’s theory. It includes the broad
ideologies of the culture. Where a person lives can have a huge impact on them. For instance if a person
is living in the United States where there are no active war zones, they are going to affected completely
differently than someone who is living in another country that has active war zones. The person in the
United States would be living a comfortable life, with their biggest problems being that they were late to
an appointment or meeting. A person living in an active war zone could be living comfortably one day and
then could have to move because of increased violence and riots in their neighborhood, thus uplifting
their entire lifestyle. There are many things that seem so distance from an individual in the ecological
systems, but yet they can have a huge impact on their day to day lives. It is something that is taken for
granted, and it should not be. This example shows just how important each of Urie Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems is, even if it is the broadest group. Just because it is not in direct interaction with an
individual does not mean it will not affect them.
Example #8:
Another example of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is the relationship between person and their
neighborhood. This would be considered to be in the person’s exosystem of Bronfenbrenner’s theory. It
includes neighbors, friends, extended family, mass media, social welfare services and legal services.
Narrowing it down to an individual in their neighborhood doesn’t even begin to narrow it down enough,
because of the fact that there are so many different kinds of neighborhoods just within vicinity. One could
live in a subdivision, an apartment complex, or even a squatters area. Where a person lives, and what a
person considers being their neighborhood is a huge aspect of their lives. Though this is also not in the
system considered closest to the individual according to Bronfenbrenner, it is where they identify their
home life. A person’s home life is a huge aspect of how they develop. If a person lives in a wealthy
subdivision they aren’t going to have the same experiences as a person who lives in an inner city
apartment complex. If violence and crime are high in a person’s neighborhood they are not going to be
able to develop or reach their fullest potential due to the lack of the sense of safety and security. There
are just so many aspects of all different kinds of neighborhoods that could have an impact on them and
how they develop.

SUMMARY

While few people are strong proponents of Freud's theory of psychosexual development today,
his work made important contributions to our understanding of human development. Perhaps his most
important and enduring contribution was the idea that unconscious influences could have a powerful
impact on human behavior. Freud's theory also stressed the importance of early experiences in
development. While experts continue to debate the relative contributions of early versus later experiences,
developmental experts recognize that the events of early life play a critical role in the developmental
process and can have lasting effects throughout life. It is important to remember that the psychosocial
stages are just one theory of how personality develops. Some research may support certain aspects of
this theoretical framework, but that does not mean that every aspect of the theory is supported by
evidence. The theory can, however, be a helpful way to think about some of the different conflicts and
challenges that people may face as they go through life.

On the other hand, Piaget's theory has influenced education and parenting. Some practical ways
teachers and parents can put his ideas to work are to: remember that kids often learn best by doing
things, rather than hearing about them; learning to solve problems isn't something that can be taught. It
must be discovered; the process of learning is as important (or more so) than the end result; don't try to
teach a child something they aren’t ready to learn. According to Piaget's stages, kids must master one
level before they move on to the next; and kids learn as much from each other as from parents or
teachers. Give them projects to do together, as well as individual tasks.

However, Lev Vygotsky’s theory is very influential today in the field of education. According to him,
there are a few essential factors that are critical to the success of this learning process namely:
- The presence of someone with the knowledge and skills to guide the learner (‘more knowledgeable
other”);
- Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the mentor or teacher that help guide the learner
through the ZPD; and
- Social interactions that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills.
 It is important to realize that the Zone of Proximal Development is a moving target. As a learner
gains new skills and abilities, this zone moves progressively forward. Teachers and parents can take
advantage of this by continually providing educational opportunities that are a slight stretch of a child's
existing knowledge and skills. By giving children tasks that they cannot quite do easily on their own and
providing the guidance they need to accomplish it, educators can progressively advance the learning
process.

On the other hand, Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan. He was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development
and growth of human beings. Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the
stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy in that aspect of development.
Furthermore, social learning teach people positive behaviors. They learn through observing others’
behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. Both teachers and parents recognize how
important it is to model appropriate behaviors. Novel and unique contexts often capture students’
attention, and can stand out in the memory.

Bronfenbrenner’s work was very important in understanding a systematic approach of human and
social development. His bioecological theory has provided links to why children each develop differently
and what aspects of development are in the child’s control and which are not. It looks not only into the
biological aspect of development, but also the ecology behind it and the environment involved. His theory
is important for educators to understand because it allows the educator to build fundamental relationships
with their students and create a communication rich classroom that involves the parents.
Bronfenbrenner’s work also displays how the community and culture that the children are surrounded by
greatly influence their development as well. Things such as media, school and state policies, or a child’s
neighborhood can shape how he or she develops. Bronfenbrenner creates three separate systems
(microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem) that can all act individually on the child, but also can act in
unison on the child. The child has control over the events in his or her microsystem, but the exosystem
and macrosystem are out of the child’s control. Bronfenbrenner clearly states how each system is vital for
every child’s development and from that, real life events can be related back to a certain system. Events
such as relationships between peers, parents, and teachers all are shaped in a child’s microsystem.
Events that take place in a child’s neighborhood or community all are shaped in a child’s exosystem.
Societal expectations and norms all are shaped in a child’s macrosystem. From Bronfenbrenner’s theory,
it has provided a framework for parents and teachers to build effective relationships from and surround
the child with a positive environment. With immediate relationships and a positive environment, it will
allow the child to develop and succeed to his or her fullest potential possible.

Students are more motivated to pay attention if they see others around them also paying attention.
Teachers must encourage students to develop their individual self-efficacy through confidence building
and constructive feedback. Certain aspects in the curriculum must also be given due consideration so
that students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement.;
in instruction, educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within
important social and environmental contexts.; and most importantly, assessment must be observed
because a learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it.
Educators must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen.
Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.

Assessment

Activity 1 Multiple Choice. Read each statement carefully. Select the letter of
your choice and write your answer on the space provided in each
statement.
1. Erikson's birth to infancy stage is known as _____
A. Initiative vs. Guilt
B. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
C. Identity vs. Role confusion
D. Trust vs. Mistrust

2. The concept of identity demonstrated in teens and adolescents is describe as _____.

A. when they graduate from high school.
B. when they first get their driver's license and their first identification card.
C. when they have an understanding of who they are and their beliefs.
D. when they can relate to other people as individuals.

3. Erikson's developmental stage during the toddler stage (1-3 years ) is called _____.
A. Crawling vs. Walking
B. Dry vs. Wet
C. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
D. Initiative vs. Guilt

4. Erikson's Preschool age (3-6years) is known as the stage of _____.

A. Initiative vs. Guilt
B. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
C. Industry vs. Integrity
D. Ego integrity vs. despair
5. Elementary school (6-12 years) is the stage called _____
A. Intimacy vs. isolation
B. Industry vs. Inferiority
C. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
D. Identity vs. Role Confusion

6. Carlo wants to pour some sugar in his orange juice all by himself. When mother starts to pour the
sugar he puts his hands over the glass and shouts, “No, ME do it!” Carlo is most likely in the stage of
______.
A. trust vs. mistrust
B. initiative vs. guilt
C. autonomy vs. shame and doubt
D. industry vs. inferiority

7. Joanna is starting to make new friends of her age. This is the first time in her life to mingle with adults
who are outside her family. Joanna is in the stage of ______.
A. Early childhood C. Infancy
B. Adolescence D. School age

8. The psychosocial stage in which a child needs to learn important academic skills and compare
favorably with peers in school to achieve competence is the ____ stage.
A. Trust vs. Mistrust
B. Identity vs. Role Confusion
C. Initiative vs. Guilt
D. Industry vs. Inferiority

9. The proponent of Social Learning Theory is ______.

A. Skinner C. Bandura
B. Erickson D. Piaget

10. This is the key component in the Social Learning Theory.

A. Individuals learn through observing and interacting with one another in a social environment
B. Behavior occurs through fighting
C. Behavior occurs through influences of others
D. Learning by doing
11. According to Bandura learning ______
A. can occur in the absence of a response
B. is facilitated by the unconscious mind.
C. performance are identical.
D. is not facilitated by reinforcement

12. Modeling is enhanced when the person being modeled is _____

A. a low-status person. C. a social isolate
B. attractive. D. a child.

13. Self-efficacy is referred to as ______.

A. People's expectations that they are capable of performing a behavior that will produce desired
outcomes in any particular situation.
B. Doing what you want, when you want and not worrying about the consequences.
C. When self-esteem lowers to the point where people are unwilling to take risks.
D. When a person begins to balance the outcome expectancy of any given situation.

14. Bandura said that in order for observational learning to occur, the observer must:a.) pay attention to
the occurring behavior, b. )be able to remember observed behavior, c. )be motivated to produce the
behavior and lastly, d.) _____.
A. replicate the behavior
B. describe the behavior
C. ignore the behavior
D. recognize the behavior

15. Which of the following is one way a teacher can model a behavior by giving verbal instructions on a
daily basis?
A. Live modeling
B. No modeling is being used
C. Verbal instruction modeling
D. Symbolic modeling

16. Joyce receives a piece of lollipop for submitting her assignment with all correct answers, while
another student submits assignment expecting a piece of lollipop but does not have all correct answers.
The type of reinforcement the teacher will provide is ______.
A. Vicarious reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Direct reinforcement
D. Self-reinforcement

17. People's expectations that they are capable of performing a behavior that will produce desired
outcomes in any particular situation is called _____.
A. self-efficacy D. Self-system
B. outcome expectancy
C. distortion of consequences
18. Motivation is influenced by a number of factors. According to Bandura we are more likely to imitate
models when _____
A. we like the model, we identify with the model, we are familiar with the model and the model is
consistent.
B. we like the model, the model shows us affection, we are familiar with the model, and the model is
consistent.
C. we like the model, we identify with the model, we are familiar with the model and the model is
inconsistent.
D. we like the model, the model shows us affection, we are familiar with the model, and the model is
inconsistent.

19. Who developed a psychosocial theory that divided the developmental process into 8 stages?
A. Erikson C. Maslow
B. Freud D. Rogers

20. According to Erikson, adolescents who experience identity confusion___________?

A. withdraws and isolates themselves from peers and family
B. eventually develop thoughts that are concrete and irrational
C. develop a sense of inferiority
D. develop a post conventional level of moral thinking
21. This is the most successful defense mechanism according to Freud.
A. reaction formation
B. sublimation
C. fixation
D. displacement

22. Freud's stage of psychosexual development take place from age 6 to puberty in which the source of
pleasure shifts from self to other people.
A. anal
B. oral
C. genital
D. latency

23. According to Freud, the unconscious love and sexual desire of male children for their mother is called:
A. psychosexual theory
B. electra complex
C. oedipus complex
D. pleasure principle

24. Which stage of Freud's psychosexual theory involves repressing sexual urges and devoting the time
to other activities?
A. phallic stage D. Oral Stage
B. latency stage
C. genital stage
25. According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, the stage between age five and puberty,
during which there is little psychosexual development is the:
A. Oral stage
B. Anal stage
C. phallic stage
D. Latent stage

26. According to Freud, someone who compulsively bites their nails might have experienced which of the
following as a young child?
A. An overly restrictive breastfeeding schedule
B. Forced toilet training at a developmentally inappropriate age
C. Poor bonding between mother and child
D. Unstimulating activities during key phases of development

27. According to Freud, how might parents being overly demanding during toilet training affect a person's
development?
A. He might become obsessed with control and order
B. He would be more likely to smoke
C. He would become focused on his genitalia
D. He might be slower to reach puberty
28. According to Freud, the phases of psychosexual development establish our _____
A. temper C. personality
B. emotions D. cognition

29. It is the fixation in the oral stage of development manifested by an obsession with stimulating the
mouth.
A. Mouth fixation
B. Oral fixation
C. Anal fixation
D. Phallic fixation

30. It is the term used to describe his theory of child development during the first 21 months of life, in
which an infant's pleasure centers are in the mouth.
A. Oral stage
B. Phallic stage
C. Anal stage
D. Genital stage

31. Around this age the child begins to toilet train which brings about the child's fascination in the
erogenous zone of the anus.
A. Latency period
B. Genital period
C. Anal stage
D. Latency stage

32. It means sexual desire.

A. Aggression
B. Libido
C. Sublimation
D. Repression

33. The "feminine Oedipus attitude" that was posited by Freud as a theoretical counterpart to the Oedipus
complex is called ________?
A. Penis envy
B. Electra complex
C. Oedipus complex
D. Jealousy

34. It is the psychosexual development that occurs between the ages of 3 and 6. The source of pleasure
at this stage is the genitals.
A. Phallic stage
B. Genital period
C. Latency period
D. Anal period

35. It is described as the final stage of human psychosexual development. According to Freud's theories,
this stage begins at puberty and constitutes mature adult sexuality.
A. Anal stage
B. Latency period
C. Genital period
D. Phallic stage

Activity 2 Do a research on Kohlberg’s theory focusing on the following and submit

your answers in not less than 150 words and on a short size bond paper.
1. Are there distinct stages of moral development?

2. Does moral judgment match moral behavior?

3 .Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?

Activity 3 Do a further review of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

focusing on the following aspects:
A. Stage
B. Crisis
C. Significant Person
D. Maladaptation (include descriptions)
E. Malignacy (include descriptions
F. Virtue (include descriptions)

Activity 4 Give and discuss the characteristics, sensory motor stage, and age range
of Piaget’s Four (4) Cognitive Stages of Development’. Further include the
key teaching strategies appropriate in each of the stages.

Activity 5 Based on Bronfrenbenner learning theory, write your comments/insights

on this reflection in not less than 150-200 words.

Reflection: Bronfenbrenner’s theory has been very eye opening to me. I never thought about how the
ecology and biology together has so much influence how a child develops. There are so many factors that
have direct and indirect influence in all areas of how a child develops that can all intermingle at once. As
an educator, I will be involved in a child’s development, along with the influences within a child’s system.
But furthermore than just being the child’s educator, there are other influences outside of me. The school
could also play a role in influencing the child. School policy changes could affect the child and the child
has no role in this or the communication between home and school could affect how well or poorly a child
succeeds. There are also larger community influences that could indirectly affect the child. The child can
be influenced by each of these systems, but can also influence the systems himself. This theory has
made me more aware of the important role I play for a child since I will create a direct relationship with
him or her. The positive relationship I create with the child will have some influence on how well the child
succeeds. From Bronfenbrenner’s theory, I have learned how a child’s bioecological model is all separate
systems that can each influence the other. These systems tier from smaller influences to larger influences.

The microsystem is the direct relationships that the child forms. The exosystem is the situations
that come about that are out of the child’s control. The macrosystem is the broader culture in which the
child lives in. The components of a system can change for the child whenever another system’s
components change as well. I have also learned that the time and duration of situations in each system
can also have influence on the child.

Activity 6 Review the three (3) Levels of Personality and write the important
concepts about them following the given matrix.

Id EGO SUPEREGO
Activity 7 Write down the description, erogenous zone and fixation of each of the
Stages of the Freudian Theory.

ORAL STAGE

ANAL STAGE

PHALLIC STAGE

LATENCY STAGE

GENITAL STAGE

Activity 8 Further review the Stages of Moral Development by Kohlberg and

describe each using the graphic organizer below.

STAGE 1

Pre-
Conventional STAGE 2
 STAGE 3

STAGE 4

Conventional

STAGE 5

Post
Conventional
STAGE 6

Activity 8 Read a research or study on child development and be able to fill out
the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Title and Source in APA

Bibliographical Entry

Findings Conclusions/ Recommendations

Lesson 2 Student Diversity

What to Expect
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom ;
2. demonstrate positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the
learning environment;
3. describe the basic categories of exceptional learners;
4.define important terminologies related to student diversity;
4. discuss multiple intelligences; and
5. apply the knowledge learned by answering the given activities after the lesson

Pre-discussion

The teacher as facilitator of learning is tasked to consider diversity in learning brought about by
individual differences, multiple intelligences, exceptional learners, their learning and thinking styles
among others in planning for effective instruction. This diversity also comes from other factors like the
following: (1).Socio-economic status – the millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle income or
lower income group;
(2). Thinking/ Learning Style – some of you learn better by seeing something; others by just listening; still
others by manipulating something; and (3). Exceptionalities – in class there may be one who has difficulty
in spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some ways different from
them. A teacher may be “challenged “ to handle a class with students so diverse. There may be students
having different cultural background, different language abilities, different attitudes, aptitude and
behaviors. Teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a more
reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn not just for her students, but
for herself, as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity! Read on, discover the
benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to your classroom. One will have to
focus on some important aspects in diversity.

Lesson Outline

Exposing students to others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serve to help students
focus on their awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different, students are given
reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values
and behaviors. This will enhance students’ self-awareness of diversity. Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development
1. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The opportunity to gain access to
the perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be
especially important for promoting the cognitive development of learners. Supreme Court Justice
William J. Brennan said “ the classroom is peculiarly the market place of ideas.” The depth and
breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds.
Student diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied approach to the
learning process. As the German philosopher Nietzsche, said over one hundred years ago “the
more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to
observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”
2. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society.
Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies
that capitalize on diversity “the capacity to imagine situations are problems from all perspectives
and to appreciate all aspects of diversity” furthermore, she argues “the classroom can provide
more than just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom
becomes a public place where community can be practiced.
3. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the
classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race
relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to
interact and collaborate with one another on learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while
capitalizing on their diversity of background. Teachers may consider student diversity by
observing some important tips such as to:
A. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences. Students will be made
to realize that they have something in common with the rest. They also differ in several ways.
B. Integrate learning experience in activities which promote students’ multi-cultural and
cross-cultural awareness.
 You can encourage or even imitate co-curricular experiences that are aimed at promoting
diversity awareness. These activities could be held to coincide with already scheduled
national weeks or months which are designated for appreciation of diverse groups Disability
Awareness Weeks, Linggo ng Wika, Indigenous People Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse backgrounds, foreign
students, students from other ethnic/racial groups. These students of different racial and
ethnic origin serve as source of first- hand information on topics related to their culture. This
can also provide opportunity for interaction among students who may otherwise never come
in contact with each other.
 Invite students to internet discussion groups or email; have students “visit” foreign countries
“talk” to natives of chosen countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or discrimination, and
have them share these experiences with other members of the class.
C. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences. Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a lifetime studying
human diversity across different cultures, concluded from his extensive research that, “every
human is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some human, and like no other human”
(Wong, 1991). His observation suggests a product in the human experience, mainly we are all the
same in different ways. It may be important to pint out to students the biological reality that we,
human being, share a approximately 95% of our genes in common, and the less than 5% of our
genes account for the physical differences that exists among us. When focusing on human
differences, these commonalities should not be overlooked; otherwise, our repeated attempts to
promote student-diversity may inadvertently promote student divisiveness. One way to minimize
this risk, and promote unity along with diversity is to stress the universality of the learning
experience by raising students consciousness of common themes that bind all groups of people
in addition to highlighting the variations on those themes.
 Periodically place students in homogenous groups on the basis of shared demographic
characteristics (e.g., same gender groups or same race/ethnicity groups), and have them
share their personal views or experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a panel
comprise of representatives from each group who will report their groups’ ideas. You can
serve as moderator and identify the key differences and recurrent themes- that emerge
across different groups, or students who are not on the panel can be assigned this task.
 Try to form groups of students who are different with respect to the demographic
characteristics but similar with respect to another (e.g., similar gender but different with
respect to race/ethnicity, or similar in age but different gender). This practice can serve to
increase student awareness that humans who are members of different groups can, at the
same time, be members of the same group – and share similar experiences, needs or
concerns.
 After students have completed self – assessment instruments (e.g., learning style inventories
or personality profiles), have them line-up or move to a corner of the room according to their
individual scores or overall profile. This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how
members of different student populations can be quite similar with respect to their learning
styles or personality profiles, i.e., students can see how individual similarities often
overshadow differences.
D. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups.
  Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse groups by using
effective questioning techniques. That reliably elicit student involvement. In addition, to
consciously calling on them in class, other strategies for “ drawing in “ in involving students
include (a) assigning them the role of reporter in small – group discussion, i.e., the one who
reports back the groups’ ideas to the class, ; (b) having them engaged in paired discussion
with another classmate with the stipulation that each partner must take turns assuming the
role of both listener and speaker; and (c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them
outside the classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that you may have difficulty
pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early personal rapport with them which can
later serve as a social/emotional foundation or spring board for encouraging them to
participate.
E. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities trough which you deliver and present information
(e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic, and pictorial representations, or “hands-on” experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
 Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussion, small group work) and
teacher-centered (e.g., lectures, demonstrations,).
 Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-error discovery learning) and structured
(e.g., step-by-step instructions).
 Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g., independently
completed projects, individual learning in pairs or small groups).
F. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that
are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are relevant to their
varied backgrounds Include the following
 Have students complete personal information card during the first week of class and use
these information to select examples or illustrations that are relevant to their personal
interest and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments, and questions that students raise in class, or which they choose to
write about to help you think of examples and illustrations to use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts based on experiences drawn for
their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is relevant to
their lives (e.g., “how would you show respect to all persons in your home?”)
G. Adapt to students diverse backgrounds or learning styles by allowing them personal
choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they
will learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning tasks ( a) promotes
positive students’ attitudes toward the subject matter; (b) fosters more positive interactions
among students; and (c) results in students’ working more consistently with lesser teacher
intervention. Also, when individuals are allowed to exert some control over a task, they tend to
experience less anxiety or stress while performing that tasks.
H. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with your teaching, but
also by varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning. In addition to the traditional
paper-in-pencil test in written assignments, students can demonstrate their learning in variety of
performance formats, such as (a) individually-delivered oral reports; (b) panel presentations; (c)
group projects; (d) visual presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations, power point
presentations, collages, exhibits),; and (e) dramatic vignettes - presented live or on video tape.
One potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their learning is that
the variety of options exercised may be a powerful way to promote students’ awareness of the
diversity of human learning styles.
I. Purposely, form small – discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You
can form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural backgrounds,
etc.
 Small peer – learning groups may be effective for promoting students’ progress
to a more advanced stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may
promote this cognitive advancement because (a) the instructor is removed from
center stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the
ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students are exposed to the perspectives
of other students, thus increasing their appreciation of multiple view points and
different approaches to learning.

Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles. Individuals think and
learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will always be different learning characteristics,
particularly in the learners manner of processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when
they work with their hands than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a topic.
Students, likewise have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts, feelings, and ideas. Some would
prefer to write, others would draw or even dance and sing. These preferences involve thinking/learning
styles and multiple intelligences.

Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They
describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering, or problem-solving. Furthermore, styles are
usually considered to be bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking style would lie
at a point in a continuum. Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to behave
in a certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality dimension which influences your
attitudes, values and social interaction.

There are several perspectives about learning/ thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory
preferences in the global- analytic continuum.

A. Sensory preferences. Individual stand to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and
maintain a dominance in one of the following types:
Visual learners. These learners must see their teachers actions and facial expression to fully understand
the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view. They may
think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead
transparencies, videos, flip charts, and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussions, visual
learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information. Ri Charde further breaks down
visual learners into:
 Visual - iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as
films, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have good “picture
memory,” a.k.a. iconic imagery and attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better
than to read a book.
 Visual - symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formulae or the written word. They would prefer to read a book than a map
and would like to read about things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers
who do not require practical means for learning.

Auditory learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and
listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meaning of speech through
listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed ,and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning
until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder. They can
attend orally to details, translate the spoken word easily into the written word, and are not easily
distracted in their listening ability. Auditory learners also fall into categories:

 The “Listeners” – This is the more common type. Listeners most likely do well in school. Out of
school too, they remember things said to them and make the information their own. They may
even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing
in their heads what they heard others say.
  The “Talkers”. – They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves
talking to those around them. In a class setting when the instructor is not asking questions,
auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying
to be disrupted and may not even realize that they need to talk.

Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners – Tactile, kinesthetic persons benefit much from a hands-on approach,
actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They
may not benefit so much from the discussion or the written materials and may become distracted by their
need for activity and exploration. Those preferring this input move toward active, sensory motor learning.
They tend to prefer open “learning by doing,” preferring the use of psychomotor skills to, say, abstract
thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination.
Global-Analytic Continuum

Analytic thinkers tend towards the linear, step-by-step process of learning. They tend to see
finite elements of patterns rather than the wall. They are the “tree seers.” They are more rather
comfortable in a word of details hierarchies of information while Global thinkers lean towards non-linear
thought and tend to see the wall patterns rather than particle elements. They are the “forest seers” who
give attention only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.

Several theories have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain continuum. In
accord with Roger Sprry’s model, the left-brain dominant individual is portrayed as the linear ( analytic),
verbal, mathematical thinker while the right-brain person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear and
holistic in thought preferences.

Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies in an individual, one side may
be more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in approach while the right is
described as holistic or global. A successive processor ( left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step
sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous
processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with a general concept and then going on to specifics.
See the comparison below:

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style

1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4.Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls peoples’ name 7. Recall peoples’ faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying
Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in frames of mind
(1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a
problem or fashion a product that valued in one or more cultures”. Gardner believes that different
intelligences may be independent abilities-a person can be low in one domain area but high and another.
All of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength. His most current research indicates
that there are nine distinct forms of intelligences. In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should
use strategies that match these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are:
1. Visual/Spatial intelligence (picture smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to ”see” things in one’s mind in
planning to create a product or solve a problem.

2. Verbal/linguistic (word smart) – learning though the spoken and written word. This intelligence
is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessment of intelligence and
achievement.

3. Mathematical/logical (number smart/logical smart)-learning though reasoning and problem

solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where student are asked to adapt to
logically sequenced delivery of instruction.

4. Bodily/kinesthetic (body smart) – learning through interaction with one’s environment this
intelligence is the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes understanding though concrete
experience.

5. Musical (Music Smart) – learning though patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only
auditory learning but also the identification of patterns though all the sense.

6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning though feelings, values and attitudes. This is a decidedly
affective component of learning though which students place value on what they learn and take
ownership for their learning.

7. Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning though interaction with others. Not the domain of
children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence promotes collaborations
and working cooperatively with others.

8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning though classification, categories and hierarchies. The
naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply the study of
nature; it can be used in all areas of study.

9. Existential (Spirit Smart) – learning by seeing the “big picture”: “why are we here?” “what is my
role in the world?” this intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and application
of new learning.
It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/ learning style and multiple
intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively. While researches on these
typologies continue, it is clear that the teachers can no longer just teach the text book. It is a sensible
practice to teach each child according to his/her thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.
Learners with Exceptionalities

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is the
presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer learners with exceptionalities as persons who are
different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. The term “exceptional learners” includes those with
special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments,
emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners require a lot of understanding and patience as well
as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential of development. There are certain
categories that affect the learner’s development: (a) Cognitive or Academic Faculties of which learning disabilities
are identified such as perception, language, memory or metacognition. Classified under this are Dyslexia (reading
disorder), Dysgraphia ( writing disorder), Dyscalculia ( arithmetic disorder), and Dyspraxia ( psychomotor disorder).
Other categories of disorders are the ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) which is characterized by
inattention, distractibility, and with or without hyperactivity; Speech and Communication Disorder characterized
by the difficulty in pronouncing words or articulation disorders, and stuttering; (b) Social/Emotional Behavior
Difficulties which include Autism (social skills, repetitive behaviors, and speech and non-verbal communication),
Mental Retardation ( sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior or imbecile), Emotional/Conduct
Disorders (presence of emotional states like depression and aggression disturbing learning and performance in
school; (c) Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments which affect individual’s energy and strength, mental
alertness and muscle control; (d) Sensory Impairments which include Visual and Hearing impairments referred to
as the impairment of the eyes and optic nerves that prevent normal vision and malfunctioning of the ear and
auditory nerves that hinders perception of sounds within a frequency range of normal speech; (e) Giftedness
which speaks of talents in areas of a child’s life: academic, artistic, athletic, and social (US Department of Education
1993). It involves significantly high levels of cognitive development, performance, and accomplishment. It is
observed that there are six (6) areas where giftedness can be found, and these are: (1) creative thinking, (2)
general intellectual ability, (3) psychomotor, (4)specific academic ability, (5) visual/performing arts, and (6)
leadership. They are characterized by being perfectionist and idealistic, maturity beyond age, problem-solvers,
abstract thinkers, and heightened sensitivity to their own expectations and those of others.

Health Impairment Traumatic Brain Injury

Learning
Disabilities
Autism Blindness

Hearing Loss
Mental Retardation

Gifted and
Speech/Language Emotional
Talented
Disabilities Disabilities
Severe/ Multiple
Attention Deficit Disabilities
Hyperactivity Physical
Disorder (ADHD) Disabilities

Dealing with Learners with Exceptionalities

1. People-First Language
2. No Generic Labels
3. Emphasizes abilities not limitations
4. No euphemisms
5. No implication of sickness or suffering
6. Brief and simple instructions
7. Clear definition of course requirements and dates of exams and
deadline of assignments
8. Hand-outs, visual aids and study guides
9. Several examples and demonstrations
10. Consultation time
11. Asking and providing assistance
12. Encouragement
13. Patience, patience, patience, and PATIENCE!
 Disability. A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s ability, for
example, to walk, left, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition”
(Schiefelbusch Institute , 1996). The word disability has become the more accepted term, having
replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) . IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional
learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in
paragraph (5) “provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with trainining.

Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability. A handicap is a disadvantage
that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the
handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment.
Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may
have the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they both have a
hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first
individual would not have as much handicap as the second one. Another example, two persons who move
around on a wheel chair, the one studying in a school campus with wheel chair accessibility in all areas
would be less handicapped than one in a school without wheel chair accessibility.

Recognizing Students with Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities:

1. Have average or above average ability (thinking and reasoning).

2. Demonstrate below average academic achievement.
3. Demonstrate a significant difference between achievement and ability.
4. Have processing difficulty.
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning disabilities. Is a neurological disorder that results from a difference in the way a person’s brain is “wired.
“ Children with disabilities are as smart or smarter than their peers. But they may have difficulty reading, writing,
spelling, reasoning, recalling and/or organizing information if left to figure things out by themselves or if taught in
conventional ways. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive process like perception, language,
memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral
disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number
operations) and dysgraphia (writing).

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. SDHD is manifested in either or both or both of these: (1) difficulty in
focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.

Speech and Communication Disorders

There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce

sounds …correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper
classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. It is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication,
repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individual with autism usually have an intense need for routine
and a predictable environment.

Mental Retardation. This refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior.
There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately in social
situations.

Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable amount of time that they probably disturb learning and performance in
school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairment

Physical and Health Impairments. This involve physical or medical conditions ( usually long term)
including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3)
little muscle control.

Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability,
at times of a profound level. The combination of disabilities make it necessary to make specific
adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.

Sensory Impairment

Visual impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that
prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders perception of
sounds within the frequency range of a normal speech.
Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is unusually high
ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subject,
creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.

People - First Language

What is people-first language? Just as the term would imply, this language trend involve putting the
person first, not the disability ( e.g. a person with disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-first
language tells us what condition people have, not what they are ( Schiefelbusch Institude, 1996). This is
similar to saying “ person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions for referring to those
with disabilities include:
 Avoiding generic levels ( people with mental retardation is preferable to the mentally retarded);
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations ( for instance, uses a wheel chair is preferable than
confined to a wheel chair);
 Avoiding euphemism ( such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as condescending
and avoid the real issue that results from a disability; and
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering ( had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has
multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis) ( (Department of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institude, 1996).

Using people-first language in applying the guidelines above will remind you to have a more
respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities. The presence of impairment
requires them to exert more effort to do things that others like us find quite easy to do. They are learners
who may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of compassion ( not of pity nor
ridicule), will make you a more effective teacher, one with the hand and heart who can facilitate their
learning and adjustment.

Teaching Strategies Guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence

1.Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual information to
drawing implications and making value judgments.

2.Provide a general overview of material to be learned , i.e., structured overview, advance organizers,
etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with the new ideas.

3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the right-and left-
brain hemispheres.

4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.

5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.

6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.(write directions on the board
and give them orally.)

7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing summaries,
creating opinion surveys, etc.).

8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“the example you’ve provided is an excellent one
to point to the concept of…”). (from Cornett, C. E. (1983).what you should know about teaching and
learning styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi delta kappa educational foundation).

Summary
 Diversity is everything that makes people different from each other. This includes many different
factors: race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, ability, age, religious belief, or
political conviction. All these factors work together to inform how students (and teachers, and everyone
else) encounter the world. Diversity is important in the classroom because if the teacher ignores the issue
of diversity in the classroom and choose to not promote diversity in school, they are not doing their job.
Children go to school to be prepared for the workforce, so teaching must effectively address and embrace
the realities that come with living and working in a diverse school, community and country.
The teacher should remember that diversity in the classroom builds better thinkers. It teaches students to
appreciate different perspectives and draw stronger conclusions. Challenging students to consider
different perspectives can also teach them how to interact with their peers on a social level, and equip
them with skills they’ll use for the rest of their life. It improves academic outcomes. Furthermore, diversity
in the classroom doesn’t just improve social skills, it can also have an impact on academic results. It
improves critical thinking skills and encourages academic confidence.

Diversity expresses itself in so many different ways, so it can be daunting to try and start
conversations around bringing it to the classroom. The teacher should always bear in mind that the
school is already full of students and staff with diverse and amazing backgrounds, abilities and skills! All
that must be done is to start highlighting that diversity. It also encourages active learning and can be
challenging to keep students engaged and actively involved. This is especially true for students who
struggle with learning, speak English as a second language, or have trouble focusing. Moreover, the
teacher must also consider to: (a) embrace small group and learning stations, (b) group by learning style,
not ability, (c) promote project-based learning, (d) incorporate ed-tech and adaptive learning tools, and (e)
provide alternative testing options. No matter what happen, "everyone is unique" because no two
individual can have identical hereditary endowments or the same environmental experiences. Every
individual have their own characteristics, ability, skills, and learning styles. In all learning environments,
individual interact with others who are in some way different from them and that. Is what we call "diversity"
which comes from other important factors like socio-economic status, thinking/learning styles and
exceptionalities.

In socioeconomic status, it depends on how individual differ in life style from that of the middle
income or lower income group. It also depends on a combination of variables including occupation,
education, income, wealth and place of residence. Socioeconomic status is the measure of the influence
that the social environment has on individual, families, communities and schools. In many ways,
socioeconomic status is related to the concept of social class. The next factor is, thinking / learning style
of every learner which involves their different strategies and techniques on how they learn easily and
effectively. There are some learners who learn by seeing and looking and others by hearing and listening.
On the other hand, there are individuals who learn better by touching and doing, wherein they actually
perform what they want to know and learn, that's why every learner has his/her own style in learning. On
the other hand, exceptional learners are those individuals who are different in some way from the
"normal" or "average". Exceptional learners include those with special needs related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, emotional disturbances and giftedness. These learners require a lot of understanding and
patience as well as special education and related services to reach the fullness of their development.

So for these factors that bring about student diversity, the teacher as a facilitator of learning is
tasked to consider the individual differences among the students in planning for effective instruction.
Every individual being diverse in terms of culture, race, gender, age, learning abilities, social
requirements, physical/mental disorders, learning strategies, skills, past knowledge, socioeconomic and
educational background and language. Challenges are always present to teachers handling the class, so
that a wise teacher see diversity in a classroom in a respectful way and in a good terms.

In this lesson, you have learned about a number of the most important aspects of student
diversity: cultural, linguistic, exceptionalities, and socio-economic status. You learned, too, that the
perceptions that teachers bring with them to the classroom can be shaped by their background
knowledge and life experiences. Those perceptions can also be based on stereotypes, which may or may
not be accurate. Wherever they come from, teacher perceptions influence how they view their students
and their students’ families. When teachers are aware of this tendency, however, and when they take the
time to get to know their students better, they are able to respond to them more objectively. Moreover,
teachers need to understand the ways in which their perceptions might influence their expectations for
their students and, subsequently, the ways in which they teach. For this reason, in addition to getting to
know their students, teachers should use a range of instructional strategies and supports when working
with a diverse classroom of students. When teachers understand the following considerations, they are
more likely to create successful learning experiences for all of their students.

Appreciating the individuality of each student is of prime importance.

Assessment

Activity 1 Describe/Present a creative concept of student diversities in

the variation of the following strategies: song, poem, jingle,
rap, slide presentation, power point presentation. This will
be prepared in a Portfolio.
The Rubrics for rating are as follows:
Content (35%),
Organization of Ideas (35%)
Creativity & Quality of Presentation (30 %)

Activity 2 Research on different teaching strategies and explain how these

teaching strategies consider student diversity. You may support
your explanation with specific examples. (25pts)

Activity 3 Instructions:
1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization.
2. Write down at least 5 or more learning activities relevant to the topic you
gave chosen.
3. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences that each
learning activity can address. Remember, a learning activity may address
both thinking/learning style and multiple intelligences.

TOPIC LEARNING ACTIVITY LEARNINGSTYLE/ MULTIPLE

INTELLIGENCES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
Activity 3 Watch any of the following films in You Tube.com and answer the
questions that follow.

1. The Rain Man 3. Son-rise a Miracle of Love 5. Every Child is Special

2. I am Sam 4. The Life of Heller
Questions:
1. Describe the main character in the movie you watched.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
2. What was his/her exceptionality?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. What problems/difficulties did the main character experienced?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Who provided support? What support did he/she get from his/her environment?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Activity 4 How do handicap and disability differ?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Activity 5 A. Choose the letter of the correct answer Write your answer on the
space after the number.

1. A lady asked for direction going to the municipal hall. If you are a
visual learner, your response would be: ___
a. go with her.
b. tell her the directions.
c. write down the directions.
d. draw, or show her a map, or give her a map.
2. A friend from other province visits you and wants to know about
your place. If you are an aural learner, you would: ___
a. talk about your place.
b. show your friend maps and internet pictures.
c. take your friend to the tourist spots of your place.
d. give your friend a book or pamphlets about your place.

3. You would be attending a potluck gathering with your relatives. You

are tasked to prepare a special dessert. If you are a reader and writer learner, you would:
____
a. ask friends for suggestions.
b. use a cookbook where you know there is a good recipe.
c. cook something you know without the need for instructions.
d. look on the Internet or in some cookbooks for ideas from the
pictures.

4. For doing good at school, your parents rewards you with cellphone
which you will be the one to choose. What would most influence your decision in
choosing the cellphone if you are a kinesthetic learner? ____
a. Trying or testing it.
b. It is a modern design and looks good.
c. The salesperson telling you about its features.
d. Reading the details or checking its features online.

5. Karen teaches Math subject and she wants her students to develop
their multiple intelligences. Which of the following strategy will help her develop the
kinesthetic smart of the students? ____
a. Ask them to solve problem solving by pair.
b. Ask them to compose a song about numbers.
c. Ask them to use chart in presenting math problems.
d. Ask them to form right angles and parallel lines with their limbs.

6. Which of the following MI is engaged in reflecting your life and

future? ____
a. Naturalistic b. Existential c. Interpersonal d. Intrapersonal
7. Mel likes to go mountain climbing with his friends. Which of the
following MI does Mel possess? ____
a. Spatial c. Kinesthetic
b. Naturalist d. Interpersonal

8. Jen likes to try an activity for self-improvement. Which of the

following MI does Jen possess? _____
a. Naturalist
b. Kinesthetic
c. Existentialist
d. Interpersonal

9. Mia solves almost every problem scientifically. Which of the

following MI does Mia possess? ____
a. Verbal
b. Spatial
c. Logical
d. Naturalist

10. Don is always taking the role of a leader in the classroom. Which of
the following MI does Don possess? ____
 a. Visual
b. Logical
c. Interpersonal
d. Intrapersonal

B. Discuss briefly.

1. As a future teacher, how can you address the multiple intelligences

of learners? Make your own strategy. (20pts)

2. Upon learning about your multiple intelligences, what do you intend

to do to develop your other smarts? (15pts.)

CHAPTER 3

FOCUSING ON LEARNING

One of the aspects important to human behavior, though, is the feelings associated with behavior
that is controlled by conditioning. When previous behaviors have been rewarded, children are likely to
repeat those behaviors happily and willingly, feeling that they are doing what they 'want' to be doing. If, on
the other hand, children choose behaviors in order to avoid a repeat of negative reinforcement, they may
behave appropriately, but will be inclined to feel that their freedoms are being suppressed. In reality, the
actual freedom still exists, of course. Children, like the rest of us, are free to behave in any manner that
they choose, as long as they are willing to accept the consequences of their actions.

Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and
discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than
the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. The key concepts of behaviorism
comprise the stimulus – response (S-R) equation, the classical and operant conditioning, and the
reinforcement and punishment notions. An example of behaviorism is when teachers reward their class or
certain students with a party or special treat at the end of the week for good behavior throughout the
week. The same concept is used with punishments. The teacher can take away certain privileges if the
student misbehaves.

Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists independently and outside of people.
Behaviorists believe that learning actually occurs when new behaviors or changes in behaviors are
acquired through associations between stimuli and responses. Thus, association leads to a change in
behavior.

General Objectives At the end of the chapter, the students can:

1. explain the basic principles of behaviorism ;

2. discuss the various theories affecting the teaching-learning processes;
3. make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning;
4. determine how to use rewards in the teaching- learning process more effectively;
5. discuss the processes involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving knowledge;
6. cite educational implications of the theory on information processing; and
7. discuss the Gestalt principles.
Lesson 1 Behaviorists Perspective: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner
Non-behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

What to Expect

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the learners can:

1. explain the perspectives and theories of famous behaviorists and non-

behaviorists;
2. apply these theories in the teaching- learning process;
3. present examples of these theories; and
4. answer the enrichment activities provided after the lesson.

Pre-Discussion

Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and
discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than
the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. Key concepts of behaviorism
comprise the stimulus – response (S-R) equation, the classical and operant conditioning, and the
reinforcement and punishment notions. An example of behaviorism is when teachers reward their class or
certain students with a party or special treat at the end of the week for good behavior throughout the
week. ... The same concept is used with punishments. The teacher can take away certain privileges if the
student misbehaves.

Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists independently and outside of people. ...
Behaviorists believe that learning actually occurs when new behaviors changes in behaviors are acquired
through associations between stimuli and responses. Thus, association leads to a change in behavior.
The main features of behaviorism are as follows:
 It is based on classical conditioning.
 It associates initial stimuli with neutral events.
 It has operable conditioning.
 Particular actions are followed by something desirable or undesirable.
 It studies the different behaviors that are subject to the laws of behavior.

Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near
exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. We learn new
behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory').

Lesson Outline

A. BEHAVIORISTS THEORIES OF LEARNING

Burrhus Frederic Skinner: Operant Conditioning

After the retirement of John B. Watson from the world of Academic psychology, psychologists and
behaviorists were eager to propose new forms of learning other than the classical conditioning. The most
important among these theories was Operant Conditioning proposed by Burrhus Frederic Skinner,
commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

B. F. Skinner was one of the most influential of American psychologists. A behaviorist, he

developed the theory of operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences,
be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur
again. He investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner felt that some
behavior could be explained by the person's motive. Therefore behavior occurs for a reason, and the
three main behavior shaping techniques are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and
punishment.

Skinner based his theory in the simple fact that the study of observable behavior is much simpler
than trying to study internal mental events. Skinner’s works concluded a study far less extreme than those
of Watson (1913), and it deemed classical conditioning as too simplistic of a theory to be a complete
explanation of complex human behavior. He is famous for his pioneering research in the field of learning
and behavior. He proposed the theory to study complex human behavior by studying the voluntary
responses shown by an organism when placed in the certain environment. He named these behaviors or
responses as operant. He is also called the Father of Operant Conditioning Learning, but he based his
theory known as “Law of Effect”, discovered by Edward Thorndike in 1905.

Operant Conditioning Learning Theory

B.F. Skinner proposed his theory on operant conditioning by conducting various experiments on
animals. He used a special box known as “Skinner Box” for his experiment on rats.
As the first step to his experiment, he placed a hungry rat inside the Skinner box. The rat was
initially inactive inside the box, but gradually as it began to adapt to the environment of the box, it began
to explore around. Eventually, the rat discovered a lever, upon pressing which; food was released inside
the box. After it filled its hunger, it started exploring the box again, and after a while it pressed the lever
for the second time as it grew hungry again. This phenomenon continued for the third, fourth and the fifth
time, and after a while, the hungry rat immediately pressed the lever once it was placed in the box. Then
the conditioning was deemed to be complete.

Here, the action of pressing the lever is an operant response/behavior, and the food released
inside the chamber is the reward. The experiment is also known as Instrumental Conditioning Learning as
the response is instrumental in getting food.
This experiment also deals with and explains the effects of positive reinforcement. Upon pressing the
lever, the hungry rat was served with food, which filled its hunger; hence, it’s a positive reinforcement.

B.F. Skinner also conducted an experiment that explained negative reinforcement. Skinner
placed a rat in a chamber in the similar manner, but instead of keeping it hungry, he subjected the
chamber to an unpleasant electric current. The rat having experienced the discomfort started to
desperately move around the box and accidentally knocked the lever. Pressing of the lever immediately
seized the flow of unpleasant current. After a few times, the rat had smartened enough to go directly to
the lever in order to prevent itself from the discomfort. The electric current reacted as the negative
reinforcement, and the consequence of escaping the electric current made sure that the rat repeated the
action again and again. Here too, the pressing of the lever is an operant response, and the complete stop
of the electric current flow is its reward.

Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through association and
was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to
produce a new learned response in a person or animal. During the 1890s, Russian physiologist, Ivan
Pavlov was researching salivation in dogs in response to being fed. He inserted a small test tube into the
cheek of each dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed (with a powder made from meat). Pavlov
predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food placed in front of them, but he noticed that his
dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them
the food.

While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon
he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance
of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they
had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that
his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the
presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat
powder. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the
ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times,
the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell
(without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’
salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the
bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation
response.

Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic
building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this
finding. In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s
salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to
associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the
conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food. Like many
great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning (aka classical conditioning) was discovered accidentally.

Edward Thorndike: The S-R Learning Theory

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the
development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. His ideas paved the way to Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory.
This theory also emphasizes the importance of rewards or incentives to stimulate and influence
what and how pupils do things, including how they learn.
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original Stimulus-Response (S-R) framework of
behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R
pairings.
The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses that produce a
satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses
that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–
109)."
 Just like Pavlov, Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic
experiment in which he used a puzzle box to empirically test the laws of learning. He placed a cat in the
puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would
put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to
escape the puzzle box and reach the fish. Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened
the cage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted.
In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and
they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.

Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences
is likely to be stopped.

B. NON-BEHAVIORIST THEORIES OF LEARNING

ALBERT BANDURA: Social Cognitive Theory

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences

Bandura asserts that most human behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and
modeling. Using Bandura's social learning theory in the classroom can help students reach their potential.
Students do not only imitate each other but also the teacher. Being a good role model, open to all the
students, and holding the students to a level of responsibility will be imitated by the students according to
Bandura.

Social learning is based on the behavior modeling theory where people learn new things by
observing others. So assign pre-work, often online e-learning modules that include knowledge check
questions that you can track or not, but that the facilitator uses to gauge the level of knowledge It's been
said that Albert Bandura's theory of social learning spans the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism.
Social learning theory incorporates the idea of behavior reinforcement from the former, and cognitive
processes such as attention, motivation and memory from the latter

The social cognitive theory is composed of four processes of goal realization: self-observation,
self-evaluation, self-reaction and self-efficacy .The four components are interrelated and all have an effect
on motivation and goal attainment (Redmond, 2010). Furthermore, the social learning theory has four
elements, each of which can be applied in our organizations to improve learning and performance without
the need for new technologies.

Learning is generally a complex process that is remarkably influenced by so many environmental

factors. Most teachers have an awareness that observation plays a critical role in determining how and
what children learn. As the saying goes, “kids are very much like sponges, soaking up the experiences
they have each and every day”. Observational learning refers to the learning gained from other people by
means of observing them is an effective way of gaining knowledge and altering behavior.

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory postulates that observation, imitation, and modeling play a
primary role in this process. Bandura's theory suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning,
and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological influences such as attention and memory.

For example, children and adults often exhibit learning for things with which they have no direct
experience. So, even if you have never swung a baseball bat in your life, you would probably know what
to do if someone handed you a bat and told you to try to hit a baseball. This is because you have seen
others perform this action either in person or on television.
Principles of Social Learning Theory (Cherry, 2017)

1. People can learn through observation. Bandura stressed that children learn and imitate behaviors
they have observed in other people (Sincero, 2011). The three basic models of observational learning
advocated by Olson and Scott, 2009; and Cherry, 2017 consists of the following:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books,
films, television programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning. Simply observing someone else's actions is not always
enough to lead to learning. Your own mental state and motivation play an important role in determining
whether a behavior is learned or not.

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride,
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior. In many cases, learning can be seen
immediately when the new behavior is displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can
quickly determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted. But
sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be immediately obvious.

Necessary Conditions for Effective Modeling (McLeod,(2016).

1. Attention: The extent to which we focus to the behavior of a model. For a behavior to be
imitated, it has to grab our attention in order to learn the task (Wheeler, 2014).
2. Retention: This is remembering what we paid attention to. It includes symbolic coding,
mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal (David,
2015). There is a need to recall that information later when we are required to respond to a
situation that is similar the situation within which we first learned the information. For
instance, when people start talking about something, they usually relate it to their personal
experiences and when shared with other people, they connect with it too (Spencer, 2015).
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate.
Therefore, we reproduce previously learned information such as behavior, skills, and
knowledge when required. Wheeler, (2014) stressed that practice through mental and
physical rehearsal usually improves our responses.
4. Motivation: The observer should be motivated to do anything. Rewards and punishment
that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. Often that motivation originates
from our observation of someone else being rewarded or punished for something they have
done or said. McLeod (2016) posits that if the perceived rewards compensate the perceived
costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer.
However, if the vicarious reinforcement (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) is not
seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a student who changes dress to fit in with
a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that
group.
 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of
someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and
compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.

4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known
as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response.
Wheeler (2017), pointed out that social modeling is a very powerful means of educating the
young minds. If children can see good and positive results from a particular type of behavior being
modeled, they are more likely to repeat that behavior themselves. Conversely, if negative consequences
are the result, they are less likely to perform that behavior.

TOLMAN’S COGNITIVE MAP

Edward Chance Tolman had great contribution to the field of learning and motivation when he
proposed his theory of cognitive learning. In his theory" Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men", Tolman
introduced the concept of a cognitive map, which has found extensive application and intellectual
accomplishments in almost every field of psychology, and even among scientists who are unaware that
they are using the early ideas that were formulated to explain the behavior of rats in mazes (Miller et al.,
1960) as cited by Johnson and Crowe (2008).

He said, rats and people live in worlds of paths and tools, obstacles and by-paths. Both rats and
people sometimes find an easy means of achieving a goal though it will take them so much effort or
experience such difficulties. More so, having a goal-directed behavior implies about getting toward
something or getting away from something. That includes what the individual or rat is doing, what he, she,
or it is trying to do, and where it is going. According to Tolman’s experiment, rats learned the layout of a
maze, which they explored freely even without reinforcement. After some trials and errors, a food item
was placed to a certain point of the maze, and the rats learned to navigate persistently until they were
able to reach the food very quickly.

Tolman assessed both the rats’ response learning and place learning. Tolman found out that the
rat knows that the response of going a certain way in the maze will always lead to reaching out the food,
he referred this as response learning; when the rats learn to associate the food in a specific spot each
time , he referred this as place learning. In his trials he observed that all of the rats in the place-learning
maze learned to run following the correct path within eight trials and that none of the response-learning
rats learned that quickly, and some did not even learn it at all after seventy-two trials. Based on the
results of these experiments, Tolman came up with the idea postulating the phenomenon of latent
learning. He also viewed the latent learning experiments as one type of experiment that provided
evidence in favor of cognitive maps. However, in his most direct treatment on the topic, Cognitive Maps in
Rats and Men (1948), he referred to cognitive maps as “something like a field map of the environment”
that “gets established in the rat’s brain” and once established, is then employed by “intervening brain
processes” in the selective attention to stimuli by the nervous system, and the execution of responses

Summary

This lesson discusses the different behaviorist and non-behaviorist theories. Thorndike (1905)
introduced the concept of reinforcement and was the first to apply psychological principles to the area of
learning. His research led to many theories and laws of learning, such as operant conditioning. Skinner
(1938), like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn.
 The learning theories of Thorndike and Pavlov were later synthesized by Hull (1935). Thorndike's
research drove comparative psychology for fifty years, and influenced countless psychologists over that
period of time, and even still today.
Both the experiment clearly explains the working of operant conditioning. The important part in any
operant conditioning learning is to recognize the operant behavior and the consequence resulted in that
particular behavior. Both the experiment clearly explains the working of operant conditioning. The
important part in any operant conditioning learning is to recognize the operant behavior and the
consequence resulted in that particular. On the other hand, B. F. Skinner a behaviorist, developed the
theory of operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they
reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior
will occur again. Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

However, the proponents of non-behaviorism theory of learning asserts as in the case of the
social learning theory of Bandura which emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.
Tolman’s learning theory also presents the concept of a cognitive map, which has found extensive
application and intellectual accomplishments in almost every field of psychology, and even among
scientists who are unaware that they are using the early ideas that were formulated to explain the
behavior of rats in mazes (Miller et al., 1960) as cited by Johnson and Crowe (2008).

Assessment

1. How are Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory able to bridge
or connect behaviorism and cognitive theory? (20pts)

2. Read this article about Bandura’s views about television and violence, Albert Bandura Lecture –
Bing Distinguished Lecture Series “ The Power of Social Modeling: The Effects of television
Violence” by Christine Van de Velde at
http//www.stanford.edu/dept/bingschool/rsrchart/bandura.htm.
Make a Reaction Paper in not less than 300 words. (30pts.)

Lesson 2 The Cognitive Processes

What to Expect

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. explain the salient features of cognitive learning theories and its implications to teaching;
2. demonstrate deep understanding on how these theories can be applied to teaching and learning
situations;
3. summarize the important concepts of each learning theory; and
4. answer the given activities after the lesson.

Pre-Discussion

The Cognitive Learning Theory stresses that the different processes concerning learning can be
explained by analyzing the mental processes first. They focus on how students conceptualize learning
processes and address the issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the
mind and be stored in the memory for a long time (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Learning is concerned not so
much with what learners can do but with what they know and how they come to acquire it (Ertmer &
Newby,2013). Acquisition of knowledge is a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by
the learner. The learner shows an active participation in the learning process.

Lesson Outline

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY/LEARNING THEORY

Gestalt theory was developed by three psychologists: Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and
Kurt Koffka. The word gestalt is of German origin which means “pattern”. According to Gestatists,
behavior cannot be understood in terms of its molecular parts because “the whole is greater than the sum
of its parts.”

The Gestalt theory of learning originated in Germany, being put forth by three German theorists
who were inspired by the works and ideas of the man who gave the learning theory its name. Graf
Christian von Ehrenfels was a learning theorist who took the holistic approach to learning by putting forth
the idea that learning takes place as students were able to comprehend a concept in its entirety, rather
than broken up into parts. Gestalt theories propose that the experiences and perceptions of learners have
a significant impact on the way that they learn.

Application of Gestalt Theory to the Teaching and Learning Process

1. Make your lesson holistic. The word Gestalt itself is almost synonymous to the word "whole". And for
this, Gestalt psychology proposes education to be an integration of affective and cognitive domains of
learning. As teachers, we can actually do this by setting the objectives that do not only focus on the
cognitive (and psychomotor) domains of teaching and learning but also on the affective domain as well.
2. In relation to above application, the fulfillment of the cognitive-affective integration is not only limited to
instruction rather also related to the experiences of the students inside the classroom. This can be done
when teachers maintain an emotionally harmonious and non- threatening atmosphere during the teaching
and learning process which consequently caters exchange of ideas and learning. Teacher behavior is a
critical factor, and if necessary, should be changed in order to maintain good relationship between the
teacher and his/her students, and relationship among and between students. This can be realized
through teacher development programs, trainings or seminars.
3. Gestalt psychology is a proponent of discovery or insight learning. This takes place when learners
forms relationships of the elements around them then integrates and organizes these elements to form
insight. Hence, teachers must make use of discovery approach in learning. Teachers can use
experiments, laboratory and inquiry-based strategies. Five Laws of Gestalt Theory that govern perception
are the following:
 Law of continuity. The law states that we link individual elements together so they form a
continuous pattern that makes sense. Also, we have the tendency to perceive smooth continuities
rather than abrupt changes. This law accounts for what the teacher does in the classroom. The
manner in which lessons are presented in a continuous manner can create a lasting impact on
the students. When the lesson is presented with repeated exercises or reinforcements, then
learning the material can be made easy.
 Law of closure. This law holds the idea that incomplete figures tend to be perceived as complete.
Our minds tend to fill in the gaps or missing parts of the figures.
 Law of Similarity. This law states that similar things appear to be grouped together. This law
emphasizes that objects are perceived as related to one another.
 Law of proximity. This law states that things that are near to each other appear to be grouped
together. This law is concerned with the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other.
 Law of Pragnanz. The word pragnanz is a German word which means good figure. This is also
known as the Law of simplicity and the law of good figure. It states that every stimulus pattern is
seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. This holds the belief that
all possible organizations could be perceived in a stimulus array-one that possesses the best, the
simplest, and the most stable form. It means that lessons which seem very important are
remembered. We remember the most significant part of the lesson or one that stimulates us to
think and learn. Those that are less important are obliterated from memory.
 As would- be teachers, it is important to remember these principles:
1) The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the
relationship among the elements);
2) Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for learning; and
3) Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity, closure, similarity and simplicity.

Information Processing

The information processing theory focuses on the idea that humans process the information they
receive from the environment, in the manner of a computer, rather than merely responding to stimuli. The
student's brain brings information in, manipulates it, and stores it ready for future use – this is the learning
aspect.

In information processing theory, as the student takes in information, that information is first
briefly stored as sensory storage; then moved to the short term or working memory; and then either
forgotten or transferred to the long term memory, as:
• semantic memories (concepts and general information);
• procedural memories (processes); and
• images.

This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in
their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory
emphasizes a continuous pattern of development. The transference of information to the long term
memory is important, as information cannot rest in the short term memory (the short term memory can
only hold seven pieces of information at a time). An overload in the short term memory can result in
cognitive overload. The IPT assert three primary stages in the progression of external information
becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame,
mental model, etc.).These three primary stages in IPT are:
 Encoding – information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
 Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon
the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval – the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a
current task, the true measure of effective of effective memory.

Teachers can help students who are suffering from information overload by letting students know
what are the critical elements of the information; in other words, prioritizing the information. They should
make sure the students’ attention, and help students to make connections between new material and
what they already know.
To help students retrieve and remember information, the following strategies are recommended:
1. Whole and part learning. The whole and part learning accounts for introducing the material as a whole
unit. For instance, learning the poems by Shakespeare necessitates that we consider the entire poem
and not stanza by stanza. On the other hand, part learning makes use of the material that is broken into
smaller chunks or sections and then allows us to put them together at the end. For example, learning to
memorize the poem calls for memorizing each stanza and then reciting all the stanzas once the entire
poem is memorized.

2. Repetition and drills. We often use relevant materials for practice, repetition, and drills. Such help,
students retain information if they have the interest in it and if it is related to their prior knowledge.

3. Over learning and automaticity. Once the material or information is repeated with a purpose, it can lead
to automaticity. Consider students who have memorized the multiplication table. When they recite each
table, at the first, everything is rote memorization where everything seems amorphous. However, when it
has become useful through repeated drills and exercises, students make such recall automatic.

4. Distributed practice. We need to learn things little by little and those that come in chunks. In simple
terms, practice can be done into relatively long and uninterrupted periods called massed practice. On the
other hand, it can be spread over time which is known as distributed practice.
Example of classroom situation on information processing that the theory can be seen or applied:
Teresa is just learning to read, and she’s struggling. She’s a very slow reader, and by the time
she finishes a sentence, she can’t remember how it started! Reading, like other types of learning, is about
storing information in a person’s mind. Specifically, learning involves storing and accessing information in
memory. But how, exactly, does this happen? There are many theories. Among them, the information
processing theory of learning says that information from the world around us moves from sensory storage
to working memory to long-term memory.

For example, when Teresa is reading, she is receiving sensory information from the book in front
of her: Her eyes are taking in the size and shape of each letter, the letters grouped together to make
words, and how it all looks on the page. That’s all in sensory storage. As she moves her eyes across the
page, she remembers what she just read a second or two ago. That means that the information is in
working memory, or storage of memories that occurred only a few seconds in the past. If things go right,
though, Teresa will remember the information in the book longer than just a few seconds. If everything
works well, it will move to long-term memory, which is really just memories that are stored for a person to
access later.

Miller (1956) presented the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of
information (seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any meaningful unit.
Information processing theory has become a general theory of human cognition.
It is a cognitive approach to understanding how the human mind transforms sensory information.
The Short-Term Memory System (STM) functions in two important ways:
1) It organizes information by integrating new information with the existing information, and
2) It temporarily stores information for the learners’ use.
The Long-term memory System (LTM) is a warehouse of knowledge. A data bank that stores
information. It is likened to a floppy disk, hard disk, or USB that stores huge amount of information

GAGNES” CONDITION AND CATEGORIES OF LEARNING

The term “Instructional events” refer to actions of both teacher and learners during the teaching-
learning session. The teacher has to select appropriate events and plan them in the right format and the
right sequence is crucial in a successful lesson design (Khadjooi, Rostami, & Ishaq, 2011). A lesson
design is a plan showing the type of instructional events, their order and the kind of activity taking place in
each event. In designing a lesson plan, there are 2 important factors: the objectives and the learners.
Essential to Gagne's ideas of instruction are what he calls “conditions of learning”: internal conditions deal
with what the learner knows prior to the instruction, external conditions deal with the stimuli that are
presented to the learner, e.g. instructions provided by the teacher.

Principles

Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne’s theory, as cited by Lucas
& Corpuz (2014), asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. Further, this theory
implies that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major
categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.
Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to
problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive
arguments which is practical and useful in their daily life. Gagne identifies five major categories of
learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

Verbal information Declarative knowledge like laws, stored as distributed

representations. New material should be related to previously
learned information, but also distinctive through visual
representation.
Intellectual skills Procedural knowledge like dividing integers, stored as linked
procedural steps arranged in hierarchies where higher skills
include lower ones. The subordinate involved skills must be
learned first or be already present (prior knowledge).
Cognitive strategies Skills that influence the selection and activation of other
production systems, usually simple like “break a problem into
parts”, retrieved by external or internal cueing. Little use of prior
learning, but a lot use of practicing with different examples.
Motor skills Skills like inserting contact lens, manifesting with smooth and
error-less performance. Prior learning and practice enhances
learning of motor skills.
Attitudes Acquired mental states that in certain situations
influence one's actions. Require a human model to learn from.
2..Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy
according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary
significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at
each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning
hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014).

3.Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to
complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology,
discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving (Culatta, 2018). The primary
significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at
each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning
hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction. The theory identifies nine instructional
events and corresponding cognitive processes (Culatta, 2018):
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

Let’s study this example of teaching sequences below. It reflects the events of instruction.

Example 1 Lesson: Equilateral Triangles

Objectives: Recognize an equilateral triangle
Target grade: Grade 5 pupils
a. Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles
b. Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
c. Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles
d. Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
e. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
f. Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different examples
g. Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect
h. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
i. Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify
equilaterals
4. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different
type of learning outcome. Gagne, who is concerned with learning and instruction proposed the
Conditions of Learning/instructional events which outlined the relation of learning objectives to
appropriate instructional designs. Gagne’s Nine Levels of Learning model gives educators a checklist to
use before they engage in teaching activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids in
the learning process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged
and to retain the information or skills that they are being taught.

Implications to Teaching
 different types or levels of learning requires different types of instruction
 different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example,
for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new
solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or
persuasive arguments
 learning tasks for intellectual skills can be arranged in a hierarchical order: stimulus recognition,
response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation,
rule application, and problem solving.
 prerequisites are important in doing a task analysis of a learning task
 learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction

Khadjooi, Rostami, & Ishaq (2011) concluded that Gagne's theories provide a great deal of
valuable information to teachers. In the event of applying Gagne's nine-step model, it is an excellent way
that would help ensure an effective and systematic learning program as it provides a clear structure to the
lesson plans and a holistic view to the teaching. Therefore, teachers need to keep in mind that the exact
form of these events is not something that can be specified in general for all lessons, but rather must be
decided for each learning objective.
Ausubel’s meaningful Verbal Learning

AUSUBEL”S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING THEORY

The Subsumption Learning Theory that focuses on how individuals acquire and learn information
through visual or text materials, was developed in 1963 by the American psychologist, David Ausubel.
This theory, as opposed to many other instructional theories, which are psychology-based models applied
to instructional design, the Subsumption Theory was originally developed exclusively for instructional
design. It prescribes a way of creating instructional material that helps learners organize their content in
order to make it meaningful for transfer. The goal here is for learners to have the necessary background
that will help them solve any problem and also retain this knowledge.
 Ausubel explained that the acquisition of knowledge is based on the actual processes that occur
during learning. The key process that takes place in the learner's brain is Subsumption, where new
content is related to relative ideas that are already present in the existing cognitive structure on a non-
verbatim basis. Cognitive structures is what’s left in the human brain from all the learning experiences,
after forgetting inevitably occurs.

The 2 Types of Subsumption Theory

1. Correlative Subsumption - The new material is an extension of the already grasped knowledge.
2. Derivative Subsumption - The new material derives from the existing structure, and can be linked to
other concepts or lead to new interpretations.

The following are the key principles of the Subsumption Learning Theory.

This theory should be presented with the most general concepts first, and then their analysis. The
instructional materials should include new, as well as previously acquired information. Comparisons
between new and old concepts are crucial. Existing cognitive structures should not be developed, but
merely reorganized within the learners’ memory. The role of the instructor is to bridge the gap between
what’s already known and what is about to be learned.

4 Types of Advanced Organizers

Advanced Organizers should always be given prior instruction. It can be divided into the following
4 types:
 Expository Organizers provide a description of new knowledge;
 Narrative Organizers present the new information in a story format;
 Skimming Organizers flick through the information; and
 Graphic Organizers include pictographs, descriptive or conceptual patterns and concept maps.
They are valuable tools that mentally help learners learn and retain knowledge, which enable
them to combine new with already known information. This leads to the so called “meaningful
learning”, which is the complete opposite of the “parrot-like” technique of memorization. Thus, this
tool prepares the cognitive structure of learners for the learning session which is about to occur,
through schemas and conceptual patterns, so that new information can be seamlessly subsumed
into the existing cognitive structures.

If instructors provide a brief description or a preview of the information which is about to be learned,
learners will be able to start with the big picture of things and then link new ideas, theories, and concepts
to existing mental maps of the related field.

Today, Ausubel’s theory is not particularly popular, because many educators believe that it promotes
a fairly passive role for learners, who mainly receive verbal instruction that doesn’t require any struggle
and engagement on their behalf.
 BRUNER’S
CONSTRUCTIVIST
THEORY

Jerome S. Bruner
was American psychologist,
a proponent of cognitive
learning theory who made
a significant contribution in
the field of educational psychology. His theory was based upon the idea that the goal of education should
be intellectual development. Bruner's theory emphasizes three modes of representation. We will explore
his beliefs on learning, language, and discovery.

Three Stages of Bruner’s Cognitive Representation:

1. Enactive- (0-1 years) (action-based)
In this stage, Bruner believed that a baby can make representations of knowledge through
actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. It also involves motor responses as they
interact to the environment. For example, a baby shakes a rattle and hears a noise. The baby has directly
manipulated the rattle and the outcome was a pleasurable sound. In the future, the baby may shake his
hand, even if there is no rattle, expecting his hand to produce the rattling sounds. The baby does not
have an internal representation of the rattle and, therefore, does not understand that it needs the rattle in
order to produce the sound (Hurst, 2018).

2. Iconic - (1- 6 years) (image-based)

The iconic stage involves an internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a
mental image or icon. Children learn through the use of mental images such as models, drawing and
pictures. For example, a child drawing an image of a tree or thinking of an image of a tree would be
representative of this stage. McLeod (2008) points out that this stage may also explain why when we are
learning a new subject, using diagrams or illustration will be more meaningful accompanied by verbal
information.
3. Symbolic -(7 years onward) (language-based)
 This stage allows the learner to develop the ability to think in abstract terms. They can now use
logical reasoning and other symbols to describe experiences. Information is stored in the form of a code
or symbol such as language. Each symbol has a fixed relation to something it represents. For example,
the word 'dog' is a symbolic representation for a single class of animal.
Symbols, unlike mental images or memorized actions, can be manipulated, ordered, classified and
organized by the learner (McLeod 2008).

Bruner believed that all learning occurs through the stages and that learning should begin with
direct manipulation of objects. For example, in learning math ,a learner has the opportunity to directly
manipulate the objects. He should be encouraged to construct visual representations, such as drawing a
shape or a diagram. As teachers, we need to utilize concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities to facilitate
learning meaningfully.

Discovery Learning
The concept of discovery learning implies that a learner should construct his or her own
knowledge by discovering even without being told “what to do” or “how to do” the task given to him or her
(Hurst 2016). Bruner suggested that the teacher facilitates learning process by developing lessons and
experiences that provide the learner with necessary information they need without organizing and
structuring it for them.

Characteristics of Discovery Learning

encourages active engagement
promotes motivation
promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
develops creativity and problem solving skills
tailors learning experiences

Educational implications
1. Instruction must be appropriate to the level of the learners. For example, being aware of the learners’
learning modes (enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare appropriate materials for
instruction according to the difficulty that matches learners’ level.
2. The teachers must revisit material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught ideas to grasp the full
formal concept is of paramount importance according to Bruner. Feel free to re-introduce vocabulary,
grammar points, and other topics now and then in order to push the students to a deeper comprehension
and longer retention.
3. Material must be presented in a sequence giving the learners the opportunity to:
a. acquire and construct knowledge,
b. transform and transfer his learning.
4. Students should be involved in using their prior experiences and structures to learn new knowledge.
5. Help students to categorize new information in order to able to see similarities and differences between
items.
6. Teachers should assist learners in building their knowledge. This assistance should fade away as it
becomes unnecessary.
7. Teachers should provide feedback that is directed towards intrinsic motivation. Grades and competition
are not helpful in the learning process. Bruner believes that learners must “experience success and
failure not as reward and punishment, but as information”

Summary

Learning theories are one of the foundations of education and influence the climate and activity
within classrooms. They explain how learning occurs and factors that influence learning. They also afford
us variety in pedagogies. The learning theories help to enhance student development and understanding.
These learning theories are behaviorism, constructivism, cognitivism and humanism among others.

Behaviorism is a teacher-centered theory that focuses on observable behaviors instead of a

person’s mental states such as moods, thoughts and feelings. Behaviorism views the learners as the
passive subject, not the active subject. Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, it demonstrated that behaviors
is influenced by environment and could be learned through conditioning and reinforcement. Change in
behavior demonstrates some learning. For example, when teacher create an environment and stimuli
(such as lectures and presentations) that produce desired behavior, learning thought to happen as a
response to that stimuli. This response is further reinforced when the consequence is positive and
pleasant. Successful learning is thought to occur when the learning process starts from the student's
initial knowledge and then increased gradually. In order for students to master the information, teacher
often provides practice, drill and review activities and self-reaction

Gagne, who is concerned with learning and instruction proposed the Conditions of
Learning/instructional events which outlined the relation of learning objectives to appropriate instructional
designs. Gagne’s Nine Levels of Learning model gives educators a checklist to use before they engage
in teaching activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids in the learning process.
When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged and to retain the
information or skills that they are being taught.

On the other hand, Gestalt psychology is a proponent of discovery or insight learning. This takes
place when learners forms relationships of the elements around them then integrates and organizes
these elements to form insight. Hence, teachers must make use of discovery approach in learning.
Teachers can use experiments, laboratory and inquiry-based strategies. Gestalt theory has laws of
organization by which it must junction. These organizational laws exist already in the make-up of the
human and how perceptions are structured. His theories propose that the experiences and perceptions of
learners have a significant impact on the way that they learn; that Learning happens best when the
instruction is related to their real life experiences. His theory also places its main emphasis on cognitive
processes of a higher order, causing the learner to use higher problem solving skills; furthermore, the
main principles of his learning theory focuses on the fact that teachers should encourage their students
to discover the relationship of the elements that make up a problem and incongruities, gaps, or
disturbances are essential stimuli in the learning process Educational instruction should be based on the
Laws of Organization.

Jerome S. Bruner who was an American psychologist, is also a proponent of cognitive learning
theory and has made a significant contribution in the field of educational psychology. His theory was
based upon the idea that the goal of education should be intellectual development. Bruner's theory
emphasizes three modes of representation which are the: (1.) Enactive in which a baby can make
representations of knowledge through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions;
(2.) Iconic which involves an internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental
image or icon; and (3). Symbolic which allows the learner to develop the ability to think in abstract terms.
They can now use logical reasoning and other symbols to describe experiences.

In 1963, the American psychologist, David Ausubel. Developed the Subsumption Learning
Theory that focuses on how individuals acquire and learn information through visual or text materials,
Ausubel explained that the acquisition of knowledge is based on the actual processes that occur during
learning. The key process that takes place in the learner's brain is Subsumption, where new content is
related to relative ideas that are already present in the existing cognitive structure on a non-verbatim
basis. Cognitive structures is what’s left in the human brain from all the learning experiences, after
forgetting inevitably occurs.

Assessment

Activity 1 Write the meaning of the following concepts according to Bruner’s

Cognitive Representation. Then, cite classroom situations wherein the
concept can be applied:
.
 ENACTIVE ICONIC SYMBOLIC

Activity 2 Choose the letter of the best answer from among the given choices..
Write your answer after each number.

1. Which of the following discusses Gestalt theory?

a. It proposes that the experiences and perceptions learners have a significant impact on the way
that they learn.
b. It organizes information by integrating new information with the existing information
c. It proposes that the experiences and perceptions of learners don’t have significant impact on the
way that they learn
d. It organizes information using the experiences and perception of learners

2. The following are the applications of Gestalt Theory to the teaching and learning process except
___________?
a. It makes lesson holistic
b. It maintains an emotionally harmonics and non threatening teaching and learning
atmosphere
c. It helps learners form relationship of the elements around them and integrate
them into an insight.
d. It makes the learners afraid to commit mistake

3. The following are Laws of Gestalt Theory that give perception except ____
a. Law of continuity
b. Law of closure
c. Law of exercise
d. Law of pragnanz

4. Which of the following is TRUE about the law of proximity?

a. It states that similar things appear to be grouped together.
b. It states that our minds tend to fill in the gaps or missing parts of the tissues.
c. It states that every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple
as possible.
d. It states that we link individual elements together and they make a continuous pattern that make
sense.

5. Which of the following states that if the manner in which lessons are presented with repeated
exercises or reinforcement, then learning the material can be made easy?
a. Law of closure
b. Law of exercise
c. Law of proximity
d. Law of continuity

Activity 3 Discuss the following questions comprehensively.

1) Cite and explain a specific classroom situation wherein you can apply the Gestalt Theory? 15pts)

2) How can you apply the various laws of Gestalt theory to improve learners’ performance? (25pts)
Activity 4 Answer the following questions by selecting the best option from the
given choices.

1. Which of the following are characteristics of the short term sensory store (stss)?
a. Large capacity and retains information for a long period of time
b. Small capacity and retains information for a short period of time (up to a second)
c. Large capacity and retains information for a short period of time (up to a second)
d. Small capacity and retain information for a long period of time

2. The short term memory or working memory has a limited capacity and stores information for a certain
period of time. From the list below, select the capacity limit and the period of time which information can
be stored in the working memory.
a. 5-9 pieces of information
b. 5-7 pieces of information
c. 60 seconds
d. 30 seconds
e. 45 seconds
f. 7-9 pieces of information

3. Which of the following does the abbreviation LTM stand for?

a. Large-trained memory
b. Long-term memory
c. Little-term memory
d. Long-time memory

4. Which of the following passages correctly explains the implications of the long term memory?

a. When a performer faces a new situation, relevant stimuli are passed from the short-term memory for a
comparison to be made from similar experiences. If some information is recognized, the similarities are
noted and a quick decision is made. If the performer experiences a new situation, a motor programme is
formed based on available knowledge, but tis may delay the decision making process.

b. When a performer faces a new situation, relevant stimuli are passed from the short-term sensory store
and a decision is made by filtering out irrelevant stimuli via selective attention. If the performer
experiences a new situation, a motor programme is formed based on the feedback provided from the
effectors.

c. When a performer faces a new situation, relevant stimuli are passed from the short-term memory, and
a comparison is made with past experiences. If some information is recognized, a quick decision is made
and similarities in the information are stored. If the performer experiences a new situation, a motor
programme is formed based on the knowledge available, speeding up the decision making process.

d. When a performer faces a new situation, relevant stimuli are passed via selective attention, and a
comparison is made with new experiences. If some information is recognized, a quick decision is made
and similarities in the information are stored. If the performer experiences a new situation, a motor
programme is not formed and the decision making process is delayed.
5. Which of the following is true about short-term memory?
a. It can hold small amount of information briefly
b. It can hold vast amounts of information indefinitely
c. It can hold vast amounts of information for short periods
d. It can hold small amounts of information indefinitely

6.Which of the following discusses Gestalt theory?

a. It proposes that the experiences and perceptions learners have a significant impact on the way
that they learn.
b. It organizes information by integrating new information with the existing information
c. It proposes that the experiences and perceptions of learners don’t have significant impact on the
way that they learn
d. It organizes information using the experiences and perception of learners

2. The following are the applications of Gestalt Theory to the teaching and learning process except
___________?
a. It makes lesson holistic
b. It maintains an emotionally harmonics and non-threatening teaching and learning atmosphere
c. It helps learners form relationship of the elements around them and integrate them into an insight.
d. It makes the learners afraid to commit mistake

3. The following are Laws of Gestalt Theory that give perception except _________.
a. Law of continuity
b. Law of closure
c. Law of exercise
d. Law of pragnanz

4. Which of the following is TRUE about the law of proximity?

a. It states that similar things appear to be grouped together.
b. It states that our minds tend to fill in the gaps or missing parts of the tissues.
c. It states that every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple
as possible.
d. It states that we link individual elements together and they make a continuous pattern that make
sense.

5. Which of the following states that if the manner in which lessons are presented with repeated
exercises or reinforcement, then learning the material can be made easy?
a. Law of closure b. Law of Exercise c. Law of Proximity d Law of Continuity.
Lesson 3 The Theory of Constructivism

What to Expect

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the learners can:

1. explore the possibilities of applying the theories in the classroom;
2. explain the basic principles of a teaching methodology that is student-centered, emphasizing on the
ways students construct their knowledge;
3. explain the constructivist theory, its characteristics, principles, and roles in the
teaching-learning process;
4. cite the similarities and differences of the different theorists in constructivism and its
application to the teaching and learning;
5.discuss the implications of constructivist theory to learning, to teaching and teacher
professional development; and
6.answer the given activities after the lesson.

Pre-discussion

Constructivism is basically a theory based on observation and scientific study -- about how
people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and
Knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we
encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe
changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are
active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we
know.

Lesson Outline
 Constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge
rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the
environment. It is a learning theory which explains how people might acquire knowledge and learn. It
therefore has direct application to education suggesting that humans construct knowledge and meaning
from their experiences.

Characteristics of Constructivism

There are two (2) views of constructivism

Individual constructivism. This is also called cognitive constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal
construction of knowledge. It is largely based on Paget’s theory. Proponents of this type choose child-
centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover principles
through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher.
Social constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a social context and is initially
shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual.” It is based on by
Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or more people. According to social
constructivists, the opportunity to interrupt and share among learners help to shape and refine their ideas.
Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.

Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there are four (4) characteristics that
these two views have in common. According to Eggen and Kauchak, these are:
1. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists do not view
learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as active thinkers
who interpret new information based on what they already know. They construct
knowledge in a way that makes sense to them.
2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background information is very
important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has that new
information will be interpreted.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in creating a
“community of learners” within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take
responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and
collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator
rather than an expert who has all the knowledge.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic task is one that
involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that
is so akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world.
Example, a writing activity where six-year olds prepare a checklist of things they need to
do in school is a more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing
work sheets with dotted lines.

Organizing Knowledge

Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind. A concept of
“ teach” includes a group of tasks such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain, assist, etc. In your life as a
student you would learn thousands of concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated that may
take you to learn them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also revised as you learn more and
experience more.

Concepts as future lists Learning concept involves learning specific features that characterize positive
instance of the concept. Included here are defining features and correlational features. A defining
feature is a characteristic present in all instances. Example, a triangle has three sides. Having three
sides is a defining features of triangle because all triangles should have three sides. If one doesn’t then it
is not a triangle. A correlational feature is one that is present in many positive instances but not
essential for concept membership. For example, a mother is loving. Being loving is a feature commonly
present in a concept mother. But a mother may not be loving. So “ being loving” is only a correlational
feature, not a defining one.

Concepts as prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a “typical” example. It is usually

formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often. Example, close your eyes
now and for a moment think of a cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You probably thought of an image
of the common cat we see, rather than some rare bred or species. Once learners have their own concept
prototypes, the new examples that they see are checked against this existing prototype.

Concepts as exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learners to know that an
example under a concept may have variability. Example, a learner’s concept of vegetable may include a
wide a variety of different examples like cauliflower, kangkong, cabbage, string beans, squash, corn,
potatoes. When he/she encounters a new type of vegetable like “bitswelas”, he/she would search from
the exemplars he/she knows and looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.

Making Concept-Learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help students learn concepts by
doing the following:
 Provide a clear definition of the concept
 Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances
 Give negative instances
 Cite a “best example“ or a prototype
 Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances
 Asl learners to think of their own example of the concept
 Point out how concepts can be related to each other

Schemas and scripts. A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. Like a schema of
what a teacher is. A script is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific
activity. Example, would include knowing the series of steps than when we visit a doctor, or what
transpires at the beginning of the class when the teacher arrives.

Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge such that they have a well-
organized set of concepts. Aim to make clear those concepts that are still vague for them, and to pave the
way for them to overcome misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how to facilitate
concept formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent guide for you.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

 Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than taking up so
many topics superficially.
 Give varied examples.
 Provide opportunities for experimentation.
 Have lots of hands-on activities.
 Relate your topic to real life situations.
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

Main Theorists

John Dewey (1933/1998)

He is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach. He proposed strongly about Progressive
education which is essentially a view of education that emphasizes the need to learn by doing. He
believed that human beings learn through a 'hands-on' approach. This places Dewey in the educational
philosophy of pragmatism. Pragmatists believe that reality must be experienced.

Jerome Bruner (1990)

A major theme in his theoretical framework is that learning is an active process in which learners
construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge as such as the instructor and
student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., Socratic learning).

Jean Piaget (1972)

He is considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists who specifically represent an
ontological stance. His flavors of constructivism focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the
interaction between their experiences and their ideas. He argued that people produce knowledge and
form meaning based upon their experiences. Piaget's theory covered learning theories, teaching methods,
and education Facilitating Learner–Centered Teaching reforms and believed that assimilating causes an
individual to incorporate new experiences into the old experiences.

Lev Vygotsky (1978)

He is the major theorist among the social constructivists supporting that social interaction is significant in
learning. Constructivist teaching This is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively
involved in a process of meaning and
knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving information. Learners are the makers of
meaning and knowledge. The main activity in a constructivist classroom is
solving problems. In social constructivist classrooms, collaborative learning is a process of peer
interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. In the classroom, the constructivist view of
learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually
means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create
more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is
changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides
the activity to address them and then build on them.

Classroom Applications of Constructivism

Learning theory of constructivism incorporates a learning process wherein the student gains their own
conclusions through the creative aid of the teacher as a facilitator. The best way to plan teacher
worksheets, lesson plans, and study skills for the students, is to create a curriculum which allows each
student to solve problems while the teacher monitors and flexibly guides the students to the correct
answer, while encouraging critical thinking Instead of having the students relying on someone else's
information and accepting it as truth, the students should be exposed to data, primary sources, and the
ability to interact with other students so that they can learn from the incorporation of their experiences.
The classroom experience should be an invitation for a myriad of different backgrounds and the learning
experience which allows the different backgrounds to come together and observe and analyze
information and ideas. Hands-on activities are the best for the classroom applications of constructivism,
critical thinking and learning. Having observations take place with a daily journal helps the
students to better understand how their own experiences
contribute to the formation of their theories and observational notes, and then comparing them to another
student reiterates that different backgrounds and cultures
create different outlooks, while neither is wrong, thus, both should be respected.

Some strategies for classroom applications of constructivism for the teacher include having
students working together and aiding to answer one another's questions. Another strategy includes
designating one student as the "expert" on a subject and having them teach the class. Finally, allowing
students to work in groups or pairs and research controversial topics which they must then present to the
class. Generally, the setting should include classroom applications of constructivism within a few key
concepts.
The first is discovering and maintaining an individual's intellectual identity. This forces students to
support their own theories, in essence taking responsibility for their words and respecting those of others.
The next component is having the teacher ask open-ended questions and leaving time to allow the
students to think and analyze a response based on their experiences and personal inquiry.
Open-ended questions and critical thinking encourage students to seek more than just a
simple response or basic facts and incorporate the justification and defense of their organized thoughts.
 The next step is allowing constant conversation between the students and teacher. This engagement
creates a discourse of comfort wherein all ideas can be considered and understood and the students then
feel safe about challenging other hypotheses, defending their own, and supporting real-world situations
with abstract supporting data.
These exercises and classroom applications of constructivism will allow children to, at an early age or a
late age, develop the skills and confidence to analyze the world around them, create solutions or support
for developing issues, and then justify their words and actions, while encouraging those around them to
do the same and respecting the differences in opinions for the contributions that they can make to the
whole of the situation. Classroom applications of constructivism support the philosophy of learning which
build a students' and teachers' understanding.

The Practice Implications of Constructivism

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new
knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This view of learning sharply contrasts with one in
which learning is the passive transmission of information from one individual to another, a view in which
reception, not construction, is key. There are two important notions that orbit around the simple idea of
constructed knowledge.
The first is that learners construct new understandings using what they already know
. There is no tabula rasa on which new knowledge is etched. Rather, learners come to
learning situations with knowledge gained from previous experience, and that prior
knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge they will construct from new
learning experiences.
The second notion is that learning is active rather than passive .Learners confronts
their understanding in light of what they encounter in the new learning situation.
If what learners encounter is inconsistent with their current understanding, their understanding can
change to accommodate new experience. Learners remain active throughout this process: they apply
current understandings, note relevant elements in
new learning experiences, judge the consistency of prior and emerging knowledge, and base don’t that
judgment, they can modify knowledge.

Important Implications to Teaching

First, teaching cannot be viewed as the transmission of knowledge from enlightened
to unenlightened; constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the
stage”. Rather, teachers act as "guides on the side" who provide students with
opportunities to test the adequacy of their current understandings.
Second, if learning is based on prior knowledge, then teachers must note that
knowledge and provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between
learners' current understandings and the new experiences before them. This
challenges teachers, for they cannot assume that all children understand something
in the same way. Further, children may need different experiences to advance to
different levels of understanding.
Third, if students must apply their current understandings in new situations in order to
build new knowledge, then teachers must engage students in learning, bringing
students' current understandings to the forefront. Teachers can ensure that learning
experiences incorporate problems that are important to students, not those that are
primarily important to teachers and the educational system. Teachers can also
encourage group interaction, where the inter play among participants helps individual
students become explicit about their own understanding by comparing it to that of
their peers.
Fourth, if new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build it. Ample time
facilitates student reflection about new experiences, how those experiences line up
against current understandings, and how a different understanding might provide
students with an improved (not "correct")view of the world.
Professional Practices Needed

If learning is a constructive process, and instruction must be designed to provide opportunities for
such construction, then what professional development practices
can bring teachers to teach in student-centered ways? First recognize that construction in learning is not
just the domain of children but of learners, all learners. Constructivist professional development give
teachers time to make explicit their understandings of learning (e.g., is it a constructive process?), of
teaching (e.g., is a teacher an orator or a facilitator, and what is the teacher's understanding of content?),
and of professional development (e.g., is a teacher's own learning best approached through a
constructivist orientation?). Furthermore, such professional development provides opportunities for
teachers to test their understandings and build new ones. Training that affects student-centered teaching
cannot come in one-day workshops. Systematic, long-term development that allows practice and
reflection on that practice - is required. It is also useful to remember the educator's maxim, Teachers
teach as they are taught, not as they are told to teach. Thus, trainers in constructivist professional
development sessions model learning activities that teachers can apply in their own classrooms. It is not
enough for trainers to describe new ways of teaching and expect teachers to translate from talk to action;
it is more effective to engage teachers in activities that will lead to new actions in classrooms.

Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. Its implications for how teachers
teach and learn to teach are enormous. If our efforts in reforming education
for all students are to succeed, then we must focus on students. To date, a focus on student-centered
learning may well be the most important contribution of constructivism.

Benefits of Constructivism to Teaching and Learning

Benefit #1
Children learn more and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather than passive
listeners.
Benefit # 2
Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote
memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand.
Benefit #3
Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create organizing principles
that they can take with them to other learning settings.
Benefit #4
Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based on students'
questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments as well.
Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal investments in their journals,
research reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative instincts develops
students' abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are also more likely to
retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
Benefit #5
By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real world context, constructivism stimulates and engages
students. Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things and to apply their natural curiosity
to the world.
Benefit #6
Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that
emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn
how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group
projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to
"negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is
essential to success in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in
which they will have to cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others.
What a Teacher Can Do in a Constructivist Classroom?

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them
gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist
classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With
a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOWTOLEARN. You might look at it as a
spiral. When they continuously reflect on their experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity
and power, and they develop increasingly strong abilities to integrate new information. One of the
teacher's main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process.

For example: Groups of students of St. Marcellin in Grade 11 science class are discussing a
problem in physics. Though Teacher Imelda knows the "answer" to the problem, she focuses on helping
students restate their questions in useful ways. She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his
or her current knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the relevant concept, Teacher Imelda
seizes upon it, and indicates to the group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore. They
design and perform relevant experiments. Afterward, the students and teacher talk about what they have
learned, and how their observations and experiments helped (or did not help) them to better understand
the concept.

Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does not

dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role,
so that teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The
constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with
which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey
their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism transforms the student from a
passive recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always guided by the
teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge
from the teacher or the textbook.

Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to "reinvent
the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the world and
how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how
it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience,
learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their findings.
Constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide students to help them find their own
answers. They use many techniques in the teaching process. For example, they may:
•* prompt students to formulate their own questions (inquiry)
•* allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple Intelligences)
• *encourage group work and the use of peers as resources (collaborative learning)

In a constructivist classroom, learning is...

Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched. They come to learning situations
with already formulated knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge is the raw
material for the new knowledge they will create.

Example: Teacher Kathleen is an elementary school teacher who presents a class problem to measure
the length of the "Mayflower." Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, Teacher Kathleen
allows students to reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One student, Amer, offers
the knowledge that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Victoria knows horses are measured in "hands." The
students discuss these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the
problem.
The student is the person who creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches,
moderates, suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things that don't
work. Learning activities require the students' full participation (like hands-on experiments). An important
part of the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about, their activities. Students also help
set their own goals and means of assessment.

Examples: Teacher Bea, a middle-school language arts teacher sets aside time each week for a writing
lab. The emphasis is on content and getting ideas down rather than memorizing grammatical rules,
though one of the teacher Bea’s concerns is the ability of his students to express themselves well through
written language. She provides opportunities for students to examine the finished and earlier drafts of
various authors. Teacher Bea allows students to select and create projects within the general requirement
of building a portfolio 1. Students serve as peer editors who value originality and uniqueness rather than
the best way to fulfill an assignment.
Teacher Ivan Owen in a history class, asks students to read and think about different versions of and
perspectives on "history" that can lead to interesting discussions. Is history as taught in textbooks
accurate? Are there different versions of the same history? Whose version of history is most accurate?
How do we know? From there, students can make their own judgments.

Students control their own learning process, and they lead the way by reflecting on their experiences.
This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations where the
students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group
discussions. The teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect on his or her prior
knowledge and experiences. Talking about what was learned and how it as learned is really important.

Example: Students of Section St. Francis-Grade 7 keep journals in a writing class where they record how
they felt about the class projects, the visual and verbal reactions of others to the project, and how they felt
their own writing had changed. Periodically teacher Mauricio reads these journals and holds a conference
with the student where the two assess (1) what new knowledge the student has created, (2) how the
student learns best, and (3) the learning environment and the teacher's role in it.

The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among students. There are many reasons
why collaboration contributes to learning. The main reason it is used so much in constructivism is that
students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also from their peers. When students review
and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one
another.

Example: In the course of studying ancient civilizations, students of Grade 8- Acacia undertake an
archaeological dig. This may be something constructed in a large sandbox, or, as in the Dalton School's
"Archaeotype" software simulation, on a computer. As the students find different objects, Teacher
Chrisma introduces classifying techniques. The students are encouraged to (1) set up a group museum
by developing criteria and choosing which objects should belong, and (2) collaborate with other students
who worked in different quadrants of the dig. Each group is then asked to develop theories about the
civilizations that in habited the area.
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask
questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students
explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions.
Exploration of questions leads to more questions.

Example: Sixth graders of St. Benedict figuring out how to purify water investigate solutions ranging from
coffee-filter paper, to a stove-top distillation apparatus, to piles of charcoal, to an abstract mathematical
solution based on the size of a water molecule. Depending upon students' responses, Teacher Bai
Sheeba encourages abstract as well as concrete, poetic as well as practical, creations of new knowledge.

Students have ideas that they may later see were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new
experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance, a child may
believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until she visits an evergreen forest. Constructivist
teaching takes into account students' current conceptions and builds from there.
What happens when a student gets a new piece of information? The constructivist model says that the
student compares the information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already has, and one of
three things can occur:
• The new information matches up with his previous knowledge pretty well (it's consonant with the
previous knowledge), so the student adds it to his understanding. It may take some work, but it's just a
matter of finding the right fit, as with a puzzle piece.

• The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's dissonant). The student has to change
her previous understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be harder work.

• The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is ignored. Rejected bits of information
may just not be absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting for the day when the student's
understanding has developed and permits a fit.

Example: Teacher Exequiel, an elementary teacher believes her students are

ready to study gravity. He creates an environment of discovery with objects of
varying kinds. Students explore the differences in weight among similarly sized
blocks of Styrofoam, wood, and lead. Some students hold the notion that heavier
objects fall faster than light ones. Teacher Exequiel provides materials (stories,
posters, and videos) about Galileo, Newton, etc. He leads a discussion on
theories about falling. The students then replicate Galileo's experiment by
dropping objects of different weights and measuring how fast they fall. They see
that objects of different weights actually usually fall at the same speed, although surface area and
aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.

How Does this Theory Differ from Traditional Ideas about Teaching and Learning?
In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The classroom is
no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who wait like
empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in
their own process of learning. The teacher functions more as a facilitator who coaches, mediates,
prompts, and helps students develop and assess their understanding, and thereby their learning. One of
the teacher's biggest jobs becomes ASKING GOOD QUESTIONS.
And, in the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert factoids to
be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully
stretch and explore that view.

Summary

Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how
people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to
reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe
discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge.
To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Instead, teachers act as a
"guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their current
understandings. On the other hand, the expectation within a constructivist learning environment is that the
students plays a more active role in, and accepts more responsibility for their own learning.
Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to "reinvent the
wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the world and how
things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it
functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience,
learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their findings.
Constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide students to help them find their own
answers. They use many techniques in the teaching process.

In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The
classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who
wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively
involved in their own process of learning. The teacher functions more as a facilitator who coaches,
mediates, prompts, and helps students develop and assess their understanding, and thereby their
learning

Assessment

Activity 1 Answer the following questions comprehensively. Consider

the concepts and theories that you have learned in the lesson and
support your discussion with particular examples or experiences.

1.Having studied about Constructivism and its application in teaching, give at least five (5) characteristics
of a constructivist teacher. You may express your answer by writing a poem, making a drawing, or any
clip art/photo essay. (10 pts.)

2.Explain the role/s of constructivism in facilitating learning. (10 pts)

3.Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction.(10 pts)

4.Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning. (10 pts)

Activity 2 Answer the following questions as asked:

1.Explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning. (10)

2.Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction. (15)

3.Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning. (15)

4.Give at least five (5) characteristics of a constructivist teacher. You may express
it by writing a poem, a drawing, a clip art, or a photo essay. (20pts)

LESSON 4 TRANSFER OF LEARNING and BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

What to Expect
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1.explain how transfer of learning occurs;
2.identify the factors that affect transfer of learning;
3.apply principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning;
4.discuss the Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning; and
5.answer the activities after the lesson.

Pre-discussion
Teachers want their students to apply the knowledge and skills learned in class to other situations.
When one recognizes a situation as something similar in a way to what he/she has experienced before,
his/her tendency is to use the knowledge and skills he/she has learned to this new situation. This is what
transfer of learning is all about.

Lesson Outline

Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials affects
performance in other contexts or with other related materials. Simply put, it is applying to another situation
what was previously learned. Transfer of learning. generally refers to the influence of learning in one
situation on learning in another situation. It is concerned with how learning in a certain school subject
affects subsequent learning in the same or another subject or how school learning influences
achievements outside of school. Transfer is a very significant concept in education and learning theory
because most of those concerned in education aim to achieve transfer.

Frequently, the circumstance of learning (classrooms, workbooks, tests, drills) differs significantly
from the situation when what is learned is to be applied ( in the home, on the job, within complex tasks).
As a result, the educational goals are not met until transfer occurs. This makes transfer a very important
aspect of instruction. It may be true that in most cases, the goal of transfer of learning from classroom to
real life situations is not achieved so it is vital that as a future teacher you have a clear understanding of
how best to teach your learners so that transfer of learning is facilitated. After all, what good is there in
providing your learners with tons of knowledge and a multitude of skills if they cannot apply them when
they need to.

Types of Transfer

Positive Transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context improves performance in some
other contexts. For instance, a speaker of Spanish would find it easier to learn Mexican language than
Japanese.

Negative Transfer. Negative transfer occurs when learning in one context impacts negatively on
performance in other. For example, learners commonly assimilate a new language phone text to crude
approximations in their native tongue and use word orders carried over from their native tongue. Example,
there may be a tendency for a Visayan-speaking child too frequently interchange the /e/ and /i/ sound
when speaking in English. With experience however, learners correct the effects of negative transfer.
Near Transfer. Near transfer refers to transfer between very similar context. This is also referred to as
specific transfer; for example, when students answer types of Algebra word problems in an exam which
are similar to what they had in their seat works. Or when a student is learning to use a new cell phone
that is somehow similar to the one she had before.

Far Transfer. Far transfer refers to transfer between context that, on a appearance, seem remote and
align to one another. This is also called general transfer. For example, Stephen Covey applied the lesson
of the Aesop’s Fable of “The Goose that lays the Golden Eggs” to managing corporations. He said we
should take care of the goose rather than kill it. To be successful in business we should take care of our
workers not burden them.

Conditions and Principles of Transfer

These principles are based on the factors that affect transfer of learning. These factors are similar to what
Perkins termed as “conditions of transfer”. Below you will find the factors with the consequent principles
and educational implications.

Conditions/Factors Affecting Principles of Transfer Implications

Transfer of learning

Similarity between two
learning situations
The more similar the two Involve students in learning
situations are, the greater situations and tasks that are
the chances that learning similar as possible to the
from one situation will be situations where they would
transferred to another apply the tasks.
situation.

Degree of meaningfulness/ Meaningful learning leads to Remember to provide

Relevance of learning greater transfer than Rote opportunities for learning to
Learning link new material to what
they learned in the past

Length of instructional time The longer the time spent in To ensure transfer, teach a
Instruction, the greater the few topics in-depth rather
Probability of transfer. than many topics tackled in
A shallow manner.

Conditions/Factors Affecting Principles of Transfer Implications

Transfer of learning

Variety of learning Exposures to many and Illustrate new concepts &

Experiences varied examples and
opportunities for practice
encourages transfer.
principles with a variety
examples. Plan activities
that allow your learners to
practice their newly
learned skills.

Context for Learner’s Transfer of learning is most Relate a topic in one

Experiences likely to happen when the subject to topics in other
 learners discover that what subjects or disciplines.
they learned is applicable to Relate it also to real life
various contexts. situations.

Focus on principles rather Principles transfer easier Zero in on principles

than tasks than tasks related to each topic
together with strategies
based on those principles

Emphasis on Metacognition Student reflection improves Encourage students to

Transfer of learning take responsibility for
their own learning and
to reflect on what they
learned.

Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Imagine that you are already working as a teacher. How would you feel if you enter the classroom
without specific learning outcomes? How would you proceed without clear and specific targets? Being
sure about your learning outcomes will help you to facilitate learning effectively. With appropriate, clear,
and specific learning outcomes, you do not need to guess nor grope in the dark of what to accomplish.
This topic will present the original and revised Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.Althogh the
revised taxonomy came out years ago, it is important to still present both the old and the revised to have
a complete understanding and better appreciation of the taxonomy’s use in education.
Old Taxonomy

In 1956, the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals

Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain was published. Initially, the purpose was simply to have a frameqork to
classify test questions that faculty members shared.Eventually, it became so relevant and useful in
education. Since then, it has been used in planning the curriculum, planning learning activities and
assessment. Bloom and his colleagues published Handbook II, The Affective Domain in 1964. Eventually,
other experts published a taxonomy for the psychomotor domain in 1966, 1970, and 1972.

Bloom’s taxonomy, was a model that described the different levels of learning outcomes that
target what skills and competencies the teachers aim to develop in the learners. The taxonomy in the
cognitive contains the knowledge from knowledge to evaluation. The six levels progress from simple to
more complex levels of thinking, the last three being referred to as “Higher-Order Thinking Skills” or
HOTS. So that, you have to got the HOTS to teach well. We always hear seasoned teachers reminding
us to focus on the HOTS and not just stop at the usual memorizing and enumerating.

To facilitate teaching, we begin teaching with facts, stating memorized rules, principles, or
definitions (knowledge), which must lead to understanding concepts, rules, and principles
(comprehension). But we should not end here. A proof of comprehension of the concepts and principles is
using them in real-life situations (application). For an in-depth understanding and mastery of these
applied concepts, rules, and principles, these are broken down into parts (analysis). Students may
compare, contrast, classify, further investigate, etc. These actions now reflect a higher order level of
thinking.
 A still higher of thinking is when students put together elements of what has been learned in a
new way (synthesis). They come up with a wholistic,, complete, more integrated, or even a new view or
perspective of what was learned. With a full grasp of what was learned, the students can now assess, or
judge based on a set of standards, on what they have learned (evaluation). The cognitive domain levels
or thinking levels also have sub-categories except for that of application. Below is a given example of
learning outcomes using the taxonomy.

The Original Bloom’s Taxonomy

Cognitive Domain levels and Their Sub-Categories

Simple Verbs
1.Knowledge define, describe, draw, identify,
1.1 knowledge of specifics label, locate, memorize, name, recite,
1.1.1 terminology recognize, select, state, write
1.1.2 specific facts

1.2 Knowledge of ways and means of dialing with the specifics

1.2.1 conventions
1.2.2 trends and sequences
1.2.3 classifications and category
1.2.4 criteria
1.2.5 methodology
1.3 Knowledge of Universal and Abstraction in the Field
1.3.1 principles and generalizations
1.3.2 theories and structures

2.Comprehension paraphrase, summarize, restate,

2.1 translation retell, illustrate
2.2 interpretation
2.3 extrapolation
3.Application apply, change, prepare, produce

4.Analysis analyze, subdivide, take a part,

4.1 elements investigate, compare, contrast. Infer,
4.2 relationships
4.3 organizational principles
5.Synthesis
5.1 production of unique communication combine, organize, design, formulate
5.2 production of a plan, or proposed set of operation
5.3 derivation of a set of abstract relation

6.Evaluation
6.1 in terms of internal evidence asses, appraise, critique, judge,
6.2 in terms of external evidence recommend.
Examples:
At the end of the lesson/unit/chapter, the students can :
 enumerate the characters in the story “How My Brother Leon Brought Home A Wife” (knowledge)
 summarize the story (comprehension)
 apply the rules of subject-verb agreement when writing a summary of the story (application)
 compare and contrast the qualities of the characters in the story (analysis)
 write a song expressing the message or lesson of the story (synthesis)
 write a critique of the author’s writing style (evaluation)

The Revised Taxonomy

After 45 years since the publication of Bloom’s taxonomy, Lorin Anderson, (Bloom’s former
student) and David Krathwohl lead a new group of experts to work together. The result is what we call
now, the revised taxonomy. Stated below are the salient differences between the old and the revised
taxonomies:
 Levels or categories of thinking in the old taxonomy were nouns, while in the revised taxonomy
they are verbs. The use of action words instead of nouns was done to highlight that thinking is
an active process. For example, evaluate instead of evaluation, analyze instead of analysis.
 While the revised taxonomy remains to be in hierarchical levels of increasing complexity, it is
intended to be more flexible, in that it allows the categories to overlap. For example, some words
in understand level, like explain, may appear to be more complex than the action word, show in
the apply level. However, when we look into the six levels from remember to create, we will still
find, that over-all, the taxonomy proceeds in hierarchical order.
 The knowledge level was changed to remember. The change was made because knowledge
does not refer to a cognitive or thinking level. Knowledge is the object of the thinking. Remember
is a more appropriate word for the first thinking level which involves recalling and retrieving
knowledge.
 The comprehension level was changed to understand. Teachers are likely to use the word
understand when referring to their work rather than their comprehension.
 Synthesis was changed to create and was placed as the highest level.
 The cognitive domain now includes two dimensions: the cognitive dimension and the
knowledge dimension. The knowledge dimension of the revised taxonomy was based on the
sub-categories of knowledge in the old taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
 The Revised Taxonomy with Two Dimensions of Cognitive Domain
(KRATHWOHL, 2002)

The Cognitive Dimension The Knowledge Dimension

1. Remember A. Factual
Retrieving relevant knowledge from long- The basic elements that students
term memory must know. Knowledge of:
1.1 recognizing a. terminology
1.2 recalling b. specific details and elements

2. Understand B . Conceptual
Determining the meaning of instructional The interrelationships among the
Messages, including oral, written, and basic elements within a larger
graphic communication structure that enable them to
2.1 interpreting 2.5 inferring function together. Knowledge of:
2.2 exemplifying 2.6 comparing a. classifications & categories
2.3 classifying 2.7 explaining b. principles and generalizations
2.4 summarizing c. theories, models, and
2.5 inferring structures

3. Apply C. Procedural Knowledge

Carrying out or using a procedure in given How to do something, methods
Situation of inquiry, and criteria for using
3.1 executing skills, algorithms, techniques
3.2 implementing and methods Knowledge of:
a. subject-specific skills and
4. Analyze algorithms
Breaking material into its constituent parts b. subject-specific techniques
And detecting how the part relates to one and methods
Another and to an over-all structure or c. criteria for determining when to
Purpose use appropriate procedures
4.1 differentiating D. Meta-cognitive Knowledge
4.2 organizing Knowledge of cognition in
4.3 attributing general as well as awareness
5. Evaluate and knowledge of one’s own
Making judgments based on criteria and cognition
Standards a. strategic knowledge
5.1 checking b. knowledge about cognitive
5.2 critiquing tasks, including contextual
6.Create and conditional knowledge
Putting elements together to form a novel, c. self-knowledge
Coherent wall or make an original product
6.1 generating
6.2 planning
6.3 producing
The revised taxonomy highlights two dimensions; the cognitive and the knowledge dimensions.
The cognitive dimension includes hierarchical or ordered level of thinking. The thinking level move from
the simplest to the most complex. The levels are remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and
create. The knowledge dimension includes four knowledge categories: factual, conceptual,
procedural, meta-cognitive. The knowledge that teachers aim to teach and students’ aim to learn can
be about facts, concepts, procedures and metacognitive knowledge.

When you formulate learning objectives, you consider what level of thinking (cognitive) you want
your students to achieve, and also what type of knowledge it is you want to teach.
 When we write a learning objective, the level of thinking is represented by the verb, while the
knowledge dimensions is represented by the noun. In the example, “ at the end of the lesson, the learner
can : explain the photosynthesis process” explain is the action word which will fall under the second
cognitive dimension level, understand and photosynthesis is the noun that will fall under procedural
knowledge. Below is a collection of action words and possible activities or works which you can use for
your learning plan.

COGNITVE DIMENSION SAMPLE ACTION SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES,

LEVEL WORDS OUTPUTS OR OUTCOMES

Remember recall, name, list, state recitations, worksheets.

( recalling Information) tell, reproduce, describe definitions, fact charts,
locate, write, find, under- lists
line, define

Understand explain, translate, interpret, story problems, drawing

( explaining information discuss, describe, define, show and tell, summary
And concepts) report, predict paraphrasing

Apply
(using information in a use, solve, implement, presentation, role-playing,
new way ) construct , practice, execute, simulation ,collection,
demonstrate, dramatize model, scrap book, product

Analyze compare, distinguish, chart, plan, questionnaire,

( distinguishing different investigate, infer, contrast, spread sheet, summary,
parts of a whole) separate, differentiate, survey
sequence

Evaluate assess, debate, defend, opinion, judgment, report

( defending a concept dispute, judge, appraise, recommendation, self-
Or idea ) check, decide, justify, rate evaluation, position paper.
critique

Create
( creating something new) change, design, formulate,
improve, plan, propose,
invent, devise, generate
compose, combine
framework, model, story,
multimedia presentation,
poem, haiku, song, essay

Uses of the Revised Taxonomy

The revised taxonomy provides a framework that helps educators in the following ways:
1. It provides educators with the common set of terms and levels about learning outcomes
that help planning across subject matter and grade level.
2. It helps in the drafting of learning standards across levels.
3. It serves as a guide in evaluating the schools’ curriculum objectives, activities and
assessment.
4. It guides the teacher in formulating learning outcomes that top higher-order thinking skills.
Assessment

Activity 1
Choose a topic that
you are really interested
to teach. Formulate learning
outcomes on the topic you have chosen. Write at least 10 outcomes and
use the guide in the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

Topic: ________________________________________________________________

Learning Learning Outcomes

Outcomes No.

5
 6

10

Activity 2 In her blog (http://blog.kathyschrock.net/), Kathy Schrock

came up with an organizer which showed IPad and Android Apps
that are useful in addressing the different levels of Bloom’s
revised Taxonomy. (see above Bloom’s Taxonomy for IPads and
and Android Apps to support his taxonomy)

Explore the different apps and use the matrix to share what you
discover.

Application How It Can Be Used in Teaching and Learning

Level: Create
App :

Level: Evaluate
App :

Level : Analyze
App :

Level : Apply
App :

Level : Understand
App :
Level : Remember
App:

Activity 3 Answer the following questions and be guided by Bloom’s

Revised Taxonomy.

1. Formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the revised

taxonomy. (20pts.)

2. Surf the internet and explore one (1) app for each category or level of thinking.
Explain how you can use each in the teaching-learning process. (20 pts)

Activity 4 State the similarities and differences between the original and
the revised taxonomy.

__

LESSON 5 STERNBERG’S SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE THEORY,

WICS MODEL AND PROBLEM-SOLVING CREATIVITY

What to Expect

Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. explain Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model;

2. demonstrate enjoyment of working on WICS-based tasks and activities;
3. prepare a lesson guide that is based on the WICS model;
4. explain the four criteria of creativity by Torrance
5. apply problem-solving skills; and
4. answer the given activities after the lesson.

Pre-Discussion

Robert Sternberg is a cognitive psychologist who did an extensive work in the field of intelligence.
As a youngster, he had difficulty with intelligence tests. He did not perform well on such tests. This might
have fuelled his interest in the field that lead him to come up with the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence in
the 1980s. Over the years, his theory evolved from the more complicated, componential Triarchic Theory
to the simpler, successful intelligence theory. More recently, in collaboration with other prominent
psychologists, he proposed the WICS (Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Synthesis) Model. It is an
alternative paradigm to deliver more relevant admission, instruction, and assessment in education. This
lesson will introduce you to the theory and the model. It is hoped that it will spawn your interest and make
you want to explore more.

Lesson Outline
Successful Intelligence Theory

The four skills included in the theory are described below:

1. Memory skills help us recall facts and pieces of information. It helps us retain the knowledge we
acquire

2. Analytical skills help the person determine if a certain idea is good.

3.Creative skills allow a person to come up with a new idea, usually to answer a need or solve a
problem. It makes one flexible and able to adjust to changes in one’s situation

4. Practical skills enable a person to apply what one has learned. It also allows one to carry through or
implement a plant.

Sternberg believed that traditional views of intelligence focused heavily on memory and analytical
skills. This traditional view led to teaching strategies that focused mainly on memory and analytical
skills as well. It naturally followed that assessment of learning likewise concentrated heavily on these
two skills.

Memory and analytical skills are very much necessary. Being able to recall information or have
knowledge is needed to begin thinking creatively. One cannot apply knowledge witch he cannot
remember. Analysis is important before one can think of new and better ideas. However, memory and
analytical skills should not be the only focus of education.

Sternberg also emphasized creative and practical intelligence. Creativity is what moves people
forward. Creativity gives birth to new and better solutions to problem. Without creativity we will get
trapped in things and ways that don’t work anymore, practical intelligence, on the other hand, makes
us apply what we have learned. It gets us to actually do what needs to be done.

According to Sternberg, successful intelligence is “the ability to succeed in life, given one’s own
goals, within one’s environmental contexts.” It is maximizing one’s own strengths not only to adapt to
one’s environment, but to also contribute significantly.

Each person may have his/her own unique way of practicing the four skills because each has
different strengths. The idea is to further develop one’s unique strengths in the context of the four
skills rather than simply making it the goal of the
school to just develop memory and analytical skills. The theory of successful
Intelligence points “that some student who do not do well in conventional courses
may, in fact, have the ability to succeed, if they are taught in a way that better fits
their patterns of abilities.”

The balanced combination of the four skills of memory, analytical, creative and
practical skills is what leads to successful Intelligence. It is vital that we remember
what we learn (memory); use critical thinking to evaluate the things we learn
(analytical); be innovative in finding better ways of doing things and solving problem
(creative); and put to action what we learn (practical)

The WICS Model

In the WICS model, intelligence is viewed as a set fluid abilities to learn from experience and to adapt
to one’s surroundings. Individuals possess abilities that can be nurtured into competencies and further
cultivated into expertise. The WICS is a more recent model of how humans think and reason that can
help us understand how students will learn most effectively. It aims to develop basic abilities to true
expertise.
 WICS stands for wisdom, Intelligence, creativity, synthesized. Sternberg (2010) described the
WICS model as follows:

“The basic idea is that citizens of the world need creativity to form a vision of where they want
to go and to cope with changes in the environment, analytical intelligence to ascertain whether their
creative ideas are good ones, practical intelligence to implement their ideas and to persuade other of
the value of their ideas, and wisdom and order to ensure that the ideas will help achieve some ethically-
based common good, over the long and short terms, rather than just what is good for them and their
families and friends.”

Applying the WICS Model

The uses of the WICS model include admission, instruction and assessment. However, for this
lesson, we shall focus only on the model’s instructional and assessment uses.

One way that you can apply the WICS model in instruction is when you reflect and make choices on
the tasks and activities that you will give to teach and assess your students. You may choose to teach
analytically, creatively, practically as well as teach for wisdom. Your choice can be based on the
preferences and strengths of your learners. This is useful for any level, from preschool to higher
education, Sternberg described each of these. Some examples relevant to education in the Philippines
are also provided below.

How do you teach analytically? Make your students use critical thinking. Design tasks and activities
that provide opportunity for your learners to
1. Analyze 4. Compare and Contrast
2. Critique 5. Evaluate
3. Judge 6. Assess

Here are some examples for analytical intelligence:

a. Analyze the development of the character of Ibarra in Noli Me Tangere

b. Critique the design and features of the latest smart phone

c. Judge the artistic merits of Filipino cartoonist, Larry Alcala’s “Slice of Life.”

d. Compare and contrast the Italian approaches of Montessori and Reggio Emilia in early childhood
education.

e. Evaluate the validity of the theory of evolution. Write a term paper on this.

f. Assess the strategy of the Manila city government to improve the traffic situation around the city.

How do you teach creatively? It is important for you to encourage and sustain your students’ creative
ideas. Remember to be an example to them by taking the risk to share your own creative ideas. Think out
of the box. Design tasks and activities that help students to:
1. Creative
2. Invent
3. Discover
4. Imagine if..
5. Suppose that…
6. Predict

Here are some examples for creative intelligence:

a. Create an alternative ending to Florante at Laura (Literature)

b. Invent a dialogue that would transpire if Jose Rizal and Ninoy Aquino met (Araling
Panlipunan)

c. Discover a way to explain why heavy ships float at sea. (Science)

d. Imagine if the EDSA Revolution did not happen in 1986. What do you think our country will be like
present and 10 years later? (Araling Panlipunan)

e. Suppose that you were to design a computer game to help[ children learn about love and sacrifice. The
game you will create. (Computer Education, Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)

f. Predict changes that will happen if humans had a third eye at the back of their heads. Choose an
appliance or gadget that would need to be changed in order to be useful. Proposed a new function
design. (HELE)

How to do you teach practically? Have in mind real life situations where students can use what they
learn to meet their own and also others’ practical needs. Design tasks and activities that allow your
student to:
1. Apply
2. Use
3. Put into practice
4. Implement
5. Employ
6. Render practical what they know

Here are some examples for practical intelligence:

a. Apply addition concept in determining number of boys and girls in the classroom
(Mathematics)
b. Use the knowledge of Excel to keep track of daily household expenses
(Computer
Education, Mathematics)
c. put into practice what you learn about classroom rules in making your own
classroom rules poster (Classroom Management)
d. Implement a lesson plan that one has made ( Principles of Teaching)
e. Employ the formula of computing the area of one’s living room to determine the
number of 12” 12” tiles needed to cover the floor.
f. Render practical a proposed assembly design for a computer PC

How do you teach for wisdom? One of the goals is for learners to learn to see and understand
the point of view of others. It is important for your learners to balance one’s own needs with the needs of
other people and also that of the world or the environment. It is developing your learners to consistently
act based on positive ethical values. You teach for wisdom when you are able to move your students to:
1. try to find a common good
2. see things from others’ points of view
3. balance your own interests with those of others and of institutions.
4. look at the long term as well as the short term
5. reflect about how one can base his every decision on positive ethical values
6. appreciate that in life what is seen as true and effective may vary over time and
place

Here are some examples for wisdom:

a. What might be a solution for the common good in the Philippines
and China claim on Spratly Islands ?(Araling Panlipunan, Political Science)
b. Think of a person you had a conflict or fight with. Put yourself in the person’s place.
Write down her point of view and concerns as detailed as possible. What can you do
 or say to express that you understand the person now? ( Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao)
c. Should parents expect their children to take care of them when they are old? Why?
(Eukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
d. How is global warming going to affect the world, and the Philippines in particular?
What can you do? (Science, Geology, Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
e. Is it ever ethical to shoot down a plane with civilians and terrorists on board if the
terrorists plan to slam the plane to a building with thousands of people? (Edukasyon
sa pagpapakatao)
f. How does parenting change over time? What would you say are different now than
before what are the constant things that should be present to make the parent-child
relationship work? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)

The WICS model has been used not only for instruction but also for admission and assessment.
Sternberg and his colleagues proposed, tried out and studied creative ways of doing student admission
as well as assessing students” learning. Based on their studies, the WICS model was successful for
teachers and their learners because it (1) celebrated the differences of learners through a supportive
learning environment, (2) made students remember better what they learned, (3) build on the strengths of
the learners, and (4) strengthened the motivations of the learners.

Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking

A common framework for creative thinking processes is described by Torrance (1979). Each
aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the respective aspect by using key words and
application activities.

Fluency – this refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a problem.
Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information that is learned.

Key words: compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match, name, outline,
paraphrase, predict, summarize.

Sample Application Activities:

 Trace a picture and label the parts
 Outline an article you find on your topic
 How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
 List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red?
Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign, fire alarm, flag, heart, red
nose reindeer, rose, tomato, wagon

Flexibility – refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or realms of thought. It
involves the ability to see things from different points of view, to use many different approaches or
strategies.

Key words: change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret, predict

Application ideas:
 What would happen if…there were no automobiles?
 How would a … dog look like to a flea?
 How is ______ like ________?
 How would you feel if… you were invisible for a day?
 How would you group the ideas about “red” into categories?

Example: fruit, safety features, vehicles

 Once categories are identifies, fluency may be further demonstrated by generating more ideas
about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could result in the following lists, recognizing
that the creative thinking process may shift the mind in a spiral way between all four aspects of creativity.

Elaboration – refers to the process of enhancing ideas by providing more details. Additional detail and
clarity improves interest in, and understanding of, the topic.
Key words: appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test.

Application ideas:
 Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as possible.
 What can you add to ______________ to improve its quality or performance.
 Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.

Examples: shade, finish, texture, uniformity

Originality – it involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves synthesis or putting
information about a topic back together in a new way.

Key words: compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct, reorganize,
revise

Application ideas:
 Find an original use for ______
 What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?
 Design a new ________ that is better than the one you have.
 Write an unusual title for the ideas
about red
Example: Revolutionary “Red” Representation.

In its most extended and formalized for, the CPS has six stages , each having a divergent and
non-convergent phase which were described in a skeleton by Van Gundy (1988): Mess Finding, Data
Finding, Problem Finding, Idea Finding, Solution Finding, and Acceptance Finding. You can retrieve this
from: http//www.mycoted.com/Creative Problem Solving- CPS.

Summary

Stemberg present a model for education that is relevant to the need of the time. Time and again
the world has seen leaders on countries, corporations, religious groups and other institutions who have
been considered intelligent. They were capable of serious analysis of issues and problems. They were
good at coming up with new ideas. However, some of these leader lacked the moral and ethical
“muscles” to really act for the good of their people and not just for their own. Your role as a teacher is not
to educate the mind alone, but to educate the soul as well. Accept this not just as a job but embrace it as
a mission.

Sternberg proposed that while education develop analytical and practical intelligence as well as
creativity, wisdom should be an integral part of the whole process. Whatever topic you will be teaching, it
is important to integrate questions, tasks or activities that target the development of wisdom. You should
also come up with creative ways for your learners to put together or synthesize intelligence, creativity and
wisdom.

Moreover, Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is an intentional process for solving problems and
discovering opportunities. It espouses the use of creativity in coming up with solutions which are not only
novel but practical as well. In the 1950s Alex Osborn described this process in his book, Applied
Imagination. Osborn opened the process in the public domain which meant anyone can use it. Over the
years countless people have utilized the CPs in the various fields and endeavors.
Assessment

Activity 1 Visit this url: http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/27532_090319_

Sternberg___Part__1.pdf

You will find here an excerpt of the book that Sternberg and his colleagues wrote. Read the introduction
and answer the WICS questionnaire. Find out your “Pattern of Strength.” You will be able to find out
whether your preferences are more memory-based, analytically-based, creativity-based or practically-
based.

Describe your preferences here. What did you discover about yourself?
______________________________________________________________________

Activity 2 Read on the similarities and differences of Sternberg’s Theory

with that of Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Explain how their concepts and principles
oppose or complement each other. Choose your own way to show
their similarities and differences, like a matrix, a drawing, a poem
, or any other way that will drive or explain your points. (25 pts)

Activity 3 Make a collection of as many as you can puzzles, riddles, and other
materials that promote creativity and problem
solving.http/www.mycoted.com is one of the many sources on line.
Submit this requirement in your Google classroom.

Example of a riddle: A man has married 20 women in a small

town. All of these women are still alive and none of them are
divorced. The man has broken no laws. Who is the man?
Answer: Priest

Example of Apply Problem Solving Skill:

There are 20 marbles in a box. All the marbles are either red or
blue. If there are 40 more red marbles than blue, how many red
marbles are there in the box?
a. 40 b. 80 c. 120 d. 160 e. 180
Answer: C

CHAPTER 4

FOCUS ON CLASSROOM PROCESSES

Studying is a hard task. However, it ceases to be a task if you have the right kind and the right
amount of motivation. it is the act or process of motivating, a force, stimulus or influence. It is an inner
drive that causes you to do something and persevere at something to achieve your setting goals.

The lessons in this chapter will present important theories, principles and strategies influencing the
learning processes most particularly on motivation, sources of motivation, factors affecting motivation,.
Furthermore, it will also discuss the implications of these theories to classroom practices and the social
and cultural influences on the cognitive and motivational process of learning.
General Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students can:

a. define motivation and identify its types;
b. explain the theories on the sources of motivation ;
c. discuss the factors affecting motivation;
c. cite the implication of these theories to classroom processes;
d. present the social and cultural influences on the cognitive and motivational
processes of learning; and
e. answer the given activities after the lessons.

What to Expect

Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. define motivation ;
2. distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation; and
3. justify the role of extrinsic motivation in view of the development of intrinsic
motivation.

Pre-discussion

Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at something. It
energizes you to do something. It is the strength of the drive toward an action. While ability refers to what
children can do, motivation refers to what these children will do. Motivation refers to the initiation,
direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get motivated to do something, it is not enough
that we start working at that thing but that we get attracted to it. Our attraction towards it becomes so
intense that we persist working on it through thick and thin until its completion.

Learner’s motivation is the primary factor influencing both performance and success in school
(Ryan, et al, 2007).

Lesson 1 Motivation, Its Meaning and Types

Motivation can be defined as a reason (or reasons) which leads an individual to act in a certain
way. The phenomenon of motivation isn’t limited to just humans, and occurs in every organism living. The
reasons might not always be the same between two individuals acting in a certain way, but almost every
action is directed by certain motivation. Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation are completely in contrast with
each other in the manner they work. Intrinsic motivation refers to getting motivated from the inside or
self-motivation. In other words, intrinsic motivation means doing something just because you want to.
There is neither pressure nor any sort of reward for your actions, but you still do them because you want
to or you believe it’s the right thing to do. Intrinsic motivation can also be termed as the stimulation that
drives an individual to bring about change or perform certain behavior for his or her own internal
satisfaction or pleasure.

The concept of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged when conducting experimental studies
of animal behavior. It was seen that animals engaged in playful activities even without any presence of
reward. Intrinsic motivation has now been found to be a fundamental natural motivational tendency in
cognitive, social and physical development of an organism. It is an important factor that helps a person to
learn and improve themselves to be better. The needs or causes that lead to intrinsic motivation are:
 Autonomy: the need to have complete control over one’s own life.
 Relatedness: the need to maintain companionship or connection with others.
  Competence: the need to do be the best and/or succeed.
Example 1: Sherlock Holmes, the famous fictional detective, never solved cases for money or fame.
Curiosity always got the best of him and he solved them because he wanted to, he needed to for self-
satisfaction of knowing.
Example 2: A student attending guitar classes because he wanted to. Whether he was inspired by some
rock stars or he just enjoyed the idea of playing in front of a crowd, this sort of motivation is classified as
intrinsic motivation.

In contrast to intrinsic motivation, is extrinsic motivation which refers to self-motivation or

motivation from within, Extrinsic motivation is further referred to as the action or behavior performed in the
hopes of receiving an external reward or outcome. This form of motivation differs from intrinsic motivation
in the way it works, its effects, advantages and disadvantages.

Whenever an individual performs an action or behavior because the individual is affected by the
external factors such as rewards or punishments, such form of motivation is called extrinsic motivation.
Whenever a person is motivated by external factors, whether to avoid negative consequences or to
achieve positive outcomes, it is wholly considered to be extrinsic motivation. There can be numerous
causes of extrinsic motivation. Some of the most common needs (external factors) that lead a person to
do certain things are
 Money
 Praise
 Competition
 Threat of a punishment
Example 1: From the example of the Sherlock Holmes in the Intrinsic Motivation, if Sherlock Holmes
solved cases for money and/or fame; that would be an example of extrinsic motivation.
Example 2: A student attends guitar classes because his parents promise to double his allowance money.

The classic example of extrinsic motivation applies to most of us normal folks. Most folks working
9 to 5 job are unmoved and don’t even care about their personal interests or happiness regarding the job.
They work because they get paid for it. Things like happiness are irrelevant for most working class men
and women. Some of its advantages are:
Extrinsic incentives can be used to motivate a whole group, thus increasing productivity in workplace or
creating a better learning environment in classrooms.
Extrinsic incentives lead to individual benefits. These motivations can lead to behavior, which would have
never been possible otherwise. Example: A student might never feel the intrinsic motivation to study, but
external factors like medals or other forms of prize might motivate the student to study harder. However,
there are also some noted disadvantages of such as: extrinsic motivations have been known to down the
intrinsic motivation in an individual. This could interfere with a person’s happiness. Folks who spend their
whole life chasing rewards at work often retire only to regret the things they missed in life.
.
For the students, their levels of motivation is shown in their choice of action, intensity and
persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student, you have a student who is excited about
learning and accomplishing things. He /She takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks, assignments
and projects without being pushed by his/her teachers and parents. He/ She has goals to accomplish and
dreams to realize. He/ She is convinced that accomplishing the things he/ she is asked to accomplish in
class helps her/him realize the goals he/ she has set for herself/himself and his/her dream in life. He/ She
is willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for sake of more important remote goals. An
example is her willingness to give up joining his/her “barkada” to watch a movie in order to prepare
thoroughly for final examinations.

A student who is highly motivated to learn enjoys learning and learns much more than the one
who is not as motivated. He/ She persists and perseveres in her/his studies even when things turn out to
be difficult. He/ She does not give up easily. As a result, his/her performance is satisfactory. In contrast, a
student who is not motivated does not enjoy learning, does not study unless “pushed”. When s/he feels
the difficulty of study, s/he readily gives up. S/he lacks perseverance.
 In summary, motivated students have the following characteristics traits:
 have positive attitudes toward school and describe school as satisfying.
 persist on difficult tasks and cause few management problems.
 process information in depth and excel in classroom learning expertise.
(Stipek, 1996, 2002 cited by Wooltol, 2013)

Main Types of Motivation

Motivation is classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. It is intrinsic when the source of motivation
is from within the person himself/herself sake (Schunk et al, 2008). An example is when a student reads
pocketbooks because s/he herself/himself wants to read them or because reading them is in itself
worthwhile and enjoyable. Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates a person is someone or
something outside him/her. When a student fail and his/her parents will make her/him stop schooling or
because it will lead to a good grade, we can say that s/he is extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation is
motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. In our examples, the student studies to please
her/his teacher, parents or to get a good grade. He does not study for the joy of studying. Obviously,
intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation because intrinsic motivation comes from
within the person himself/herself. If that which motivates a person is something or someone outside, the
moment that person or that something is gone, the person’s motivation is also gone. Intrinsic motivation is
evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious external incentive
present. Reading for no reason other than the joy of reading illustrates intrinsic motivation. Research
indicates that intrinsic motivation is preferable because of its focus on learning and understanding
(Brophy, 2004).

To elucidate further about these types of motivation, let us try to focus on each of them
particularly on the internal and external rewards they use to motivate.

1. Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation represents all the things that motivate you based on internal rewards like self-
improvement or helping a friend in need. For example, you may be motivated to get a promotion because
you’ll learn valuable skills. Conversely, you might be motivated to succeed because you want to positively
affect the lives of the people around you.
However, while the above examples are positive, intrinsic motivation can also have negative drivers. For
example, you can motivate yourself to learn new things because otherwise you’ll feel unfulfilled. The
outcome of your actions is positive, but the specific type of motivation you used was focused on stopping
a negative outcome rather than creating a positive outcome. For this reason and more, there are many
types of intrinsic motivation that all focus on a specific motivational reward or driver.

Regardless of positive or negative, intrinsic motivation is typically more sustainable than extrinsic
motivation because it usually focuses on positive or altruistic things you can control. Conversely, extrinsic
motivation typically focuses on things that are given to you by someone else and therefore is not directly
within your control to achieve.

2. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation represents all the things that motivate you based on external rewards like
money or praise. These types of motivation are more common than intrinsic motivators and include
achieving things due to a tangible incentive, fear, or expectation, all of which depend on external factors.
For example, people want to get a promotion because of the expected raise. Like intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation can sometimes be negative.

For example, you can be motivated to perform better at your job due to fear of being fired. This
shows that extrinsic motivation, like its high-level counterpart, has many different motivational-types that
highlight a specific external motivational driver and explains how effective it is at motivation. As you can
see, motivation is more complex than simply categorizing it as either an internal or external incentive.
Types of Internal Motivation

Here are the specific types of intrinsic motivation and the rewards they use to motivate:

 Competence & Learning Motivation

Competence motivation, also known as learning motivation, states that people are motivated more by the
process itself rather than by the reward at the end. The reason is that people who are motivated by
competence motivation are literally motivated by the act of learning or getting better as they move
towards the completion of a goal or task instead of the destination itself. For example, if you want a
promotion because you’ll learn valuable skills and not because of the higher expected salary, you’re
motivated by competence or learning motivation. This is an extremely valuable motivator and should be
used in almost any motivational strategy. This is because new, relevant skills are often more valuable
than even money because, unlike material things, they’re assets that no one can take away from you.

 Attitude Motivation
Attitude motivation refers to the type of motivation that’s cultivated through the desire to change the way
you or other people think and feel. While it has some similarities to the externally-focused social
motivation below, people who are motivated by attitude engage in actions and interactions with the
express intent of making themselves and the people around them feel better in a positive and uplifting
way. For example, if you’re motivated to work for a non-profit or volunteer in a soup kitchen because
making people feel good makes you feel good, you’re motivated by a change in attitude. Similarly, if
you’re a manager at a company and you get joy out of helping your direct reports grow and succeed,
you’re also taking part in attitude motivation.

 Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation states that people are driven by the desire to pursue and achieve specific goals.
People who are driven by this type of motivation desire the achievement of a task or goal itself, and not
necessarily because of the reward that’s attached. For example, an entrepreneur might build a business
for the goal of building a world-class organization, and not necessarily because there’s money involved.
If you’re driven by achievement motivation, you are typically self-motivated and process-oriented,
meaning that you value the process of getting better more than the end result itself. While the
achievement of a goal might seem like an external reward, in actuality this type of motivation is largely
internal. This is because you aren’t enamored by the glitz and glamour of a reward like money, but rather
the feeling of accomplishment you get when you complete a worthy task.

 Creative Motivation
Many people are motivated by creativity or the innate drive for creative expression. When you’re
motivated by the desire to express yourself, you are tapping into creative motivation. Examples of
creative motivation include things in which you feel compelled to create, such as the motivation to write a
book, act in a movie, play the guitar, build a product, or start a business.
Creative motivation typically manifests itself as an internal feeling that you have something to say that
needs to get out. Whether you want the entire world to see your art or just a few people, anything you
create in an attempt at self-expression is driven by creative motivation. While the things you create can
be tangible they can also be intangible or ephemeral.

 Physiological Motivation
Often, humans are driven by some internal force beyond their explanation. For example, this is
sometimes the case when you pursue someone out of love. Your actions are motivated by deep
physiological feelings that are primal and cannot be ignored, regardless of how hard we try. This
represents the physiological motivational factors that are both internal and outside of our control.
Consider Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs. All humans are motivated by basic needs such as food and
shelter, as well as higher-level psychological needs and self-fulfillment. These needs are innate in all of
us and we are internally-motivated to achieve them at all costs, making it helpful when trying to
understand the thought process of yourself or others.
Types of External Motivation

Here are the specific types of extrinsic motivation and the rewards they use to motivate:
 Incentive Motivation
Incentive motivation, unlike achievement motivation, says that people are motivated more by the reward
than by the achievement of the goal itself. Instead of being motivated by the pursuit of a task, those who
are motivated by incentives are driven to take action because of an expected (and often specific) reward.
For example, if you want a promotion because of the higher salary and not because the new
responsibility makes you feel fulfilled, you are motivated by incentives over achievement. However,
incentive motivation isn’t a bad thing. In fact, while it seems like the opposite of achievement motivation,
the two can actually be used together. For example, if you want a promotion, you can be motivated both
by the higher salary as well as the more complex and fulfilling work. In scenarios like this, it’s a win-win,
because you are externally rewarded as well as internally fulfilled. Seek goals or tasks that have
incentives as well as elements of achievement motivation.

 Fear Motivation
Fear motivation is a motivational type that uses consequences to drive people into action. Fear motivation
can be thought of as a “negative motivator” in that you aren’t motivated by a reward but by the avoidance
of pain or consequences. Rather than incentivizing yourself or others with positive motivators, fear
motivation uses punishment or negative motivators—like getting fired—as a way to keep you productively
moving towards specific goals, tasks, or deliverables.
While fear motivation sounds bad, it can actually be used as a positive. For example, if you need to get in
shape, you can plan a summer pool party at your house or apartment complex, and use the fear of
showing up out of shape as motivation to stick with the gym and your diet. Think of fear motivation as
positive stressors or positive constraints that help you outsmart your future self, overcome bad habits,
and live the life you want (but might be too afraid to go after).

 Power Motivation
Power motivation is a motivational factor that says people are motivated by control over their own lives
and the lives of others. Everyone wants choices, and people are often motivated to increase their overall
life-options and control the environment around them. For this reason, power motivation manifests itself in
the desire to affect the direction of our lives and the lives of those around us.
Power motivation, taken to its extreme, can be seen in real-world horrors like Nazi Germany and other
scenarios where the hunger to control others outweighs any moral obligation or code. However, when
scaled back, power motivation can actually be positive. For example, while it might be bad to control
others, trying to place control over your own life can be a good thing. Power motivation, then, motivates
you to be intentional in your thoughts and actions so you manifest the life you want.

 Affiliation & Social Motivation

Humans are social creatures, and social motivation—also known as affiliation motivation—states that
people are motivated by social factors like belonging and acceptance. Humans have an innate desire to
connect with others, and social motivation causes us to seek connections by contributing to a social
group. While it may seem internally motivating, acceptance is often the motivating factor, which isn’t
something you can give yourself within a group.

The Role of Extrinsic Motivation

Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated
students. If good grades, rewards, praises or words of encouragement or fear of failing grade can
motivate unmotivated students to study, why not? For as long as student are hardly motivated, external
motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a significant role in the development of
motivated students. It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors by gradually replaced
by internal motivation. In the concrete, this means that after motivating the students to study by way of
reward, praise, encouragement, punishment, hopefully the students develop the genuine love for learning
and becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In short, we may begin employing extrinsic motivation
at the start but this should fade away as the students get intrinsically motivated themselves.

Summary

Intrinsic motivation is shown in the enjoyment of the activity itself and the inner conviction of the
learner that such things are the right things to do in order to realize a personal goal or a life dream. It
yields more advantages that extrinsic motivation. However, extrinsic motivation also plays an important
function when a learner is not yet intrinsically motivated to learn. For optimum learning, this extrinsic
motivation, however, must gradually take the back seat as intrinsic motivation comes to the fore.

There are varieties of different forces at play in order for an individual to be motivated to perform
certain actions. So, as a learner, all the theories must be studied and evaluated on a broader perspective
to grasp the full understanding of forces that cause motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are the
two main types of motivation and represent all motivational drivers. Intrinsic motivation describes all
motivational-types driven by internal rewards while extrinsic motivation describes all motivational-types
driven by external rewards. However, within these two broad categories are more granular types of
motivation that highlight specific motivating factors.

Furthermore, evolutionary psychology tells us that all humans are motivated by social factors. For
this reason, it’s important to always seek new connections as well as continue to grow the connections
individuals already have. Finding a group of people who love and accept you, can motivate you to new
heights and result in true happiness.

While it’s also important to have a baseline understanding of general internal and external
rewards, the motivational-types that fall within these broad intrinsic or extrinsic categories and better
identify specific rewards and incentives you can use to motivate your students and you yourself as an
educator.

Assessment

Activity 1 Reflect on your learning experiences. Can you recall some

examples of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in your life as a
student? And in what instance/s can you consider them necessary?
Relate them in not less than 200 words. (20pts.)

Activity 2 Answer the following questions and if possible cite examples to

support your discussion.

1. The higher the extrinsic motivation, the lower the intrinsic motivation and vice versa. Do
you agree? If No and if Yes. why? Explain your stand.
2. As a requirement, read and collect biographies of great mean and women. Find out how
they became great. Make a report on their biographies. Most especially, narrate the part
of their biographies that you like most.
3. Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Give particular examples for each.

Lesson 2 THEORIES ON FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION:STUDENT’S

DIVERSITY IN MOTIVATION

WHAT TO EXPECT:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. determine the theories on the sources of motivation ;
2. cite the implications of these theories in the facilitation of learning;
3. explain the two principles on the social & cultural influences on
motivation; and
4. answer the given activities after the lesson.

Pre- discussion

There is currently no unified theory to explain the origins or elements of intrinsic motivation. Most
explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self-efficacy,
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, William Glasser’s choice theory, and other studies relating to goal
orientation.

It is thought that students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation if they attribute their
educational results to internal factors that they can control ( e.g., the amount of effort they put in, not fixed
ability). They are also likely to be intrinsically motivated when they believe they can be effective agents in
reaching desired goals(e.g., thye results are not determined by dumb luck).

LESSON OUTLINE

Attribution Theory

What is the attribution theory? This theory explains that we attribute our successes or failures or
other events to several factors. For instance, you attribute your popularity performance or you attribute
the poor economic condition you are in to the Land Reform of the Philippine government (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your father. These attributions differ from one another in three
ways – locus, stability and controllability (Ormrod, 2004).

1. Locus (place): Internal versus external. If your student traces his good grade to his ability and to
his hard work, he attributes his good grade to internal factor. If your student, however, claims that his
good grade is due to the effective teaching of his teacher or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes
his good grades to factors external to himself.

2. Stability: Stable versus unstable. If you attribute your poor performance to what you have
inherited from your parents, then you are attributing the cause of your performance to something stable,
something that cannot change because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of tv,
then you are claiming that your poor eyesight is caused by an unstable factor, something that can change.
(You can prolong or shorten your period of watching tv).
3. Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable. If your student claims his poor academic
performance is due to his teacher’s ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes his poor performance to a
factor beyond his control. If, however, your student admits that his poor class performance is due to his
poor study habits and low motivation, he attributes the event to factors which are very much within his
control.

How does attribution affect motivation?

If your student attributes his/her success or failure to something within him/her and therefore is
within his/her control or to something unstable and, therefore, can be changed s/he is more likely to be
motivated. If, however, your student traces his/her success to something outside him/her and therefore
beyond his/her control, He/ She is likely to be less motivated. Motivation tends to increase when students
attribute failure to lack of effort because effort can be controlled. It tends to decrease when students
attribute failure to uncontrollable causes (e.g. luck, or ability if viewed as stable (Weinstock, 2007).
Self-Efficacy Theory

A sense of high self-efficacy means a high sense of competence. Self-efficacy is the belief that
one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role expectations, or meet a challenging
situation successfully. When your students believe that they have the ability to perform learning activities
successfully, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated to do such learning activities. The secret,
therefore, to enhancing intrinsic motivation is enhancing our students’ sense of self-efficacy. Social
cognitive theorists identified several self-efficacy – enhancing strategies.
 Make sure students master the basic skills. Mastery of the basic skills like reading, writing,
arithmetic will enable the child to tackle higher not mastered the basic skills! Unable to perform
higher-level learning tasks that require display and use of basic skills, your student will feel he is a
failure in his school life.
 Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks. You like to give up climbing a mountain
when you feel that you are not making progress at all. When you have spent hours and hours on
a difficult task and you seem not to be progressing, you are made to think that your efforts are
leading you nowhere and you are helped to see progress while you are working on your difficult
task. The knowledge that you are progressing inspires you inspires you to keep on.
 Communicate confidence in students’ abilities through words and actions. Express confidence
that your students with all their abilities can easily tackle the learning task. Words like, “if you
were able to do a more difficult task yesterday, what you are asked to do today is much easier
than that of yesterday.” Needless to say that your body language and your words expressing your
belief in their abilities must match.
 Expose them to successful peers. Being with successful peers, your students will inhale success
and get energized to succeed as well. Success is infectious in the same way that failure is also
contagious. (Ormnod, 2004).

Other recommendations from motivation theorists are:

 Provide competence-promoting feedback. Communicate to your students that they can do the job.
They have the ability to succeed.
 Promote mastery on challenging tasks. Don’t give your students extremely difficult nor extremely
easy tasks. If the task you give is extremely easy, they do not get challenged and you do not
draw the best from them; if it is extremely difficult, they get frustrated. Then it is best to strike the
golden mean between the two extremes. A challenging task is one that encourages your students
to stretch themselves to their limits.
 Promote self-comparison rather than comparison with other. Desiderata says: If you compare
yourself with others, you will become vain and bitter. For always there will be greater and lesser
persons than yourself.”
After encouraging your students to set their personal goals, ask them to evaluate their progress against
their own goals.
 Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success. (Ormrod, 2004) There will always be
errors or mistakes as we learn, as we go through life. But they cease to be mistakes once we
learn from them. But if it is all errors that come one after another without a taste of success,
chances are your students will feel so down that they are robbed of the courage to proceed. “The
learning process requires the challenge of new and different experiences, the trying of the
unknown, and therefore, necessarily must involve the making of mistakes. In order for people to
learn, they need the opportunity to explore new situations and ideas without being penalized or
punished for mistakes which are integral to the activity of learning.” (Ortigas, 1990).

Self-Determination and Self-Regulation Theories

Students are intrinsically motivated when they have a sense of self-determination when they
believe that they have some choice and control regarding the things they do and the directions their lives
take. A student’s sense of self-determination is demonstrated in his capacity for self-regulation. Self-
regulation refers to a person’s ability to master himself. He is the “I am the captain of my soul” type of
person. He is not a victim of circumstances. He is capable of directing himself.
What are indicators of self-regulation? They are the abilities to:
• set standards for oneself
• monitor and evaluate one’s own behavior against such standards, and
• impose consequences on oneself for one’s successes or failures.
(Ornrod, 2004)
How does self-regulation relate to motivation?

A student who is capable of self-regulation is more likely to be more intrinsically motivated

because he sets his goals and standards, he monitors his progress, and evaluates his own performance.

A student who is capable of self-regulation, is not only capable of reulating his behavior but he is
also capable of regulating his own learning. Ormrod (2004) cites the following processes involved in self-
regulated learning:
 Goal-setting. Self-regulated learners know what they want to accomplish when they read or study.
 Planning. Self-regulated learners determine ahead of time how best to use the time they have
available for learning.
 Attention control. Self-regulated learners try to focus their attention on the subject matter at hand
and clear their minds of distracting thoughts and emotions.
 Application of learning strategies. Self-regulated learners choose different learning strategies
depending on the specific goal they want to accomplish.
 Self-monitoring. Self-regulated learners continually monitor their progress toward their goals and
they change their learning strategies or modify their goals, if necessary.
 Self-evaluation. Self-regulated learners determine whether ewhat they have learned is sufficient
for the goals they have set.
A student who has self-determination and self-regulation is more likely to be intrinsically motivated and so
is more capable of self-regulated learning.

Here are some suggestions from motivation theorists to enhance students’ sense of self-
determination about school activities and assignments.
 Present rules and instructions in an informational manner rather than controlling manner. Here
are examples on how to present rules in an informational manner:
 “We can make sure everyone has an equal chance to speak and be heard if we listen without
interrupting and if we raise our hands when we want to contribute to the discussion.”
 “I’m giving you a particular format to follow when you do your Math homework. If you use this
format, it will be easier for me to find your answers and to figure out how I can help you improve.”
 Provide opportunities for students to make choices. A particular lesson objective can be reached
by the use of varied strategies. Students will be more likely to be intrinsically motivated to attain
the objective when they are given the freedom to choose how to attain it, of course, within the set
parameters. An example is when we allow our students to choose their manner of group work
presentation to the class after the group activity.
 Evaluate student performance in a non-controlling fashion. Communicate evaluation results to
inform your students of their progress without passing judgment of some sort but to make them
see that they are strong in some points but not so in other items. The practice of self-evaluation
especially with the use of scoring rubrics will be of great help. Says renowned author, consultant
and speaker Alfie Kohn, “rewards for learning undermines intrinsic motivation,” Kohn Alfie (1993).

Choice Theory

Bob Sullo (2007) stated that “ the choice theory is a biological theory that suggests that we are born with
specific needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy.” All of our behavior represents our best
attempt at any moment to satisfy our basic needs or genetic instructions. In addition to the physical need
for survival, we have four basic psychological needs that must be satisfies to be emotionally healthy:
• Belonging or connecting
• Power or competence
• Freedom
• Fun

The need for belonging or connecting motivates us to develop relationships and cooperative with
others. Without the need for belonging and cooperating, we would only survive to be independent. The
need for power is more than just a drive to dominate, Power is gained through competence, achievement
and mastery. Our genetic instruction is to achieve, master new skills and to be recognized for our
accomplishments…

As humans, we are also motivated to be free, to choose. Having choices is part of what it means
to be human and is one reason our species has been able to evolve, adapt, and thrive. Each time we
learn something new, we are having fun, another universal human motivator. It is our playfulness and our
sense of discovery that allow us to learn as much as we do.

What do these imply to our task to facilitate learning? We have to come up with a need-satisfying
environment. To motivate our students for learning, we should satisfy their need to belong, their need to
have power by being competent, the need to have a free choice, and the need to enjoy learning and have
fun.

How can these be done? If we create a sense of community in the classroom and make every
student feel s/he belongs to that classroom community, he/she will more likely love to go to school. If we
make use of cooperative learning structures, we strengthen the spirit of cooperation and collaboration and
reduce, if not eliminate, the spirit of cut-throat competition. (For examples of cooperative learning
structures, please refer to Principles of Teaching 1 written by Brenda B. Corpuz and Gloria G.
Salandaman.) In a non-threatening atmosphere, students are more likely to perform.
To satisfy our students’ need for power, let us help them acquire it by making them achieve, by making
them master their lessons and end up very competent. As a result of their competence and excellent
achievement, they get recognized and experience genuine power.

Let us teach our students that the source of authentic power is competence, not bullying and
other irresponsible behaviors. This way, they will learn the true road to real power. To motivate our
students for learning, let us give them ample freedom to choose within parameters that are safe and
responsible, developmentally appropriate, and supportive of learning for that is the ultimate purpose of
freedom: to help our students learn and grow into the responsible persons they are called to be. When
our students are made to feel that they have a lot of free choices, they are driven to satisfy this need for
freedom. On the other hand, when our students perceive themselves to be so suffocated by our
impositions and limits, they are most likely to behave in ways, even irresponsible ways, to get them the
freedom they believe is not satisfied.
Fun is a universal human motivator. If our student’s need for fun is satisfied, they are most likely to learn
much.

Glasser (1990) claims “fun is the genetic payoff of learning.” A joyless classroom does not
motivate students to perform. Let’s have fun while we teach. Without our knowing, our students are
learning and mastering what we are teaching while we are having fun. “What happens outside of us has a
lot to do with what we choose to do but the outside event does not cause our behavior. What we get, and
all we ever get from the outside is information; how we choose to act on that information is up to us.
(William Glasser. 1990 quoted by Bob Sullo, p. 6)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A student’s lower-order needs must first be met before s/he works for the satisfaction of his/her
higher-order needs. The lower-order needs include first-level needs and second-level needs. The first-
level needs are basic survival and physiological needs for food, air, water and sleep. The second-level
needs are bodily safety and economic security.

There are three (3) levels in the higher-order needs. The first (which is now the third level in
Maslow’s need hierarchy) is the need for love and belonging. The needs at the fourth level include those
for esteem and status, including one’s feelings of self-worth and of competence. The fifth level need is
self-actualization, which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming, using one’s skills to the
fullest, and stretching talents to the maximum. Based on Maslow’s theory, a satisfied need is not a strong
motivator but an unsatisfied need is. Research proves that “unless the two lower-order needs
(physiological and security) are basically satisfied, employees (in our teaching-learning context) or our
students will not be greatly concerned with higher-order needs. (Newstrom, 1997)

`For us teachers, this means that we cannot teach students with hungry stomachs. We cannot
teach students when they feel afraid and insecure. While it is not our obligation to feed them, working with
parents, the school nurse and all others who can help can address the problem of students’ hunger, lack
of sleep and the like. Our students’ need for love and belonging is satisfied in a class where they feel they
belong and are accepted regardless of their academic standing in class, economic status or ethnic
background. Their need for self-esteem is satisfied when we help them succeed, recognize their effort
and contribution no matter how insignificant and praise their achievement. Doing so actually propels them
to self-actualization.

Goal Theory

Learning goals versus performance goals. The goals we set for ourselves affect our level of
motivation. There are several types of goals. In relation to learning we can speak of learning goals and
performance goals. How do they differ?

A learning goal is a “desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills” while a
performance goal is a “desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others or else look bad
and receive unfavorable judgments.” (Ormrod, 2004). Between these two goals, with which type of goal is
the intrinsically-motivated student occupied? Obviously, the ideal student is the student with a learning
goal. The student with a learning goal is mastery-focused while the student with a performance goal is
performance-focused.

Self-determined goals.

Personally-relevant and self-determined goals enhance a student’s motivation. When lesson

objectives are relevant to the life of students, then they turn out to be more motivated to learn. When the
lesson objectives are owned by the students because they find them relevant to their life, most likely they
become highly motivated for learning. This departs from de-contextualized teaching and happens when
all we do is deposit information into the minds of our students, students, memorize, and we withdraw what
we taught every periodic examination.

Goal setting.

As a motivational tool, goal setting is effective when the following major elements are present: 1.) goal
acceptance, 2.) specificity, 3.) challenge, 4.) performance monitoring, and 5.) performance feedback.
Thus it is necessary that our students accept and own our lesson objectives (see self-determined goals in
the foregoing paragraph) and that our lesson objectives must be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable,
result-oriented and time-bound) and challenging. It is equally important that we monitor our students’
learning. However, simply monitoring results is not enough. We have to give our students feedback about
their performance.

Students’ Diversity in Motivation

 Our students’ motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural. Socioeconomic of
background and special education needs. Our class is a conglomerate of students with varying ages and
gender and most especially cultural background and socioeconomic status. Our students’ motivational
drives reflect the elements of the culture in which they grow up – their family, their friends, school, church
and books. To motivate all of them for learning, it is best to employ differentiated approaches. “Different
folks, different strokes.” What is medicine for one may be poison for another. There are two principles to
consider regarding social and cultural influences on motivation namely:
1. Students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant to their situation.
2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like themselves performing the
task successfully. (Ormrod, 2004)

What conclusion can be derived from the two principles? “Students need models who are similar
to themselves in terms of race, cultural background, socioeconomic status, gender, and (if applicable)
disability. (Ormrod, 2004). In the choice of a motivating method, two principles are worth remembering:
1. students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant to their situation; and
2. students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like themselves performing the tasks
successfully.

Summary

There are varieties of different forces at play in order for an individual to be motivated to perform
certain actions. So, as a learner, all the theories must be studied and evaluated on a broader perspective
to grasp the full understanding of forces that cause motivation.

In educational settings, motivation is typically taught as theories rather than actionable advice.
For this reason, the best types of motivation center around actual educational motivational theories, Also,
it must be good to expose our students to models of their age and to models who come from similar
cultural, socio-economic backgrounds. Students’ motivation is likely to vary as a function of age, culture,
gender, socio-economic background, and special education needs. There is no single best method of
motivating learners.

Assessment

Activity 1 Answer the given activities and support your discussion with
related literatures and studies.

1. Between learning goal and performance goal, with which type do you identify
yourself? Explain your answer.
2. Name at least five (5) great men and women and to what factors do they attribute their success? Is it to
personal factors like ability and effort or to situation factors such as difficulty of the task and impact of luck?
3. “Success has many fathers; failure or defeat is an orphan.” How does this general
behavior relate to self-esteem? Explain.

4. Do attributions always reflect the true state of affairs? Or can we have something like
false attributions? Explain your answer.

5. How does Maslow’s Need Theory compare with Glasser’s Choice Theory and that
of Alderfer’s E-R-G Need Theory? Do a research on these.

6. Authors warn us to avoid simple attributions, meaning not to attribute success or

failure just to one factor only. Why do you think so?

7. Why is it that some people tend to attribute their success to internal causes and their failures to
external causes?
8. Surf the Internet on the expectancy model of motivation. Find out how this relates to
the other theories on motivation such as self-efficacy theory.

9. Do a research on teacher qualities that increase motivation to learn.

Submit your work legibly on a short size bond paper. This activity will form of your class requirement.
Rubrics for the rating will be as follows:
Content – 40%
Organization of Ideas – 35%
Clarity & Neatness - 20%
Punctuality of Submission - 5%
100%

Lesson 3 HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION

What to Expect

Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. identify the different teacher’s behavioral traits that are facilitative of learning;
2. discuss the de-motivating function of bullying in schools;
3. reflect on the behavioral traits of parents who are supportive of learning; and
4. answer the activities given after the lesson.

Pre-discussion

If environment is defined as the sum total of one’s surroundings then environmental factors that
affect student’s motivation include human as well as non-human factors. The immediate human factors
that surround the learner are the teachers, the other students and his/her parents.

The human learning environment of the learner consists of teachers, classmates, and parents. By
their very being and behavior, they can motivate or de-motivate a child to learn from and perform in
school. The interaction of the teacher, the learner and parents produces the classroom climate for
learning.

Lesson Outline

Teacher’s Affective Traits

Studies suggest that management and instructional processes are key to facilitating learning but
many interview responses, emphasize the teacher’s affective characteristics or social and emotional
behaviors, more than pedagogical practices. Some teachers were motivating and inspiring. Others were
not.

You are grateful to those who motivated and inspired you. You must also be grateful to those who
were not as motivating and inspiring. In a way, they also helped you become better persons in the sense
that you strive to become better than them.
Researches cite the following affective characteristics of effective teachers (James H. Stronge, 2002):
 Caring – Specific attributes that show caring are:
 sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside the classroom but more about
students’ lives in general
 understanding of students’ questions and concerns
  knowing students’ individually, their likes and dislikes, and personal situations affecting behavior
and performance
 Fairness and respect – These are shown in specific behaviors like:
 treating students as people
 avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in which students lose respect in front of
their peers
 practicing gender, racial and ethnic fairness
 providing students with opportunities for them to participate and to succeed
 Social interactions with students – The specific behaviors of a facilitative social interactions
are:
 consistently behaving in a friendly, personal manner while maintaining professional distance with
students
 working with students not for the students
 interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect
 allowing students to participate in decision making
 willing to participate in class activities and demonstrating a sense of fun
 having a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes
 Enthusiasm and motivation for learning shown in:
 encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
 maintaining an organized classroom environment
 setting high standards
 assigning appropriate challenges
 providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks
 Attitude toward the teaching profession
 having dual commitment to personal learning and to students’ learning anchored on the belief that
all students can learn
 helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
 working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
 serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her students and colleagues
 Positive expectations of students manifested in:
 striving to make all students feel competent
 communicating positive expectations to students, i.e., they will be successful
 having high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief that they can cause all students to
learn
 Reflective Practice
 reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
 eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and learning

Classmates – Bullying and the Need to Belong

Students form part of the human environment of the learner. In fact, they far outnumber the
teachers in the learning environment.

The need to belong is a basic human need. Students who are accepted by teachers and
classmates feel they belong to the class. Students who feel that they are part of the class look forward to
attending and participating in class. The sense of belongingness enhances their learning and
performance. The prevalence of bullying, however, obstructs the creation of a learning community where
everyone fell that they belong. With bullying in schools, the learning environment cannot be safe. Then by
all means, bullying should be eliminated in schools. Bullying takes on several forms. It can be mild, it can
be intense or deeply-seated and highly violent. Today, safety in schools is being raised all over the world.

Parents as Part of the Learners’ Human Learning Environment

 The learner spends at least six hours in school. The rest, he/she spends at home. Parents,
therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be with their children than teachers. How many of
our parents use this opportunity to support their children in their studies?

What parents’ behavioral traits are supportive of their children’s learning? Parents who are
supportive of their children’s learning are observed to do the following:
• Follow up status of their children’s performance
• Supervise their children in their performance
• Check their children’s notebooks
• Review their children’s corrected seat works and test papers
• Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers, and Community Association (PTCA)
• Participate actively in school-community projects
• Confer with their children’s teachers when necessary
• Are aware of their children’s activities in school
• Meet the friends of their children
• Invite their children’s friend at home
Unsupportable parent behaviors are the opposite of all those listed above.

Summary

A teacher’s positive affective traits such as caring, understanding, genuine respect, enthusiasm,
and professionalism; the students’ sense of belonging to a learning community; and parents’ supportive
behavior definitely create a learning environment that is facilitative of learning, The contrast of these
produces a counter- productive learning environment.

Reflective practice-reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process-eliciting feedbacks from

others in the interest of teaching and learning. The interaction between the learner and the teacher,
among the learners, and among the learner, teacher and parents affect the learner’s motivation. Whether
the climate that comes as a by-product of the interactions nurtures or obstructs learning depends on the
quality of these interactions. Parents support is likewise considered as an important behavior in the
development of their children.

Assessment From the given statements, select 5 and answer it

comprehensively.

1. Rev.Father Joseph V. Landy, S.J., in his book “ Letter to a Young Teacher: The Art of Being
Interesting”, cites 5 elements that are especially useful for gaining attention in the classroom, to wit:
(1). The Activity, (2) The Reality, (3) The Vital, (4) The Humor, and (5) The Novelty.
Are these elements found in the affective traits of the facilitating teacher?

(2.) Make clippings of articles on school bullying. React to one article of your choice.

(3). Read DepEd Order No. 40 s.2012, DepEd’s Child protection Policy.

4. “The quality of teacher-student relationships is the key to all other aspects of

classroom management”, says recognized expert in classroom management, Robert
Manzano.
Do the teacher’s affective traits have something to do with that quality teacher-
student relationships? Explain your answer.

5. By means of a graphic organizer, list down behavioral traits of parents who are
supportive of children’s studies.

6. Compose a song or a poem about a highly motivating teacher. Present output in

 class.

7 .Complete this statement. A caring teacher

Concrete behavior

8. Dramatize some forms of bullying in school.

 Ask those who took part in the dramatization- How di you feel? Were you happy about it? Any
action to take from here?
 Ask those who watched the dramatization- How did you feel while the dramatization was going on?
In real life, would you do as the bully did. Why or why not?

9. Some student will be asked to pantomime learning-supportive and learning-

unsupportive behavior of parents. The rest of the class will be asked to identify the
behavior that was pantomimed.

 Discuss the effects of these behaviors on children’s motivation to study and

 Share lessons learned.

Lesson 4 THE CLASSROOM CLIMATE

The classroom climate is more of a product of the interaction between and among teacher and
students than of the physical condition of the classroom. The physical condition of the classroom may
exert an influence on the social interaction among the personalities in class but it may not contribute as
much as the classroom social interaction does.

What to Expect

Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. describe the classroom climate that is conducive for learning by the use of simile or metaphor;
2. discuss what is a classroom climate that facilitates quality learning; and
3. answer the given activities after the lesson.

Pre-discussion

Classroom climate refers to the prevailing mood, attitudes, standards, and tone that you and your
students feel when they are in your classroom. A negative classroom climate can feel hostile, chaotic,
and out of control. A positive classroom climate feels safe, respectful, welcoming, and supportive of
student learning. It is one of the most important factors affecting student learning. Such an environment
provides relevant content, clear learning goals and feedback, opportunities to build social skills, and
strategies to help students succeed (Weimer, 2009). ...

The ideal classroom is a positive place where a student can come to work toward specific goals
set before them in the class objectives. The teacher ought to be positive, organized, outgoing, confident,
and compassionate. The instructor often sets the tone for the entire classroom. For example: If the
teacher approaches her day with dread, is not prepared, and often seems overwhelmed then her students
will play off of her attitude and disposition. Though teachers often have very hectic schedules, however
they should not let their anxiety bleed over into their classrooms.

Lesson Outline
 The classroom climate is the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical environment where
students can learn as a by-product of the social interaction between and among teachers and students.
Students experience the classroom not as just an intellectual space but also a social, emotional, physical
environment. Classrooms that subtly or indirectly exclude certain groups of students tend to be common
from the students perspectives; students have a particularly negative reactions to instructors who fail to
acknowledge consequential local or national events (Huston and DiPietro,1997).

Aspects of Classroom Climate

Physical – Physical aspect of the classroom and course delivery, such as classroom type (e.g., an
auditorium, a small classroom, a lab), layout (e.g., students sit facing the front of the room, students sit in
small groups, everyone sits in a circle), and medium (e.g., face-to-face, online).

Intellectual – Intellectual aspect of the course and class, such as the course content, class discussion
topics, course materials (e.g., textbooks, videos screened in class), and the forms and levels of skills and
knowledge that students are expected to demonstrate.

Social – The social aspect of classroom climate refers to relationships between students (e.g.,
individualistic vs. team-oriented, or competitive vs. cooperative) and between students and instructor (e.g.,
the instructor being approachable or authoritative to students) and the social atmosphere of the class
(e.g., casual, formal, democratic, inclusive).

Emotional – The classroom contains various emotions, and the emotions can shift quickly. Students and
instructor can have different emotional reactions to course materials and class discussions. These
emotions can widely range from discomfort to comfort, from anger to joy, from fear to empowerment, from
confusion to excitement, and everything in-between and beyond. Instructors may not be able to fully
predict or control factors that are brought into the classroom or what may happen in the classroom, but
they have a great deal of control over, and responsibility for, the classroom environment they create.

Moreover, classroom climate is also influenced by two (2) things: (1) The Physical Environment
which covers the physical classroom condition, furniture arrangement, seating arrangement and
temperature and lighting. & (2) The Psychological Climate. As an educator, he/she must ensure that
his/her classroom has a positive climate. The classroom climate that is conducive for learning is one that
is non-threatening yet business-like. It is a classroom where:
1. Specific classroom rules and procedures are clear;
2. Classroom rules are discussed on the first day of the class;
3. Students are involved in rule-making;
4. Acceptable behavior is reinforced and negative consequences employed;
5. Clear limit for unacceptable behavior are established;
6. There is a healthy balance between dominance and cooperation;
7. The teacher is aware of the different needs and types of students;
8. Students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced;
9. Active learning is encouraged;
10. The individual’s discovery of personal meaning of idea is promoted and facilitated;
11. The unique personal and subjective nature of learning is empasized;
12. There is respect for diversity;
13. The individual’s right to make mistake is recognized;
14. Ambiguity is tolerated;
15. Evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-evaluation;
16. Openness of self rather than concealment of self is encouraged;
17. Learners are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as external sources;
18. People feel respected and accepted;
19. Confrontation is allowed or permitted; and
20. The cognitive and affective faculties of the learners are developed.
Summary

The classroom climate is a by-product of the social interactions between and among teachers
and students. The conducive classroom climate is one that is business-like yet non-threatening. It is a
classroom where expectations, rules and procedures, limits on behavior are made clear from the very first
day of school.

The teacher, who is the leader, is fully aware of what is happening and is in control of the
classroom proceedings and yet conveys the message that he/she is interested in the concerns of
students as a whole; he/she makes it clear to the students that they are made responsible for their own
behavior.

The teachers get affected not only by the psychological climate in the classroom. But also by the
physical condition of the learning place. The learner is put at a disadvantage when the classroom is
overcrowded, dark and damp. We hear of teachers saying “it gets into my nerve” when students are
unnecessarily noisy and unruly in a classroom that is disorganized. The physical learning environment
matters, too, in facilitating learning because it is the immediate environment of the learner.

Let us not forget the fact that while the physical condition of the classroom and the persons that
the students interact with constitute their immediate environment, our students are also influenced by
factors outside their immediate environment, Our students bring to the classroom many attitudes as a
result of their being conditioned by their families, their ethnic groups, their communities: These attitudes
influence their class performance.

Assessment/Enrichment Activities
In a short size bond paper, answer what is asked in the following:

1. Give adjectives that can best describe the classroom climate that is conducive to
learning. Write the antonym for each adjective. (15pts)

2. In your words, give the conditions that give rise to a classroom climate that is
conducive for learning (10)

3. Describe an ideal classroom atmosphere by means of a simile or metaphor (10pts)

4. Make a graphic organizer indicating your own concept of a classroom setting (15pts).

5.. Is a quiet classroom necessarily favorable for learning? If yes, why? If not, why? (10pts)

6. Design a classroom that is conducive for learning. Indicate color of paint,

, arrangement of desks/chairs, teacher’s table and other fixtures. (29pts)

Lesson 5 Assessment & Strategies That Can Increase Motivation

What to Expect

Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. discuss assessment strategies that can increase motivation;

2. cite ways to make assessment more motivating to students;
3. demonstrate appreciation of assessment as a process to evaluate and facilitate
learning; and
4. answer the given activities after the lesson.

Pre-discussion

Motivational strategies are tactics, techniques, or approaches to encourage learners or students

to participate in the teaching and learning process. Teachers should always have in mind that students
must be clarified about their objectives every time so that they will have a sense of ownership of the
lesson and that they can also set their own personal targets or goals.

Furthermore, teachers should engage the students in self-assessment after they have
established or set a clear target..

Lesson Outline

Teachers are facilitators of learning. As such, they must endeavor to create a student-centered
classroom and motivate students for success in the teaching-learning process. . For many students who
struggle with motivation, giving them more ownership and opportunity to offer their own opinions can be
very helpful.
Teachers must focus more on the Intrinsic Motivation, give students a s, take the time to personalize, and
encourage students to monitor their own progress.

Teachers who develop useful assessments, provide corrective instruction, and give students
second chances to demonstrate success ,can improve their instruction and help students learn. Plus, the
results are immediate and easy to analyze at the individual student’s level. Sometimes small, quick
strategies can make major differences in student motivation. They can increase student involvement with
the lesson and stop interference and distractions. Each of the following strategies was developed to meet
the needs of urban students and has had great results.

1. Follow Through - It helps students who have highly unstructured home lives, as is the case for so
many urban youth, to understand that your requests are serious and that you will follow through on them.
This reinforces the underlying stability of the classroom environment, reduces power struggles, and,
hopefully, cuts down on the kind of repetitive requests for behavior changes that students inevitably come
to view as nagging and that, as a result of this perception, frequently erode motivation.

2. Let All Students Hear - Students sometimes have difficulty hearing the teacher and one another
regardless of class size, but this problem intensifies in an overly large class, either because the space
itself is bigger or because the buzz of conversation makes listening impossible. Students rarely tell their
teacher when they cannot hear the lesson or another student's comments. Instead, they simply tune out.
If you have ever been in a workshop or similar group where you had to struggle to hear the questions
being asked, then you understand the frustration these students feel. Solve the problem by privately
asking students on the sides and in the back of the room if they can hear you. It might seem repetitious,
but do this at least twice a week. In addition, when students interact with you during a discussion or
question-and-answer session, repeat for the class the answers given or comments made. Keep in mind
that although you can hear them, other students might not.

3. Stop Student Texting- We cannot escape the degree to which cell phones and texting are ensconced
in our culture. The Pew Internet & American Life Project reported in 2009 that 71 percent of American
teens own a cell phone (compared with 45 percent in 2004), 50 percent sometimes use informal
capitalization and punctuation in school assignments, and 38 percent have used texting lingo in
schoolwork (Lenhart, 2009). Not only do students text one another throughout the day, but parents also
frequently text students, usually for no good reason. (Have you ever asked a student to put his cell phone
away only to have him say, "But it's my mother. . . ."?) Taking cell phones away may not be worth the
battle it usually generates or the loss of learning caused by that battle. In addition, cell phones can save
lives in emergencies. It is preferred that holding a class meeting to discuss how to handle inappropriate
cell phone use will be conducted. Solicit students' suggestions and use them when you discover
inappropriate cell phone use. Of course, stopping cell phone use in class requires us to detect it, a
challenge in itself. Students find ways to text on devices hidden in pockets, earpieces can easily be
hidden by long hair, and adults can't always hear high-pitched ring tones. Seeing cell phone use from the
front of the classroom is difficult, so that the teacher should make sure that he/she moves around the
room as he/she teaches (a technique that can help address a variety of problems). If he/she sees a
student using a cell phone or other mobile device, the teacher must be firm and insistent about putting it
away. Use the plan adopted in your class meeting. If a student consistently receives calls or texts from a
parent during class time, call the parent—or ask an administrator to call—and politely insist that he or she
contacts the school office rather than interrupt the student in the class.

Example: A teacher from Dallas found a creative way to address the cell phone problem. If students
wanted to bring a cell phone to class, they had to pay a dollar at the beginning of the year (help was
provided for students who couldn't pay). The teacher took a dime from the dollar every time a student
refused to put his phone away when asked. If a student's dollar ran out, he or she had to pay another.
The money collected was donated to a charity chosen by the class at the end of the year, and the unused
balance was returned to the students.

Sometimes when we call on a student who is uninvolved or not paying attention, he shrugs his
shoulders or looks away. "I don't know," he says, his tone of voice proclaiming "And I don't care, either."
We may be tempted to give up and call on a student who is more likely to respond. We all prefer to call on
students who are actively involved. Rather than let this student go, however, it makes more sense to
show him that you expect him to be involved in classroom activities. One response is to channel Arnold
Schwarzenegger's iconic character the Terminator, whose tag line was "I'll be back." The following
sample dialogue demonstrates the Terminator technique:

Teacher: Darleen, what is the definition of an adjective?

Darleen: I dunno.
Teacher: That's OK. I don't expect you to know everything. But you deserve another chance. I'll call on
you again soon.
Darleen: Whatever!
Teacher (seven minutes later): Darleen, here's another chance for you. What is the definition of a noun?
Darleen: Still dunno.
Teacher: That's OK, but you still deserve a chance to get one right. I'll call on you again soon.
(The teacher continues to call on Darleen until she gives an answer.)

The idea in this example is to let your student know that you won't let her off the hook and that
you expect her to answer. This works best with gentle persistence. In other words, call on the student
enough to show resolve but not so much as to be overbearing or aggressive. The teacher should
remember that each student has a different tolerance for persistence, so watch for signs of severe
frustration. Naturally, the student will show some frustration when continually called on, but no student
can be allowed to believe that she can simply coast through class. This only reinforces the student's self-
perception that she is unable to learn.

4. Reduce Distractions - All students can get distracted, but children with ADHD (attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder) are especially susceptible to interruptions and distractions. Maryln Appelbaum,
noted author and teacher trainer, suggests screening out visual distractions by building a carrel desk out
of two manila folders stapled together to form a three-sided structure. In addition, due to their tendency to
fidget, students with ADHD sometimes create distractions for other students. One such behavior is pencil
tapping. The problem is not the tapping but the resulting noise. Letting the student tap on tissue, a
sponge, or a mouse pad eliminates the distraction while still allowing the student to expend pent-up
energy.

To accommodate students who find it difficult to sit through an entire class period, consider
providing stand-up desks or asking the music department to loan out music stands. Richards (2008)
points out that "stand-up desks provide a firm footing for fidgety students and teachers report improved
focus and behavior." The ability to stand up or sit down as needed during a lesson provides movement
and comfort for those students who simply cannot sit still. This option can be offered to students of all
ages, but it is especially useful for those in middle school. Don't forget the "fair is not necessarily equal"
principle when students who do not need this accommodation ask for it.

5.Start On Time - Many teachers, especially at the secondary level, don't start class on time. Some are
still preparing the day's lesson, some are writing the lesson on the board, and still others are simply
waiting for all their students to arrive. Starting class late, however, can exacerbate tardiness: the later
class starts, the later students know they can be. Starting on time is important because, like many of the
other suggestions and techniques I offer in this book, it provides a predictable environment for students
who have unstructured home lives. To avoid starting late, make sure you are prepared to start class the
minute you enter the classroom. In addition, use overheads or flip charts rather than spending time writing
on the chalkboard. Lastly, do not wait for tardy students. Students who show up on time shouldn't have to
wait for those who don't. The best strategy to combat tardiness is to start class with something students
do not want to miss (see Chapter 7 for suggestions on how to do this). I do not believe in removing tardy
students from class or restricting their entry, but if they are late, then make it clear that they are missing
something.

6. Greet Students at the Door - At least two or three times a week, be at the door when students enter
the classroom. Greet as many as you can with a personal statement, making sure to include your least
motivated students. For some urban students, your greeting may be the most positive one-on-one
interaction they get all day. The following are examples of simple statements you can make to welcome
your students and start the class on a positive note:

"Pedro, I'm glad you're on time. I miss you when you're late."
"Wilma, let's have a great class today, OK?"
"Sara, I have a special question I reserved especially for you to answer today. I hope you like it."

7. Protect Against Procedural Satiation - In this context, refers to the process of losing power over time.
Most procedures satiate. If you have a technique to quiet the class, it stops working after a while. Raise
your hand, everyone who sees this raises his or her hand and stops talking; form groups and assign one
student to be the group's "shusher" for the week. Other common classroom routines for which you will
likely need a variety of procedures include lining up, handing in homework, and leaving class for the
bathroom, a snack, or naptime or a minute break.

8. Follow Your Own Rules - Children are bombarded by examples of adults who say one thing and do
another. Children need role models whose actions correspond to their words. If you tell your students you
expect them to arrive on time, then be on time yourself. If you expect your students to turn in work on time,
then return grades and comments to them on time. If you want students to dress appropriately, then do so
yourself. Failing to follow your own rules places you in the category of yet another "do as I say, not as I
do" adult. In addition, when students see teachers breaking their own rules, it sends a message that the
rule is unimportant and that it is OK for them to break the rules, too.

9. Encourage Student Humor - A number of comedians from urban backgrounds—Bill Cosby, Lewis
Black, Eddie Murphy, and Chris Rock among them—tell stories about having their personalities stifled by
teachers who were uncomfortable with their jokes and humorous antics. Trying to suppress such behavior
usually results in a power struggle in which no one wins. Instead, consider turning your classroom
comedians' talents into another tool for motivating students. In order to achieve this, it may be necessary
to teach students the difference between appropriate and inappropriate language and content. Here are
five ways to encourage your students' use of humor and include it in the classroom in a productive way:
 Ask the class clown to come prepared to tell one or two jokes in class. Have the student tell the
joke(s) during transitions between activities.
 Ask two or three students to be ready to start class with a quick joke two or three times a week.
 Break students into small groups of three to four students and have them come up with funny
sayings about what you are about to teach. For example, a 4th grader came up with this limerick
before a science lesson on frogs:
There was a frog
 Who sat on a log
And was about to be studied in school.
He jumped in the water
Saying, "It was a bother
And I'm not that kind of fool."

 End class with a student or two inventing a funny saying about the lesson content that you just
taught. For example, after a lesson on communication, one 9th grader observed that "the
telegraph was the first text message."
 Use a student's joke before a test or quiz to lower tension.

The strategies are quite easy to integrate in the classroom, and they can have a significant effect
on student motivation. Small changes can earn big results.

In terms of the students’ performance, it is also suggested to observe the following :

1. Practice criterion-referenced assessment rather than norm-referenced assessment. Make your
students compare their performance against established criterion, i.e., the learning objective or target and
not against other students’ performance. Comparing a student’s performance with the latter makes
assessment quite threatening.

If you are indeed criterion-referenced, then your assessments is certainly based on established criterion,.
It has been observed, however, that a number of teachers set learning objectives but assess another.
This leads to students’ confusion and discouragement;

2. Inspire your students to have mastery-focus rather than performance-focus. Set their hearts on lesson
mastery for the love of learning rather than on scores, grades and performance. If they fail to get an item
or items in a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they will be taught again until mastery;

3. Have a “growth mindset”. Believe that your students can improve. Failure or wrong answer is welcome.
Assure your student that they are not made less of themselves
by a wrong answer or a mistake. What is most important is that they learn from their
mistakes and continuously grow and improve;

4. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because assessment has an emotional
impact. Bear in mind that your comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner you communicate
them to students, can affect their self-confidence. Asse4ssment should be constructive as much as
possible. Judging student s harshly to the point that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and
may lead them to have a negative view both of themselves and the subject;

5. Inspire your students to have mastery-focus rather than performance-focus. Set their hearts on lesson
mastery for the love of learning rather than on scores, grades and performance. If they fail to get an item
or items in a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they will be taught again until mastery;

6. Have a ‘great mindset”. Believe that your students can improve. Failure or wrong answer is welcomed.
Assure your students that they are not made less of themselves by a wrong answer or a mistake. What is
most important is that they learn from their mistakes and continuously grow and improve;

7. You assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because assessment has an emotional
impact. Bear in mind that your comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner you communicate
them to students, can affect their self-confidence. Assessment should be constructive as much as
possible. Judging students harshly to the point that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and
may lead them to have a negative view both of themselves and the subject;

8. Don’t make the test too difficult to discourage student nor to easy to make them complacent. An
extremely easy test is not challenging while an extremely difficult test is discouraging.
 Finally, it is very important to communicate results/feedbacks to the students. A teacher facilitates
learning by providing students with important feedbacks on their learning areas.(Bloom, Madaus and
Hastings, Stiggins as cited in Guskey, 2003).
Summary

An indispensable part of the teaching-learning process is assessment. It is usually at the end of a

lesson plan termed “evaluation”. A lesson plan is not complete without an assessment and the
instructional” cycle indeed is not also complete without assessment.

Assessment is at the service of learning, thus the phrase, assessment for learning. Assessment is
meant to ensure that learning takes place. This is possible only when the assessment process motivates
students to learn. Unfortunately, in many instances, assessment as a process does not motivate, instead
it threatens. A teacher should endeavor to motivate his/her students and facilitate learning as a fulfilling
experience among his/her students.

The challenge for teachers is how to make assessment a palatable menu for the students. The
experiences in classroom assessment and principles clearly tell us that learner’s objectives must be made
clear every time because they need to be clarified most especially that they needed in evaluating their
learning.

When learners are given the opportunity to evaluate their own performance, they bring to mind
the personal task strategy variables applicable to them. They reflect on their personal characteristics that
affect their learning, the tasks they need to work on and the strategies that can help them. In this way,
assessment empowers the students to take a more active role in their own learning process. It is also
suggested that teachers practice criterion-referenced assessment rather than norm-referenced
assessment.

Assessment

Activity 1 Do the following activities enumerated below:

1. List down at least ten (10) teacher’s characteristics on the order of importance
particularly on his/her characteristics as an effective teacher.
• Why do you think these are important characteristics?
• Why is it important that you know these things?
2. Write down important factors that influence motivation.
• Why are some students motivated and others not?
• Why do students come to class, and keep coming to class?
4. What do you think are the ways in which teachers can maintain motivation in students?
5. Complete the statement:

6. Students might be motivated because ____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.

6. The following are formative assessment activities that you can use in the teaching-learning process.
Select five (5) and be able to discuss each, providing one (1) example for each.

1.Peer Quizzes 11. Roll the Dice

2. Journal 12. Enthusiasm Example Chart
3. Past Postcards 13. Quick Quotabel
4. Cool Collages 14.Make it Mindful
5. Talk it Out
6. Daring Doodles
7. Exploration Table
8. Four Corners
9. Traffic Cards
10. Twitter Board

Enrichment Test. Read the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is wrong.

_______1. The professional teacher ay be licensed or not licensed.

_______2. Pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.

______3. Only those who teach in the elementary and secondary schools are referred
to as teachers.

______4. The teachers in the private schools are not part of the term teachers.

______5. The college instructor/professor is not classified as teacher.

______6. The principal is included in the word teacher.

______7. The word teacher also includes the District Supervisor and the School
Superintendent.

______8. The word teacher also refers to a vocational and industrial arts teacher.

______9. A professional teacher is required only of technical and professional

competence.

_____10. Only the public school teachers in all levels, including tertiary are classified as
teachers.

CHAPTER 5

Integration

Lesson 1 Revisiting the 14 Learner-centered Psychological Principles

What to Expect

Objectives
1. describe how the LCP are connected to the lesson in the module;
2. recapitulate the 14 LCP and insights gained; and
3. demonstrate appreciation on the 14 LCP as a sound framework for effective
facilitating of learning

Pre-discussion

Facilitating learning should be firmly anchored on the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological

Principles. The 14 principle espouse that everyone in the learning community is a learner, not just the
student. The lesson expresses the view that teaching allows you to learn and that when you have learned
well, you can teach well. There is mutuality in learning and students are expected learn much from
teachers being the facilitators of learning. Likewise, students learn from one another. As teachers, it is
more important for you to remember that, teachers also learn in the life experiences of his/her students.

Lesson Outline

The fourteen (14) Learner-Centered Psychological Principles put together by the

American Psychological Association pertain to the learner and the learning process which has the
following aspects:
1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors.( 6 principles) ;
2. Developmental and Social Factors (2 principles);
3. Motivational and Affective Factors (3 principles); and
4. Individual Differences Factors (3 principles).

Revisiting the Learner-Centered principles ,must also take cognizance of the following
considerations that each and every facilitating teacher should have in his/her frame of mind and must be
applied or manifested in his/her instruction:

1. Learners are at the center of the learning process.

The criticisms of direct instruction have led educators to put more emphasis
on the role of the student in the learning process. Many opted for a more
student-centered environment as opposed to the traditional teacher-centered
set-up. Learners are given more choices. Learning activities are designed with needs,
interests and developmental levels of the learners in foremost consideration.

2. Teachers guides students’ construction of understanding.

The 14 principles were put together because of the growing implications of
research in cognitive psychology. Teachers in learner- centered classrooms should
provide a lot of opportunity for the learners to actively think, figure out things and
learn on their own. The teacher serves more as a facilitator, a “guide on the side”
rather than a “sage on stage.”

3. Teachers teach for understanding.

Students are placed at the center of the learning process. The teachers as
facilitators should help his/her students to take responsibility for their learning. As
a result, students, through their own active search and experimentation, experience
a movement from confusion to searching for answers, to discovery, and finally to
understanding.

Summary

The nature of the learning process is that, it is so complex. Most especially the learners are so
diverse in nature and the uniqueness of the learners in the classroom must be give due attention by the
teacher for him/her to be effective and for quality learning-teaching to take place. It is in the light of these
principles that the teacher as a facilitator of learning should internalize the learner-centered principles
being advocated by most theorists and those engaged in the education processes in as much as they
have been proven to effect changes in the development and transformation of the learners, likewise, in
the enhancement of teachers’ skills and competency in the field of education.

Assessment

Activity 1 Make your own summary of the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological

Principles relating it to all of the lessons contained/presented in this Module.
As much as you can do, provide real-life situations or experiences (personal
and vicarious) to support your discussion on the principles.
The Rubrics for your activity will be:
Content - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40%
Organization of Ideas - - - - - - - - - - - - 40%
Creativity and Punctuality - - - - - - - - - 10 %
Clarity of Presentation & Neatness- - - 10%
100%